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how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Dolphins Super Bowl history: When is the last time Miami made it to, won the Super Bowl? - NBC Sports | After finishing 9-8 last season, the Miami Dolphins clinched the final AFC Wild Card spot with an 11-6 win over the New York Jets in Week 18 . With new head coach Mike McDaniel leading the charge, the Dolphins hope to win their first Super Bowl since 1973. However, the team faces an uphill battle as the offense, built around 3rd-year QB Tua Tagovailoa –will have to continue to operate without its starter.
Tagovailoa last played on Christmas Day in the team’s Week 16 loss to the Packers and entered concussion protocol –for the second time this season–the following day. He is ruled out for Sunday and Skylar Thompson will prepare to start.
The Miami Dolphins have won the Super Bowl a total of 2 times in their 5 appearances.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
The Miami Dolphins have not made a Super Bowl appearance in 39 years.
The last time the Miami Dolphins hoisted up the Lombardi Trophy was in 1973 when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24-7 in Super Bowl VIII.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
- 1982 season: Lost Super Bowl XVII vs. the Washington Redskins, 27-17
- 1973 season: Won Super Bowl VIII vs. the Minnesota Vikings, 24-7
- 1972 season: Won Super Bowl VII vs. the Washington Redskins, 14-7
- 1971 seasons: Lost Super Bowl VI vs. the Dallas Cowboys, 24-3
- When : Sunday, February 12, 2023
- Where : State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona
- TV Channel: FOX
- Follow along with ProFootballTalk and NBC Sports for NFL news, updates, scores, injuries, and more
If you have access to NBC via your TV provider , you can watch Sunday Night Football on your TV or with a TV provider login on the NBC Sports app, NBC app, or via NBCSports.com . Check your local listings to find your NBC channel. If you can’t find NBC in your channel lineup, please contact your TV provider.
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Follow along with ProFootballTalk for the latest news, storylines, and updates surrounding the 2023 NFL Playoffs and be sure to subscribe to NFLonNBC on YouTube !
HOUSTON—Two big stories here when I landed from Vegas:
- Drafting a franchise quarterback.
- Paying franchise-quarterback draft capital to draft a defensive end.
There’s no other way to put it: After picking C.J. Stroud second overall, the Texans traded up nine slots, from 12 to three in the first round, to take Alabama defensive end Will Anderson . Houston GM Nick Caserio traded 12 and 34 this year and first- and third-round picks next year to just barely squeeze the trade into the NFL’s 10-minute window for the third pick. As I explain in the next item about Arizona’s draft, Houston could be picking very early next year—which will put a white hot spotlight of pressure on Anderson.
Caserio told me at NRG Stadium that Stroud was clearly the team’s target at two. He’d had some discussions with Cards GM Monti Ossenfort about possibly moving from 12 to three. “Then,” Caserio said, “it happened pretty quickly when they were on the clock.”
The deal got done and all parties notified, he said, with “close to a minute” left. So the Texans got a player they hope will be their franchise QB, and they got the best defensive player on their board. That is one heck of a night’s work. The price, of course, is denuding the 2024 draft when the Texans might wish they had two first-round picks and four in the first three rounds—instead of now just one first-round pick, one second- and no thirds.
But – and there is a big but – you should have been at the Texans’ facility in the basement of NRG Stadium late Friday afternoon, when Stroud and Anderson put on a show of humility and team-firstness that had to make Texans fans so weary of losing (a league-worst 11-38-1 in the last three years) happy for the first time since the Wild Card win over Buffalo three years ago.
Stroud and Anderson came with their families and made it clear they were all-in on going to a losing team after years of nothing but winning in college. Afterward, Stroud told me: “That’s what life is about, working to build something good. That’s what I’m here to help this team do. I’m ready for it.”
The Texans have asked Stroud to let the S-2 Test controversy go, but he got a couple last licks in on it. A player who played the way Stroud did—particularly in putting up 41 points in his superb final college game in the playoff against Georgia—is not a player who can’t process, or can’t ID a defense. I understand using every tool in the bag to analyze players before the draft, and I’d check out why Stroud scored low on the test. But to think it’s a good indicator of future failure—I mean, watch the games he’s played.
We stood in a hallway just off the Texans’ locker room for 12 minutes and I asked him about what he’s learned from the last three months.
“Humility is something I’m not afraid of,” Stroud said. “It’s something I’m accustomed to. This was all probably just a humble moment God wanted me to go through.
“ A lot of people haven’t played the sport, and I mean critics are gonna critique. For me I know the film speaks for itself. Everything that I’ve done in college, I’ve been very consistent. I think I’ve been one of the most consistent players in college football for the last two years. If you turn on the tape, you can see, you can answer the questions. But those who don’t understand tape might want to go to other things and analyze other things. They’re more than welcome to do such. But the people who are making the choices and the picks, they knew what I can do. They understood the IQ that I do have.
“I have a great memory when it comes to football,” Stroud added. “I feel like there’s different ways to be geniuses. You don’t just have to be book smart. You can be analytics smart. You can be numbers smart. You can be football smart. I really think that there’s different types of ways to be smart. That’s something that I pride myself on. And I am book smart. I did have over a 3.0 in college. I had over a 3.0 in high school. I know that I can think. I can process very, very fast. The film, you can see me going from first option to second and then back to one and then to three to four if I have to. I can check down. I can use my feet.
“But, you know, everything happens for a reason. I’m not upset. I’m actually blessed, I’m super blessed to be a Texan. Number two overall pick in the NFL draft, man. A little kid from the [California] Inland Empire. All smiles, man. I ain’t tripping about this.”
Good attitude to have. But at the same time, I could feel it: C.J. Stroud will remember this pre-draft process. And for the Texans, that bit of motivation will be a very good thing.
HENDERSON, Nev.—Just before noon on Thursday, hours before the start of the NFL Draft, Raiders coach Josh McDaniels popped into GM Dave Ziegler ’s office for one last bit of strategy talk. The team’s draft board had been set with finality Wednesday, after three months of debate. The Raiders, after conversations with teams above them about trading up from number seven in the first round, decided to stay in their slot, barring a surprise.
“What we need is for three quarterbacks to go before we pick,” McDaniels said.
It seemed logical, with Carolina going Bryce Young at number one and then Houston at two and Indianapolis at four and Seattle at five all in the QB market. But nothing in this draft after Carolina was a sure thing. All McDaniels and Ziegler knew was that these four non-QBs sat at the top of their board a short spiral away, graded closely:
But as Ziegler and McDaniels hashed it out, and McDaniels talked about the latest intel he’d heard about the top six (“I hope I’ll have something coming in on Houston at two, but Nick’s tight,” he said, referring to Texans GM/CIA agent Nick Caserio ), they realized they were just like the rest of America: They doubted Houston would pick a quarterback at two, they didn’t know which GM was fixing to pay a ransom to trade up with Arizona at three, they didn’t know which quarterback Indianapolis would choose at four, and they didn’t know if Seattle would go QB or best defensive weapon at five.
No surprise, all this mystery. This is the modern draft, where lips are no longer loose, where mock drafts are a mockery of reality. It sounds counterintuitive, but in the hours before the NFL Draft, the people running drafts for $6 billion franchises didn’t know much more than the rest of us. Ziegler and McDaniels did know by staying put—and they would get a phone call that surprised and tempted them minutes before their pick—they were not in control of their fate. They needed help. The Raiders needed two teams post-Carolina to pick passers in the next five picks. Likely. Not certain.
At 4:43 p.m. Pacific Time, Ziegler was on his way into the draft room, a large square conference room on the third floor of the Raiders’ facility six miles west of the Vegas Strip. He stopped by the floor-to-ceiling photograph of the man who lords over this franchise 12 years after his death, and Ziegler patted the photograph of Al Davis .
“Goosebumps,” Ziegler said. “I feel his presence every day.”
Then Ziegler—47, in gray suit, black Oxford shirt, no tie, white and black sneakers—entered the draft room, where 13 scouts, personnel people, one coach and one owner would plot the immediate future of Al Davis’ team. At 4:59 p.m., 11 minutes before the draft kicked off, owner Mark Davis slipped into the room, in his white satin Raiders jacket and stonewashed faded jeans.
“Gameday, baby!” Son of Al announced to the room.
Gameday, as Mark Davis said. “We’re still undefeated!” Davis said as Roger Goodell kicked off the draft. One wall taken up entirely with the draft board, ranking the players by position from top to bottom, on magnetic cards, the old-school way. One wall, controlled by pro personnel director Dwayne Joseph , with pick-by-pick order and team-by-team needs that change with every pick. One wall, which McDaniels, Ziegler, assistant GM Champ Kelly and Davis face, with three things: a big TV tuned to the draft, computerized pick-by-pick directly from the league, so it’s faster than what you see on TV, and a constantly updated list of trade discussions with draft-trade charts showing trade proposals broken down by a value chart.
Kelly, Ziegler (cell phone to his ear at least half of the evening), McDaniels, Davis, left to right in front of the room, in swivel chairs, able to look ahead at trade possibilities or back at the state of the draft board. Ziegler flitted from senior personnel adviser Shaun Herock to McDaniels to Davis to Kelly to director of football analytics David Christoff to senior national scouts DuJuan Daniels, Andy Dengler and Lenny McGill , having mostly hushed conversations.
5:18 p.m. PT: Panthers picked Young. “This is where the draft starts,” Ziegler, stating the obvious, said.
Four minutes later, the tinny voice from draft headquarters said, “Houston has made its pick. Arizona now on the clock.” All eyes turn to the board where the pick will show up first. C.J. Stroud , QB, Ohio State popped onto the screen. “Oooooh,” someone in the room said. Seven minutes passed. Arizona traded down to 12 with Houston. Big compensation: For this pick and a fourth- this year, the Texans gave the Colts the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks this year and their first- and third-round picks next year.
5:32 p.m.: Will Anderson to Houston at three. One Vegas target down.
5:33 p.m.: Ziegler on his cell, briefly. Ziegler to McDaniels in a hushed tone: “Arizona wants to trade back up.”
Ziegler and McDaniels stared at the trade-value board in the back of the room, analyzing trade possibilities—the values, plus or minus for the Raiders, based on the numerical values Ziegler assigns to each pick:
1-7 down to 1-12
Potential Counters
+177 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 4 th (109)
+68 ARI sends 2-33 and 6-213, LV gives back 3-100 and 4-109
+30 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 3-70
At 5:37 p.m., Anthony Richardson , the Florida quarterback, got picked by the Colts. The third quarterback was off the board. McDaniels beamed. He and Ziegler slapped hands. Now the Raiders were sure to get one of their four guys.
5:42 p.m.: Cards GM Monti Ossenfort called Ziegler. Hushed discussion, presumably exchanging potential offers for the pick. Then Ziegler and McDaniels huddled. Having the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks, to go along with the Raiders’ 38 th choice, would be tempting. “We could get [Oklahoma tackle Anton] Harrison at 12,” McDaniels said. The Raiders loved Harrison—not as much as Johnson, but enough maybe to lose the fourth non-QB they love in order to pick up the 33 rd pick. They mulled.
The phone went cold for a few minutes. Seemed obvious Ossenfort wanted Paris Johnson . He had to be dealing with Detroit, trying to get ahead of Vegas to ensure getting Johnson. Smart move by Ossenfort, choosing not to close a deal for the seventh pick and instead dealing for the sixth–ensuring that the Cards would get the tackle they wanted.
5:47 p.m.: Witherspoon to Seattle at five. Detroit up. No action on Ziegler’s phone. Not surprising. Arizona was targeting Johnson.
5:50 p.m.: Tinny voice from Draft HQ: “Detroit has traded its pick to Arizona. Arizona is on the clock.” For Vegas, there goes day-one starting right tackle Paris Johnson.
5:54 p.m. Paris Johnson to Arizona. “Las Vegas is on the clock,” tinny voice says.
So no real drama. The plan was preordained. There was no real debate now, no discussion about moving. Only this:
5:58 p.m.: “Tyree, this is coach McDaniels. We’re gonna turn the pick in here, and you’re gonna be a Raider.”
In a lull in front of the room, McDaniels said quietly: “Our board was right. We needed three quarterbacks to go, and we’re so happy we got one of the four non-quarterbacks who were our top-rated guys on the board. Look, we gotta rush the passer. We gotta go get [ Patrick] Mahomes and [ Justin] Herbert . That’s four games a year for the next few years against these great young quarterbacks. And the AFC is full of these great young quarterbacks. This is a great outcome for us.”
This is the draft. The Raiders needed long-term help opposite Maxx Crosby (edge player Chandler Jones is 33), and Anderson or Wilson would have been great. Witherspoon would have been great to add to a needy secondary. Johnson would have been great to bookend Kolton Miller . It’s capricious. The choice wasn’t up to Ziegler; other teams decided for him. But the vibe in the room, the smiles, showed this staff loves Wilson, even with the foot injury that made him an iffy candidate to some teams.
In his office 20 minutes later, McDaniels waited to be connected to Wilson to converse. “I mean, hallelujah,” McDaniels said. “His motivation, his drive, how he handles adversity … off the charts. We value the TAP test (a test in the pre-draft process that measures mental toughness, drive and composure under pressure), and Tyree got one of the highest grades on it, a Green plus-plus. He’ll fit in great here.”
McDaniels’ football ops guy, Tom Jones , walked in with a phone. Wilson. “Tyree, welcome to the nation,” McDaniels said. “Dude, I am so excited you’re a Raider. I know you’re gonna help us win a lot of games. So, just wanted to touch base on a few things. You’re gonna talk to the media here in a bit. Wanted to give you a few points. Be humble, which you are. Stay away from predictions—that way, you won’t have to eat them later. Don’t talk about timelines with your foot. You don’t want your draft story to be all about your foot. Now, you got a fan base that’s second to none. They’re gonna love you. Just express how excited you—which I know you are.”
Back in the Raiders draft room, after pick 19, Ziegler said, “Josh, you wanna look at trades?” On the board were four players with similar grades: Georgia defensive end Nolan Smith , Maryland corner Deonte Banks , Harrison the Oklahoma tackle, and Arkansas linebacker Drew Sanders . Close to them: Notre Dame tight end Michael Mayer .
But there wasn’t much enthusiasm to deal after Banks and Harrison went off the board. Ziegler made a couple of calls about moving up to fill a hole left by the trade of tight end Darren Waller with Mayer, but never got far—or appeared enthusiastic to do it.
7:36 p.m.: Crosby sent a video message to Wilson, and in the draft room, Ziegler had it and he showed it to McDaniels and Davis on his phone. The tenor of the message: Congrats, Tyree. Now, time to go work, son. “Love it,” McDaniels said.
There are lulls in all drafts, and after Banks and Harrison went at 24 and 27, this was the Raider lull. Davis kept things interesting. When the TV showed a crestfallen Will Levis , undrafted, still in the green room in Kansas City, he said: “Someone should tell him careers are not made on draft day. Tell him this happened to Aaron Rodgers too.” And when he looked up and saw speedy Jalin Hyatt , the wide receiver, still on the board with a high Raider grade, Davis said to McDaniels: “Too bad we don’t have a need at receiver. Can he run?”
“Like the wind,” McDaniels said.
Davis started laughing, like he could sense Ziegler and McDaniels did not want him to start lobbying for the best speed receiver in the draft.
“It’s part of my DNA,” Davis said. “I see a fast receiver, I want him. I can’t help it.” Spoken like his father’s son.
As the round wound down, quietly, I asked Davis what he thought of Ziegler and McDaniels, the ex-Pats, entering year two of their regime. “I like ‘em,” he said. “When we hired them, everybody thought we were trying to re-create the Patriots. That wasn’t it. I was trying to find two great football men. Now, this is their chance to build something. They’re young, they love football, and I’m thrilled with them. It’s a huge weekend for them.
“My dad’s drafts were different—a lot more tense.”
“The tense conversations were already had,” McDaniels said later. “We had them in the last six weeks. We ended up with the board where we all felt it needed to be.”
8:30 p.m.: Two picks left, including Kansas City at 31. Mayer on the mind in the draft room. “If KC comes back to us,” Ziegler said, “wanna do it?”
“Yes,” said McDaniels.
“Best tight end in the draft,” Kelly said.
Short conversation with KC. “Not gonna work,” Ziegler said. KC would have given 31 and 217 (sixth round) for 38 and 70, a net on the points chart of minus-147. “Too many players we like,” Ziegler said. (Ziegler, on Friday, traded from 38 to 35 with the Colts to snag Mayer, the tight end Vegas wanted above all.)
An hour after the round ended, McDaniels and Ziegler unwound in the draft room. Wilson underwent surgery by the top athletic foot surgeon in the field, Dr. Robert Anderson, to repair a fracture last Nov. 21. Six weeks ago, Anderson sent a letter to each team, saying Wilson has responded “extremely well” to surgery. The Raiders expect Wilson to be ready to play this season on schedule. “Our doctors ultimately felt like it was something that we were going to be okay with,” Ziegler said. “If we wouldn’t have felt comfortable with it, we wouldn’t have [picked Wilson].”
In all, the needy Raiders, trying to rebound from a few years of failed top picks, got two likely starters out of the draft—Wilson and Mayer. After that, it’s up in the air, as all drafts are. The Raiders got their presumptive backup to Jimmy Garoppolo , Aidan O’Connell , in the middle of the fourth round—about two rounds earlier than the consensus of where he deserved to go. They got a speed cornerback, Banks’ teammate Jakorian Bennett , with pick 104, and the Raiders hope he plays early.
Mel Kiper, for one, liked the first two picks but the others, not so much. After the top two, Kiper said, “I don’t see value with the rest of this class.”
That’s why they play the games. In three years, we’ll see if Ziegler picked right in the NFL’s 88 th draft. | https://sports.nbcsports.com/2023/01/11/dolphins-super-bowl-history-when-is-the-last-time-miami-made-it-to-won-the-super-bowl/ | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Dolphins Super Bowl history: When is the last time Miami made it to, won the Super Bowl? - NBC Sports | After finishing 9-8 last season, the Miami Dolphins clinched the final AFC Wild Card spot with an 11-6 win over the New York Jets in Week 18 . With new head coach Mike McDaniel leading the charge, the Dolphins hope to win their first Super Bowl since 1973. However, the team faces an uphill battle as the offense, built around 3rd-year QB Tua Tagovailoa –will have to continue to operate without its starter.
Tagovailoa last played on Christmas Day in the team’s Week 16 loss to the Packers and entered concussion protocol –for the second time this season–the following day. He is ruled out for Sunday and Skylar Thompson will prepare to start.
The Miami Dolphins have won the Super Bowl a total of 2 times in their 5 appearances.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
The Miami Dolphins have not made a Super Bowl appearance in 39 years.
The last time the Miami Dolphins hoisted up the Lombardi Trophy was in 1973 when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24-7 in Super Bowl VIII.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
- 1982 season: Lost Super Bowl XVII vs. the Washington Redskins, 27-17
- 1973 season: Won Super Bowl VIII vs. the Minnesota Vikings, 24-7
- 1972 season: Won Super Bowl VII vs. the Washington Redskins, 14-7
- 1971 seasons: Lost Super Bowl VI vs. the Dallas Cowboys, 24-3
- When : Sunday, February 12, 2023
- Where : State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona
- TV Channel: FOX
- Follow along with ProFootballTalk and NBC Sports for NFL news, updates, scores, injuries, and more
If you have access to NBC via your TV provider , you can watch Sunday Night Football on your TV or with a TV provider login on the NBC Sports app, NBC app, or via NBCSports.com . Check your local listings to find your NBC channel. If you can’t find NBC in your channel lineup, please contact your TV provider.
If you don’t have access to NBC via your TV provider , you can stream Sunday Night Football on Peacock with a $4.99/month Peacock Premium plan. Sign up here or, if you already have a free Peacock account, go to your Account settings to upgrade or change your existing plan.
Please note that selection of a Premium plan will result in a charge which will recur on a monthly or annual basis until you cancel, depending on your plan. You can cancel your Premium plan at any time in your Account.
Peacock is available on a variety of devices. See the full list here .
Premium is your key to unlocking everything Peacock has to offer. You’ll get access to all the live sports and events we have, including Premier League and WWE Premium Live Events like WrestleMania. You’ll also get full seasons of exclusive Peacock Original series, next-day airings of current NBC and Telemundo hits, plus every movie and show available on Peacock. There is always something new to discover on Peacock Premium.
Follow along with ProFootballTalk for the latest news, storylines, and updates surrounding the 2023 NFL Playoffs and be sure to subscribe to NFLonNBC on YouTube !
HOUSTON—Two big stories here when I landed from Vegas:
- Drafting a franchise quarterback.
- Paying franchise-quarterback draft capital to draft a defensive end.
There’s no other way to put it: After picking C.J. Stroud second overall, the Texans traded up nine slots, from 12 to three in the first round, to take Alabama defensive end Will Anderson . Houston GM Nick Caserio traded 12 and 34 this year and first- and third-round picks next year to just barely squeeze the trade into the NFL’s 10-minute window for the third pick. As I explain in the next item about Arizona’s draft, Houston could be picking very early next year—which will put a white hot spotlight of pressure on Anderson.
Caserio told me at NRG Stadium that Stroud was clearly the team’s target at two. He’d had some discussions with Cards GM Monti Ossenfort about possibly moving from 12 to three. “Then,” Caserio said, “it happened pretty quickly when they were on the clock.”
The deal got done and all parties notified, he said, with “close to a minute” left. So the Texans got a player they hope will be their franchise QB, and they got the best defensive player on their board. That is one heck of a night’s work. The price, of course, is denuding the 2024 draft when the Texans might wish they had two first-round picks and four in the first three rounds—instead of now just one first-round pick, one second- and no thirds.
But – and there is a big but – you should have been at the Texans’ facility in the basement of NRG Stadium late Friday afternoon, when Stroud and Anderson put on a show of humility and team-firstness that had to make Texans fans so weary of losing (a league-worst 11-38-1 in the last three years) happy for the first time since the Wild Card win over Buffalo three years ago.
Stroud and Anderson came with their families and made it clear they were all-in on going to a losing team after years of nothing but winning in college. Afterward, Stroud told me: “That’s what life is about, working to build something good. That’s what I’m here to help this team do. I’m ready for it.”
The Texans have asked Stroud to let the S-2 Test controversy go, but he got a couple last licks in on it. A player who played the way Stroud did—particularly in putting up 41 points in his superb final college game in the playoff against Georgia—is not a player who can’t process, or can’t ID a defense. I understand using every tool in the bag to analyze players before the draft, and I’d check out why Stroud scored low on the test. But to think it’s a good indicator of future failure—I mean, watch the games he’s played.
We stood in a hallway just off the Texans’ locker room for 12 minutes and I asked him about what he’s learned from the last three months.
“Humility is something I’m not afraid of,” Stroud said. “It’s something I’m accustomed to. This was all probably just a humble moment God wanted me to go through.
“ A lot of people haven’t played the sport, and I mean critics are gonna critique. For me I know the film speaks for itself. Everything that I’ve done in college, I’ve been very consistent. I think I’ve been one of the most consistent players in college football for the last two years. If you turn on the tape, you can see, you can answer the questions. But those who don’t understand tape might want to go to other things and analyze other things. They’re more than welcome to do such. But the people who are making the choices and the picks, they knew what I can do. They understood the IQ that I do have.
“I have a great memory when it comes to football,” Stroud added. “I feel like there’s different ways to be geniuses. You don’t just have to be book smart. You can be analytics smart. You can be numbers smart. You can be football smart. I really think that there’s different types of ways to be smart. That’s something that I pride myself on. And I am book smart. I did have over a 3.0 in college. I had over a 3.0 in high school. I know that I can think. I can process very, very fast. The film, you can see me going from first option to second and then back to one and then to three to four if I have to. I can check down. I can use my feet.
“But, you know, everything happens for a reason. I’m not upset. I’m actually blessed, I’m super blessed to be a Texan. Number two overall pick in the NFL draft, man. A little kid from the [California] Inland Empire. All smiles, man. I ain’t tripping about this.”
Good attitude to have. But at the same time, I could feel it: C.J. Stroud will remember this pre-draft process. And for the Texans, that bit of motivation will be a very good thing.
HENDERSON, Nev.—Just before noon on Thursday, hours before the start of the NFL Draft, Raiders coach Josh McDaniels popped into GM Dave Ziegler ’s office for one last bit of strategy talk. The team’s draft board had been set with finality Wednesday, after three months of debate. The Raiders, after conversations with teams above them about trading up from number seven in the first round, decided to stay in their slot, barring a surprise.
“What we need is for three quarterbacks to go before we pick,” McDaniels said.
It seemed logical, with Carolina going Bryce Young at number one and then Houston at two and Indianapolis at four and Seattle at five all in the QB market. But nothing in this draft after Carolina was a sure thing. All McDaniels and Ziegler knew was that these four non-QBs sat at the top of their board a short spiral away, graded closely:
But as Ziegler and McDaniels hashed it out, and McDaniels talked about the latest intel he’d heard about the top six (“I hope I’ll have something coming in on Houston at two, but Nick’s tight,” he said, referring to Texans GM/CIA agent Nick Caserio ), they realized they were just like the rest of America: They doubted Houston would pick a quarterback at two, they didn’t know which GM was fixing to pay a ransom to trade up with Arizona at three, they didn’t know which quarterback Indianapolis would choose at four, and they didn’t know if Seattle would go QB or best defensive weapon at five.
No surprise, all this mystery. This is the modern draft, where lips are no longer loose, where mock drafts are a mockery of reality. It sounds counterintuitive, but in the hours before the NFL Draft, the people running drafts for $6 billion franchises didn’t know much more than the rest of us. Ziegler and McDaniels did know by staying put—and they would get a phone call that surprised and tempted them minutes before their pick—they were not in control of their fate. They needed help. The Raiders needed two teams post-Carolina to pick passers in the next five picks. Likely. Not certain.
At 4:43 p.m. Pacific Time, Ziegler was on his way into the draft room, a large square conference room on the third floor of the Raiders’ facility six miles west of the Vegas Strip. He stopped by the floor-to-ceiling photograph of the man who lords over this franchise 12 years after his death, and Ziegler patted the photograph of Al Davis .
“Goosebumps,” Ziegler said. “I feel his presence every day.”
Then Ziegler—47, in gray suit, black Oxford shirt, no tie, white and black sneakers—entered the draft room, where 13 scouts, personnel people, one coach and one owner would plot the immediate future of Al Davis’ team. At 4:59 p.m., 11 minutes before the draft kicked off, owner Mark Davis slipped into the room, in his white satin Raiders jacket and stonewashed faded jeans.
“Gameday, baby!” Son of Al announced to the room.
Gameday, as Mark Davis said. “We’re still undefeated!” Davis said as Roger Goodell kicked off the draft. One wall taken up entirely with the draft board, ranking the players by position from top to bottom, on magnetic cards, the old-school way. One wall, controlled by pro personnel director Dwayne Joseph , with pick-by-pick order and team-by-team needs that change with every pick. One wall, which McDaniels, Ziegler, assistant GM Champ Kelly and Davis face, with three things: a big TV tuned to the draft, computerized pick-by-pick directly from the league, so it’s faster than what you see on TV, and a constantly updated list of trade discussions with draft-trade charts showing trade proposals broken down by a value chart.
Kelly, Ziegler (cell phone to his ear at least half of the evening), McDaniels, Davis, left to right in front of the room, in swivel chairs, able to look ahead at trade possibilities or back at the state of the draft board. Ziegler flitted from senior personnel adviser Shaun Herock to McDaniels to Davis to Kelly to director of football analytics David Christoff to senior national scouts DuJuan Daniels, Andy Dengler and Lenny McGill , having mostly hushed conversations.
5:18 p.m. PT: Panthers picked Young. “This is where the draft starts,” Ziegler, stating the obvious, said.
Four minutes later, the tinny voice from draft headquarters said, “Houston has made its pick. Arizona now on the clock.” All eyes turn to the board where the pick will show up first. C.J. Stroud , QB, Ohio State popped onto the screen. “Oooooh,” someone in the room said. Seven minutes passed. Arizona traded down to 12 with Houston. Big compensation: For this pick and a fourth- this year, the Texans gave the Colts the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks this year and their first- and third-round picks next year.
5:32 p.m.: Will Anderson to Houston at three. One Vegas target down.
5:33 p.m.: Ziegler on his cell, briefly. Ziegler to McDaniels in a hushed tone: “Arizona wants to trade back up.”
Ziegler and McDaniels stared at the trade-value board in the back of the room, analyzing trade possibilities—the values, plus or minus for the Raiders, based on the numerical values Ziegler assigns to each pick:
1-7 down to 1-12
Potential Counters
+177 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 4 th (109)
+68 ARI sends 2-33 and 6-213, LV gives back 3-100 and 4-109
+30 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 3-70
At 5:37 p.m., Anthony Richardson , the Florida quarterback, got picked by the Colts. The third quarterback was off the board. McDaniels beamed. He and Ziegler slapped hands. Now the Raiders were sure to get one of their four guys.
5:42 p.m.: Cards GM Monti Ossenfort called Ziegler. Hushed discussion, presumably exchanging potential offers for the pick. Then Ziegler and McDaniels huddled. Having the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks, to go along with the Raiders’ 38 th choice, would be tempting. “We could get [Oklahoma tackle Anton] Harrison at 12,” McDaniels said. The Raiders loved Harrison—not as much as Johnson, but enough maybe to lose the fourth non-QB they love in order to pick up the 33 rd pick. They mulled.
The phone went cold for a few minutes. Seemed obvious Ossenfort wanted Paris Johnson . He had to be dealing with Detroit, trying to get ahead of Vegas to ensure getting Johnson. Smart move by Ossenfort, choosing not to close a deal for the seventh pick and instead dealing for the sixth–ensuring that the Cards would get the tackle they wanted.
5:47 p.m.: Witherspoon to Seattle at five. Detroit up. No action on Ziegler’s phone. Not surprising. Arizona was targeting Johnson.
5:50 p.m.: Tinny voice from Draft HQ: “Detroit has traded its pick to Arizona. Arizona is on the clock.” For Vegas, there goes day-one starting right tackle Paris Johnson.
5:54 p.m. Paris Johnson to Arizona. “Las Vegas is on the clock,” tinny voice says.
So no real drama. The plan was preordained. There was no real debate now, no discussion about moving. Only this:
5:58 p.m.: “Tyree, this is coach McDaniels. We’re gonna turn the pick in here, and you’re gonna be a Raider.”
In a lull in front of the room, McDaniels said quietly: “Our board was right. We needed three quarterbacks to go, and we’re so happy we got one of the four non-quarterbacks who were our top-rated guys on the board. Look, we gotta rush the passer. We gotta go get [ Patrick] Mahomes and [ Justin] Herbert . That’s four games a year for the next few years against these great young quarterbacks. And the AFC is full of these great young quarterbacks. This is a great outcome for us.”
This is the draft. The Raiders needed long-term help opposite Maxx Crosby (edge player Chandler Jones is 33), and Anderson or Wilson would have been great. Witherspoon would have been great to add to a needy secondary. Johnson would have been great to bookend Kolton Miller . It’s capricious. The choice wasn’t up to Ziegler; other teams decided for him. But the vibe in the room, the smiles, showed this staff loves Wilson, even with the foot injury that made him an iffy candidate to some teams.
In his office 20 minutes later, McDaniels waited to be connected to Wilson to converse. “I mean, hallelujah,” McDaniels said. “His motivation, his drive, how he handles adversity … off the charts. We value the TAP test (a test in the pre-draft process that measures mental toughness, drive and composure under pressure), and Tyree got one of the highest grades on it, a Green plus-plus. He’ll fit in great here.”
McDaniels’ football ops guy, Tom Jones , walked in with a phone. Wilson. “Tyree, welcome to the nation,” McDaniels said. “Dude, I am so excited you’re a Raider. I know you’re gonna help us win a lot of games. So, just wanted to touch base on a few things. You’re gonna talk to the media here in a bit. Wanted to give you a few points. Be humble, which you are. Stay away from predictions—that way, you won’t have to eat them later. Don’t talk about timelines with your foot. You don’t want your draft story to be all about your foot. Now, you got a fan base that’s second to none. They’re gonna love you. Just express how excited you—which I know you are.”
Back in the Raiders draft room, after pick 19, Ziegler said, “Josh, you wanna look at trades?” On the board were four players with similar grades: Georgia defensive end Nolan Smith , Maryland corner Deonte Banks , Harrison the Oklahoma tackle, and Arkansas linebacker Drew Sanders . Close to them: Notre Dame tight end Michael Mayer .
But there wasn’t much enthusiasm to deal after Banks and Harrison went off the board. Ziegler made a couple of calls about moving up to fill a hole left by the trade of tight end Darren Waller with Mayer, but never got far—or appeared enthusiastic to do it.
7:36 p.m.: Crosby sent a video message to Wilson, and in the draft room, Ziegler had it and he showed it to McDaniels and Davis on his phone. The tenor of the message: Congrats, Tyree. Now, time to go work, son. “Love it,” McDaniels said.
There are lulls in all drafts, and after Banks and Harrison went at 24 and 27, this was the Raider lull. Davis kept things interesting. When the TV showed a crestfallen Will Levis , undrafted, still in the green room in Kansas City, he said: “Someone should tell him careers are not made on draft day. Tell him this happened to Aaron Rodgers too.” And when he looked up and saw speedy Jalin Hyatt , the wide receiver, still on the board with a high Raider grade, Davis said to McDaniels: “Too bad we don’t have a need at receiver. Can he run?”
“Like the wind,” McDaniels said.
Davis started laughing, like he could sense Ziegler and McDaniels did not want him to start lobbying for the best speed receiver in the draft.
“It’s part of my DNA,” Davis said. “I see a fast receiver, I want him. I can’t help it.” Spoken like his father’s son.
As the round wound down, quietly, I asked Davis what he thought of Ziegler and McDaniels, the ex-Pats, entering year two of their regime. “I like ‘em,” he said. “When we hired them, everybody thought we were trying to re-create the Patriots. That wasn’t it. I was trying to find two great football men. Now, this is their chance to build something. They’re young, they love football, and I’m thrilled with them. It’s a huge weekend for them.
“My dad’s drafts were different—a lot more tense.”
“The tense conversations were already had,” McDaniels said later. “We had them in the last six weeks. We ended up with the board where we all felt it needed to be.”
8:30 p.m.: Two picks left, including Kansas City at 31. Mayer on the mind in the draft room. “If KC comes back to us,” Ziegler said, “wanna do it?”
“Yes,” said McDaniels.
“Best tight end in the draft,” Kelly said.
Short conversation with KC. “Not gonna work,” Ziegler said. KC would have given 31 and 217 (sixth round) for 38 and 70, a net on the points chart of minus-147. “Too many players we like,” Ziegler said. (Ziegler, on Friday, traded from 38 to 35 with the Colts to snag Mayer, the tight end Vegas wanted above all.)
An hour after the round ended, McDaniels and Ziegler unwound in the draft room. Wilson underwent surgery by the top athletic foot surgeon in the field, Dr. Robert Anderson, to repair a fracture last Nov. 21. Six weeks ago, Anderson sent a letter to each team, saying Wilson has responded “extremely well” to surgery. The Raiders expect Wilson to be ready to play this season on schedule. “Our doctors ultimately felt like it was something that we were going to be okay with,” Ziegler said. “If we wouldn’t have felt comfortable with it, we wouldn’t have [picked Wilson].”
In all, the needy Raiders, trying to rebound from a few years of failed top picks, got two likely starters out of the draft—Wilson and Mayer. After that, it’s up in the air, as all drafts are. The Raiders got their presumptive backup to Jimmy Garoppolo , Aidan O’Connell , in the middle of the fourth round—about two rounds earlier than the consensus of where he deserved to go. They got a speed cornerback, Banks’ teammate Jakorian Bennett , with pick 104, and the Raiders hope he plays early.
Mel Kiper, for one, liked the first two picks but the others, not so much. After the top two, Kiper said, “I don’t see value with the rest of this class.”
That’s why they play the games. In three years, we’ll see if Ziegler picked right in the NFL’s 88 th draft. | https://sports.nbcsports.com/2023/01/11/dolphins-super-bowl-history-when-is-the-last-time-miami-made-it-to-won-the-super-bowl/ | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Miami Dolphins - Wikipedia | - Miami Dolphins (1966–present)
- The No-Name Defense (Defense 1970s)
- The Killer Bees Defense (Defense 1980s)
- Fins
The Miami Dolphins are a professional American football team based in the Miami metropolitan area . The Dolphins compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Hard Rock Stadium , located in the northern suburb of Miami Gardens, Florida . The team is currently owned by Stephen M. Ross . The Dolphins are the oldest professional sports team in Florida. Of the four AFC East teams, the Dolphins are the only team in the division that was not a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). The Dolphins were also one of the first professional football teams in the southeast, along with the Atlanta Falcons .
The Dolphins were founded by attorney-politician Joe Robbie and actor-comedian Danny Thomas . They began play in the AFL in 1966 . The region had not had a professional football team since the days of the Miami Seahawks , who played in the All-America Football Conference in 1946, before becoming the first incarnation of the Baltimore Colts . For the first few years, the Dolphins' full-time training camp and practice facilities were at Saint Andrew's School , a private, boys boarding prep school in Boca Raton. Miami joined the NFL as a result of the 1970 AFL–NFL merger .
The team played in its first Super Bowl in Super Bowl VI , losing to the Dallas Cowboys , 24–3. The following year , the Dolphins completed the NFL's only perfect season , culminating in a Super Bowl win, winning all 14 of their regular-season games, and all three of their playoff games, including Super Bowl VII . They were the third NFL team to accomplish a perfect regular season , and remain the only team to do so since the AFL-NFL merger, the time known as the Super Bowl era. The next year, the Dolphins won Super Bowl VIII , becoming the first team to appear in three consecutive Super Bowls, and the second team (the first AFL/AFC team) to win back-to-back championships. Miami also appeared in Super Bowl XVII and Super Bowl XIX , losing both games.
For most of their early history, the Dolphins were coached by Don Shula , the most successful head coach in professional football history in terms of total games won. Under Shula, the Dolphins posted losing records in only two of his 26 seasons as the head coach. During the period spanning 1983 to the end of 1999, quarterback Dan Marino became one of the most prolific passers in NFL history, breaking numerous league passing records. Marino led the Dolphins to five division titles, 10 playoff appearances, and an appearance in Super Bowl XIX before retiring following the 1999 season .
Since Marino's retirement, they have experienced mediocre levels of success and have just five playoff appearances ( 2000 , 2001 , 2008 , 2016 , and 2022 ) and two division titles ( 2000 and 2008 ).
The Miami Dolphins joined the American Football League (AFL) when an expansion franchise was awarded to lawyer Joseph Robbie and actor Danny Thomas in 1965 for $7.5 million, although Thomas would eventually sell his stake in the team to Robbie. [7] During the summer of 1966, the Dolphins' training camp was in St. Pete Beach with practices in August at Boca Ciega High School in Gulfport . [8]
The Dolphins were the worst team with a 15–39–2 record in their first four seasons under head coach George Wilson , before Don Shula was hired as head coach. Shula was a Paul Brown disciple who had been lured from the Baltimore Colts , after losing Super Bowl III two seasons earlier to the AFL's New York Jets , and finishing 8–5–1 the following season. Shula got his first NFL coaching job from then-Detroit head coach George Wilson, who hired him as the defensive coordinator. The AFL merged with the NFL in 1970, and the Dolphins were assigned to the AFC East division in the NFL's new American Football Conference .
For the rest of the 20th century, the Shula-led Dolphins emerged as one of the most dominant teams in the NFL, with only two losing seasons between 1970 and 1999. They were extremely successful in the 1970s, completing the first complete perfect season in NFL history by finishing with a 14–0 regular-season record in 1972 and winning the Super Bowl that year . It was the first of two consecutive Super Bowl wins and one of three appearances in a row. The 1980s and 1990s were also moderately successful. The early 80s teams made two Super Bowls despite losing both times and saw the emergence of future Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino , who went on to break numerous NFL passing records, holding many of them until the late 2000s. After winning every game against the division rival Buffalo Bills in the 1970s, the two teams gradually developed a competitive rivalry in the 80s and 90s, often competing for AFC supremacy when Jim Kelly emerged as the quarterback for the Bills. The Dolphins have also maintained a strong rivalry with the New York Jets throughout much of their history.
Following the retirements of Marino and Shula and the rise of Tom Brady and the New England Patriots , the Dolphins suffered a decline in the 2000s and 2010s. During this period, the team's level of play was largely described as mediocre. [9] [10] [11] They have only made the playoffs four times since Marino's retirement and have largely been unable to find a consistent quarterback to replace him. The team suffered a franchise-worst 1–15 season in 2007 . They rebounded the following season , becoming the first team in NFL history to win their division and make a playoff appearance following a league-worst season . [ citation needed ] That same season, the Dolphins upset the New England Patriots on the road during Week 3 thanks to the use of the gimmick Wildcat offense , which handed the Patriots their first regular-season loss since December 10, 2006, in which coincidentally, they were also beaten by the Dolphins. However, this success in 2008 proved to be an outlier during this period in the franchise's history; to date, it is the last season the Dolphins won the AFC East. [12] However, the Dolphins have been competitive against the Patriots despite their decline, with notable wins coming in 2004, 2008, 2014, 2018 , and 2019. Until 2020, they were also the last team in the AFC East to win the division championship aside from the Patriots, doing so in 2008.
|Season||Coach||Super Bowl||Location||Opponent||Score||Record|
|1972||Don Shula||VII||L.A. Memorial Coliseum ( Los Angeles )||Washington Redskins||14–7||17–0|
|1973||VIII||Rice Stadium ( Houston )||Minnesota Vikings||24–7||15–2|
|Total Super Bowls won:||2|
|Season||Coach||Location||Opponent||Score||Record|
|1971||Don Shula||Orange Bowl ( Miami )||Baltimore Colts||21–0||12–4–1|
|1972||Three Rivers Stadium ( Pittsburgh )||Pittsburgh Steelers||21–17||17–0|
|1973||Orange Bowl (Miami)||Oakland Raiders||27–10||15–2|
|1982||New York Jets||14–0||10–3|
|1984||Pittsburgh Steelers||45–28||16–3|
|Total AFC Championships won:||5|
Main article: Bills–Dolphins rivalry
The Dolphins and the Buffalo Bills have a long-standing rivalry, as there are stark characteristic differences between the cities of Miami and Buffalo, especially in climate and culture. The rivalry was extremely lopsided in favor of Miami during the 1970s, as the Dolphins won all 20 games against the Bills during that decade. Fortunes changed in the 1980s and 1990s when Jim Kelly became the Bills' starting quarterback. Though both teams were extremely dominant during that period, the Bills ultimately held the edge and dominated the Dolphins during their four playoff matchups in the 1990s, with the Dolphins' only playoff win coming after Kelly's retirement. With the rise of Tom Brady and the Patriots during the 2000s and the retirements of Kelly and Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino , the Bills-Dolphins rivalry faded in relevance, but remains somewhat intense to this day. Some former Dolphins have gone to play for the Bills as well, most notably Dan Carpenter , Chris Hogan , and Charles Clay .
In the 2020s, the rivalry sharpened, with Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa , drafted in 2020, leading a resurgent Dolphins team against the Josh Allen -led Bills, who had gained a streak of success after Brady's departure from the Patriots and the division. Though Allen's career record against Miami currently stands at 9–2, Tagovailoa led the Dolphins to their first win over Bills in 8 games in 2022, and the Dolphins played the Bills tightly in the teams' two other meetings that year despite losing both, including the playoffs.
Main article: Dolphins–Patriots rivalry
The Dolphins dominated the New England Patriots during the 1970s and the 1990s, but there were some notable moments as well, including a 1982 game now known as the Snowplow Game . Fortunes changed when Tom Brady became the franchise quarterback for the Patriots, and during his tenure with the Patriots , New England dominated the AFC, especially the AFC East, winning 16 of 17 division titles between 2003 and 2019, with the Dolphins winning the only non-Patriots division title in that time frame when Brady was out due to injury. Miami posed the biggest divisional challenge to the Brady-led Patriots, however, winning more games against them than the Bills or Jets did during that era. [13] [14]
Notable wins over New England by the Dolphins include the Miracle in Miami , which involved a dramatic last-minute game-winning touchdown that paralleled "The Night that Courage Wore Orange", where in 2004 , the Dolphins, at 2–11, upset the defending Super Bowl champion Patriots 28–29, and handed them the second of their 2 losses that season. [15] The rivalry briefly intensified in 2005 when Nick Saban , Bill Belichick 's former Browns defensive coordinator was hired as their new head coach and when Saban nearly signed quarterback Drew Brees , as well as in 2008, when the two teams battled for the AFC East division title. Miami and New England are also the only two franchises to have posted undefeated regular-season records since the NFL-AFL merger, with Miami going 14–0 in 1972 and New England going 16–0 in 2007 , but only the 1972 Dolphins were able to win the Super Bowl.
Main article: Dolphins–Jets rivalry
The New York Jets are perhaps Miami's most bitter rivals. [16] Dolphins fans despise the Jets due to the sheer amount of New York City transplants who have moved to South Florida and the Jets' usual cocky demeanor. Just as the Bills-Dolphins rivalry is motivated by differences, the Dolphins-Jets series is also notable for the differences between New York and Miami. Unlike the former, this rivalry has been more consistent over the years. Some of the more memorable moments in this rivalry include Dan Marino 's fake spike , Vinny Testaverde leading the Jets to a notable comeback on Monday Night Football , and former Jets quarterback Chad Pennington signing with the Dolphins and leading them to a divisional title. The two teams have also played in the 1982 AFC Championship , with Miami winning to face the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII .
Main article: Buccaneers–Dolphins rivalry
Since the founding of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1976, the Dolphins and Buccaneers have shared a mellow in-state rivalry and were the only two teams in Florida until the Jacksonville Jaguars joined the NFL in 1995.
When the then- Baltimore Colts were inserted into the AFC East following the AFL/NFL merger, they sparked a heated rivalry with the Dolphins, as a controversy involving the hiring of former Colts coach Don Shula forced Miami to forfeit a first-round draft pick. The Dolphins and Colts faced off several times in the AFC playoffs during the 1970s, including the AFC championship game leading up to Super Bowl VI , which the Dolphins lost to the Dallas Cowboys . The rivalry cooled down in the 1980s after the Colts struggled and moved to Indianapolis , but heated up once again in the late 90s until the Colts were reassigned into the AFC South as a result of the 2002 realignment of the NFL's divisions. [17]
The Dolphins also share historic rivalries with other AFC teams such as the Las Vegas Raiders , Los Angeles Chargers , and Pittsburgh Steelers , stemming from often competing against these teams in the playoffs during the Don Shula era, and to a lesser extent, the Jacksonville Jaguars , who also represent the state of Florida. [17]
The Dolphins originally played all home games in the Orange Bowl in Miami. They moved to the new Joe Robbie Stadium after the 1986 season. From 1993 to 2011, the Dolphins shared the stadium with Major League Baseball 's Florida Marlins (now known as the Miami Marlins). The venue has had multiple naming rights deals since 1996 , carrying the names Pro Player Stadium, Dolphins Stadium, Dolphin Stadium, LandShark Stadium, Sun Life Stadium, New Miami Stadium and, as of August 2016, Hard Rock Stadium . The facility is located in Miami Gardens , a suburb of Miami located approximately 15 miles (24 km) north of downtown Miami. The Miami Dolphins share Hard Rock Stadium with the NCAA Miami Hurricanes . The 2015–2016 season was the first season in the newly renovated Hard Rock Stadium. The Dolphins spent more than two years and over $400 million on a major overhaul to Hard Rock Stadium. Every seat was replaced and the lower-level seats were moved closer to the field. There are roughly 10,000 fewer seats. [18]
St. Petersburg Beach hosted the Dolphins' first training camp in 1966. St. Andrew's School in Boca Raton hosted training camp in the late 1960s. The Dolphins subsequently trained in Miami Gardens at Biscayne College, later renamed St. Thomas University , from 1970 until 1993.
In 1993, the Dolphins opened the Miami Dolphins Training Facility at Nova Southeastern University in Davie . In 2006, the facility added a domed field that allows the team to practice during thunderstorms which are common in the area during the summer. [19]
In 2021, the Dolphins opened a new, 135 million training facility, dubbed the Baptist Health Training Complex, the Dolphins will practice in. The complex is located next to Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens.
The Dolphins logo and uniforms remained fairly consistent from the team's founding through 2012. The team's colors were originally aqua and coral , with the coral color paying tribute to the Miami Seahawks and to the many natural coral reefs in Biscayne Bay. The team's original logo consisted of a sunburst with a leaping dolphin wearing a football helmet bearing the letter M. At their debut in 1966, a lighter & brighter orange was used instead of the deep coral color. The dolphin's head was near the center of the sunburst. In the 1967 season, the dolphin was centered on the sunburst, but it reverted to the original placement between 1968 and 1973. By 1974, the dolphin's body was centered on the sunburst in a slightly smaller logo than the 1967 version. The uniforms featured white pants with aqua and orange stripes, paired with either a white or aqua jersey. On the white jersey, aqua block numbers and names were outlined in orange, with aqua and orange sleeve stripes. Starting with the 1972 perfect season, these uniforms were used as the primary uniforms for road games and daytime home games, due to the extreme heat of South Florida. The team also had an aqua jersey used mainly for night home games or road games in which the opponent chose to wear white. The aqua jersey featured white block numbers and names with an orange outline, and orange and white sleeve stripes.
An update was given to the logo in 1997 – the sunburst was simplified and the dolphin was darkened and given a more serious game-face expression. [20] The uniforms remained the same; however, a different block number font was used and navy drop shadows were added.
On very rare occasions, an orange jersey was used for primetime games. The uniforms essentially swapped the location of orange and aqua from the aqua jersey. The orange jersey was first used on a Sunday night in 2003 against Washington , a Dolphin win. In 2004, the orange jersey was brought back for an Monday Night Football match pitting the 2–11 Dolphins against the 12–1 defending champion New England Patriots . The Dolphins scored a huge upset win after trailing by 11 points with less than 5 minutes remaining. Due to the unusual orange jerseys, the game has become known within some Dolphin circles as " The Night That Courage Wore Orange ". [21] The orange jerseys were used for a 2009 Monday night win against the New York Jets . However, the Dolphins would lose a 2010 Sunday night matchup with the Jets, their first loss in orange, and the orange jerseys in the original style would not be worn again.
In 2009, the Dolphins switched to black shoes for the first time since the early 1970s glory days, following a recent trend among NFL teams. However, by 2011, they returned to wearing white shoes.
The Dolphins' final game in the original style uniforms with block numbers and the iconic leaping dolphin logo was the final game of the 2012 season, a 28–0 shutout loss to the New England Patriots in Foxboro . The white jerseys were worn for the game, and as rumors of a new look had been swirling, many fans watching knew that it would likely be the last time their team would wear the leaping dolphin logo.
A radically new logo and new uniforms were unveiled shortly before the 2013 NFL Draft . [22] [23] [24] The new logo features a stylized aqua dolphin swimming in front of a heavily modified version of the orange sunburst. The dolphin in the logo is more vague and artistic, and is not wearing a helmet as it is merely a silhouette of a dolphin cast in aqua and navy.
Navy was incorporated as featured color for the first time, with orange becoming greatly de-emphasized. The uniforms feature both white pants and aqua pants, with a white or aqua jersey. The Dolphins continue to wear white at home, just as they had with the previous uniforms, with aqua being used for primetime home games. The white jersey features aqua numbers and names in a unique custom font, with orange and navy outlines on the numbers; however, the names only use navy as an outline color. The aqua jerseys use white numbers with an orange and aqua outline, and white names with a navy outline. The helmets are white with a white facemask, just like the final years of the previous look; however, navy is a prominent color on the helmet stripe, joining aqua and a de-emphasized orange. Both jerseys have large "Dolphins" text above the numbers, written in the team's new script. The pants are either aqua or white, and contain no markings other than a small team wordmark. [25]
In 2018, the team made some slight modifications to the logo and uniform set: The shades of orange and aqua were tweaked, and navy blue was removed from the color scheme, only remaining on the logo. [26]
In 2015, the Dolphins brought back their 1970s aqua uniforms for a few select games. Four years later, they brought back a white version from the same era as a second alternate uniform. The aqua throwbacks were worn during the now-famous 2018 Miracle in Miami play against the Patriots.
On September 29, 2016, the Dolphins debuted their new Color Rush uniform in a Thursday Night Football game against the Cincinnati Bengals . The all-orange uniform marked the first time since 2010 that the Dolphins wore an orange uniform. However, the set was only used for that game as the Dolphins immediately retired the uniform soon after.
In later years, the Dolphins wore similar all-aqua or all-white uniforms in select games as the NFL gradually relaxed its rules regarding hosiery.
The song was written and composed by Lee Ofman, and has similar instrumentation and lyrics to the fight song of the Houston Oilers . Ofman approached the Dolphins with it before the 1972 season because he wanted music to inspire his favorite team. The fight song would soon serve as a good luck charm for the Dolphins that season. The Dolphins became the first team in NFL history to record an undefeated season, going 17–0 en route to victory over the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII . The following season, Miami posted an equally impressive 15–2 record and capped the season with another title, defeating the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl VIII . The back-to-back championship runs, coupled with the popularity of the fight song amongst Dolphins fans, have ensured the song's longevity. The Dolphins revealed a new fight song by T-Pain and Jimmy Buffett featuring Pitbull on August 7, 2009, which was introduced for the 2009 NFL season. [27] The fight song was played during the preseason home opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars on August 17, 2009, but was not played during the second preseason game against the Carolina Panthers on August 22, 2009, after being booed heavily in the first game. Furthermore, the team has preferred to play Buffett's song " Fins " after scores during the 2009 regular season instead of the traditional fight song.
The team's cheerleaders are known collectively as the Miami Dolphins Cheerleaders. [28] The company had its debut in 1978 as the Dolphins Starbrites. (The name referred to the co-sponsor, Starbrite Car Polish.) The cheerleaders' founding choreographer was June Taylor , famed colleague of Jackie Gleason , who led the squad until her retirement in 1990.
In April 2010, the Dolphins started the first Volunteer Program in the NFL. Special Teams is a unique volunteer organization created to enlist and mobilize the ongoing services of the community with the Dolphins staff, players and alumni. The mission of the Special Teams is to offer hands-on services to communities and families in need, to partner with existing organizations on worthwhile social, civic and charitable programs, to provide assistance at Miami Dolphins Foundation events, and to support community efforts in times of emergency. This program is headed by Leslie Nixon and Sergio Xiques. Since its inception, Special Teams has given over 250,000 community services hours to the South Florida and Mexico community. [29]
("The Dolphin") On Friday, April 18, 1997, the first "official" mascot of the Miami Dolphins was introduced. The 7-foot mascot made his public debut on April 19 at Pro Player Stadium during the team's draft-day party. The team then made a "Name the Mascot" contest that drew over 13,000 entries covering all 50 states and 22 countries. 529 names were suggested. The winning entry was announced at the annual Dolphins Awards Banquet on June 4, 1997.
Denny Sym cheered on the Miami Dolphins for 33 years as a one-man sideline show, leading Miami crowds in cheers and chants in his glittering coral (orange) and aqua hat from the Dolphins’ first game in 1966 until 2000. Sym died on March 18, 2007. He was 72. [30]
Main article: Flipper
From 1966 to 1968, and in the 1970s a live dolphin was situated in a water tank in the open (east) end of the Orange Bowl. He would jump in the tank to celebrate touchdowns and field goals. The tank that was set up in the 1970s was manufactured by Evan Bush and maintained during the games by Evan Bush and Dene Whitaker. Flipper was removed from the Orange Bowl after 1968 to save costs, and in the 1970s due to stress.
In August 2010, the team launched its own regional TV "network". The Dolphins Television Network comprises 10 South Florida TV stations that agreed to carry the team-produced coverage. [31] Preseason games are broadcast on television through WFOR-TV in Miami-Dade and Broward counties, WTVX in West Palm Beach, WBBH-TV in Fort Myers, and WRDQ in Orlando. Longtime TV and radio personality Dick Stockton provides play-by-play commentary, with Dolphins Hall-of-Fame QB Bob Griese and former Dolphins WR Nat Moore providing color commentary. The radio broadcast team features Jimmy Cefalo providing play-by-play commentary and Joe Rose providing color commentary during preseason games, along with Griese for regular-season games. [32] Griese replaced longtime color commentator Jim Mandich , who played for the Dolphins under Don Shula. Mandich lost his fight with cancer in 2011, opening the door for Griese as his replacement. Radio coverage as of the 2023 season will be provided by WINZ (940 AM) and WBGG-FM (105.9 FM). Additionally, games can also be heard in Spanish on WNMA (1210 AM), with Raúl Striker Jr. and Joaquin Duro providing play-by-play and color commentary, respectively.
CBS-owned WFOR, in addition to preseason telecasts, airs most of the Dolphins' regular season games. If the team hosts an interconference opponent or plays on a Thursday night, WSVN , the local Fox affiliate will have the games being televised. When playing on Sunday night, the team's matches will be broadcast on WTVJ , the NBC O&O station.
The Dolphins' radio affiliates: [33] [34]
The Dolphins currently have ten players, and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame , that have spent the majority (or entirety) of their careers, or made significant contributions with the Miami Dolphins. Three other players and four contributors that have spent only a "minor portion" of their careers with the Dolphins, and have been enshrined primarily with other teams, have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|Miami Dolphins Hall of Famers|
|Players|
|No.||Name||College||Position||Season(s)||Inducted|
|42||Paul Warfield||Ohio State||WR||1970–1974||1983|
|39||Larry Csonka||Syracuse||FB||1968–1974, 1979||1987|
|62||Jim Langer||South Dakota State||C||1970–1979||1987|
|12||Bob Griese||Purdue||QB||1967–1980||1990|
|66||Larry Little||Bethune-Cookman||G||1969–1980||1993|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||Alabama||C||1980–1987||1998|
|85||Nick Buoniconti||Notre Dame||LB||1969–1974, 1976||2001|
|13||Dan Marino||Pittsburgh||QB||1983–1999||2005|
|99||Jason Taylor||Akron||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011||2017|
|54||Zach Thomas||Texas Tech||LB||1996–2007||2023|
|Coaches and Executives|
|Name||College||Position||Season(s)||Inducted|
|Don Shula||John Carroll||Head coach||1970–1995||1997|
|Miami Dolphins Hall of Famers who were inducted for other teams|
|Players|
|No.||Name||College||Position(s)||Season(s)||Inducted|
|34||Thurman Thomas||Oklahoma State||RB||2000||2007|
|88||Cris Carter||Ohio State||WR||2002||2013|
|55||Junior Seau||USC||LB||2003–2005||2015|
|Coaches and executives|
|Name||College||Position(s)||Season(s)||Inducted|
|Bill Parcells||Wichita State||Executive VP of Football Operations||2008–2010||2013|
|Bobby Beathard||Cal Poly||Director of Player Personnel||1972–1977||2018|
|Jimmy Johnson||Arkansas||Head coach||1996–1999||2020|
|George Young||Bucknell||Director of Personnel and Pro Scouting||1975–1978||2020|
The Miami Dolphins currently have three retired jersey numbers:
- No. 12 for Bob Griese, which was retired on a Monday Night Football broadcast in 1985.
- No. 13 for Dan Marino, which was retired on September 17, 2000, during halftime of the "Ravens @ Dolphins" game on Sunday Night Football .
- No. 39 for Larry Csonka, which was retired on December 9, 2002 (30th anniversary of Miami's "1972 Undefeated Team"), during halftime of the "Bears @ Dolphins" game on Monday Night Football .
Miami Dolphins retired numbers
Listed below are the individuals who have won the following NFL, Super Bowl, and Pro Bowl MVP awards, the Offensive and Defensive Rookie and Player of the Year awards, the Comeback Player of the Year winners, the winners of the prestigious NFL Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, and the winner of the Coach of the Year Award for the Miami Dolphins. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|NFL MVP winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1984||Dan Marino||QB|
|Super Bowl MVP winners|
|Super Bowl||Player||Position|
|VII||Jake Scott||S|
|VIII||Larry Csonka||FB|
|Pro Bowl MVP winners|
|Pro Bowl||Player||Position|
|1973||Garo Yepremian||K|
|2002||Ricky Williams||RB|
|2011||Brandon Marshall||WR|
|NFL Offensive Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1984||Dan Marino||QB|
|NFL Defensive Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1973||Dick Anderson||S|
|1983||Doug Betters||DE|
|2006||Jason Taylor||DE|
|NFL Comeback Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1972||Earl Morrall||QB|
|1979||Larry Csonka||FB|
|1994||Dan Marino||QB|
|2008||Chad Pennington||QB|
|NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1987||Troy Stradford||RB|
|NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1977||A. J. Duhe||LB|
|1994||Tim Bowens||DT|
|NFL Walter Payton Man of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1985||Dwight Stephenson||C|
|1998||Dan Marino||QB|
|2007||Jason Taylor||DE|
|NFL Coach of the Year winners|
|Season||Coach|
|1972||Don Shula|
The following are Miami Dolphins (players and/or coaches) who have been selected to an "All-Decade Team", or the NFL 100 All-Time Team by the Pro Football Hall of Fame selection committee. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|1970s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|—||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995|
|62||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979|
|66||Larry Little||G||1969–1980|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|40||Dick Anderson||S||1968–1977|
|1||Garo Yepremian||K||1970–1978|
|1980s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987|
|4||Reggie Roby||P||1983–1992|
|1990s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|78||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000|
|2000s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|99||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011|
|54||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|
|2010s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|93||Ndamukong Suh||DT||2015–2017|
|21||Frank Gore||RB||2018|
|NFL 100 All-Time Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|—||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987|
|13||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999|
|55||Junior Seau||LB||2003–2005|
Many former and current Miami Dolphins players have represented the franchise in the Pro Bowl (or the AFL All-Star Game). Below is a list of current or former players that play or have played for the Miami Dolphins that have been selected to at least five Pro Bowls. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|Miami Dolphins Pro Bowl selections|
|No. of Pro Bowls||Player||Position||Tenure||Pro Bowl years|
|9||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999|| 1983–1987 |
1991–1992
1994–1995
|8||Bob Griese||QB||1967–1980|| 1967–1968 |
1970–1971
1973–1974
1977–1978
|7||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|| 1999–2003 |
2005–2006
|7||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000||1990–1996|
|6||Bob Kuechenberg||G||1970–1984|| 1974–1975 |
1977–1978
1982–1983
|6||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979||1973–1978|
|6||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011||2000, 2002, 2004–2007|
|5||Bob Baumhower||DT||1977–1986||1979, 1981–1984|
|5||Mark Clayton||WR||1983–1992||1984–1986, 1988, 1991|
|5||Larry Csonka||FB||1968–1974, 1979||1970–1974|
|5||Larry Little||G||1969–1980||1969, 1971–1974|
|5||John Offerdahl||LB||1986–1993||1986–1990|
|5||Jake Scott||S||1970–1975||1971–1975|
|5||Bill Stanfill||DE||1969–1976||1969, 1971–1974|
|5||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987||1983–1987|
|5||Cameron Wake||DE||2009–2018||2010, 2012–2014, 2016|
|5||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974||1970–1974|
In 2015, to commemorate the Miami Dolphins' 50th NFL season, the Dolphins organization announced through voting from the South Florida Media and Miami Dolphin fans the results of the 50 greatest players in Miami Dolphins franchise history. The results were announced during halftime on Monday Night Football between the Dolphins and the Giants. Here are the 50 greatest Dolphins broken down by position. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. [36]
Offense:
The Miami Dolphins Honor Roll is a ring around the second tier of Hard Rock Stadium that honors former players, coaches, owners and contributors who have made significant contributions to the franchise throughout their history. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Each of these players is honored with a placard on the facing of the upper level around Hard Rock Stadium including team founder-owner Joe Robbie. In place of a jersey number, Shula has the number 347, representing his record number of NFL coaching victories, 274 of them as Dolphins head coach.
In 1992, at the 20 year anniversary, Miami's "1972 Undefeated Team" was enshrined into the Honor Roll. At the 40 year anniversary, which enshrined former defensive coordinator Bill Arnsparger into the Honor Roll, his name went on the Honor Roll where the "1972 Undefeated Team" inductee previously and originally was enshrined, and an updated "1972 Perfect Season Team 17–0" inductee was put into one corner of Hard Rock Stadium with special placards of Super Bowl VII and Super Bowl VIII included next to it on each side.
The inductees as of 2014 include:
|Miami Dolphins Honor Roll|
|No.||Name||Position(s)||Years with club||Inducted|
|—||Joe Robbie||Owner/founder||1966–1989||1990|
|39||Larry Csonka||FB||1968–1974, 1979|
|12||Bob Griese||QB||1967–1980|
|62||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|85||Nick Buoniconti||LB||1969–1974, 1976||1991|
|1972 Undefeated Team||1992|
|66||Larry Little||G||1969–1980||1993|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987||1994|
|67||Bob Kuechenberg||G||1970–1984||1995|
|347||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995||1996|
|89||Nat Moore||WR||1974–1986||1999|
|13||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999||2000|
|83||Mark Clayton||WR||1983–1992||2003|
|85||Mark Duper||WR||1982–1992|
|40||Dick Anderson||S||1968–1977||2006|
|78||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000|
|73||Bob Baumhower||DT||1977–1986||2008|
|75||Doug Betters||DE||1978–1987|
|13||Jake Scott||S||1970–1975||2010|
|84||Bill Stanfill||DE||1969–1976|
|88||Jim Mandich||TE /Radio Broadcaster||1970–1977 / 1992–2004, 2007–2010||2011|
|—||Bill Arnsparger||Defensive Coordinator|| 1970–1973 |
1976–1983
|2012|
| Super Bowl VII Team |
1972 Perfect Season Team 17–0
Super Bowl VIII Team
|UPDATED 1992 Inductee|
|99||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011|
|54||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|
|56||John Offerdahl||LB||1986–1993||2013|
|75||Manny Fernandez||DT||1968–1975||2014|
The Joe Robbie Alumni Plaza Walk of Fame was first established in 2011, designed to be all-encompassing and recognize the best of the Miami Dolphins alumni, including those in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Honor Roll, and as well as the many other players who were among the unsung heroes and community leaders that the organization has produced. The "Walk of Fame" is located at the north end of Hard Rock Stadium, with a life-size bronze statue of Joe Robbie, the original founder and owner of the Miami Dolphins from 1966 to 1989. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The inductees as of 2018 (by yearly class) are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Dolphins | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | How Many Super Bowls Has The Miami Dolphins Won | The Miami Dolphins have won twice in Super Bowls all-time.
|TEAM||DATE||ROUND||TM||OPP||RESULT||W||TD||1DWN||OFF||OPP OFF||3DWN%||4DWN%|
|Miami Dolphins||1/16/1972||Super Bowl|
MIA
|vs|
DAL
L
3-24
|0||0||10||185||352|
|Miami Dolphins||1/14/1973||Super Bowl|
MIA
|@|
WAS
W
14-7
|1||2||12||253||228|
|Miami Dolphins||1/13/1974||Super Bowl|
MIA
|vs|
MIN
W
24-7
|1||3||21||259||238|
|Miami Dolphins||1/30/1983||Super Bowl|
MIA
|@|
WAS
L
17-27
|0||2||9||176||400|
|Miami Dolphins||1/20/1985||Super Bowl|
MIA
|@|
SF
L
16-38
|0||1||19||314||537|
|Average||0.4||1.6||14.2||237.4||351.0|
|Total||2||8||71||1,187||1,755| | https://www.statmuse.com/nfl/ask/how-many-super-bowls-has-the-miami-dolphins-won | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Miami Dolphins - Wikipedia | - Miami Dolphins (1966–present)
- The No-Name Defense (Defense 1970s)
- The Killer Bees Defense (Defense 1980s)
- Fins
The Miami Dolphins are a professional American football team based in the Miami metropolitan area . The Dolphins compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Hard Rock Stadium , located in the northern suburb of Miami Gardens, Florida . The team is currently owned by Stephen M. Ross . The Dolphins are the oldest professional sports team in Florida. Of the four AFC East teams, the Dolphins are the only team in the division that was not a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). The Dolphins were also one of the first professional football teams in the southeast, along with the Atlanta Falcons .
The Dolphins were founded by attorney-politician Joe Robbie and actor-comedian Danny Thomas . They began play in the AFL in 1966 . The region had not had a professional football team since the days of the Miami Seahawks , who played in the All-America Football Conference in 1946, before becoming the first incarnation of the Baltimore Colts . For the first few years, the Dolphins' full-time training camp and practice facilities were at Saint Andrew's School , a private, boys boarding prep school in Boca Raton. Miami joined the NFL as a result of the 1970 AFL–NFL merger .
The team played in its first Super Bowl in Super Bowl VI , losing to the Dallas Cowboys , 24–3. The following year , the Dolphins completed the NFL's only perfect season , culminating in a Super Bowl win, winning all 14 of their regular-season games, and all three of their playoff games, including Super Bowl VII . They were the third NFL team to accomplish a perfect regular season , and remain the only team to do so since the AFL-NFL merger, the time known as the Super Bowl era. The next year, the Dolphins won Super Bowl VIII , becoming the first team to appear in three consecutive Super Bowls, and the second team (the first AFL/AFC team) to win back-to-back championships. Miami also appeared in Super Bowl XVII and Super Bowl XIX , losing both games.
For most of their early history, the Dolphins were coached by Don Shula , the most successful head coach in professional football history in terms of total games won. Under Shula, the Dolphins posted losing records in only two of his 26 seasons as the head coach. During the period spanning 1983 to the end of 1999, quarterback Dan Marino became one of the most prolific passers in NFL history, breaking numerous league passing records. Marino led the Dolphins to five division titles, 10 playoff appearances, and an appearance in Super Bowl XIX before retiring following the 1999 season .
Since Marino's retirement, they have experienced mediocre levels of success and have just five playoff appearances ( 2000 , 2001 , 2008 , 2016 , and 2022 ) and two division titles ( 2000 and 2008 ).
The Miami Dolphins joined the American Football League (AFL) when an expansion franchise was awarded to lawyer Joseph Robbie and actor Danny Thomas in 1965 for $7.5 million, although Thomas would eventually sell his stake in the team to Robbie. [7] During the summer of 1966, the Dolphins' training camp was in St. Pete Beach with practices in August at Boca Ciega High School in Gulfport . [8]
The Dolphins were the worst team with a 15–39–2 record in their first four seasons under head coach George Wilson , before Don Shula was hired as head coach. Shula was a Paul Brown disciple who had been lured from the Baltimore Colts , after losing Super Bowl III two seasons earlier to the AFL's New York Jets , and finishing 8–5–1 the following season. Shula got his first NFL coaching job from then-Detroit head coach George Wilson, who hired him as the defensive coordinator. The AFL merged with the NFL in 1970, and the Dolphins were assigned to the AFC East division in the NFL's new American Football Conference .
For the rest of the 20th century, the Shula-led Dolphins emerged as one of the most dominant teams in the NFL, with only two losing seasons between 1970 and 1999. They were extremely successful in the 1970s, completing the first complete perfect season in NFL history by finishing with a 14–0 regular-season record in 1972 and winning the Super Bowl that year . It was the first of two consecutive Super Bowl wins and one of three appearances in a row. The 1980s and 1990s were also moderately successful. The early 80s teams made two Super Bowls despite losing both times and saw the emergence of future Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino , who went on to break numerous NFL passing records, holding many of them until the late 2000s. After winning every game against the division rival Buffalo Bills in the 1970s, the two teams gradually developed a competitive rivalry in the 80s and 90s, often competing for AFC supremacy when Jim Kelly emerged as the quarterback for the Bills. The Dolphins have also maintained a strong rivalry with the New York Jets throughout much of their history.
Following the retirements of Marino and Shula and the rise of Tom Brady and the New England Patriots , the Dolphins suffered a decline in the 2000s and 2010s. During this period, the team's level of play was largely described as mediocre. [9] [10] [11] They have only made the playoffs four times since Marino's retirement and have largely been unable to find a consistent quarterback to replace him. The team suffered a franchise-worst 1–15 season in 2007 . They rebounded the following season , becoming the first team in NFL history to win their division and make a playoff appearance following a league-worst season . [ citation needed ] That same season, the Dolphins upset the New England Patriots on the road during Week 3 thanks to the use of the gimmick Wildcat offense , which handed the Patriots their first regular-season loss since December 10, 2006, in which coincidentally, they were also beaten by the Dolphins. However, this success in 2008 proved to be an outlier during this period in the franchise's history; to date, it is the last season the Dolphins won the AFC East. [12] However, the Dolphins have been competitive against the Patriots despite their decline, with notable wins coming in 2004, 2008, 2014, 2018 , and 2019. Until 2020, they were also the last team in the AFC East to win the division championship aside from the Patriots, doing so in 2008.
|Season||Coach||Super Bowl||Location||Opponent||Score||Record|
|1972||Don Shula||VII||L.A. Memorial Coliseum ( Los Angeles )||Washington Redskins||14–7||17–0|
|1973||VIII||Rice Stadium ( Houston )||Minnesota Vikings||24–7||15–2|
|Total Super Bowls won:||2|
|Season||Coach||Location||Opponent||Score||Record|
|1971||Don Shula||Orange Bowl ( Miami )||Baltimore Colts||21–0||12–4–1|
|1972||Three Rivers Stadium ( Pittsburgh )||Pittsburgh Steelers||21–17||17–0|
|1973||Orange Bowl (Miami)||Oakland Raiders||27–10||15–2|
|1982||New York Jets||14–0||10–3|
|1984||Pittsburgh Steelers||45–28||16–3|
|Total AFC Championships won:||5|
Main article: Bills–Dolphins rivalry
The Dolphins and the Buffalo Bills have a long-standing rivalry, as there are stark characteristic differences between the cities of Miami and Buffalo, especially in climate and culture. The rivalry was extremely lopsided in favor of Miami during the 1970s, as the Dolphins won all 20 games against the Bills during that decade. Fortunes changed in the 1980s and 1990s when Jim Kelly became the Bills' starting quarterback. Though both teams were extremely dominant during that period, the Bills ultimately held the edge and dominated the Dolphins during their four playoff matchups in the 1990s, with the Dolphins' only playoff win coming after Kelly's retirement. With the rise of Tom Brady and the Patriots during the 2000s and the retirements of Kelly and Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino , the Bills-Dolphins rivalry faded in relevance, but remains somewhat intense to this day. Some former Dolphins have gone to play for the Bills as well, most notably Dan Carpenter , Chris Hogan , and Charles Clay .
In the 2020s, the rivalry sharpened, with Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa , drafted in 2020, leading a resurgent Dolphins team against the Josh Allen -led Bills, who had gained a streak of success after Brady's departure from the Patriots and the division. Though Allen's career record against Miami currently stands at 9–2, Tagovailoa led the Dolphins to their first win over Bills in 8 games in 2022, and the Dolphins played the Bills tightly in the teams' two other meetings that year despite losing both, including the playoffs.
Main article: Dolphins–Patriots rivalry
The Dolphins dominated the New England Patriots during the 1970s and the 1990s, but there were some notable moments as well, including a 1982 game now known as the Snowplow Game . Fortunes changed when Tom Brady became the franchise quarterback for the Patriots, and during his tenure with the Patriots , New England dominated the AFC, especially the AFC East, winning 16 of 17 division titles between 2003 and 2019, with the Dolphins winning the only non-Patriots division title in that time frame when Brady was out due to injury. Miami posed the biggest divisional challenge to the Brady-led Patriots, however, winning more games against them than the Bills or Jets did during that era. [13] [14]
Notable wins over New England by the Dolphins include the Miracle in Miami , which involved a dramatic last-minute game-winning touchdown that paralleled "The Night that Courage Wore Orange", where in 2004 , the Dolphins, at 2–11, upset the defending Super Bowl champion Patriots 28–29, and handed them the second of their 2 losses that season. [15] The rivalry briefly intensified in 2005 when Nick Saban , Bill Belichick 's former Browns defensive coordinator was hired as their new head coach and when Saban nearly signed quarterback Drew Brees , as well as in 2008, when the two teams battled for the AFC East division title. Miami and New England are also the only two franchises to have posted undefeated regular-season records since the NFL-AFL merger, with Miami going 14–0 in 1972 and New England going 16–0 in 2007 , but only the 1972 Dolphins were able to win the Super Bowl.
Main article: Dolphins–Jets rivalry
The New York Jets are perhaps Miami's most bitter rivals. [16] Dolphins fans despise the Jets due to the sheer amount of New York City transplants who have moved to South Florida and the Jets' usual cocky demeanor. Just as the Bills-Dolphins rivalry is motivated by differences, the Dolphins-Jets series is also notable for the differences between New York and Miami. Unlike the former, this rivalry has been more consistent over the years. Some of the more memorable moments in this rivalry include Dan Marino 's fake spike , Vinny Testaverde leading the Jets to a notable comeback on Monday Night Football , and former Jets quarterback Chad Pennington signing with the Dolphins and leading them to a divisional title. The two teams have also played in the 1982 AFC Championship , with Miami winning to face the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII .
Main article: Buccaneers–Dolphins rivalry
Since the founding of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1976, the Dolphins and Buccaneers have shared a mellow in-state rivalry and were the only two teams in Florida until the Jacksonville Jaguars joined the NFL in 1995.
When the then- Baltimore Colts were inserted into the AFC East following the AFL/NFL merger, they sparked a heated rivalry with the Dolphins, as a controversy involving the hiring of former Colts coach Don Shula forced Miami to forfeit a first-round draft pick. The Dolphins and Colts faced off several times in the AFC playoffs during the 1970s, including the AFC championship game leading up to Super Bowl VI , which the Dolphins lost to the Dallas Cowboys . The rivalry cooled down in the 1980s after the Colts struggled and moved to Indianapolis , but heated up once again in the late 90s until the Colts were reassigned into the AFC South as a result of the 2002 realignment of the NFL's divisions. [17]
The Dolphins also share historic rivalries with other AFC teams such as the Las Vegas Raiders , Los Angeles Chargers , and Pittsburgh Steelers , stemming from often competing against these teams in the playoffs during the Don Shula era, and to a lesser extent, the Jacksonville Jaguars , who also represent the state of Florida. [17]
The Dolphins originally played all home games in the Orange Bowl in Miami. They moved to the new Joe Robbie Stadium after the 1986 season. From 1993 to 2011, the Dolphins shared the stadium with Major League Baseball 's Florida Marlins (now known as the Miami Marlins). The venue has had multiple naming rights deals since 1996 , carrying the names Pro Player Stadium, Dolphins Stadium, Dolphin Stadium, LandShark Stadium, Sun Life Stadium, New Miami Stadium and, as of August 2016, Hard Rock Stadium . The facility is located in Miami Gardens , a suburb of Miami located approximately 15 miles (24 km) north of downtown Miami. The Miami Dolphins share Hard Rock Stadium with the NCAA Miami Hurricanes . The 2015–2016 season was the first season in the newly renovated Hard Rock Stadium. The Dolphins spent more than two years and over $400 million on a major overhaul to Hard Rock Stadium. Every seat was replaced and the lower-level seats were moved closer to the field. There are roughly 10,000 fewer seats. [18]
St. Petersburg Beach hosted the Dolphins' first training camp in 1966. St. Andrew's School in Boca Raton hosted training camp in the late 1960s. The Dolphins subsequently trained in Miami Gardens at Biscayne College, later renamed St. Thomas University , from 1970 until 1993.
In 1993, the Dolphins opened the Miami Dolphins Training Facility at Nova Southeastern University in Davie . In 2006, the facility added a domed field that allows the team to practice during thunderstorms which are common in the area during the summer. [19]
In 2021, the Dolphins opened a new, 135 million training facility, dubbed the Baptist Health Training Complex, the Dolphins will practice in. The complex is located next to Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens.
The Dolphins logo and uniforms remained fairly consistent from the team's founding through 2012. The team's colors were originally aqua and coral , with the coral color paying tribute to the Miami Seahawks and to the many natural coral reefs in Biscayne Bay. The team's original logo consisted of a sunburst with a leaping dolphin wearing a football helmet bearing the letter M. At their debut in 1966, a lighter & brighter orange was used instead of the deep coral color. The dolphin's head was near the center of the sunburst. In the 1967 season, the dolphin was centered on the sunburst, but it reverted to the original placement between 1968 and 1973. By 1974, the dolphin's body was centered on the sunburst in a slightly smaller logo than the 1967 version. The uniforms featured white pants with aqua and orange stripes, paired with either a white or aqua jersey. On the white jersey, aqua block numbers and names were outlined in orange, with aqua and orange sleeve stripes. Starting with the 1972 perfect season, these uniforms were used as the primary uniforms for road games and daytime home games, due to the extreme heat of South Florida. The team also had an aqua jersey used mainly for night home games or road games in which the opponent chose to wear white. The aqua jersey featured white block numbers and names with an orange outline, and orange and white sleeve stripes.
An update was given to the logo in 1997 – the sunburst was simplified and the dolphin was darkened and given a more serious game-face expression. [20] The uniforms remained the same; however, a different block number font was used and navy drop shadows were added.
On very rare occasions, an orange jersey was used for primetime games. The uniforms essentially swapped the location of orange and aqua from the aqua jersey. The orange jersey was first used on a Sunday night in 2003 against Washington , a Dolphin win. In 2004, the orange jersey was brought back for an Monday Night Football match pitting the 2–11 Dolphins against the 12–1 defending champion New England Patriots . The Dolphins scored a huge upset win after trailing by 11 points with less than 5 minutes remaining. Due to the unusual orange jerseys, the game has become known within some Dolphin circles as " The Night That Courage Wore Orange ". [21] The orange jerseys were used for a 2009 Monday night win against the New York Jets . However, the Dolphins would lose a 2010 Sunday night matchup with the Jets, their first loss in orange, and the orange jerseys in the original style would not be worn again.
In 2009, the Dolphins switched to black shoes for the first time since the early 1970s glory days, following a recent trend among NFL teams. However, by 2011, they returned to wearing white shoes.
The Dolphins' final game in the original style uniforms with block numbers and the iconic leaping dolphin logo was the final game of the 2012 season, a 28–0 shutout loss to the New England Patriots in Foxboro . The white jerseys were worn for the game, and as rumors of a new look had been swirling, many fans watching knew that it would likely be the last time their team would wear the leaping dolphin logo.
A radically new logo and new uniforms were unveiled shortly before the 2013 NFL Draft . [22] [23] [24] The new logo features a stylized aqua dolphin swimming in front of a heavily modified version of the orange sunburst. The dolphin in the logo is more vague and artistic, and is not wearing a helmet as it is merely a silhouette of a dolphin cast in aqua and navy.
Navy was incorporated as featured color for the first time, with orange becoming greatly de-emphasized. The uniforms feature both white pants and aqua pants, with a white or aqua jersey. The Dolphins continue to wear white at home, just as they had with the previous uniforms, with aqua being used for primetime home games. The white jersey features aqua numbers and names in a unique custom font, with orange and navy outlines on the numbers; however, the names only use navy as an outline color. The aqua jerseys use white numbers with an orange and aqua outline, and white names with a navy outline. The helmets are white with a white facemask, just like the final years of the previous look; however, navy is a prominent color on the helmet stripe, joining aqua and a de-emphasized orange. Both jerseys have large "Dolphins" text above the numbers, written in the team's new script. The pants are either aqua or white, and contain no markings other than a small team wordmark. [25]
In 2018, the team made some slight modifications to the logo and uniform set: The shades of orange and aqua were tweaked, and navy blue was removed from the color scheme, only remaining on the logo. [26]
In 2015, the Dolphins brought back their 1970s aqua uniforms for a few select games. Four years later, they brought back a white version from the same era as a second alternate uniform. The aqua throwbacks were worn during the now-famous 2018 Miracle in Miami play against the Patriots.
On September 29, 2016, the Dolphins debuted their new Color Rush uniform in a Thursday Night Football game against the Cincinnati Bengals . The all-orange uniform marked the first time since 2010 that the Dolphins wore an orange uniform. However, the set was only used for that game as the Dolphins immediately retired the uniform soon after.
In later years, the Dolphins wore similar all-aqua or all-white uniforms in select games as the NFL gradually relaxed its rules regarding hosiery.
The song was written and composed by Lee Ofman, and has similar instrumentation and lyrics to the fight song of the Houston Oilers . Ofman approached the Dolphins with it before the 1972 season because he wanted music to inspire his favorite team. The fight song would soon serve as a good luck charm for the Dolphins that season. The Dolphins became the first team in NFL history to record an undefeated season, going 17–0 en route to victory over the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII . The following season, Miami posted an equally impressive 15–2 record and capped the season with another title, defeating the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl VIII . The back-to-back championship runs, coupled with the popularity of the fight song amongst Dolphins fans, have ensured the song's longevity. The Dolphins revealed a new fight song by T-Pain and Jimmy Buffett featuring Pitbull on August 7, 2009, which was introduced for the 2009 NFL season. [27] The fight song was played during the preseason home opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars on August 17, 2009, but was not played during the second preseason game against the Carolina Panthers on August 22, 2009, after being booed heavily in the first game. Furthermore, the team has preferred to play Buffett's song " Fins " after scores during the 2009 regular season instead of the traditional fight song.
The team's cheerleaders are known collectively as the Miami Dolphins Cheerleaders. [28] The company had its debut in 1978 as the Dolphins Starbrites. (The name referred to the co-sponsor, Starbrite Car Polish.) The cheerleaders' founding choreographer was June Taylor , famed colleague of Jackie Gleason , who led the squad until her retirement in 1990.
In April 2010, the Dolphins started the first Volunteer Program in the NFL. Special Teams is a unique volunteer organization created to enlist and mobilize the ongoing services of the community with the Dolphins staff, players and alumni. The mission of the Special Teams is to offer hands-on services to communities and families in need, to partner with existing organizations on worthwhile social, civic and charitable programs, to provide assistance at Miami Dolphins Foundation events, and to support community efforts in times of emergency. This program is headed by Leslie Nixon and Sergio Xiques. Since its inception, Special Teams has given over 250,000 community services hours to the South Florida and Mexico community. [29]
("The Dolphin") On Friday, April 18, 1997, the first "official" mascot of the Miami Dolphins was introduced. The 7-foot mascot made his public debut on April 19 at Pro Player Stadium during the team's draft-day party. The team then made a "Name the Mascot" contest that drew over 13,000 entries covering all 50 states and 22 countries. 529 names were suggested. The winning entry was announced at the annual Dolphins Awards Banquet on June 4, 1997.
Denny Sym cheered on the Miami Dolphins for 33 years as a one-man sideline show, leading Miami crowds in cheers and chants in his glittering coral (orange) and aqua hat from the Dolphins’ first game in 1966 until 2000. Sym died on March 18, 2007. He was 72. [30]
Main article: Flipper
From 1966 to 1968, and in the 1970s a live dolphin was situated in a water tank in the open (east) end of the Orange Bowl. He would jump in the tank to celebrate touchdowns and field goals. The tank that was set up in the 1970s was manufactured by Evan Bush and maintained during the games by Evan Bush and Dene Whitaker. Flipper was removed from the Orange Bowl after 1968 to save costs, and in the 1970s due to stress.
In August 2010, the team launched its own regional TV "network". The Dolphins Television Network comprises 10 South Florida TV stations that agreed to carry the team-produced coverage. [31] Preseason games are broadcast on television through WFOR-TV in Miami-Dade and Broward counties, WTVX in West Palm Beach, WBBH-TV in Fort Myers, and WRDQ in Orlando. Longtime TV and radio personality Dick Stockton provides play-by-play commentary, with Dolphins Hall-of-Fame QB Bob Griese and former Dolphins WR Nat Moore providing color commentary. The radio broadcast team features Jimmy Cefalo providing play-by-play commentary and Joe Rose providing color commentary during preseason games, along with Griese for regular-season games. [32] Griese replaced longtime color commentator Jim Mandich , who played for the Dolphins under Don Shula. Mandich lost his fight with cancer in 2011, opening the door for Griese as his replacement. Radio coverage as of the 2023 season will be provided by WINZ (940 AM) and WBGG-FM (105.9 FM). Additionally, games can also be heard in Spanish on WNMA (1210 AM), with Raúl Striker Jr. and Joaquin Duro providing play-by-play and color commentary, respectively.
CBS-owned WFOR, in addition to preseason telecasts, airs most of the Dolphins' regular season games. If the team hosts an interconference opponent or plays on a Thursday night, WSVN , the local Fox affiliate will have the games being televised. When playing on Sunday night, the team's matches will be broadcast on WTVJ , the NBC O&O station.
The Dolphins' radio affiliates: [33] [34]
The Dolphins currently have ten players, and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame , that have spent the majority (or entirety) of their careers, or made significant contributions with the Miami Dolphins. Three other players and four contributors that have spent only a "minor portion" of their careers with the Dolphins, and have been enshrined primarily with other teams, have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|Miami Dolphins Hall of Famers|
|Players|
|No.||Name||College||Position||Season(s)||Inducted|
|42||Paul Warfield||Ohio State||WR||1970–1974||1983|
|39||Larry Csonka||Syracuse||FB||1968–1974, 1979||1987|
|62||Jim Langer||South Dakota State||C||1970–1979||1987|
|12||Bob Griese||Purdue||QB||1967–1980||1990|
|66||Larry Little||Bethune-Cookman||G||1969–1980||1993|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||Alabama||C||1980–1987||1998|
|85||Nick Buoniconti||Notre Dame||LB||1969–1974, 1976||2001|
|13||Dan Marino||Pittsburgh||QB||1983–1999||2005|
|99||Jason Taylor||Akron||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011||2017|
|54||Zach Thomas||Texas Tech||LB||1996–2007||2023|
|Coaches and Executives|
|Name||College||Position||Season(s)||Inducted|
|Don Shula||John Carroll||Head coach||1970–1995||1997|
|Miami Dolphins Hall of Famers who were inducted for other teams|
|Players|
|No.||Name||College||Position(s)||Season(s)||Inducted|
|34||Thurman Thomas||Oklahoma State||RB||2000||2007|
|88||Cris Carter||Ohio State||WR||2002||2013|
|55||Junior Seau||USC||LB||2003–2005||2015|
|Coaches and executives|
|Name||College||Position(s)||Season(s)||Inducted|
|Bill Parcells||Wichita State||Executive VP of Football Operations||2008–2010||2013|
|Bobby Beathard||Cal Poly||Director of Player Personnel||1972–1977||2018|
|Jimmy Johnson||Arkansas||Head coach||1996–1999||2020|
|George Young||Bucknell||Director of Personnel and Pro Scouting||1975–1978||2020|
The Miami Dolphins currently have three retired jersey numbers:
- No. 12 for Bob Griese, which was retired on a Monday Night Football broadcast in 1985.
- No. 13 for Dan Marino, which was retired on September 17, 2000, during halftime of the "Ravens @ Dolphins" game on Sunday Night Football .
- No. 39 for Larry Csonka, which was retired on December 9, 2002 (30th anniversary of Miami's "1972 Undefeated Team"), during halftime of the "Bears @ Dolphins" game on Monday Night Football .
Miami Dolphins retired numbers
Listed below are the individuals who have won the following NFL, Super Bowl, and Pro Bowl MVP awards, the Offensive and Defensive Rookie and Player of the Year awards, the Comeback Player of the Year winners, the winners of the prestigious NFL Walter Payton Man of the Year Award, and the winner of the Coach of the Year Award for the Miami Dolphins. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|NFL MVP winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1984||Dan Marino||QB|
|Super Bowl MVP winners|
|Super Bowl||Player||Position|
|VII||Jake Scott||S|
|VIII||Larry Csonka||FB|
|Pro Bowl MVP winners|
|Pro Bowl||Player||Position|
|1973||Garo Yepremian||K|
|2002||Ricky Williams||RB|
|2011||Brandon Marshall||WR|
|NFL Offensive Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1984||Dan Marino||QB|
|NFL Defensive Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1973||Dick Anderson||S|
|1983||Doug Betters||DE|
|2006||Jason Taylor||DE|
|NFL Comeback Player of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1972||Earl Morrall||QB|
|1979||Larry Csonka||FB|
|1994||Dan Marino||QB|
|2008||Chad Pennington||QB|
|NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1987||Troy Stradford||RB|
|NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1977||A. J. Duhe||LB|
|1994||Tim Bowens||DT|
|NFL Walter Payton Man of the Year winners|
|Season||Player||Position|
|1985||Dwight Stephenson||C|
|1998||Dan Marino||QB|
|2007||Jason Taylor||DE|
|NFL Coach of the Year winners|
|Season||Coach|
|1972||Don Shula|
The following are Miami Dolphins (players and/or coaches) who have been selected to an "All-Decade Team", or the NFL 100 All-Time Team by the Pro Football Hall of Fame selection committee. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|1970s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|—||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995|
|62||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979|
|66||Larry Little||G||1969–1980|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|40||Dick Anderson||S||1968–1977|
|1||Garo Yepremian||K||1970–1978|
|1980s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987|
|4||Reggie Roby||P||1983–1992|
|1990s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|78||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000|
|2000s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|99||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011|
|54||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|
|2010s All-Decade Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|93||Ndamukong Suh||DT||2015–2017|
|21||Frank Gore||RB||2018|
|NFL 100 All-Time Team selections|
|No.||Player||Position||Tenure|
|—||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987|
|13||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999|
|55||Junior Seau||LB||2003–2005|
Many former and current Miami Dolphins players have represented the franchise in the Pro Bowl (or the AFL All-Star Game). Below is a list of current or former players that play or have played for the Miami Dolphins that have been selected to at least five Pro Bowls. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
|Miami Dolphins Pro Bowl selections|
|No. of Pro Bowls||Player||Position||Tenure||Pro Bowl years|
|9||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999|| 1983–1987 |
1991–1992
1994–1995
|8||Bob Griese||QB||1967–1980|| 1967–1968 |
1970–1971
1973–1974
1977–1978
|7||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|| 1999–2003 |
2005–2006
|7||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000||1990–1996|
|6||Bob Kuechenberg||G||1970–1984|| 1974–1975 |
1977–1978
1982–1983
|6||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979||1973–1978|
|6||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011||2000, 2002, 2004–2007|
|5||Bob Baumhower||DT||1977–1986||1979, 1981–1984|
|5||Mark Clayton||WR||1983–1992||1984–1986, 1988, 1991|
|5||Larry Csonka||FB||1968–1974, 1979||1970–1974|
|5||Larry Little||G||1969–1980||1969, 1971–1974|
|5||John Offerdahl||LB||1986–1993||1986–1990|
|5||Jake Scott||S||1970–1975||1971–1975|
|5||Bill Stanfill||DE||1969–1976||1969, 1971–1974|
|5||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987||1983–1987|
|5||Cameron Wake||DE||2009–2018||2010, 2012–2014, 2016|
|5||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974||1970–1974|
In 2015, to commemorate the Miami Dolphins' 50th NFL season, the Dolphins organization announced through voting from the South Florida Media and Miami Dolphin fans the results of the 50 greatest players in Miami Dolphins franchise history. The results were announced during halftime on Monday Night Football between the Dolphins and the Giants. Here are the 50 greatest Dolphins broken down by position. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. [36]
Offense:
The Miami Dolphins Honor Roll is a ring around the second tier of Hard Rock Stadium that honors former players, coaches, owners and contributors who have made significant contributions to the franchise throughout their history. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Each of these players is honored with a placard on the facing of the upper level around Hard Rock Stadium including team founder-owner Joe Robbie. In place of a jersey number, Shula has the number 347, representing his record number of NFL coaching victories, 274 of them as Dolphins head coach.
In 1992, at the 20 year anniversary, Miami's "1972 Undefeated Team" was enshrined into the Honor Roll. At the 40 year anniversary, which enshrined former defensive coordinator Bill Arnsparger into the Honor Roll, his name went on the Honor Roll where the "1972 Undefeated Team" inductee previously and originally was enshrined, and an updated "1972 Perfect Season Team 17–0" inductee was put into one corner of Hard Rock Stadium with special placards of Super Bowl VII and Super Bowl VIII included next to it on each side.
The inductees as of 2014 include:
|Miami Dolphins Honor Roll|
|No.||Name||Position(s)||Years with club||Inducted|
|—||Joe Robbie||Owner/founder||1966–1989||1990|
|39||Larry Csonka||FB||1968–1974, 1979|
|12||Bob Griese||QB||1967–1980|
|62||Jim Langer||C||1970–1979|
|42||Paul Warfield||WR||1970–1974|
|85||Nick Buoniconti||LB||1969–1974, 1976||1991|
|1972 Undefeated Team||1992|
|66||Larry Little||G||1969–1980||1993|
|57||Dwight Stephenson||C||1980–1987||1994|
|67||Bob Kuechenberg||G||1970–1984||1995|
|347||Don Shula||Head coach||1970–1995||1996|
|89||Nat Moore||WR||1974–1986||1999|
|13||Dan Marino||QB||1983–1999||2000|
|83||Mark Clayton||WR||1983–1992||2003|
|85||Mark Duper||WR||1982–1992|
|40||Dick Anderson||S||1968–1977||2006|
|78||Richmond Webb||OT||1990–2000|
|73||Bob Baumhower||DT||1977–1986||2008|
|75||Doug Betters||DE||1978–1987|
|13||Jake Scott||S||1970–1975||2010|
|84||Bill Stanfill||DE||1969–1976|
|88||Jim Mandich||TE /Radio Broadcaster||1970–1977 / 1992–2004, 2007–2010||2011|
|—||Bill Arnsparger||Defensive Coordinator|| 1970–1973 |
1976–1983
|2012|
| Super Bowl VII Team |
1972 Perfect Season Team 17–0
Super Bowl VIII Team
|UPDATED 1992 Inductee|
|99||Jason Taylor||DE||1997–2007, 2009, 2011|
|54||Zach Thomas||LB||1996–2007|
|56||John Offerdahl||LB||1986–1993||2013|
|75||Manny Fernandez||DT||1968–1975||2014|
The Joe Robbie Alumni Plaza Walk of Fame was first established in 2011, designed to be all-encompassing and recognize the best of the Miami Dolphins alumni, including those in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Honor Roll, and as well as the many other players who were among the unsung heroes and community leaders that the organization has produced. The "Walk of Fame" is located at the north end of Hard Rock Stadium, with a life-size bronze statue of Joe Robbie, the original founder and owner of the Miami Dolphins from 1966 to 1989. Bold indicates those elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The inductees as of 2018 (by yearly class) are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Dolphins | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Dolphins Super Bowl history: When is the last time Miami made it to, won the Super Bowl? - NBC Sports | After finishing 9-8 last season, the Miami Dolphins clinched the final AFC Wild Card spot with an 11-6 win over the New York Jets in Week 18 . With new head coach Mike McDaniel leading the charge, the Dolphins hope to win their first Super Bowl since 1973. However, the team faces an uphill battle as the offense, built around 3rd-year QB Tua Tagovailoa –will have to continue to operate without its starter.
Tagovailoa last played on Christmas Day in the team’s Week 16 loss to the Packers and entered concussion protocol –for the second time this season–the following day. He is ruled out for Sunday and Skylar Thompson will prepare to start.
The Miami Dolphins have won the Super Bowl a total of 2 times in their 5 appearances.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
The Miami Dolphins have not made a Super Bowl appearance in 39 years.
The last time the Miami Dolphins hoisted up the Lombardi Trophy was in 1973 when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24-7 in Super Bowl VIII.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
- 1982 season: Lost Super Bowl XVII vs. the Washington Redskins, 27-17
- 1973 season: Won Super Bowl VIII vs. the Minnesota Vikings, 24-7
- 1972 season: Won Super Bowl VII vs. the Washington Redskins, 14-7
- 1971 seasons: Lost Super Bowl VI vs. the Dallas Cowboys, 24-3
- When : Sunday, February 12, 2023
- Where : State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona
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HOUSTON—Two big stories here when I landed from Vegas:
- Drafting a franchise quarterback.
- Paying franchise-quarterback draft capital to draft a defensive end.
There’s no other way to put it: After picking C.J. Stroud second overall, the Texans traded up nine slots, from 12 to three in the first round, to take Alabama defensive end Will Anderson . Houston GM Nick Caserio traded 12 and 34 this year and first- and third-round picks next year to just barely squeeze the trade into the NFL’s 10-minute window for the third pick. As I explain in the next item about Arizona’s draft, Houston could be picking very early next year—which will put a white hot spotlight of pressure on Anderson.
Caserio told me at NRG Stadium that Stroud was clearly the team’s target at two. He’d had some discussions with Cards GM Monti Ossenfort about possibly moving from 12 to three. “Then,” Caserio said, “it happened pretty quickly when they were on the clock.”
The deal got done and all parties notified, he said, with “close to a minute” left. So the Texans got a player they hope will be their franchise QB, and they got the best defensive player on their board. That is one heck of a night’s work. The price, of course, is denuding the 2024 draft when the Texans might wish they had two first-round picks and four in the first three rounds—instead of now just one first-round pick, one second- and no thirds.
But – and there is a big but – you should have been at the Texans’ facility in the basement of NRG Stadium late Friday afternoon, when Stroud and Anderson put on a show of humility and team-firstness that had to make Texans fans so weary of losing (a league-worst 11-38-1 in the last three years) happy for the first time since the Wild Card win over Buffalo three years ago.
Stroud and Anderson came with their families and made it clear they were all-in on going to a losing team after years of nothing but winning in college. Afterward, Stroud told me: “That’s what life is about, working to build something good. That’s what I’m here to help this team do. I’m ready for it.”
The Texans have asked Stroud to let the S-2 Test controversy go, but he got a couple last licks in on it. A player who played the way Stroud did—particularly in putting up 41 points in his superb final college game in the playoff against Georgia—is not a player who can’t process, or can’t ID a defense. I understand using every tool in the bag to analyze players before the draft, and I’d check out why Stroud scored low on the test. But to think it’s a good indicator of future failure—I mean, watch the games he’s played.
We stood in a hallway just off the Texans’ locker room for 12 minutes and I asked him about what he’s learned from the last three months.
“Humility is something I’m not afraid of,” Stroud said. “It’s something I’m accustomed to. This was all probably just a humble moment God wanted me to go through.
“ A lot of people haven’t played the sport, and I mean critics are gonna critique. For me I know the film speaks for itself. Everything that I’ve done in college, I’ve been very consistent. I think I’ve been one of the most consistent players in college football for the last two years. If you turn on the tape, you can see, you can answer the questions. But those who don’t understand tape might want to go to other things and analyze other things. They’re more than welcome to do such. But the people who are making the choices and the picks, they knew what I can do. They understood the IQ that I do have.
“I have a great memory when it comes to football,” Stroud added. “I feel like there’s different ways to be geniuses. You don’t just have to be book smart. You can be analytics smart. You can be numbers smart. You can be football smart. I really think that there’s different types of ways to be smart. That’s something that I pride myself on. And I am book smart. I did have over a 3.0 in college. I had over a 3.0 in high school. I know that I can think. I can process very, very fast. The film, you can see me going from first option to second and then back to one and then to three to four if I have to. I can check down. I can use my feet.
“But, you know, everything happens for a reason. I’m not upset. I’m actually blessed, I’m super blessed to be a Texan. Number two overall pick in the NFL draft, man. A little kid from the [California] Inland Empire. All smiles, man. I ain’t tripping about this.”
Good attitude to have. But at the same time, I could feel it: C.J. Stroud will remember this pre-draft process. And for the Texans, that bit of motivation will be a very good thing.
HENDERSON, Nev.—Just before noon on Thursday, hours before the start of the NFL Draft, Raiders coach Josh McDaniels popped into GM Dave Ziegler ’s office for one last bit of strategy talk. The team’s draft board had been set with finality Wednesday, after three months of debate. The Raiders, after conversations with teams above them about trading up from number seven in the first round, decided to stay in their slot, barring a surprise.
“What we need is for three quarterbacks to go before we pick,” McDaniels said.
It seemed logical, with Carolina going Bryce Young at number one and then Houston at two and Indianapolis at four and Seattle at five all in the QB market. But nothing in this draft after Carolina was a sure thing. All McDaniels and Ziegler knew was that these four non-QBs sat at the top of their board a short spiral away, graded closely:
But as Ziegler and McDaniels hashed it out, and McDaniels talked about the latest intel he’d heard about the top six (“I hope I’ll have something coming in on Houston at two, but Nick’s tight,” he said, referring to Texans GM/CIA agent Nick Caserio ), they realized they were just like the rest of America: They doubted Houston would pick a quarterback at two, they didn’t know which GM was fixing to pay a ransom to trade up with Arizona at three, they didn’t know which quarterback Indianapolis would choose at four, and they didn’t know if Seattle would go QB or best defensive weapon at five.
No surprise, all this mystery. This is the modern draft, where lips are no longer loose, where mock drafts are a mockery of reality. It sounds counterintuitive, but in the hours before the NFL Draft, the people running drafts for $6 billion franchises didn’t know much more than the rest of us. Ziegler and McDaniels did know by staying put—and they would get a phone call that surprised and tempted them minutes before their pick—they were not in control of their fate. They needed help. The Raiders needed two teams post-Carolina to pick passers in the next five picks. Likely. Not certain.
At 4:43 p.m. Pacific Time, Ziegler was on his way into the draft room, a large square conference room on the third floor of the Raiders’ facility six miles west of the Vegas Strip. He stopped by the floor-to-ceiling photograph of the man who lords over this franchise 12 years after his death, and Ziegler patted the photograph of Al Davis .
“Goosebumps,” Ziegler said. “I feel his presence every day.”
Then Ziegler—47, in gray suit, black Oxford shirt, no tie, white and black sneakers—entered the draft room, where 13 scouts, personnel people, one coach and one owner would plot the immediate future of Al Davis’ team. At 4:59 p.m., 11 minutes before the draft kicked off, owner Mark Davis slipped into the room, in his white satin Raiders jacket and stonewashed faded jeans.
“Gameday, baby!” Son of Al announced to the room.
Gameday, as Mark Davis said. “We’re still undefeated!” Davis said as Roger Goodell kicked off the draft. One wall taken up entirely with the draft board, ranking the players by position from top to bottom, on magnetic cards, the old-school way. One wall, controlled by pro personnel director Dwayne Joseph , with pick-by-pick order and team-by-team needs that change with every pick. One wall, which McDaniels, Ziegler, assistant GM Champ Kelly and Davis face, with three things: a big TV tuned to the draft, computerized pick-by-pick directly from the league, so it’s faster than what you see on TV, and a constantly updated list of trade discussions with draft-trade charts showing trade proposals broken down by a value chart.
Kelly, Ziegler (cell phone to his ear at least half of the evening), McDaniels, Davis, left to right in front of the room, in swivel chairs, able to look ahead at trade possibilities or back at the state of the draft board. Ziegler flitted from senior personnel adviser Shaun Herock to McDaniels to Davis to Kelly to director of football analytics David Christoff to senior national scouts DuJuan Daniels, Andy Dengler and Lenny McGill , having mostly hushed conversations.
5:18 p.m. PT: Panthers picked Young. “This is where the draft starts,” Ziegler, stating the obvious, said.
Four minutes later, the tinny voice from draft headquarters said, “Houston has made its pick. Arizona now on the clock.” All eyes turn to the board where the pick will show up first. C.J. Stroud , QB, Ohio State popped onto the screen. “Oooooh,” someone in the room said. Seven minutes passed. Arizona traded down to 12 with Houston. Big compensation: For this pick and a fourth- this year, the Texans gave the Colts the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks this year and their first- and third-round picks next year.
5:32 p.m.: Will Anderson to Houston at three. One Vegas target down.
5:33 p.m.: Ziegler on his cell, briefly. Ziegler to McDaniels in a hushed tone: “Arizona wants to trade back up.”
Ziegler and McDaniels stared at the trade-value board in the back of the room, analyzing trade possibilities—the values, plus or minus for the Raiders, based on the numerical values Ziegler assigns to each pick:
1-7 down to 1-12
Potential Counters
+177 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 4 th (109)
+68 ARI sends 2-33 and 6-213, LV gives back 3-100 and 4-109
+30 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 3-70
At 5:37 p.m., Anthony Richardson , the Florida quarterback, got picked by the Colts. The third quarterback was off the board. McDaniels beamed. He and Ziegler slapped hands. Now the Raiders were sure to get one of their four guys.
5:42 p.m.: Cards GM Monti Ossenfort called Ziegler. Hushed discussion, presumably exchanging potential offers for the pick. Then Ziegler and McDaniels huddled. Having the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks, to go along with the Raiders’ 38 th choice, would be tempting. “We could get [Oklahoma tackle Anton] Harrison at 12,” McDaniels said. The Raiders loved Harrison—not as much as Johnson, but enough maybe to lose the fourth non-QB they love in order to pick up the 33 rd pick. They mulled.
The phone went cold for a few minutes. Seemed obvious Ossenfort wanted Paris Johnson . He had to be dealing with Detroit, trying to get ahead of Vegas to ensure getting Johnson. Smart move by Ossenfort, choosing not to close a deal for the seventh pick and instead dealing for the sixth–ensuring that the Cards would get the tackle they wanted.
5:47 p.m.: Witherspoon to Seattle at five. Detroit up. No action on Ziegler’s phone. Not surprising. Arizona was targeting Johnson.
5:50 p.m.: Tinny voice from Draft HQ: “Detroit has traded its pick to Arizona. Arizona is on the clock.” For Vegas, there goes day-one starting right tackle Paris Johnson.
5:54 p.m. Paris Johnson to Arizona. “Las Vegas is on the clock,” tinny voice says.
So no real drama. The plan was preordained. There was no real debate now, no discussion about moving. Only this:
5:58 p.m.: “Tyree, this is coach McDaniels. We’re gonna turn the pick in here, and you’re gonna be a Raider.”
In a lull in front of the room, McDaniels said quietly: “Our board was right. We needed three quarterbacks to go, and we’re so happy we got one of the four non-quarterbacks who were our top-rated guys on the board. Look, we gotta rush the passer. We gotta go get [ Patrick] Mahomes and [ Justin] Herbert . That’s four games a year for the next few years against these great young quarterbacks. And the AFC is full of these great young quarterbacks. This is a great outcome for us.”
This is the draft. The Raiders needed long-term help opposite Maxx Crosby (edge player Chandler Jones is 33), and Anderson or Wilson would have been great. Witherspoon would have been great to add to a needy secondary. Johnson would have been great to bookend Kolton Miller . It’s capricious. The choice wasn’t up to Ziegler; other teams decided for him. But the vibe in the room, the smiles, showed this staff loves Wilson, even with the foot injury that made him an iffy candidate to some teams.
In his office 20 minutes later, McDaniels waited to be connected to Wilson to converse. “I mean, hallelujah,” McDaniels said. “His motivation, his drive, how he handles adversity … off the charts. We value the TAP test (a test in the pre-draft process that measures mental toughness, drive and composure under pressure), and Tyree got one of the highest grades on it, a Green plus-plus. He’ll fit in great here.”
McDaniels’ football ops guy, Tom Jones , walked in with a phone. Wilson. “Tyree, welcome to the nation,” McDaniels said. “Dude, I am so excited you’re a Raider. I know you’re gonna help us win a lot of games. So, just wanted to touch base on a few things. You’re gonna talk to the media here in a bit. Wanted to give you a few points. Be humble, which you are. Stay away from predictions—that way, you won’t have to eat them later. Don’t talk about timelines with your foot. You don’t want your draft story to be all about your foot. Now, you got a fan base that’s second to none. They’re gonna love you. Just express how excited you—which I know you are.”
Back in the Raiders draft room, after pick 19, Ziegler said, “Josh, you wanna look at trades?” On the board were four players with similar grades: Georgia defensive end Nolan Smith , Maryland corner Deonte Banks , Harrison the Oklahoma tackle, and Arkansas linebacker Drew Sanders . Close to them: Notre Dame tight end Michael Mayer .
But there wasn’t much enthusiasm to deal after Banks and Harrison went off the board. Ziegler made a couple of calls about moving up to fill a hole left by the trade of tight end Darren Waller with Mayer, but never got far—or appeared enthusiastic to do it.
7:36 p.m.: Crosby sent a video message to Wilson, and in the draft room, Ziegler had it and he showed it to McDaniels and Davis on his phone. The tenor of the message: Congrats, Tyree. Now, time to go work, son. “Love it,” McDaniels said.
There are lulls in all drafts, and after Banks and Harrison went at 24 and 27, this was the Raider lull. Davis kept things interesting. When the TV showed a crestfallen Will Levis , undrafted, still in the green room in Kansas City, he said: “Someone should tell him careers are not made on draft day. Tell him this happened to Aaron Rodgers too.” And when he looked up and saw speedy Jalin Hyatt , the wide receiver, still on the board with a high Raider grade, Davis said to McDaniels: “Too bad we don’t have a need at receiver. Can he run?”
“Like the wind,” McDaniels said.
Davis started laughing, like he could sense Ziegler and McDaniels did not want him to start lobbying for the best speed receiver in the draft.
“It’s part of my DNA,” Davis said. “I see a fast receiver, I want him. I can’t help it.” Spoken like his father’s son.
As the round wound down, quietly, I asked Davis what he thought of Ziegler and McDaniels, the ex-Pats, entering year two of their regime. “I like ‘em,” he said. “When we hired them, everybody thought we were trying to re-create the Patriots. That wasn’t it. I was trying to find two great football men. Now, this is their chance to build something. They’re young, they love football, and I’m thrilled with them. It’s a huge weekend for them.
“My dad’s drafts were different—a lot more tense.”
“The tense conversations were already had,” McDaniels said later. “We had them in the last six weeks. We ended up with the board where we all felt it needed to be.”
8:30 p.m.: Two picks left, including Kansas City at 31. Mayer on the mind in the draft room. “If KC comes back to us,” Ziegler said, “wanna do it?”
“Yes,” said McDaniels.
“Best tight end in the draft,” Kelly said.
Short conversation with KC. “Not gonna work,” Ziegler said. KC would have given 31 and 217 (sixth round) for 38 and 70, a net on the points chart of minus-147. “Too many players we like,” Ziegler said. (Ziegler, on Friday, traded from 38 to 35 with the Colts to snag Mayer, the tight end Vegas wanted above all.)
An hour after the round ended, McDaniels and Ziegler unwound in the draft room. Wilson underwent surgery by the top athletic foot surgeon in the field, Dr. Robert Anderson, to repair a fracture last Nov. 21. Six weeks ago, Anderson sent a letter to each team, saying Wilson has responded “extremely well” to surgery. The Raiders expect Wilson to be ready to play this season on schedule. “Our doctors ultimately felt like it was something that we were going to be okay with,” Ziegler said. “If we wouldn’t have felt comfortable with it, we wouldn’t have [picked Wilson].”
In all, the needy Raiders, trying to rebound from a few years of failed top picks, got two likely starters out of the draft—Wilson and Mayer. After that, it’s up in the air, as all drafts are. The Raiders got their presumptive backup to Jimmy Garoppolo , Aidan O’Connell , in the middle of the fourth round—about two rounds earlier than the consensus of where he deserved to go. They got a speed cornerback, Banks’ teammate Jakorian Bennett , with pick 104, and the Raiders hope he plays early.
Mel Kiper, for one, liked the first two picks but the others, not so much. After the top two, Kiper said, “I don’t see value with the rest of this class.”
That’s why they play the games. In three years, we’ll see if Ziegler picked right in the NFL’s 88 th draft. | https://sports.nbcsports.com/2023/01/11/dolphins-super-bowl-history-when-is-the-last-time-miami-made-it-to-won-the-super-bowl/ | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Miami Dolphins Playoff History: Wins, Super Bowl Appearances, and More | The Miami Dolphins led some of the greatest postseason runs in NFL history, but the last few decades haven't been so rosy for the South Florida franchise.
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Miami Dolphins playoff history is among the most storied across NFL teams. It includes records that haven’t been broken in over 50 years, highly memorable moments, and gaffes that live in South Florida infamy. Today, we dive deep into the Dolphins’ postseason chronicles.
*We’ll only consider appearances from the 1970 merger onward.
- 2016
- Wild Card: Lost 12-30 @ Steelers
- 2008
- Wild Card: Lost 9-27 vs. Ravens
- 2001
- Wild Card: Lost 3-20 vs. Ravens
- 2000
- Wild Card: Won 23-17 (OT) vs. Colts
- Divisional Round: Lost 0-27 @ Raiders
- 1999
- Wild Card: Won 20-17 @ Seahawks
- Divisional Round: Lost 7-62 @ Jaguars
- 1998
- Wild Card: Won 24-17 vs. Bills
- Divisional Round: Lost 3-38 @ Broncos
- 1997
- Wild Card: Lost 3-17 @ Patriots
- 1995
- Wild Card: Lost 22-37 @ Bills
- 1994
- Wild Card: Won 27-17 vs. Chiefs
- Divisional Round: Lost 21-22 @ Chargers
- 1992
- Divisional Round: Won 31-0 vs. Chargers
- Conference Championship: Lost 10-29 vs. Bills
- 1990
- Wild Card: Won 17-16 vs. Chiefs
- Divisional Round: Lost 34-44 @ Bills
- 1985
- Divisional Round: Won 24-21 vs. Browns
- Conference Championship: Lost 14-31 vs. Patriots
- 1984
- Divisional Round: Won 31-10 vs. Seahawks
- Conference Championship: Won 45-28 vs. Steelers
- Super Bowl: Lost 16-38 vs. 49ers
- 1983
- Divisional Round: Lost 20-27 vs. Seahawks
- 1982
- Wild Card: Won 28-13 vs. Patriots
- Divisional Round: Won 34-13 vs. Chargers
- Conference Championship: Won 14-0 vs. Jets
- Super Bowl: Lost 17-27 vs. Redskins
- 1981
- Divisional Round: Lost 38-41 (OT) vs. Chargers
- 1979
- Divisional Round: Lost 14-34 @ Steelers
- 1978
- Wild Card: Lost 9-17 vs. Oilers
- 1974
- Divisional Round: Lost 26-28 @ Raiders
- 1973
- Divisional Round: Won 34-16 vs. Bengals
- Conference Championship: Won 27-10 vs. Raiders
- Super Bowl: Won 24-17 vs. Vikings
- 1972
- Divisional Round: Won 20-14 vs. Browns
- Conference Championship: Won 21-17 @ Steelers
- Super Bowl: Won 14-7 vs. Redskins
- 1971
- Divisional Round: Won 27-24 (OT) @ Chiefs
- Conference Championship: Won 21-0 vs. Colts
- Super Bowl: Lost 3-24 vs. Cowboys
- 1970
- Divisional Round: Lost 14-21 @ Raiders
The Dolphins’ playoff history includes several runs of dominance followed by dry spells that rival those of the most downtrodden teams in league lore. Let’s break down some of the most notable moments.
The Dolphins are just under .500 all-time in the playoffs. Not counting Miami’s 2022-2023 season playoff appearance, the team has a 20-21 record across 41 postseason contests.
The Dolphins have been to the playoffs 23 times. Miami’s most dominant runs of regular-season football came in the 1970s and 1990s when the team qualified for the playoffs a whopping seven times in each decade.
Conversely, the Dolphins have fared quite poorly in recent memory. In the 2000s and 2010s combined, Miami played meaningful January football just four times, as the Dolphins failed to qualify for the playoffs 16 of 20 times across those two decades. In those 20 years, the Dolphins had seven head coaches (not counting interim head coaches) and 21 starting quarterbacks.
Miami has represented the AFC in the Super Bowl five times. The Dolphins reached three consecutive Super Bowls across the 1971 (Dallas Cowboys), 1972 (Washington Redskins), and 1973 (Minnesota Vikings) seasons and played in the big game twice more in 1982 (Washington) and 1984 (San Francisco 49ers).
The Dolphins have hoisted the Lombardi Trophy two times in the team’s history, and the victories came in consecutive seasons.
In 1972, Miami achieved a perfect season and is the only team to have accomplished such a feat in the modern era. Including playoff games, Miami went an unblemished 17-0 and defeated Washington 14-7 in Super Bowl VII.
It was Miami’s running game and defense that won the day for the Dolphins. QB Bob Griese was efficient but mostly just managed the game, completing eight passes on 11 attempts for 88 yards, one touchdown, and an interception. Hall of Fame fullback Larry Csonka amassed 112 yards on just 15 carries, bulldozing Washington defenders all over the field.
Fellow ball carriers Jim Kiick and Mercury Morris added an additional 72 yards and one touchdown on the ground, as Miami held off Washington’s comeback attempt in the fourth quarter and kept its NFC foe to just seven points on the day.
Washington’s lone points came off of a 49-yard fumble return for a touchdown on special teams when, after picking up the football following a blocked field-goal attempt, Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian attempted a pass that fumbled out of his hands and was picked up by Washington’s Mike Bass, culminating in one of the most embarrassing (but ultimately inconsequential) gaffes in Dolphins history.
Legendary head coach Don Shula and the Dolphins won a second Super Bowl ring following the 1973 season, as the team clobbered the Vikings by a score of 24-7. Even less was needed from Griese in that game. He completed six of a measly seven pass attempts for 73 yards.
Csonka piled up 145 yards and two touchdowns on 33 attempts and was supported by another 44 yards on 18 attempts and one touchdown combined between Kiick and Morris. Miami’s defense held Minnesota to just seven points and 55 yards on the ground. Vikings QB Fran Tarkenton managed 182 yards through the air on top of a rushing score, but it wasn’t enough to keep Minnesota competitive.
Miami’s other three Super Bowl appearances have all resulted in double-digit defeats. Miami was defeated 24-3 by the Cowboys in 1971, 27-17 by Washington in 1982, and 38-16 by the 49ers in 1984.
The Dolphins last reached the Super Bowl in 1984, falling to the 49ers 38-16. That defeat constituted Hall of Fame QB Dan Marino’s lone Super Bowl appearance despite the run of dominance he led in the ’90s. Marino reached the AFC Championship twice more (1985, 1992), but each time was bested by an AFC East rival in the New England Patriots and Buffalo Bills, respectively.
Justin Hier is a writer and editor for Pro Football Network. You can read all of Justin’s work here and follow him on Twitter: @HierJustin . | https://www.profootballnetwork.com/miami-dolphins-playoff-history/ | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Dolphins Super Bowl history: When is the last time Miami made it to, won the Super Bowl? | After finishing 9-8 last season, the Miami Dolphins clinched the final AFC Wild Card spot with an 11-6 win over the New York Jets in Week 18. With new head coach Mike McDaniel leading the charge, the Dolphins hope to win their first Super Bowl since 1973. However, the team faces an uphill battle as the offense, built around 3rd-year QB Tua Tagovailoa –will have to continue to operate without its starter.
Tagovailoa last played on Christmas Day in the team’s Week 16 loss to the Packers and entered concussion protocol –for the second time this season–the following day. He is ruled out for Sunday and Skylar Thompson will prepare to start.
Super Bowl LVII takes place on Sunday, February 12 at State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. See below for the Dolphins Super Bowl history as well as additional information on how to watch the big game.
The Miami Dolphins have won the Super Bowl a total of 2 times in their 5 appearances.
1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers , 38-16
The Miami Dolphins have not made a Super Bowl appearance in 39 years.
The last time the Miami Dolphins hoisted up the Lombardi Trophy was in 1973 when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24-7 in Super Bowl VIII.
1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
1982 season: Lost Super Bowl XVII vs. the Washington Redskins, 27-17
1973 season: Won Super Bowl VIII vs. the Minnesota Vikings, 24-7
1972 season: Won Super Bowl VII vs. the Washington Redskins, 14-7
1971 seasons: Lost Super Bowl VI vs. the Dallas Cowboys , 24-3 | https://sports.yahoo.com/dolphins-super-bowl-history-last-173514939.html | 139 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | What Eats Polar Bears? [TOP 4 Polar Bear Predators] | Polar bears are some of the scariest and most dangerous animals in the whole animal kingdom. Due to their intimidating size, not many animals would dare to go after these hyper carnivores. But, there are a few.
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So what eats polar bears? Short answer?
Male polar bears. It may surprise you to learn that polar bears are their own worst enemy. Much of the eating of polar bears is done by the males, in different instances, and for various reasons. Unfortunately, females and cubs are most vulnerable to these attacks. However, besides their species, other polar bear predators include wolves, killer whales, and humans foremost.
As a species, adult bears do not have natural predators. They are both fearsome and aggressive in their hunting, and usually, they are the ones that hunt and not the other way around.
Additionally, given the sheer size of polar bears, and how immensely powerful they are, it is difficult to imagine any creature being able to successfully stalk, take down and consume an entire polar bear.
Surprisingly, there are a few animals that eat polar bears. Some of which may be even more surprising than polar bears preying on each other.
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Humans throughout history have actively hunted, killed, and eaten polar bears. Using the organs for traditional medicines, and other parts, such as teeth, claws, and fur for commercial purposes. Today, polar bears are typically hunted for their meat and clothing. ( source )
And even though the population of polar bears is vulnerable, in many places, these majestic creatures are legally hunted.
However, polar bears naturally are not afraid of humans. And even though truly man-eating bears are not common, of all bear species, polar bears are most likely to attack a person. Consequently, this makes them one of the most dangerous species to human beings.
As unlikely and odd as this seems for species to display cannibalistic behavior , male polar bears are quite notorious within their species. For a start, they habitually hunt and kill bear cubs. They particularly target cubs that are under one year of age.
Males are too large to get to the cubs within dens, but they will hunt cubs above the ice. Many times females, being half the size of the males, are no match for determined males.
Sometimes, even the female polar bears will eat their young. This, however, is not common practice and will occur only when the female is facing starvation.
Male polar bears will also eat female polar bears. A starved male will hunt a female polar bear, as it provides more nourishment than a cub would, comparatively.
Female polar bears with cubs occasionally fall prey to the males as they try to protect their young ones. If a female dies in the conflict, the male will consume the carcass.
Wolves are another species that eat polar bear cubs. Although this was not a practice among wolves, it would seem that this is beginning to change. There have been increased reports of wolves hunting polar bear cubs, particularly toward the end of July when they come onto land off the ice.
Wolves naturally hunt in packs and what has been observed is that some wolves will create a distraction around the mother bear, pulling her attention away from her cubs long enough to enable other members of the pack to snatch her cubs from her.
Unfortunately, when wolves are in large numbers, the female cannot react swiftly enough to protect her young.
Although wolves’ primary food sources include, deer, elk, caribou, and moose, there seem to be plenty around their habitat, it is now emerging that these hunts demonstrate that the wolves have added another species to their food source options in the form of polar bear cubs.
You May Also Like: What Eats Lions?
Another animal that eats polar bear cubs is the killer whale. In the absence of its mother, a polar bear cub sometimes find itself falling prey to a killer whale.
It would be rare that a female polar bear would leave her cubs unattended. However, with rapidly melting ice, sometimes cubs get stranded on the ice and get separated from their mothers.
And in such cases, a killer whale is around at such a moment it would drag the cub off the ice sheet into the water, just like it would a seal.
Killer whales are fearsome apex predators in the ocean, as equally as polar bears on land. However, they do not naturally prey on polar bears. Their diet consists mainly of a wide variety of marine mammals.
It has been speculated that, with the changes in climate that have caused many animal habitats to overlap, there may be a rise in conflict between these two species as they compete for food sources that are the same.
Polar bears have few techniques and adaptations that help them protect against predators. The primary way is nature’s given camouflage .
The white fur of polar bears makes it a little more difficult for a predator to see them against the arctic ice. This enables the bears to move around and hunt for food when they can.
Hiding is another way that polar bears protect themselves from harm. Females and cubs hide in dens built within the ice. These dens are designed in a way that leaves a very narrow opening that is too small for male polar bears to exit that can be used to getaway.
Polar bears do not hibernate fully. They fall into a mid-hibernation state from which they can quickly come out. This enables them to respond quickly to predators. So, although they are in a state of deep sleep, they are not entirely vulnerable.
And lastly, and most importantly, the first line of defense is their intimidating size . By being such powerful and large beasts, most wildlife would need to protect themselves from polar bears, and not the way around.
Polar bears are not afraid of anything. Their natural build makes them a self-confident species, in a manner of speaking. The males are very large, weighing between 900 – 1,600 lbs (the equivalent of 410 – 720 kg), growing to a length of 7.2 – 8.2 feet (2.2 – 2.5 m), and a height of about 5.3 feet (1.6 m) tall.
Polar bears are by design, killing machines. With claws that are sharp and strong enough to dig through the icy habitat, they can cripple any being with one strike.
Combined with powerful paws, these claws make for tools of death. Polar bears are not only a hunting species, they are also opportunistic feeders.
The hunting skills of polar bears are unparalleled. They will ambush seals near breathing holes or stalk them on the ice.
Polar bears will also dig out young seals from their snow shelters. Being excellent swimmers provides opportunities to also hunt in water, and they have been known to kill beluga whales.
Polar bears are apex predators, and due to their size and strength, adult ones do not have natural predators, except for humans. However, polar bear cubs are eaten by wolves, killer whales, and other polar bears.
Sadly, animals are not the main predators of polar bears. Global warming and melting of their icy habitat results in habitat loss which is the primary threat for these majestic creatures.
And that’s it. Thank you for reading the “what eats polar bears” article. If you liked this post, we would like to recommend you a similar read: What Eats Vultures? | https://wildexplained.com/what-eats-polar-bears/ | 140 |
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Ursus maritimus (“maritime bear”) was first described in 1774 by Constantine John Phipps. Inuit people call it Nanook, and Norwegian names are isbjørn (‘ice bear’) or kvitbjørn (‘white bear’).
The polar bear was once believed to be its own separate species, but recent evidence has shown that it is actually a hybrid of the brown bear. The accepted scientific name for the polar bear is now Ursus maritimus.
The polar bear is a large species of bear that is found inhabiting the ice fields in the Arctic Ocean. It is the biggest species of bear in the world (with the exception of the Kodiak brown bears found in Alaska, which can reach similar sizes), with males often weighing in at around 1300 pounds. Thought to be closely related to the brown bear , the polar bear’s name actually means “sea bear” as they are known to not just spend a great deal of time close to the coast but are also strong and capable swimmers that have been spotted up to 100 miles from the closest ice or land. They are, however, being devastatingly affected by global warming as the ice that they rely so heavily on is disappearing fast and has led to the polar bear becoming a strong symbol of the effects of climate change. Polar bear populations have also fallen across the Arctic Ocean due to hunting, pollution, and drilling for oil and gas, leading to them being as listed as a threatened species.
The Ursidae family has evolved over millions of years. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. This suggests that the polar bear diverged from a population of brown bears during the Pleistocene period when Siberia was covered by glaciers. It is believed that this isolation led to changes in the molar teeth of polar bears between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, which further differentiated them from their brown bear ancestors.
DNA analysis suggests polar bears diverged from brown bears, Ursus arctos, ~150k years ago. Some clades of brown bear mtDNA are closer to polar than other brown bears. Irish bear’s (now extinct) mtDNA is particularly close. Nuclear genome comparison revealed distinct clades ~603k years ago, but a recent complete genome analysis revised this date to 400k years ago.
However, the two species have mated intermittently for all that time, most likely coming into contact with each other during warming periods, when polar bears were driven onto land, and brown bears migrated northward. Most brown bears have about 2 percent genetic material from polar bears, but one population, the ABC Islands bears, has between 5 percent and 10 percent polar bear genes, indicating more frequent and recent mating.
Polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile hybrids, suggesting their genetic similarity persists despite morphological and behavioral differences. Thus, the two species remain classified as separate.
Adult polar bears are animals that typically measure more than six feet in length and weigh around half a ton. Females, though, are much lighter than their male counterparts, that are almost double their weight. Polar bears are one of the few large mammals found in such hostile conditions and have adapted well to their life on the ice. Their fur is thick and dense and is made up of a warm undercoat with longer guard hairs on top that are clear, hollow tubes that trap warmth from the sun and transmit it directly down to their black skin, which then absorbs the welcome heat. The polar bear is an animal with a strong and muscular body, broad front paws that help when paddling in the water, and fur on the bottom of its feet that not only helps to keep them warm but also gives the polar bear extra grip when moving about on the ice. They have very long necks in comparison to other bear species, which enables their head to remain above the water when swimming. They also have more elongated muzzles and smaller ears than their relatives.
The largest polar bear ever recorded weighed 2,209 pounds (1,002 kg)! It stood more than 11 feet tall on its high legs and was discovered in Alaska in 1960. While polar bears are the largest bear species, in documented altercations that pit polar bears vs. grizzly bears , it has normally been the grizzly that stands its ground while the polar bear flees.
Polar bears are animals that are found on the icy coasts that surround the North Pole and as far south as Hudson Bay. Around 60% of polar bears can be found in northern Canada, with the remaining individuals distributed throughout Greenland, Alaska, Svalbard, and Russia, where they tend to be found relatively close to the ocean, roaming vast distances across the ice fields. Polar bear populations have fallen drastically throughout their natural range, with the biggest threat to this enormous carnivore being global warming. Although polar bears are accustomed to seasonal changes in the Arctic Circle, the summer ice melt is happening earlier and more ferociously year by year, meaning that polar bears have less time to hunt on the ice before it disappears. Their precarious habitats are also affected severely by human encroachment in the forms of hunting, growing settlements, and the release of chemical pollutants into the water.
The polar bear is a solitary animal that can not only run at speeds of up to 25mph, but its strong ability to swim at 6mph makes it a true apex predator within its environment. These semi-aquatic mammals can hunt both on the ice and in the water and have been known to swim vast distances across the open ocean in search of food. Polar bears are able to dive under the water to catch their prey which they do by keeping their eyes open and holding their breath for up to two minutes. On land, they tend to hunt using two main techniques: they either stalk then chase their prey or sit waiting next to a breathing hole for up to many hours before ambushing the seal as it emerges. Eating seals is vital to the survival of the polar bear as they are able to provide it with a high-energy meal. During the short Arctic summer, however, polar bears are forced further north as the ice recedes when they have to feed on other animals further inland.
Polar bears tend to breed in the spring between April and May, with the gestation period then varying considerably (depending on the health of the female) due to a period of delayed implantation. Up to 9 months later, the female gives birth to between 1 and 4 cubs in a den that she has dug into the snow or ground. The cubs weigh just over one pound when they are newborns and are hairless, and cannot see. Females enter their dens towards the end of autumn and don’t emerge with their cubs until the harsh winter conditions have turned into spring. Although polar bear cubs begin eating solid food when they are around 5 months old, they are not weaned until they are between two and three. Cubs are known to commonly play-fight with other cubs, which involves wrestling and chasing, along with baring their teeth and even biting one another, but without causing harm. These games are critical for polar bear cubs to learn how to fight and therefore defend themselves successfully once they leave their mother and live on their own.
The polar bear is the largest carnivorous mammal on land and must hunt regularly to ensure that it is well-fed and maintains its insulating layer of fat to keep it warm. The skins and blubber of ringed seals make up the bulk of the polar bears’ diet as they often leave the remaining meat, which provides an important source of food for other animals, such as arctic foxes. Although seals are their primary source of food, polar bears also eat birds, berries, fish, and reindeer (particularly during the trickier summer months), along with the occasional walrus. The carcasses from large marine mammals, including seals, walruses, and even whales, also provide a regular food source for polar bears that are said to have such a good sense of smell that they are able to sniff them out from a considerable distance away. Polar bears are also known to break into underground seal dens to hunt the pups inside them.
Due to the fact that the polar bear is an enormous and ferocious predator, there are no animals that prey on them in their surrounding environment. They tend to have the most trouble with other polar bears, and females will protect their cubs fiercely from males that may be trying to harm them. Humans are by far the biggest threat to the dwindling polar bear population numbers as they have greedily hunted them from their arrival in the Arctic Ocean in the 1600s until the mid-1970s when international hunting bans fell into place. Along with the receding ice fields that are crucial to the survival of the polar bear caused by climate change, they are also heavily affected by drilling for oil and gas, increased shipping activity, and rising levels of industrial chemicals that pollute the water. The polar bear has a relatively slow rate of reproduction which means that populations are not only shrinking rapidly, but they are not growing quickly enough to sustain themselves. Some experts claim that the polar bear could be extinct from the wild in the next 30 years.
Before the harsh winter conditions have fully arrived, female polar bears dig themselves a den in the snow where they hibernate through these hostile months (and where they give birth to their cubs) and only emerge in the spring. These dens are known to be up to forty degrees warmer than the outside, but males seem to prefer to be active all year round. Polar bears have a layer of blubber under their skin which can be up to 4 inches thick and helps to keep them warm. They are, in fact, so well insulated that polar bears must move slowly for the majority of the time so that they don’t overheat. Polar bears shed their fur in the summer, meaning that they seem at their whitest at the beginning of autumn. By the spring, their coats appear to be more yellow in color, which is something thought to be partially due to the oils found in seal skins.
Before the 1600s, when the European, Russian and American hunters arrived in the heart of the Arctic Circle, only native people really knew anything about them. Polar bears were mercilessly hunted until 1973, when an international agreement put an end to such uncontrolled hunting. Even today, native people are still allowed to hunt the polar bear for traditional uses, but the biggest threat to polar bears is the rapidly melting ice shelf. Global warming caused by people is thought to be reducing so quickly, in fact, that some say that their southern limit of Hudson Bay will have no ice at all by 2080. Polar Bears are known to be aggressive towards humans, with reported attacks still occurring, including the most recent and famous incident in Svalbard, when a number of teenagers and their expedition leaders were attacked by a polar bear in their camp.
Today, the polar bear has been listed on the IUCN Red List as a species that is Vulnerable in its natural environment. Although international hunting bans have prevented such a high level of hunting, conservation efforts within the Arctic Circle prove to be hard, with the one thing that the polar bear actually needs to survive disappearing more every year. Increased levels of industrial activity in their natural environment also cause declines in the quality of their remaining habitats. There are estimated to be between 20,000 – 25,000 polar bears left roaming close to the North Pole, with the majority of these found in northern Canada.
There are only one species of the polar bear . However, there are eight total species of bears. The eight species of bears that are currently extant on the planet today include the American black bear, the Asiatic black bear , the brown bear, the polar bear, the sloth bear, the sun bear, the spectacled bear, and the giant panda. These bears can be found in a wide variety of habitats throughout North America and Europe, as well as parts of South America and Asia. Bears are characterized by their bulky bodies with short legs, long snouts for sniffing out food sources or potential mates, and small rounded ears to better detect predators or nearby prey sources.
Additionally, they have thick fur coats, which help them keep warm in cold climates such as those inhabited by polar bears who live almost exclusively on sheets of ice year-round. All modern species also possess paws with five nonretractile claws, which come in handy when climbing trees or digging up roots while searching for food during hibernation season. Finally, all modern-day species have a distinctive short tail used primarily for balance while walking or running. | https://a-z-animals.com/animals/polar-bear/ | 140 |
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Ursus maritimus (“maritime bear”) was first described in 1774 by Constantine John Phipps. Inuit people call it Nanook, and Norwegian names are isbjørn (‘ice bear’) or kvitbjørn (‘white bear’).
The polar bear was once believed to be its own separate species, but recent evidence has shown that it is actually a hybrid of the brown bear. The accepted scientific name for the polar bear is now Ursus maritimus.
The polar bear is a large species of bear that is found inhabiting the ice fields in the Arctic Ocean. It is the biggest species of bear in the world (with the exception of the Kodiak brown bears found in Alaska, which can reach similar sizes), with males often weighing in at around 1300 pounds. Thought to be closely related to the brown bear , the polar bear’s name actually means “sea bear” as they are known to not just spend a great deal of time close to the coast but are also strong and capable swimmers that have been spotted up to 100 miles from the closest ice or land. They are, however, being devastatingly affected by global warming as the ice that they rely so heavily on is disappearing fast and has led to the polar bear becoming a strong symbol of the effects of climate change. Polar bear populations have also fallen across the Arctic Ocean due to hunting, pollution, and drilling for oil and gas, leading to them being as listed as a threatened species.
The Ursidae family has evolved over millions of years. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. This suggests that the polar bear diverged from a population of brown bears during the Pleistocene period when Siberia was covered by glaciers. It is believed that this isolation led to changes in the molar teeth of polar bears between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, which further differentiated them from their brown bear ancestors.
DNA analysis suggests polar bears diverged from brown bears, Ursus arctos, ~150k years ago. Some clades of brown bear mtDNA are closer to polar than other brown bears. Irish bear’s (now extinct) mtDNA is particularly close. Nuclear genome comparison revealed distinct clades ~603k years ago, but a recent complete genome analysis revised this date to 400k years ago.
However, the two species have mated intermittently for all that time, most likely coming into contact with each other during warming periods, when polar bears were driven onto land, and brown bears migrated northward. Most brown bears have about 2 percent genetic material from polar bears, but one population, the ABC Islands bears, has between 5 percent and 10 percent polar bear genes, indicating more frequent and recent mating.
Polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile hybrids, suggesting their genetic similarity persists despite morphological and behavioral differences. Thus, the two species remain classified as separate.
Adult polar bears are animals that typically measure more than six feet in length and weigh around half a ton. Females, though, are much lighter than their male counterparts, that are almost double their weight. Polar bears are one of the few large mammals found in such hostile conditions and have adapted well to their life on the ice. Their fur is thick and dense and is made up of a warm undercoat with longer guard hairs on top that are clear, hollow tubes that trap warmth from the sun and transmit it directly down to their black skin, which then absorbs the welcome heat. The polar bear is an animal with a strong and muscular body, broad front paws that help when paddling in the water, and fur on the bottom of its feet that not only helps to keep them warm but also gives the polar bear extra grip when moving about on the ice. They have very long necks in comparison to other bear species, which enables their head to remain above the water when swimming. They also have more elongated muzzles and smaller ears than their relatives.
The largest polar bear ever recorded weighed 2,209 pounds (1,002 kg)! It stood more than 11 feet tall on its high legs and was discovered in Alaska in 1960. While polar bears are the largest bear species, in documented altercations that pit polar bears vs. grizzly bears , it has normally been the grizzly that stands its ground while the polar bear flees.
Polar bears are animals that are found on the icy coasts that surround the North Pole and as far south as Hudson Bay. Around 60% of polar bears can be found in northern Canada, with the remaining individuals distributed throughout Greenland, Alaska, Svalbard, and Russia, where they tend to be found relatively close to the ocean, roaming vast distances across the ice fields. Polar bear populations have fallen drastically throughout their natural range, with the biggest threat to this enormous carnivore being global warming. Although polar bears are accustomed to seasonal changes in the Arctic Circle, the summer ice melt is happening earlier and more ferociously year by year, meaning that polar bears have less time to hunt on the ice before it disappears. Their precarious habitats are also affected severely by human encroachment in the forms of hunting, growing settlements, and the release of chemical pollutants into the water.
The polar bear is a solitary animal that can not only run at speeds of up to 25mph, but its strong ability to swim at 6mph makes it a true apex predator within its environment. These semi-aquatic mammals can hunt both on the ice and in the water and have been known to swim vast distances across the open ocean in search of food. Polar bears are able to dive under the water to catch their prey which they do by keeping their eyes open and holding their breath for up to two minutes. On land, they tend to hunt using two main techniques: they either stalk then chase their prey or sit waiting next to a breathing hole for up to many hours before ambushing the seal as it emerges. Eating seals is vital to the survival of the polar bear as they are able to provide it with a high-energy meal. During the short Arctic summer, however, polar bears are forced further north as the ice recedes when they have to feed on other animals further inland.
Polar bears tend to breed in the spring between April and May, with the gestation period then varying considerably (depending on the health of the female) due to a period of delayed implantation. Up to 9 months later, the female gives birth to between 1 and 4 cubs in a den that she has dug into the snow or ground. The cubs weigh just over one pound when they are newborns and are hairless, and cannot see. Females enter their dens towards the end of autumn and don’t emerge with their cubs until the harsh winter conditions have turned into spring. Although polar bear cubs begin eating solid food when they are around 5 months old, they are not weaned until they are between two and three. Cubs are known to commonly play-fight with other cubs, which involves wrestling and chasing, along with baring their teeth and even biting one another, but without causing harm. These games are critical for polar bear cubs to learn how to fight and therefore defend themselves successfully once they leave their mother and live on their own.
The polar bear is the largest carnivorous mammal on land and must hunt regularly to ensure that it is well-fed and maintains its insulating layer of fat to keep it warm. The skins and blubber of ringed seals make up the bulk of the polar bears’ diet as they often leave the remaining meat, which provides an important source of food for other animals, such as arctic foxes. Although seals are their primary source of food, polar bears also eat birds, berries, fish, and reindeer (particularly during the trickier summer months), along with the occasional walrus. The carcasses from large marine mammals, including seals, walruses, and even whales, also provide a regular food source for polar bears that are said to have such a good sense of smell that they are able to sniff them out from a considerable distance away. Polar bears are also known to break into underground seal dens to hunt the pups inside them.
Due to the fact that the polar bear is an enormous and ferocious predator, there are no animals that prey on them in their surrounding environment. They tend to have the most trouble with other polar bears, and females will protect their cubs fiercely from males that may be trying to harm them. Humans are by far the biggest threat to the dwindling polar bear population numbers as they have greedily hunted them from their arrival in the Arctic Ocean in the 1600s until the mid-1970s when international hunting bans fell into place. Along with the receding ice fields that are crucial to the survival of the polar bear caused by climate change, they are also heavily affected by drilling for oil and gas, increased shipping activity, and rising levels of industrial chemicals that pollute the water. The polar bear has a relatively slow rate of reproduction which means that populations are not only shrinking rapidly, but they are not growing quickly enough to sustain themselves. Some experts claim that the polar bear could be extinct from the wild in the next 30 years.
Before the harsh winter conditions have fully arrived, female polar bears dig themselves a den in the snow where they hibernate through these hostile months (and where they give birth to their cubs) and only emerge in the spring. These dens are known to be up to forty degrees warmer than the outside, but males seem to prefer to be active all year round. Polar bears have a layer of blubber under their skin which can be up to 4 inches thick and helps to keep them warm. They are, in fact, so well insulated that polar bears must move slowly for the majority of the time so that they don’t overheat. Polar bears shed their fur in the summer, meaning that they seem at their whitest at the beginning of autumn. By the spring, their coats appear to be more yellow in color, which is something thought to be partially due to the oils found in seal skins.
Before the 1600s, when the European, Russian and American hunters arrived in the heart of the Arctic Circle, only native people really knew anything about them. Polar bears were mercilessly hunted until 1973, when an international agreement put an end to such uncontrolled hunting. Even today, native people are still allowed to hunt the polar bear for traditional uses, but the biggest threat to polar bears is the rapidly melting ice shelf. Global warming caused by people is thought to be reducing so quickly, in fact, that some say that their southern limit of Hudson Bay will have no ice at all by 2080. Polar Bears are known to be aggressive towards humans, with reported attacks still occurring, including the most recent and famous incident in Svalbard, when a number of teenagers and their expedition leaders were attacked by a polar bear in their camp.
Today, the polar bear has been listed on the IUCN Red List as a species that is Vulnerable in its natural environment. Although international hunting bans have prevented such a high level of hunting, conservation efforts within the Arctic Circle prove to be hard, with the one thing that the polar bear actually needs to survive disappearing more every year. Increased levels of industrial activity in their natural environment also cause declines in the quality of their remaining habitats. There are estimated to be between 20,000 – 25,000 polar bears left roaming close to the North Pole, with the majority of these found in northern Canada.
There are only one species of the polar bear . However, there are eight total species of bears. The eight species of bears that are currently extant on the planet today include the American black bear, the Asiatic black bear , the brown bear, the polar bear, the sloth bear, the sun bear, the spectacled bear, and the giant panda. These bears can be found in a wide variety of habitats throughout North America and Europe, as well as parts of South America and Asia. Bears are characterized by their bulky bodies with short legs, long snouts for sniffing out food sources or potential mates, and small rounded ears to better detect predators or nearby prey sources.
Additionally, they have thick fur coats, which help them keep warm in cold climates such as those inhabited by polar bears who live almost exclusively on sheets of ice year-round. All modern species also possess paws with five nonretractile claws, which come in handy when climbing trees or digging up roots while searching for food during hibernation season. Finally, all modern-day species have a distinctive short tail used primarily for balance while walking or running. | https://a-z-animals.com/animals/polar-bear/ | 140 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | Is a polar bear predator or prey? – Wise-Answer | Polar bears are aggressive predators, known for taking a variety of prey. They spend most of the year associated with Arctic sea ice, where they hunt ringed seal and bearded seal pups. Polar bears have an excellent sense of smell and can locate pups even when they are buried in snow dens.
What is a bear called in a food chain? Some organisms’ position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For example, when a bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary consumer.
Is a polar bear a herbivore carnivore or omnivore?
Unlike other bear species, polar bears are almost exclusively meat eaters (carnivorous). They mainly eat ringed seals, but may also eat bearded seals. Polar bears hunt seals by waiting for them to come to the surface of sea ice to breathe.
Bears. Polar bears, particularly young and undernourished ones, will hunt people for food. Unlike female bears, motivated to attack humans to protect cubs, male black bears actually prey on humans, viewing them as a potential food source.
Since Polar Bears find themselves at the very top of the food chain out there, they don’t have many natural predators at all. Ironically, the only one they have to fear in their natural environment is their own kind.
Who are the top predators in the world?
For every top predator in the world whether it is a tiger, lion, shark or polar bear there is always one predator that has been hunting and killing them all. This common predator of top predators is human. Polar Bears are not part of normal human diet yet humans have been hunting polar bears for centuries.
The polar bear is the largest terrestrial predator in the Arctic, but it is formidable on land, on the ice surface, and in the water. It is closely related to the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and may actually be a subspecies of that bear.
Polar bears are known to kill and sometimes eat their own kind. They do this when times are tough and they are unable to find food. Polar bears will also fight and kill each other when two males are fighting for a female to mate. A strong male polar bear usually kills a female polar bear or cubs to eat them. | https://wise-answer.com/is-a-polar-bear-predator-or-prey/ | 140 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | Polar bear | Description, Habitat, & Facts | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Top Questions
What is a polar bear?
What do polar bears eat?
What are some examples of polar bear adaptations?
Are polar bears an endangered species?
polar bear , ( Ursus maritimus ), also called white bear , sea bear , or ice bear , great white northern bear (family Ursidae) found throughout the Arctic region. The polar bear travels long distances over vast desolate expanses, generally on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, its primary prey. The polar bear is the largest and most powerful carnivore on land, a title it shares with a subspecies of brown bear called the Kodiak bear . It has no natural predators and knows no fear of humans, making it an extremely dangerous animal .
Polar bears are stocky, with a long neck, relatively small head, short, rounded ears, and a short tail. The male, which is much larger than the female, weighs 410 to 720 kg (900 to 1,600 pounds). It grows to about 1.6 metres (5.3 feet) tall at the shoulder and 2.2–2.5 metres in length. The tail is 7–12 cm (3–5 inches) long. Sunlight can pass through the thick fur, its heat being absorbed by the bear’s black skin. Under the skin is a layer of insulating fat. The broad feet have hairy soles to protect and insulate as well as to facilitate movement across ice, as does the uneven skin on the soles of the feet, which helps to prevent slipping. Strong, sharp claws are also important for gaining traction, for digging through ice, and for killing prey.
Polar bears are solitary and overwhelmingly carnivorous, feeding especially on the ringed seal but also on the bearded seal and other pinnipeds . The bear stalks seals resting on the ice, ambushes them near breathing holes, and digs young seals from snow shelters where they are born. Polar bears prefer ice that is subject to periodic fracturing by wind and sea currents, because these fractures offer seals access to both air and water. As their prey is aquatic, polar bears are excellent swimmers, and they are even known to kill beluga whales . In swimming , the polar bear uses only its front limbs, an aquatic adaptation found in no other four-legged mammal . Polar bears are opportunistic as well as predatory: they will consume dead fish and carcasses of stranded whales and eat garbage near human settlements.
Mating occurs in spring, and implantation of the fertilized ovum is delayed. Including the delay, gestation may last 195–265 days, and one to four cubs, usually two, are born during the winter in a den of ice or snow. Cubs weigh less than 1 kg at birth and are not weaned until after they are two years old. Young polar bears may die of starvation or may be killed by adult males, and for this reason female polar bears are extremely defensive of their young when adult males are present. Young remain with their mothers until they reach sexual maturity. Females first reproduce at four to eight years of age and breed every two to four years thereafter. Males mature at about the same age as females but do not breed until a few years later. Adult polar bears have no natural predators, though walruses and wolves can kill them. Longevity in the wild is 25 to 30 years, but in captivity several polar bears have lived to more than 35 years old.
Humans probably cause most polar bear deaths, by hunting and by destroying problem animals near settlements. Polar bears have been known to kill people. The bears are hunted especially by Inuit people for their hides, tendons, fat, and flesh. Although polar bear meat is consumed by indigenous people, the liver is inedible and often poisonous because of its high vitamin A content.
An estimated 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears were living in the wild by 2020. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified the polar bear as a vulnerable species since 2006, and the U.S. government has listed the polar bear as a threatened species since 2008, in large part because of the influence of global warming , which continues to reduce Arctic sea ice coverage. Sea ice is prime habitat for polar bears. Population models have predicted increased rates of starvation as a result of longer ice-free seasons and a decline in mating success, since sea ice fragmentation could reduce encounter rates between males and females. Ecological studies show evidence that declines in sea ice coverage have forced polar bears to spend more time foraging for berries and seabird eggs, which are lower-quality foods that require greater effort to obtain. Given the compounding threats to the species, model forecasts suggest that polar bear populations will have declined by one-third by the year 2050.
Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. | https://www.britannica.com/animal/polar-bear | 140 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | Is a polar bear predator or prey? – Wise-Answer | Polar bears are aggressive predators, known for taking a variety of prey. They spend most of the year associated with Arctic sea ice, where they hunt ringed seal and bearded seal pups. Polar bears have an excellent sense of smell and can locate pups even when they are buried in snow dens.
What is a bear called in a food chain? Some organisms’ position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For example, when a bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary consumer.
Is a polar bear a herbivore carnivore or omnivore?
Unlike other bear species, polar bears are almost exclusively meat eaters (carnivorous). They mainly eat ringed seals, but may also eat bearded seals. Polar bears hunt seals by waiting for them to come to the surface of sea ice to breathe.
Bears. Polar bears, particularly young and undernourished ones, will hunt people for food. Unlike female bears, motivated to attack humans to protect cubs, male black bears actually prey on humans, viewing them as a potential food source.
Since Polar Bears find themselves at the very top of the food chain out there, they don’t have many natural predators at all. Ironically, the only one they have to fear in their natural environment is their own kind.
Who are the top predators in the world?
For every top predator in the world whether it is a tiger, lion, shark or polar bear there is always one predator that has been hunting and killing them all. This common predator of top predators is human. Polar Bears are not part of normal human diet yet humans have been hunting polar bears for centuries.
The polar bear is the largest terrestrial predator in the Arctic, but it is formidable on land, on the ice surface, and in the water. It is closely related to the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and may actually be a subspecies of that bear.
Polar bears are known to kill and sometimes eat their own kind. They do this when times are tough and they are unable to find food. Polar bears will also fight and kill each other when two males are fighting for a female to mate. A strong male polar bear usually kills a female polar bear or cubs to eat them. | https://wise-answer.com/is-a-polar-bear-predator-or-prey/ | 140 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | Polar Bear | Ice edge
Order Carnivora (carnivorans), Family Ursidae (bears)
Polar bears are aggressive predators, known for taking a variety of prey. They spend most of the year associated with Arctic sea ice, where they hunt ringed seal and bearded seal pups. Polar bears have an excellent sense of smell and can locate pups even when they are buried in snow dens. Polar bears can easily use their size and strength to break open dens and feed on the helpless pups. Adult males have also been known to eat large aquatic animals, like beluga whales , that they attack from the ice and pull onto the ice surface. When on land (as opposed to surface ice), polar bears scavenge for dead animal matter. This species has no natural predator. It is one of the few species that is even considered to be higher on the food web than humans.
Courtship and mating take place on the ice surface, but birth generally takes place on land. Females give birth to (typically) two cubs, which weigh no more than a few pounds (~one kilogram). Cubs nurse for at least two and a half years, and as in all bears, the mother polar bear is aggressively protective of her offspring. Polar bears reach sexual maturity between ages four and six.
Polar bear populations are decreasing throughout their geographic range, and some populations have been depleted significantly. Scientists now believe the species to be vulnerable to extinction. While hunting for this species does occur, climate change is the primary threat to the polar bear’s existence. This bear is intimately tied to Arctic sea ice and to seals that require ice for reproduction, and that ice is expected to continue thinning and melting faster each summer in the face of climate change. Scientists are not sure if polar bears will be able to adapt to these rapidly changing conditions.
1. Polar bears are the largest bear species in the world, 1 growing to a maximum length of 8.5 feet (260 cm) and weight of 1,543 pounds (700 kg), with males growing about twice as large as females.
2. Polar bears give birth to one to three cubs at a time, but most often birth twins that weigh only 1.3 pounds (0.6 kg).
3. Polar bears have black skin that’s covered in two layers of fur. The hollow, outer fur layer is nearly 6 inches (15 cm) long and reflects light, which is why it looks white. 2
4. Pregnant polar bears build dens where they give birth and care for their young cubs for the first few months of their lives. The mother does not feed during this time and can go up to 8 months without food – the longest deprivation time of any mammal.
5. Polar bears are the most carnivorous species of bear, feeding primarily on ringed and bearded seals. 3
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Additional Resources: | https://oceana.org/marine-life/polar-bear/ | 140 |
is a polar bear a predator or prey | Polar bear | Description, Habitat, & Facts | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Top Questions
What is a polar bear?
What do polar bears eat?
What are some examples of polar bear adaptations?
Are polar bears an endangered species?
polar bear , ( Ursus maritimus ), also called white bear , sea bear , or ice bear , great white northern bear (family Ursidae) found throughout the Arctic region. The polar bear travels long distances over vast desolate expanses, generally on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, its primary prey. The polar bear is the largest and most powerful carnivore on land, a title it shares with a subspecies of brown bear called the Kodiak bear . It has no natural predators and knows no fear of humans, making it an extremely dangerous animal .
Polar bears are stocky, with a long neck, relatively small head, short, rounded ears, and a short tail. The male, which is much larger than the female, weighs 410 to 720 kg (900 to 1,600 pounds). It grows to about 1.6 metres (5.3 feet) tall at the shoulder and 2.2–2.5 metres in length. The tail is 7–12 cm (3–5 inches) long. Sunlight can pass through the thick fur, its heat being absorbed by the bear’s black skin. Under the skin is a layer of insulating fat. The broad feet have hairy soles to protect and insulate as well as to facilitate movement across ice, as does the uneven skin on the soles of the feet, which helps to prevent slipping. Strong, sharp claws are also important for gaining traction, for digging through ice, and for killing prey.
Polar bears are solitary and overwhelmingly carnivorous, feeding especially on the ringed seal but also on the bearded seal and other pinnipeds . The bear stalks seals resting on the ice, ambushes them near breathing holes, and digs young seals from snow shelters where they are born. Polar bears prefer ice that is subject to periodic fracturing by wind and sea currents, because these fractures offer seals access to both air and water. As their prey is aquatic, polar bears are excellent swimmers, and they are even known to kill beluga whales . In swimming , the polar bear uses only its front limbs, an aquatic adaptation found in no other four-legged mammal . Polar bears are opportunistic as well as predatory: they will consume dead fish and carcasses of stranded whales and eat garbage near human settlements.
Mating occurs in spring, and implantation of the fertilized ovum is delayed. Including the delay, gestation may last 195–265 days, and one to four cubs, usually two, are born during the winter in a den of ice or snow. Cubs weigh less than 1 kg at birth and are not weaned until after they are two years old. Young polar bears may die of starvation or may be killed by adult males, and for this reason female polar bears are extremely defensive of their young when adult males are present. Young remain with their mothers until they reach sexual maturity. Females first reproduce at four to eight years of age and breed every two to four years thereafter. Males mature at about the same age as females but do not breed until a few years later. Adult polar bears have no natural predators, though walruses and wolves can kill them. Longevity in the wild is 25 to 30 years, but in captivity several polar bears have lived to more than 35 years old.
Humans probably cause most polar bear deaths, by hunting and by destroying problem animals near settlements. Polar bears have been known to kill people. The bears are hunted especially by Inuit people for their hides, tendons, fat, and flesh. Although polar bear meat is consumed by indigenous people, the liver is inedible and often poisonous because of its high vitamin A content.
An estimated 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears were living in the wild by 2020. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified the polar bear as a vulnerable species since 2006, and the U.S. government has listed the polar bear as a threatened species since 2008, in large part because of the influence of global warming , which continues to reduce Arctic sea ice coverage. Sea ice is prime habitat for polar bears. Population models have predicted increased rates of starvation as a result of longer ice-free seasons and a decline in mating success, since sea ice fragmentation could reduce encounter rates between males and females. Ecological studies show evidence that declines in sea ice coverage have forced polar bears to spend more time foraging for berries and seabird eggs, which are lower-quality foods that require greater effort to obtain. Given the compounding threats to the species, model forecasts suggest that polar bear populations will have declined by one-third by the year 2050.
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is a polar bear a predator or prey | Polar bear | Description, Habitat, & Facts | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
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polar bear , ( Ursus maritimus ), also called white bear , sea bear , or ice bear , great white northern bear (family Ursidae) found throughout the Arctic region. The polar bear travels long distances over vast desolate expanses, generally on drifting oceanic ice floes, searching for seals, its primary prey. The polar bear is the largest and most powerful carnivore on land, a title it shares with a subspecies of brown bear called the Kodiak bear . It has no natural predators and knows no fear of humans, making it an extremely dangerous animal .
Polar bears are stocky, with a long neck, relatively small head, short, rounded ears, and a short tail. The male, which is much larger than the female, weighs 410 to 720 kg (900 to 1,600 pounds). It grows to about 1.6 metres (5.3 feet) tall at the shoulder and 2.2–2.5 metres in length. The tail is 7–12 cm (3–5 inches) long. Sunlight can pass through the thick fur, its heat being absorbed by the bear’s black skin. Under the skin is a layer of insulating fat. The broad feet have hairy soles to protect and insulate as well as to facilitate movement across ice, as does the uneven skin on the soles of the feet, which helps to prevent slipping. Strong, sharp claws are also important for gaining traction, for digging through ice, and for killing prey.
Polar bears are solitary and overwhelmingly carnivorous, feeding especially on the ringed seal but also on the bearded seal and other pinnipeds . The bear stalks seals resting on the ice, ambushes them near breathing holes, and digs young seals from snow shelters where they are born. Polar bears prefer ice that is subject to periodic fracturing by wind and sea currents, because these fractures offer seals access to both air and water. As their prey is aquatic, polar bears are excellent swimmers, and they are even known to kill beluga whales . In swimming , the polar bear uses only its front limbs, an aquatic adaptation found in no other four-legged mammal . Polar bears are opportunistic as well as predatory: they will consume dead fish and carcasses of stranded whales and eat garbage near human settlements.
Mating occurs in spring, and implantation of the fertilized ovum is delayed. Including the delay, gestation may last 195–265 days, and one to four cubs, usually two, are born during the winter in a den of ice or snow. Cubs weigh less than 1 kg at birth and are not weaned until after they are two years old. Young polar bears may die of starvation or may be killed by adult males, and for this reason female polar bears are extremely defensive of their young when adult males are present. Young remain with their mothers until they reach sexual maturity. Females first reproduce at four to eight years of age and breed every two to four years thereafter. Males mature at about the same age as females but do not breed until a few years later. Adult polar bears have no natural predators, though walruses and wolves can kill them. Longevity in the wild is 25 to 30 years, but in captivity several polar bears have lived to more than 35 years old.
Humans probably cause most polar bear deaths, by hunting and by destroying problem animals near settlements. Polar bears have been known to kill people. The bears are hunted especially by Inuit people for their hides, tendons, fat, and flesh. Although polar bear meat is consumed by indigenous people, the liver is inedible and often poisonous because of its high vitamin A content.
An estimated 22,000 to 31,000 polar bears were living in the wild by 2020. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified the polar bear as a vulnerable species since 2006, and the U.S. government has listed the polar bear as a threatened species since 2008, in large part because of the influence of global warming , which continues to reduce Arctic sea ice coverage. Sea ice is prime habitat for polar bears. Population models have predicted increased rates of starvation as a result of longer ice-free seasons and a decline in mating success, since sea ice fragmentation could reduce encounter rates between males and females. Ecological studies show evidence that declines in sea ice coverage have forced polar bears to spend more time foraging for berries and seabird eggs, which are lower-quality foods that require greater effort to obtain. Given the compounding threats to the species, model forecasts suggest that polar bear populations will have declined by one-third by the year 2050.
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is a polar bear a predator or prey | All About Polar Bears - Longevity & Causes of Death | - Polar bears can live 20 to 30 years, but only a small percentage of polar bears live past 15 to 18 years.
- The oldest known polar bear in the Arctic lived 32 years. The oldest known polar bear in a zoological park lived 45 years.
Each year, as a polar bear grows, a thin layer of cementum is added to each tooth. Age can be estimated by examining a thin slice of tooth and counting the layers. To estimate the age of a live polar bear, researchers can extract one small, vestigial premolar tooth..
- Adult polar bears have no natural predators except other polar bears.
- Cubs less than one year old sometimes are prey to wolves and other carnivores.
- Newborn cubs may be cannibalized by malnourished mothers or adult male polar bears.
On rare occasions, males kill other males while competing for mates. Males also periodically kill females protecting cubs. Their motives aren't clear, but in some cases part of the carcasses have been eaten, so extreme hunger could be an explanation.
- Polar bears have been hunted for thousands of years.
- Evidence of human polar bear hunts have been found in 2,500 to 3,000 year-old ruins. Arctic peoples have traditionally hunted polar bears for food, clothing, bedding, and religious purposes.
- Commercial hunting of polar bears for hides began as early as the 1500s and flourished by the 1700s.
- Kills increased substantially in the 1950s and 1960s when hunters began using snowmobiles, boats, and airplanes to hunt polar bears. Public concern about these hunting methods led to an international agreement in 1973 banning the use of aircraft or large motorized boats for polar bear hunts.
- For the last several decades, hunting has been the greatest known cause of polar bear mortality.
- Today, polar bears are hunted by native arctic populations primarily for food, clothing, handicrafts, and sale of skins. Polar bears are also killed in defense of people or property.
- Hunting is government-regulated in Canada, Greenland, and the United States. Hunting is currently banned in Norway and parts of Russia.
- Polar bears have been hunted for thousands of years.
- Environmental threats.
- Climate change impacts in the Arctic, including increasing temperatures, shifts in the distribution of multi-year ice, and changes in precipitation patterns, threaten polar bear populations in a number of ways.
- Increasing temperatures are associated with a decrease in sea ice (both the amount and length of time sea ice forms).
- Since polar bears use sea ice as a platform to prey mainly on ringed and bearded seals, changes in sea ice can lead to less access to prey and an increase in malnourished or starving bears.
- Because of their strong association with the ice, ringed seal populations may also plummet due to loss of sea ice and result in even further reduction in polar bear food supplies.
- In addition, with less sea ice, female polar bears may have a more difficult time reaching traditional denning areas.
- Oil spills from drilling platforms or tankers potentially threaten polar bears.
- A polar bear's fur loses its insulating properties when covered with oil.
- Oil spills could diminish or contaminate polar bear food sources.
- Scientists are trying to determine whether noise from industrial subsistence or recreational activities could disturb polar bears and deter them from important habitats.
- The presence of toxic chemicals in polar bears may have long-term effects on their health and longevity.
- Toxic chemicals from worldwide industrial activities are carried to the Arctic by air currents, rivers, and oceans.
- Arctic animals in higher food chain levels concentrate greater amounts of toxic chemicals in their tissues than those below them. Because polar bears are top predators in the arctic, they are exposed to especially high levels of toxic chemicals.
- Human-made toxic chemicals such as heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and organochlorines are present in the Arctic. Arctic seals have particularly high levels of organochlorines concentrated in their blubber. Since polar bears mainly feed on seals, organochlorines become even more concentrated in the fat layer of polar bears. This potentially leads to a higher than normal mortality rate of polar bear cubs who acquire these toxins from their mother's milk.
- Scientists continue to monitor the levels of toxic chemicals in polar bears to determine their long-term effects.
- Radionuclides, from nuclear waste dumping in the Russian Arctic, may have detrimental effects on polar bears, and the arctic ecosystem as a whole.
- Climate change impacts in the Arctic, including increasing temperatures, shifts in the distribution of multi-year ice, and changes in precipitation patterns, threaten polar bear populations in a number of ways.
- Starvation is the greatest threat to subadult polar bears. Subadults are inexperienced hunters, and often are chased from kills by larger adults.
- Older, weaker bears also are susceptible to starvation.
- Some polar bear populations have shown increasing evidence of food deprivation including an increase in the number of underweight or starving bears, smaller bears, and fewer cubs that don't survive for as long. This takes place in areas that are experiencing shorter seasons with access to sea ice, reducing the bears' ability to hunt seals.
As in any animal population, a variety of diseases and parasites can be responsible for polar bear illnesses. Polar bears are especially susceptible to the parasitic roundworm Trichinella, which they contract by feeding on infected seals. Trichinella larvae encyst in various parts of the polar bear's body, usually muscle tissue. If enough larvae encyst in one area, such as the heart, the tissue becomes severely damaged. Death may result. | https://seaworld.org/animals/all-about/polar-bear/longevity/ | 140 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Green Revolution - Wikipedia | The Green Revolution , also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution , was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields and agricultural production. [1] [2] These changes in agriculture began in developed countries after World War II and spread globally till the late 1980s. [3] In the late 1960s, farmers began incorporating new technologies such as high-yielding varieties of cereals, particularly dwarf wheat and rice , and the widespread use of chemical fertilizers (to produce their high yields, the new seeds require far more fertilizer than traditional varieties [4] ), pesticides , and controlled irrigation .
Agriculture also saw the adoption of newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization . These changes were often implemented as a package of practices meant to replace traditional agricultural technology. [5] These costlier technologies were often provided in conjunction with loans that were conditional on policy changes being made by the developing nations adopting them, such as privatizing fertilizer manufacture and distribution that was formerly done through public channels. [4]
Both the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation were heavily involved in its initial development in Mexico. [6] [7] One key leader was agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug , the "Father of the Green Revolution", who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. He is credited with saving over a billion people from starvation. [8] Another important scientific figure was Yuan Longping , whose work on hybrid rice varieties is credited with saving at least as many lives. [9] The basic approach was the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds , synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. As crops began to reach the maximum improvement possible through selective breeding , genetic modification technologies were developed to allow for continued efforts. [10] [11]
Studies show that the Green Revolution contributed to widespread reduction of poverty, averted hunger for millions, raised incomes, reduced greenhouse gas emissions , reduced land use for agriculture, and contributed to declines in infant mortality. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]
According to The Limits to Growth the first genetic experiments, which a hundred years later resulted in high-yield agricultural crops, took place in a European monastery. [17]
The term "Green Revolution" was first used by William S. Gaud, the administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), in a speech on 8 March 1968. He noted the spread of the new technologies as:
"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran . I call it the Green Revolution." [4] [18]
Mexico has been called the 'birthplace' and 'burial ground' of the Green Revolution. [19] It began with great promise and it has been argued that "during the twentieth century two 'revolutions' transformed rural Mexico: the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and the Green Revolution (1950–1970)." [20]
It was on the lead of the Mexican government in 1943, under Presidential order and finance of the Mexican President Manuel Ávila Camacho , and support of the U.S. government, the United Nations , the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Rockefeller Foundation . For the U.S. government, its neighbor Mexico was an important experimental case in the use of technology and scientific expertise in agriculture that became the model for international agricultural development. [21] Mexico made a concerted effort to transform agricultural productivity, particularly with irrigated rather than dry-land cultivation in its northwest, to solve its problem of lack of food self-sufficiency. [22] In the center and south of Mexico, where large-scale production faced challenges, agricultural production languished. [23] Increased production promised food self-sufficiency in Mexico to feed its growing and urbanizing population with the increase in a number of calories consumed per Mexican. [24] The technology was seen as a valuable way to feed the poor and would relieve some pressure of the land redistribution process. [25] In general, the success of "Green Revolution" depended on the use of machinery for cultivation and harvest, on large-scale agricultural enterprises with access to credit (often from foreign investors), government-supported infrastructure projects, and access to low-wage agricultural workers. [26]
Mexico was the recipient of knowledge and technology of the Green Revolution, and it was an active participant with financial supports from the government for agriculture and Mexican agronomists. In the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution, the government had redistributed land to peasants in some parts of the country which had broken the back of the hacienda system. During the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940), land reform in Mexico reached its apex in the center and south of Mexico. Agricultural productivity had fallen significantly by the 1940s. American Vice President Henry A. Wallace , previously president Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's Secretary of Agriculture, visited Mexico who helped in uplifting the research program in Mexico that emphasized in increased productivity rather than land reform. [27]
During the administration of Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–46), the government put resources into developing new breeds of plants and partnered with the Rockefeller Foundation , and was also supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . [28] In 1941, a team of U.S. scientists, Richard Bradfield (Cornell University), Paul C. Mangelsdorf (Harvard University), and Elvin Charles Stakman (University of Minnesota) surveyed Mexican agriculture to recommend policies and practices. [29] Norman Borlaug , a key figure developing Green Revolution practices in Mexico, studied with Stakman at University of Minnesota. [30] In 1943, the Mexican government founded the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), which became a base for international agricultural research.
Agriculture in Mexico had been a sociopolitical issue, a key factor in some regions' participation in the Mexican Revolution. It was also a technical issue enabled by a cohort of trained agronomists who advised peasants how to increase productivity. [31] In the post-World War II era, the government sought development in agriculture that bettered technological aspects of agriculture in regions—not dominated by small-scale peasant cultivators. This drive for agricultural transformation would have the benefit to Mexico on self-sufficiency in food and in the political sphere during the Cold War (potentially stem unrest and the appeal of Communism). [28] Technical aid can also be seen as serving political ends in the international sphere. In Mexico, it also served political ends separating peasant agriculture based on the ejido and considered one of the victories of the Mexican Revolution, from agribusiness that requires large-scale land ownership, irrigation, specialized seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, machinery, and a low-wage paid labor force.
The Mexican government created the Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP) to be the lead organization in raising productivity. One of their successes was in wheat production with varieties dominating wheat production as early as 1951 (70%), 1965 (80%), and 1968 (90%). [32] Mexico became the showcase for extending the Green Revolution to other areas of Latin America and beyond, into Africa and Asia. New breeds of maize, beans, and wheat produced bumper crops with proper inputs (such as fertilizer and pesticides) and careful cultivation. Many Mexican farmers who had been dubious about the scientists or hostile to them (often a mutual relationship of discord) came to see the scientific approach to agriculture as worth adopting. [33]
The requirement for the full package of inputs of new strains of seeds, fertilizer, synthetic pesticides, and water were often not within the reach of small-scale farmers. The application of pesticides could be hazardous for farmers. Their use often damaged the local ecology, contaminating waterways and endangering the health of workers and newborns. [34]
One of the participants in the Mexican experiment, Edwin J. Wellhausen , summarized the factors leading to its initial success. These include: high yield plants without disease resistivity, adaptability, and ability to use fertilizers; improved use of soils, adequate fertilizers, and control of weeds and pests; and "a favorable ratio between the cost of fertilizers (and other investments) to the price of the produce." [35]
In 1960 the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation established the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in 1962. In 1966, one of the breeding lines became a new cultivar : IR8 rice . [36] IR8 required the use of fertilizers and pesticides, but produced substantially higher yields than the traditional cultivars. Annual rice production in the Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades. [37] The switch to IR8 rice made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century, [38] though imports still exceeded exports, according to data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. From 1966 to 1986, the Philippines imported around 2,679,000 metric tons and exported only 632,000 metric tons of milled rice. [39]
In 1961, India was on the brink of mass famine. [ additional citation(s) needed ] [40] Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian Minister of Agriculture Dr. M. S. Swaminathan . Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The state of Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply, the presence of Indus plains which make it one of the most fertile plains on earth, and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals. [41]
India soon adopted IR8 —a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that could produce more grains of rice per plant when grown with certain fertilizers and irrigation. [42] In 1968, Indian agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice. [43] IR8 was a success throughout Asia, and dubbed the "Miracle Rice." IR8 was also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36 .
In the 1960s, rice yields in India were about two tons per hectare; by the mid-1990s, they had risen to 6 tons per hectare. In the 1970s, rice cost about $550 a ton; in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton. [44] India became one of the world's most successful rice producers, and is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million tons in 2006.
China's Green Revolution came from its own fruition, and cannot necessarily be credited to practices popularized by Norman Borlaug. China's large and increasing population meant that increasing food production, principally rice, was a top priority for the Chinese government. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party made it a priority to pursue agricultural development. [45] They sought to solve China's food security issues by focusing on traditional crop production, the implementation of modern technology and science, creating food reserves for the population, high-yield seed varieties, multi-cropping, controlled irrigation, and protecting food security. [46] [45] [47] This began with the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, which ended private land ownership and gave land back to the peasants. [45] The beginning of China's Green Revolution is marked by the government's sponsorship of agricultural research, specifically in producing a high-yielding rice variety for the rapidly growing population. [45] These efforts began during the Great Leap Forward , a time from 1959 to 1961 where the Government launched a campaign to reconstruct their agrarian economy into a communist society and established the People's Commune .
Prominent in the development of productive hybrid rice was Yuan Longping , whose research hybridized wild strains of rice with existing strains. He has been dubbed “the father of hybrid rice,” [48] and was considered a national hero in China. [49] Chinese rice production met the nation's food security needs, and today they are a leading exporter of rice. In recent years, however, extensive use of ground water for irrigation has drawn down aquifers and extensive use of fertilizers has increased greenhouse gas emissions. [50] China has not expanded the area of cultivable land, but the Green Revolution with high yields per hectare gave China the food security it sought. [51]
In 1979, there were 490 million Chinese people living in poverty. In 2014, there were only 82 million. Half of China's population had once been hungry and in poverty, but by 2014, only 6% remained so. [46] If China's stats were to be excluded entirely from Green Revolution studies, they would find that world hunger actually increased. [46] Unlike in China, where locally grown produce would stay within local markets, the food in other countries was being placed on the global market, never to be eaten by those who grew it.
Brazil's vast inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming before the 1960s because the soil was too acidic and poor in nutrients, according to Norman Borlaug . However, from the 1960s, vast quantities of lime (pulverised chalk or limestone ) were poured on the soil to reduce acidity. The effort went on for decades; by the late 1990s, between 14 million and 16 million tonnes of lime were being spread on Brazilian fields each year. The quantity rose to 25 million tonnes in 2003 and 2004, equalling around five tonnes of lime per hectare. As a result, Brazil has become the world's second biggest soybean exporter. Soybeans are also widely used in animal feed, and the large volume of soy produced in Brazil has contributed to Brazil's rise to become the biggest exporter of beef and poultry in the world. [52] Several parallels can also be found in Argentina's boom in soybean production as well. [53]
There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects into Africa. [54] These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption, insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa. [55]
A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high-yielding 'family' of rice varieties known as " New Rice for Africa " (NERICA). NERICA varieties yield about 30% more rice under normal conditions, and can double yields with small amounts of fertilizer and very basic irrigation. However, the program has been beset by problems getting the rice into the hands of farmers, and to date the only success has been in Guinea , where it currently accounts for 16% of rice cultivation. [56]
After a famine in 2001 and years of chronic hunger and poverty, in 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the "Agricultural Input Subsidy Program" by which vouchers are given to smallholder farmers to buy subsidized nitrogen fertilizer and maize seeds. [57] Within its first year, the program was reported to have had extreme success, producing the largest maize harvest of the country's history, enough to feed the country with tons of maize left over. The program has advanced yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been an unusual success, hailing it as a "miracle". [58] Malawi experienced a 40% drop in maize production in 2015 and 2016. [59]
A 2021 randomized control trial on temporary subsidies for maize farmers in Mozambique found that adoption of Green Revolution technology led to increased maize yields in both the short- and long-term. [60]
Main article: CGIAR
In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank ; on 19 May 1971, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was established, co-sponsored by the FAO , IFAD , and UNDP . CGIAR has added many research centers throughout the world.
CGIAR has responded, at least in part, to criticisms of Green Revolution methodologies. This began in the 1980s, and mainly was a result of pressure from donor organizations. [61] Methods like agroecosystem analysis and farming system research have been adopted to gain a more holistic view of agriculture.
According to a 2012 review in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the existing academic literature, the Green Revolution "contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation." [12]
The Green Revolution spread technologies that already existed, but had not been widely implemented outside industrialized nations. Two kinds of technologies were used in the Green Revolution and aim at cultivation and breeding area respectively. The technologies in cultivation are targeted at providing excellent growing conditions, which included modern irrigation projects, pesticides , and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer . The breeding technologies aimed at improving crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time. These technologies included hybrids , combining modern genetics with selections. [62]
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars . Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are the generally referred to as HYVs or " high-yielding varieties ". HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes . A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka , which was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon , was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee-geo-woo-gen" [ citation needed ] In the 1960s, when a food crisis happened in Asia, the spread of HYV rice was aggravated intensely. [63]
Dr. Norman Borlaug , who is usually recognized as the "Father of the Green Revolution", bred rust-resistant cultivars which have strong and firm stems, preventing them from falling over under extreme weather at high levels of fertilization. CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo – International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvements) conducted these breeding programs and helped spread high-yielding varieties in Mexico and countries in Asia like India and Pakistan . These programs successfully led the harvest double in these countries. [62]
Plant scientists figured out several parameters related to the high yield and identified the related genes which control the plant height and tiller number. [64] With advances in molecular genetics , the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20-oxidase, [65] ga1 , [66] ga1-3 [67] ), wheat reduced-height genes ( Rht ) [68] and a rice semidwarf gene ( sd1 ) [69] were cloned . These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype . Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. [ citation needed ]
HYVs significantly outperform traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. In the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. Therefore, several authors have challenged the apparent superiority of HYVs not only compared to the traditional varieties alone, but by contrasting the monocultural system associated with HYVs with the polycultural system associated with traditional ones. [70]
By one 2021 estimate, the Green Revolution increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010. [13] Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985. [71] Yields of rice, maize, and wheat increased steadily during that period. [71] The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice. [71]
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has increased faster, [72] so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers , pesticides , herbicides , and defoliants ; which, as of 2014, rely on or are derived from crude oil , making agriculture increasingly reliant on crude oil extraction. [73] Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a Malthusian catastrophe . [74]
Main article: Food security
The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation . [75] [76] The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. [77] According to ICIS Fertilizers managing editor Julia Meehan, "People don’t realise that 50% of the world’s food relies on fertilisers." [78]
The world population has grown by about five billion [79] since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition . India saw annual wheat production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006. [80] The average person in the developing world consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution. [71] Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by about 160%. [81]
The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid widespread famine , and for feeding billions of people. [82]
There are also claims that the Green Revolution has decreased food security for a large number of people. One claim involves the shift of subsistence-oriented cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for export or animal feed. For example, the Green Revolution replaced much of the land used for pulses that fed Indian peasants for wheat, which did not make up a large portion of the peasant diet. [83]
Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable, [85] and argue that humanity is now in a state of overpopulation or overshoot with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth. A 2021 study found, contrary to the expectations of the Malthusian hypothesis, that the Green Revolution led to reduced population growth, rather than an increase in population growth. [13]
Although 36 million people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition, [86] [ circular reference ] Malthus's more extreme predictions have frequently failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of impending famine. [87] The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling Malthus's prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich , in his 1968 book The Population Bomb , said that "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980" and "Hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs." [87] Ehrlich's warnings failed to materialize when India became self-sustaining in cereal production in 1974 (six years later) as a result of the introduction of Norman Borlaug 's dwarf wheat varieties. [87]
However, Borlaug was well aware of the implications of population growth. In his Nobel lecture he repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population. "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only. Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..."
To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security , and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of public action. [89] Economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's theory, arguing that Sen relies on inconsistent arguments and contradicts available information, including sources that Sen himself cited. [90] Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943 , and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine. [90]
Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri , (a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures . [ citation needed ]
These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile Frison of Bioversity International , the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as fewer people are affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies . [55] Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing countries are related to malnutrition. [55]
The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and was very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. [91] High yield-cereal crops have low quality proteins , with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates , and lack balanced essential fatty acids , vitamins , minerals and other quality factors. [91]
High-yield rice (HYR), introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, such as the Philippines , was found to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties. [ citation needed ] This caused its price to be lower than the average market value. [92]
In the Philippines the introduction of heavy pesticides to rice production, in the early part of the Green Revolution, poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies . These were nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to the introduction of pesticides, further impacting the diets of locals. [93]
A critic [94] of the Green Revolution, American journalist Mark Dowie argues that "the primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped countries and so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency." [95] Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that the Ford Foundation had a greater concern than Rockefeller in this area. [96]
The transition from traditional agriculture (in which inputs were generated on-farm) to Green Revolution agriculture (which required the purchase of inputs) led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller farmers often went into debt , which in many cases resulted in a loss of their farmland. [61] [97] The increased level of mechanization on larger farms made possible by the Green Revolution removed a large source of employment from the rural economy. [61]
The new economic difficulties of smallholder farmers and landless farm workers led to increased rural-urban migration . The increase in food production led to cheaper food for urban dwellers. [ citation needed ]
According to a 2021 study, the Green Revolution substantially increased income. [13] A delay in the Green Revolution by ten years would have cost 17% of GDP per capita, whereas if the Green Revolution had never happened, it could have reduced GDP per capita in the developing world by half. [13]
The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity (or agrodiversity) and wild biodiversity. [93] There is little disagreement that the Green Revolution acted to reduce agricultural biodiversity, as it relied on just a few high-yield varieties of each crop.
This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed banks such as Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ’s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (now Bioversity International ) have been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault ).
There are varying opinions about the effect of the Green Revolution on wild biodiversity. One hypothesis speculates that by increasing production per unit of land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new, uncultivated areas to feed a growing human population. [98] However, land degradation and soil nutrients depletion have forced farmers to clear forested areas in order to maintain production. [99] A counter-hypothesis speculates that biodiversity was sacrificed because traditional systems of agriculture that were displaced sometimes incorporated practices to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution expanded agricultural development into new areas where it was once unprofitable or too arid . For example, the development of wheat varieties tolerant to acid soil conditions with high aluminium content permitted the introduction of agriculture in sensitive Brazilian ecosystems such as Cerrado semi-humid tropical savanna and Amazon rainforest in the geoeconomic macroregions of Centro-Sul and Amazônia . [98] Before the Green Revolution, other Brazilian ecosystems were also significantly damaged by human activity, such as the once 1st or 2nd main contributor to Brazilian megadiversity Atlantic Rainforest (above 85% of deforestation in the 1980s, about 95% after the 2010s) and the important xeric shrublands called Caatinga mainly in Northeastern Brazil (about 40% in the 1980s, about 50% after the 2010s – deforestation of the Caatinga biome is generally associated with greater risks of desertification ). This also caused many animal species to suffer due to their damaged habitats.
Nevertheless, the world community has clearly acknowledged the negative aspects of agricultural expansion as the 1992 Rio Treaty , signed by 189 nations, has generated numerous national Biodiversity Action Plans which assign significant biodiversity loss to agriculture's expansion into new domains.
The Green Revolution has been criticized for an agricultural model which relied on a few staple and market profitable crops, and pursuing a model which limited the biodiversity of Mexico. One of the critics against these techniques and the Green Revolution as a whole was Carl O. Sauer , a geography professor at the University of California, Berkeley . According to Sauer these techniques of plant breeding would result in negative effects on the country's resources, and the culture:
"A good aggressive bunch of American agronomists and plant breeders could ruin the native resources for good and all by pushing their American commercial stocks... And Mexican agriculture cannot be pointed toward standardization on a few commercial types without upsetting native economy and culture hopelessly... Unless the Americans understand that, they'd better keep out of this country entirely. That must be approached from an appreciation of native economies as being basically sound". [100]
Studies indicate that the Green Revolution has substantially reduced emissions of the greenhouse gas CO 2 . [101] According to a study published in 2013 in PNAS , in the absence of the crop germplasm improvement associated with the Green Revolution, greenhouse gas emissions would have been 5.2–7.4 Gt higher than observed in 1965–2004. [16] High yield agriculture has dramatic effects on the amount of carbon cycling in the atmosphere. The way in which farms are grown, in tandem with the seasonal carbon cycling of various crops, could alter the impact carbon in the atmosphere has on global warming. Wheat, rice, and soybean crops account for a significant amount of the increase in carbon in the atmosphere over the last 50 years. [102]
Poorly regulated applications of nitrogen fertilizer that exceed the amount used by plants, such as broadcast applications of urea , results in emissions of nitrous oxide , a potent greenhouse gas, and in water pollution. [103]
Most high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on agricultural machinery and transport, as well as the production of pesticides and nitrates that all require energy. [104] Nitrogen fertilizer is a direct fossil fuel product processed primarily from natural gas . It is estimated that no more than 3.7 billion people of the current world population could be fed without this single fossil fuel agricultural input. [105] Moreover, the essential mineral nutrient phosphorus is often a limiting factor in crop cultivation, while phosphorus mines are rapidly being depleted worldwide. [106]
A 2021 study found that the Green Revolution led to a reduction in land used for agriculture. [13]
Studies have found that the Green Revolution substantially reduced infant mortality in the developing world. A 2020 study of 37 developing countries found that the diffusion of modern crop varieties "reduced infant mortality by 2.4–5.3 percentage points (from a baseline of 18%), with stronger effects for male infants and among poor households." [14] Another 2020 study found that high yield crop varieties reduced infant mortality in India, with particularly large effects for rural children, boys and low-caste children. [15]
Consumption of pesticides and fertilizer agrochemicals associated with the Green Revolution may have adverse health impacts. For example, pesticides may increase the likelihood of cancer. [107] Poor farming practices including non-compliance to usage of masks and over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation. [107] In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated that there were around 1 million human pesticide poisonings annually. Some 20,000 (mostly in developing countries) ended in death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc. [108] A 2014 study found that Indian children who were exposed to higher quantities of fertilizer agrochemicals experienced more adverse health impacts. [109]
A Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation of 50 villages in Muktsar , Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed that twenty percent of the sampled wells had nitrate levels above WHO limits for drinking water. The 2009 study linked the nitrate pollution with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers . [110]
Borlaug dismissed certain claims of critics, but also cautioned, "There are no miracles in agricultural production. Nor is there such a thing as a miracle variety of wheat, rice, or maize which can serve as an elixir to cure all ills of a stagnant, traditional agriculture." [111]
Of environmental lobbyists, he said, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth , but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things." [112]
Although the Green Revolution has been able to improve agricultural output in some regions in the world, there was and is still room for improvement. As a result, many organizations continue to invent new ways to improve the techniques already used in the Green Revolution. Frequently quoted inventions are the System of Rice Intensification , [113] marker-assisted selection , [114] agroecology , [115] and applying existing technologies to agricultural problems of the developing world. [116] Current challenges for nations trying to modernize their agriculture include closing the urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. [117] However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. [118] It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. [119] Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency.
The term 'Evergreen Revolution' [a] was coined by Indian agricultural scientist M. S. Swaminathan in 1990, though he has stated that the concept dates back to as early as 1968. It aims to represent an added dimension to the original concepts and practices of the green revolution, the ecological dimension. [120] [121] Swaminathan has described it as "productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm". [120] The concept has evolved into a combination of science, economics, and sociology. [122] [123] In 2002, American biologist E.O. Wilson observed that: [120] [ emphasis added ]
The problem before us is how to feed billions of new mouths over the next several decades and save the rest of life at the same time, without being trapped in a Faustian bargain that threatens freedom and security. No one knows the exact solution to this dilemma. The benefit must come from an Evergreen Revolution . The aim of this new thrust is to lift food production well above the level obtained by the Green Revolution of the 1960s, using technology and regulatory policy more advanced and even safer than those now in existence.— E.O. Wilson
- Farrell, John Joseph; Altieri, Miguel A. (1995). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview . ISBN 978-0-8133-1718-2 .
- Frison, Emile (2008). "Green Revolution in Africa will depend on biodiversity" . Development and Cooperation . 49 (5): 190–93. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008.
- Jain, H.K. (2010). The Green Revolution: History, Impact and Future (1st ed.). Houston, TX: Studium Press. ISBN 978-1-933699-63-9 .
- Oasa, Edmund K (1987). "The Political Economy of International Agricultural Research in Glass". In Glaeser, Bernhard (ed.). The Green Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives . Allen & Unwin. pp. 13–55. ISBN 978-0-04-630014-2 .
- Ross, Eric (1998). The Malthus Factor: Poverty, Politics and Population in Capitalist Development . London: Zed Books . ISBN 978-1-85649-564-6 .
- Ruttan, Vernon (1977). "The Green Revolution: Seven Generalizations". International Development Review . 19 : 16–23.
- Sen, Amartya Kumar; Drèze, Jean (1989). Hunger and public action . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-828365-2 .
- Shiva, Vandana (1989). The violence of the green revolution: Ecological degradation and political conflict in Punjab . Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science and Ecology. ISBN 978-81-85019-19-2 .
- Smil, Vaclav (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4 .
- Spitz, Pierre (1987). "The Green Revolution Re-Examined in India in Glass". In Glaeser, Bernhard (ed.). The Green Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives . Allen & Unwin. pp. 57–75. ISBN 978-0-04-630014-2 .
- Wright, Angus (1984). "Innocence Abroad: American Agricultural Research in Mexico". In Bruce Colman; Jackson, Wes; Berry, Wendell (eds.). Meeting the expectations of the land: essays in sustainable agriculture and stewardship . San Francisco: North Point Press. pp. 124–38. ISBN 978-0-86547-171-9 .
- Wright, Angus Lindsay (2005). The death of Ramón González: the modern agricultural dilemma . Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71268-3 .
- Cotter, Joseph (2003). Troubled Harvest: Agronomy and Revolution in Mexico, 1880–2002 . Westport, CT: Prager [ ISBN missing ]
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who is called the father of green revolution | Green Revolution - Wikipedia | The Green Revolution , also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution , was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields and agricultural production. [1] [2] These changes in agriculture began in developed countries after World War II and spread globally till the late 1980s. [3] In the late 1960s, farmers began incorporating new technologies such as high-yielding varieties of cereals, particularly dwarf wheat and rice , and the widespread use of chemical fertilizers (to produce their high yields, the new seeds require far more fertilizer than traditional varieties [4] ), pesticides , and controlled irrigation .
Agriculture also saw the adoption of newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization . These changes were often implemented as a package of practices meant to replace traditional agricultural technology. [5] These costlier technologies were often provided in conjunction with loans that were conditional on policy changes being made by the developing nations adopting them, such as privatizing fertilizer manufacture and distribution that was formerly done through public channels. [4]
Both the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation were heavily involved in its initial development in Mexico. [6] [7] One key leader was agricultural scientist Norman Borlaug , the "Father of the Green Revolution", who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. He is credited with saving over a billion people from starvation. [8] Another important scientific figure was Yuan Longping , whose work on hybrid rice varieties is credited with saving at least as many lives. [9] The basic approach was the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds , synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. As crops began to reach the maximum improvement possible through selective breeding , genetic modification technologies were developed to allow for continued efforts. [10] [11]
Studies show that the Green Revolution contributed to widespread reduction of poverty, averted hunger for millions, raised incomes, reduced greenhouse gas emissions , reduced land use for agriculture, and contributed to declines in infant mortality. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]
According to The Limits to Growth the first genetic experiments, which a hundred years later resulted in high-yield agricultural crops, took place in a European monastery. [17]
The term "Green Revolution" was first used by William S. Gaud, the administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), in a speech on 8 March 1968. He noted the spread of the new technologies as:
"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran . I call it the Green Revolution." [4] [18]
Mexico has been called the 'birthplace' and 'burial ground' of the Green Revolution. [19] It began with great promise and it has been argued that "during the twentieth century two 'revolutions' transformed rural Mexico: the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and the Green Revolution (1950–1970)." [20]
It was on the lead of the Mexican government in 1943, under Presidential order and finance of the Mexican President Manuel Ávila Camacho , and support of the U.S. government, the United Nations , the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Rockefeller Foundation . For the U.S. government, its neighbor Mexico was an important experimental case in the use of technology and scientific expertise in agriculture that became the model for international agricultural development. [21] Mexico made a concerted effort to transform agricultural productivity, particularly with irrigated rather than dry-land cultivation in its northwest, to solve its problem of lack of food self-sufficiency. [22] In the center and south of Mexico, where large-scale production faced challenges, agricultural production languished. [23] Increased production promised food self-sufficiency in Mexico to feed its growing and urbanizing population with the increase in a number of calories consumed per Mexican. [24] The technology was seen as a valuable way to feed the poor and would relieve some pressure of the land redistribution process. [25] In general, the success of "Green Revolution" depended on the use of machinery for cultivation and harvest, on large-scale agricultural enterprises with access to credit (often from foreign investors), government-supported infrastructure projects, and access to low-wage agricultural workers. [26]
Mexico was the recipient of knowledge and technology of the Green Revolution, and it was an active participant with financial supports from the government for agriculture and Mexican agronomists. In the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution, the government had redistributed land to peasants in some parts of the country which had broken the back of the hacienda system. During the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940), land reform in Mexico reached its apex in the center and south of Mexico. Agricultural productivity had fallen significantly by the 1940s. American Vice President Henry A. Wallace , previously president Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's Secretary of Agriculture, visited Mexico who helped in uplifting the research program in Mexico that emphasized in increased productivity rather than land reform. [27]
During the administration of Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–46), the government put resources into developing new breeds of plants and partnered with the Rockefeller Foundation , and was also supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . [28] In 1941, a team of U.S. scientists, Richard Bradfield (Cornell University), Paul C. Mangelsdorf (Harvard University), and Elvin Charles Stakman (University of Minnesota) surveyed Mexican agriculture to recommend policies and practices. [29] Norman Borlaug , a key figure developing Green Revolution practices in Mexico, studied with Stakman at University of Minnesota. [30] In 1943, the Mexican government founded the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), which became a base for international agricultural research.
Agriculture in Mexico had been a sociopolitical issue, a key factor in some regions' participation in the Mexican Revolution. It was also a technical issue enabled by a cohort of trained agronomists who advised peasants how to increase productivity. [31] In the post-World War II era, the government sought development in agriculture that bettered technological aspects of agriculture in regions—not dominated by small-scale peasant cultivators. This drive for agricultural transformation would have the benefit to Mexico on self-sufficiency in food and in the political sphere during the Cold War (potentially stem unrest and the appeal of Communism). [28] Technical aid can also be seen as serving political ends in the international sphere. In Mexico, it also served political ends separating peasant agriculture based on the ejido and considered one of the victories of the Mexican Revolution, from agribusiness that requires large-scale land ownership, irrigation, specialized seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, machinery, and a low-wage paid labor force.
The Mexican government created the Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP) to be the lead organization in raising productivity. One of their successes was in wheat production with varieties dominating wheat production as early as 1951 (70%), 1965 (80%), and 1968 (90%). [32] Mexico became the showcase for extending the Green Revolution to other areas of Latin America and beyond, into Africa and Asia. New breeds of maize, beans, and wheat produced bumper crops with proper inputs (such as fertilizer and pesticides) and careful cultivation. Many Mexican farmers who had been dubious about the scientists or hostile to them (often a mutual relationship of discord) came to see the scientific approach to agriculture as worth adopting. [33]
The requirement for the full package of inputs of new strains of seeds, fertilizer, synthetic pesticides, and water were often not within the reach of small-scale farmers. The application of pesticides could be hazardous for farmers. Their use often damaged the local ecology, contaminating waterways and endangering the health of workers and newborns. [34]
One of the participants in the Mexican experiment, Edwin J. Wellhausen , summarized the factors leading to its initial success. These include: high yield plants without disease resistivity, adaptability, and ability to use fertilizers; improved use of soils, adequate fertilizers, and control of weeds and pests; and "a favorable ratio between the cost of fertilizers (and other investments) to the price of the produce." [35]
In 1960 the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation established the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in 1962. In 1966, one of the breeding lines became a new cultivar : IR8 rice . [36] IR8 required the use of fertilizers and pesticides, but produced substantially higher yields than the traditional cultivars. Annual rice production in the Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades. [37] The switch to IR8 rice made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century, [38] though imports still exceeded exports, according to data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. From 1966 to 1986, the Philippines imported around 2,679,000 metric tons and exported only 632,000 metric tons of milled rice. [39]
In 1961, India was on the brink of mass famine. [ additional citation(s) needed ] [40] Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian Minister of Agriculture Dr. M. S. Swaminathan . Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The state of Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply, the presence of Indus plains which make it one of the most fertile plains on earth, and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals. [41]
India soon adopted IR8 —a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that could produce more grains of rice per plant when grown with certain fertilizers and irrigation. [42] In 1968, Indian agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice. [43] IR8 was a success throughout Asia, and dubbed the "Miracle Rice." IR8 was also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36 .
In the 1960s, rice yields in India were about two tons per hectare; by the mid-1990s, they had risen to 6 tons per hectare. In the 1970s, rice cost about $550 a ton; in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton. [44] India became one of the world's most successful rice producers, and is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million tons in 2006.
China's Green Revolution came from its own fruition, and cannot necessarily be credited to practices popularized by Norman Borlaug. China's large and increasing population meant that increasing food production, principally rice, was a top priority for the Chinese government. When the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party made it a priority to pursue agricultural development. [45] They sought to solve China's food security issues by focusing on traditional crop production, the implementation of modern technology and science, creating food reserves for the population, high-yield seed varieties, multi-cropping, controlled irrigation, and protecting food security. [46] [45] [47] This began with the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950, which ended private land ownership and gave land back to the peasants. [45] The beginning of China's Green Revolution is marked by the government's sponsorship of agricultural research, specifically in producing a high-yielding rice variety for the rapidly growing population. [45] These efforts began during the Great Leap Forward , a time from 1959 to 1961 where the Government launched a campaign to reconstruct their agrarian economy into a communist society and established the People's Commune .
Prominent in the development of productive hybrid rice was Yuan Longping , whose research hybridized wild strains of rice with existing strains. He has been dubbed “the father of hybrid rice,” [48] and was considered a national hero in China. [49] Chinese rice production met the nation's food security needs, and today they are a leading exporter of rice. In recent years, however, extensive use of ground water for irrigation has drawn down aquifers and extensive use of fertilizers has increased greenhouse gas emissions. [50] China has not expanded the area of cultivable land, but the Green Revolution with high yields per hectare gave China the food security it sought. [51]
In 1979, there were 490 million Chinese people living in poverty. In 2014, there were only 82 million. Half of China's population had once been hungry and in poverty, but by 2014, only 6% remained so. [46] If China's stats were to be excluded entirely from Green Revolution studies, they would find that world hunger actually increased. [46] Unlike in China, where locally grown produce would stay within local markets, the food in other countries was being placed on the global market, never to be eaten by those who grew it.
Brazil's vast inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming before the 1960s because the soil was too acidic and poor in nutrients, according to Norman Borlaug . However, from the 1960s, vast quantities of lime (pulverised chalk or limestone ) were poured on the soil to reduce acidity. The effort went on for decades; by the late 1990s, between 14 million and 16 million tonnes of lime were being spread on Brazilian fields each year. The quantity rose to 25 million tonnes in 2003 and 2004, equalling around five tonnes of lime per hectare. As a result, Brazil has become the world's second biggest soybean exporter. Soybeans are also widely used in animal feed, and the large volume of soy produced in Brazil has contributed to Brazil's rise to become the biggest exporter of beef and poultry in the world. [52] Several parallels can also be found in Argentina's boom in soybean production as well. [53]
There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects into Africa. [54] These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption, insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa. [55]
A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high-yielding 'family' of rice varieties known as " New Rice for Africa " (NERICA). NERICA varieties yield about 30% more rice under normal conditions, and can double yields with small amounts of fertilizer and very basic irrigation. However, the program has been beset by problems getting the rice into the hands of farmers, and to date the only success has been in Guinea , where it currently accounts for 16% of rice cultivation. [56]
After a famine in 2001 and years of chronic hunger and poverty, in 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the "Agricultural Input Subsidy Program" by which vouchers are given to smallholder farmers to buy subsidized nitrogen fertilizer and maize seeds. [57] Within its first year, the program was reported to have had extreme success, producing the largest maize harvest of the country's history, enough to feed the country with tons of maize left over. The program has advanced yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been an unusual success, hailing it as a "miracle". [58] Malawi experienced a 40% drop in maize production in 2015 and 2016. [59]
A 2021 randomized control trial on temporary subsidies for maize farmers in Mozambique found that adoption of Green Revolution technology led to increased maize yields in both the short- and long-term. [60]
Main article: CGIAR
In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank ; on 19 May 1971, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was established, co-sponsored by the FAO , IFAD , and UNDP . CGIAR has added many research centers throughout the world.
CGIAR has responded, at least in part, to criticisms of Green Revolution methodologies. This began in the 1980s, and mainly was a result of pressure from donor organizations. [61] Methods like agroecosystem analysis and farming system research have been adopted to gain a more holistic view of agriculture.
According to a 2012 review in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the existing academic literature, the Green Revolution "contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation." [12]
The Green Revolution spread technologies that already existed, but had not been widely implemented outside industrialized nations. Two kinds of technologies were used in the Green Revolution and aim at cultivation and breeding area respectively. The technologies in cultivation are targeted at providing excellent growing conditions, which included modern irrigation projects, pesticides , and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer . The breeding technologies aimed at improving crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time. These technologies included hybrids , combining modern genetics with selections. [62]
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars . Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are the generally referred to as HYVs or " high-yielding varieties ". HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes . A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka , which was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon , was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee-geo-woo-gen" [ citation needed ] In the 1960s, when a food crisis happened in Asia, the spread of HYV rice was aggravated intensely. [63]
Dr. Norman Borlaug , who is usually recognized as the "Father of the Green Revolution", bred rust-resistant cultivars which have strong and firm stems, preventing them from falling over under extreme weather at high levels of fertilization. CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo – International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvements) conducted these breeding programs and helped spread high-yielding varieties in Mexico and countries in Asia like India and Pakistan . These programs successfully led the harvest double in these countries. [62]
Plant scientists figured out several parameters related to the high yield and identified the related genes which control the plant height and tiller number. [64] With advances in molecular genetics , the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20-oxidase, [65] ga1 , [66] ga1-3 [67] ), wheat reduced-height genes ( Rht ) [68] and a rice semidwarf gene ( sd1 ) [69] were cloned . These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype . Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. [ citation needed ]
HYVs significantly outperform traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. In the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. Therefore, several authors have challenged the apparent superiority of HYVs not only compared to the traditional varieties alone, but by contrasting the monocultural system associated with HYVs with the polycultural system associated with traditional ones. [70]
By one 2021 estimate, the Green Revolution increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010. [13] Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985. [71] Yields of rice, maize, and wheat increased steadily during that period. [71] The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice. [71]
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has increased faster, [72] so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers , pesticides , herbicides , and defoliants ; which, as of 2014, rely on or are derived from crude oil , making agriculture increasingly reliant on crude oil extraction. [73] Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a Malthusian catastrophe . [74]
Main article: Food security
The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation . [75] [76] The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. [77] According to ICIS Fertilizers managing editor Julia Meehan, "People don’t realise that 50% of the world’s food relies on fertilisers." [78]
The world population has grown by about five billion [79] since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition . India saw annual wheat production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006. [80] The average person in the developing world consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution. [71] Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by about 160%. [81]
The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid widespread famine , and for feeding billions of people. [82]
There are also claims that the Green Revolution has decreased food security for a large number of people. One claim involves the shift of subsistence-oriented cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for export or animal feed. For example, the Green Revolution replaced much of the land used for pulses that fed Indian peasants for wheat, which did not make up a large portion of the peasant diet. [83]
Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable, [85] and argue that humanity is now in a state of overpopulation or overshoot with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth. A 2021 study found, contrary to the expectations of the Malthusian hypothesis, that the Green Revolution led to reduced population growth, rather than an increase in population growth. [13]
Although 36 million people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition, [86] [ circular reference ] Malthus's more extreme predictions have frequently failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of impending famine. [87] The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling Malthus's prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich , in his 1968 book The Population Bomb , said that "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980" and "Hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs." [87] Ehrlich's warnings failed to materialize when India became self-sustaining in cereal production in 1974 (six years later) as a result of the introduction of Norman Borlaug 's dwarf wheat varieties. [87]
However, Borlaug was well aware of the implications of population growth. In his Nobel lecture he repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population. "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only. Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..."
To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security , and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of public action. [89] Economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's theory, arguing that Sen relies on inconsistent arguments and contradicts available information, including sources that Sen himself cited. [90] Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943 , and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine. [90]
Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri , (a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures . [ citation needed ]
These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile Frison of Bioversity International , the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as fewer people are affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies . [55] Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing countries are related to malnutrition. [55]
The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and was very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but did not give sufficient relevance to nutritional quality. [91] High yield-cereal crops have low quality proteins , with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates , and lack balanced essential fatty acids , vitamins , minerals and other quality factors. [91]
High-yield rice (HYR), introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, such as the Philippines , was found to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties. [ citation needed ] This caused its price to be lower than the average market value. [92]
In the Philippines the introduction of heavy pesticides to rice production, in the early part of the Green Revolution, poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies . These were nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to the introduction of pesticides, further impacting the diets of locals. [93]
A critic [94] of the Green Revolution, American journalist Mark Dowie argues that "the primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped countries and so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency." [95] Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that the Ford Foundation had a greater concern than Rockefeller in this area. [96]
The transition from traditional agriculture (in which inputs were generated on-farm) to Green Revolution agriculture (which required the purchase of inputs) led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller farmers often went into debt , which in many cases resulted in a loss of their farmland. [61] [97] The increased level of mechanization on larger farms made possible by the Green Revolution removed a large source of employment from the rural economy. [61]
The new economic difficulties of smallholder farmers and landless farm workers led to increased rural-urban migration . The increase in food production led to cheaper food for urban dwellers. [ citation needed ]
According to a 2021 study, the Green Revolution substantially increased income. [13] A delay in the Green Revolution by ten years would have cost 17% of GDP per capita, whereas if the Green Revolution had never happened, it could have reduced GDP per capita in the developing world by half. [13]
The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity (or agrodiversity) and wild biodiversity. [93] There is little disagreement that the Green Revolution acted to reduce agricultural biodiversity, as it relied on just a few high-yield varieties of each crop.
This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed banks such as Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ’s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (now Bioversity International ) have been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault ).
There are varying opinions about the effect of the Green Revolution on wild biodiversity. One hypothesis speculates that by increasing production per unit of land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new, uncultivated areas to feed a growing human population. [98] However, land degradation and soil nutrients depletion have forced farmers to clear forested areas in order to maintain production. [99] A counter-hypothesis speculates that biodiversity was sacrificed because traditional systems of agriculture that were displaced sometimes incorporated practices to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution expanded agricultural development into new areas where it was once unprofitable or too arid . For example, the development of wheat varieties tolerant to acid soil conditions with high aluminium content permitted the introduction of agriculture in sensitive Brazilian ecosystems such as Cerrado semi-humid tropical savanna and Amazon rainforest in the geoeconomic macroregions of Centro-Sul and Amazônia . [98] Before the Green Revolution, other Brazilian ecosystems were also significantly damaged by human activity, such as the once 1st or 2nd main contributor to Brazilian megadiversity Atlantic Rainforest (above 85% of deforestation in the 1980s, about 95% after the 2010s) and the important xeric shrublands called Caatinga mainly in Northeastern Brazil (about 40% in the 1980s, about 50% after the 2010s – deforestation of the Caatinga biome is generally associated with greater risks of desertification ). This also caused many animal species to suffer due to their damaged habitats.
Nevertheless, the world community has clearly acknowledged the negative aspects of agricultural expansion as the 1992 Rio Treaty , signed by 189 nations, has generated numerous national Biodiversity Action Plans which assign significant biodiversity loss to agriculture's expansion into new domains.
The Green Revolution has been criticized for an agricultural model which relied on a few staple and market profitable crops, and pursuing a model which limited the biodiversity of Mexico. One of the critics against these techniques and the Green Revolution as a whole was Carl O. Sauer , a geography professor at the University of California, Berkeley . According to Sauer these techniques of plant breeding would result in negative effects on the country's resources, and the culture:
"A good aggressive bunch of American agronomists and plant breeders could ruin the native resources for good and all by pushing their American commercial stocks... And Mexican agriculture cannot be pointed toward standardization on a few commercial types without upsetting native economy and culture hopelessly... Unless the Americans understand that, they'd better keep out of this country entirely. That must be approached from an appreciation of native economies as being basically sound". [100]
Studies indicate that the Green Revolution has substantially reduced emissions of the greenhouse gas CO 2 . [101] According to a study published in 2013 in PNAS , in the absence of the crop germplasm improvement associated with the Green Revolution, greenhouse gas emissions would have been 5.2–7.4 Gt higher than observed in 1965–2004. [16] High yield agriculture has dramatic effects on the amount of carbon cycling in the atmosphere. The way in which farms are grown, in tandem with the seasonal carbon cycling of various crops, could alter the impact carbon in the atmosphere has on global warming. Wheat, rice, and soybean crops account for a significant amount of the increase in carbon in the atmosphere over the last 50 years. [102]
Poorly regulated applications of nitrogen fertilizer that exceed the amount used by plants, such as broadcast applications of urea , results in emissions of nitrous oxide , a potent greenhouse gas, and in water pollution. [103]
Most high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on agricultural machinery and transport, as well as the production of pesticides and nitrates that all require energy. [104] Nitrogen fertilizer is a direct fossil fuel product processed primarily from natural gas . It is estimated that no more than 3.7 billion people of the current world population could be fed without this single fossil fuel agricultural input. [105] Moreover, the essential mineral nutrient phosphorus is often a limiting factor in crop cultivation, while phosphorus mines are rapidly being depleted worldwide. [106]
A 2021 study found that the Green Revolution led to a reduction in land used for agriculture. [13]
Studies have found that the Green Revolution substantially reduced infant mortality in the developing world. A 2020 study of 37 developing countries found that the diffusion of modern crop varieties "reduced infant mortality by 2.4–5.3 percentage points (from a baseline of 18%), with stronger effects for male infants and among poor households." [14] Another 2020 study found that high yield crop varieties reduced infant mortality in India, with particularly large effects for rural children, boys and low-caste children. [15]
Consumption of pesticides and fertilizer agrochemicals associated with the Green Revolution may have adverse health impacts. For example, pesticides may increase the likelihood of cancer. [107] Poor farming practices including non-compliance to usage of masks and over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation. [107] In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated that there were around 1 million human pesticide poisonings annually. Some 20,000 (mostly in developing countries) ended in death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc. [108] A 2014 study found that Indian children who were exposed to higher quantities of fertilizer agrochemicals experienced more adverse health impacts. [109]
A Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation of 50 villages in Muktsar , Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed that twenty percent of the sampled wells had nitrate levels above WHO limits for drinking water. The 2009 study linked the nitrate pollution with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers . [110]
Borlaug dismissed certain claims of critics, but also cautioned, "There are no miracles in agricultural production. Nor is there such a thing as a miracle variety of wheat, rice, or maize which can serve as an elixir to cure all ills of a stagnant, traditional agriculture." [111]
Of environmental lobbyists, he said, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth , but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things." [112]
Although the Green Revolution has been able to improve agricultural output in some regions in the world, there was and is still room for improvement. As a result, many organizations continue to invent new ways to improve the techniques already used in the Green Revolution. Frequently quoted inventions are the System of Rice Intensification , [113] marker-assisted selection , [114] agroecology , [115] and applying existing technologies to agricultural problems of the developing world. [116] Current challenges for nations trying to modernize their agriculture include closing the urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. [117] However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. [118] It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. [119] Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency.
The term 'Evergreen Revolution' [a] was coined by Indian agricultural scientist M. S. Swaminathan in 1990, though he has stated that the concept dates back to as early as 1968. It aims to represent an added dimension to the original concepts and practices of the green revolution, the ecological dimension. [120] [121] Swaminathan has described it as "productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm". [120] The concept has evolved into a combination of science, economics, and sociology. [122] [123] In 2002, American biologist E.O. Wilson observed that: [120] [ emphasis added ]
The problem before us is how to feed billions of new mouths over the next several decades and save the rest of life at the same time, without being trapped in a Faustian bargain that threatens freedom and security. No one knows the exact solution to this dilemma. The benefit must come from an Evergreen Revolution . The aim of this new thrust is to lift food production well above the level obtained by the Green Revolution of the 1960s, using technology and regulatory policy more advanced and even safer than those now in existence.— E.O. Wilson
- Farrell, John Joseph; Altieri, Miguel A. (1995). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview . ISBN 978-0-8133-1718-2 .
- Frison, Emile (2008). "Green Revolution in Africa will depend on biodiversity" . Development and Cooperation . 49 (5): 190–93. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008.
- Jain, H.K. (2010). The Green Revolution: History, Impact and Future (1st ed.). Houston, TX: Studium Press. ISBN 978-1-933699-63-9 .
- Oasa, Edmund K (1987). "The Political Economy of International Agricultural Research in Glass". In Glaeser, Bernhard (ed.). The Green Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives . Allen & Unwin. pp. 13–55. ISBN 978-0-04-630014-2 .
- Ross, Eric (1998). The Malthus Factor: Poverty, Politics and Population in Capitalist Development . London: Zed Books . ISBN 978-1-85649-564-6 .
- Ruttan, Vernon (1977). "The Green Revolution: Seven Generalizations". International Development Review . 19 : 16–23.
- Sen, Amartya Kumar; Drèze, Jean (1989). Hunger and public action . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-828365-2 .
- Shiva, Vandana (1989). The violence of the green revolution: Ecological degradation and political conflict in Punjab . Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science and Ecology. ISBN 978-81-85019-19-2 .
- Smil, Vaclav (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4 .
- Spitz, Pierre (1987). "The Green Revolution Re-Examined in India in Glass". In Glaeser, Bernhard (ed.). The Green Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives . Allen & Unwin. pp. 57–75. ISBN 978-0-04-630014-2 .
- Wright, Angus (1984). "Innocence Abroad: American Agricultural Research in Mexico". In Bruce Colman; Jackson, Wes; Berry, Wendell (eds.). Meeting the expectations of the land: essays in sustainable agriculture and stewardship . San Francisco: North Point Press. pp. 124–38. ISBN 978-0-86547-171-9 .
- Wright, Angus Lindsay (2005). The death of Ramón González: the modern agricultural dilemma . Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71268-3 .
- Cotter, Joseph (2003). Troubled Harvest: Agronomy and Revolution in Mexico, 1880–2002 . Westport, CT: Prager [ ISBN missing ]
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who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Borlaug - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Norman Borlaug
|Born|| March 25, 1914 |
Cresco, Iowa , U.S.
|Died|| September 12, 2009 (aged 95) |
Dallas , Texas, U.S.
|Alma mater||University of Minnesota ( BS , MS , PhD )|
|Known for|
|Awards|
|Scientific career|
|Fields|
|Institutions|
|Thesis||Variation and Variability in Fusarium lini . (1942)|
|Doctoral advisor||Jonas Jergon Christensen|
|Other academic advisors||Elvin C. Stakman|
Norman Ernest Borlaug ( / ˈ b ɔːr l ɔː ɡ / ; March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) [2] was an American agronomist who led initiatives worldwide that contributed to the extensive increases in agricultural production termed the Green Revolution . Borlaug was awarded multiple honors for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize , the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal .
Borlaug received his B.S. in forestry in 1937 and PhD in plant pathology and genetics from the University of Minnesota in 1942. He took up an agricultural research position with CIMMYT in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high- yield , disease -resistant wheat varieties . [3] [1] During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. [4]
Borlaug was often called "the father of the Green Revolution", [5] [6] and is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation . [7] [8] [9] [10] According to Jan Douglas, executive assistant to the president of the World Food Prize Foundation , the source of this number is Gregg Easterbrook 's 1997 article "Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity." The article states that the "form of agriculture that Borlaug preaches may have prevented a billion deaths." [11] He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.
Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production in Asia and Africa. [12]
Borlaug was the great-grandchild of Norwegian immigrants to the United States. Ole Olson Dybevig and Solveig Thomasdatter Rinde, of Feios , a small village in Vik kommune , Sogn og Fjordane , Norway, emigrated to Dane County , Wisconsin , in 1854. [ citation needed ] The family eventually moved to the small Norwegian-American community of Saude, near Cresco , Iowa . There they were members of Saude Lutheran Church, where Norman was both baptized and confirmed.
Borlaug was born to Henry Oliver (1889–1971) and Clara (Vaala) Borlaug (1888–1972) on his grandparents' farm in Saude in 1914, the first of four children. His three sisters were Palma Lillian (Behrens; 1916–2004), Charlotte (Culbert; b. 1919-2012) and Helen (b. d. 1921). From age seven to nineteen, he worked on the 106-acre (43 ha) family farm west of Protivin , Iowa , fishing, hunting, and raising corn, oats, timothy-grass , cattle, pigs and chickens. He attended the one-teacher, one-room New Oregon #8 rural school in Howard County , through eighth grade.
Today, the school building, built in 1865, is owned by the Norman Borlaug Heritage Foundation as part of "Project Borlaug Legacy". [13] Borlaug was a member of the football, baseball and wrestling teams at Cresco High School, where his wrestling coach, Dave Barthelma, continually encouraged him to "give 105%". [14]
Borlaug attributed his decision to leave the farm and pursue further education to his grandfather's urgent encouragement to learn: Nels Olson Borlaug (1859–1935) once told him, "you're wiser to fill your head now if you want to fill your belly later on." [15] When Borlaug applied for admission to the University of Minnesota in 1933, he failed its entrance exam, but was accepted at the school's newly created two-year General College. After two quarters, he transferred to the College of Agriculture's forestry program. As a member of University of Minnesota's varsity wrestling team, Borlaug reached the Big Ten semifinals, and promoted the sport to Minnesota high schools in exhibition matches all around the state.
Wrestling taught me some valuable lessons ... I always figured I could hold my own against the best in the world. It made me tough. Many times, I drew on that strength. It's an inappropriate crutch perhaps, but that's the way I'm made. [16]
To finance his studies, Borlaug put his education on hold periodically to earn some income, as he did in 1935 as a leader in the Civilian Conservation Corps , working with the unemployed on Federal projects. Many of the people who worked for him were starving. He later recalled, "I saw how food changed them ... All of this left scars on me". [17] From 1935 to 1938, before and after receiving his Bachelor of Science in forestry in 1937, Borlaug worked for the United States Forest Service at stations in Massachusetts and Idaho . He spent one summer in the middle fork of Idaho's Salmon River , the most isolated piece of wilderness in the nation at that time . [17]
In the last months of his undergraduate education, Borlaug attended a Sigma Xi lecture by Elvin Charles Stakman , a professor and soon-to-be head of the plant pathology group at the University of Minnesota. The event was a pivot for Borlaug's future. Stakman, in his speech entitled "These Shifty Little Enemies that Destroy our Food Crops", discussed the manifestation of the plant disease rust , a parasitic fungus that feeds on phytonutrients in wheat, oats, and barley crops. He had discovered that special plant breeding methods produced plants resistant to rust. His research greatly interested Borlaug, and when Borlaug's job at the Forest Service was eliminated because of budget cuts, he asked Stakman if he should go into forest pathology . Stakman advised him to focus on plant pathology instead. [16] He subsequently enrolled at the university to study plant pathology under Stakman. Borlaug earned a Master of Science degree in 1940, and a Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics in 1942.
Borlaug was a member of the Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity. While in college, he met his future wife, Margaret Gibson, as he waited tables at a coffee shop in the university's Dinkytown , where the two of them worked. They were married in 1937 and had three children, Norma Jean "Jeanie" Laube, Scotty (who died from spina bifida soon after birth), and William; five grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. On March 8, 2007, Margaret Borlaug died at the age of ninety-five, following a fall. [18] They had been married for sixty nine years. Borlaug resided in northern Dallas the last years of his life, although his global humanitarian efforts left him with only a few weeks of the year to spend there. [17]
From 1942 to 1944, Borlaug was employed as a microbiologist at DuPont in Wilmington , Delaware . It was planned that he would lead research on industrial and agricultural bacteriocides , fungicides , and preservatives . However, following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor Borlaug tried to enlist in the military, but was rejected under wartime labor regulations; his lab was converted to conduct research for the United States armed forces . One of his first projects was to develop glue that could withstand the warm salt water of the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Navy had gained control of the island of Guadalcanal , and patrolled the sky and sea by day. The only way for U.S. forces to supply the troops stranded on the island was to approach at night by speedboat, and jettison boxes of canned food and other supplies into the surf to wash ashore. The problem was that the glue holding these containers together disintegrated in saltwater. Within weeks, Borlaug and his colleagues had developed an adhesive that resisted corrosion, allowing food and supplies to reach the stranded Marines. Other tasks included work with camouflage ; canteen disinfectants; DDT to control malaria; and insulation for small electronics. [17]
In 1940, the Avila Camacho administration took office in Mexico . The administration's primary goal for Mexican agriculture was augmenting the nation's industrialization and economic growth. U.S. Vice President-Elect Henry Wallace , who was instrumental in persuading the Rockefeller Foundation to work with the Mexican government in agricultural development, saw Avila Camacho's ambitions as beneficial to U.S. economic and military interests. [19] The Rockefeller Foundation contacted E.C. Stakman and two other leading agronomists. They developed a proposal for a new organization, the Office of Special Studies, as part of the Mexican Government, but directed by the Rockefeller Foundation. It was to be staffed with both Mexican and US scientists, focusing on soil development, maize and wheat production, and plant pathology .
Stakman chose Dr. Jacob George "Dutch" Harrar as project leader. Harrar immediately set out to hire Borlaug as head of the newly established Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico; Borlaug declined, choosing to finish his war service at DuPont. [20] In July 1944, after rejecting DuPont 's offer to double his salary, and temporarily leaving behind his pregnant wife and 14-month-old daughter, he flew to Mexico City to head the new program as a geneticist and plant pathologist . [17]
In 1964, he was made the director of the International Wheat Improvement Program at El Batán, Texcoco , on the eastern fringes of Mexico City , as part of the newly established Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 's International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, or CIMMYT). Funding for this autonomous international research training institute developed from the Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program was undertaken jointly by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and the Mexican government .
Besides his work in genetic resistance against crop loss, he felt that pesticides including DDT had more benefits than drawbacks for humanity and advocated publicly for their continued use. He continued to support pesticide use despite the severe public criticism he received for it. [21] [22] Borlaug mostly admired the work and personality of Rachel Carson but lamented her Silent Spring , what he saw as its inaccurate portrayal of the effects of DDT, and that it became her best known work. [23]
Borlaug retired officially from the position in 1979, but remained a CIMMYT senior consultant . In addition to taking up charitable and educational roles, he continued to be involved in plant research at CIMMYT with wheat, triticale , barley , maize , and high-altitude sorghum .
In 1981, Borlaug became a founding member of the World Cultural Council . [24]
In 1984, Borlaug began teaching and conducting research at Texas A&M University . Eventually he was given the title Distinguished Professor of International Agriculture at the university and the holder of the Eugene Butler Endowed Chair in Agricultural Biotechnology .
He advocated for agricultural biotechnology as he had for pesticides in earlier decades: Publicly, knowledgeably, and always despite heavy criticism. [25] [22]
Borlaug remained at A&M until his death in September 2009.
The Cooperative Wheat Research Production Program, a joint venture by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, involved research in genetics , plant breeding , plant pathology, entomology , agronomy , soil science , and cereal technology. The goal of the project was to boost wheat production in Mexico, which at the time was importing a large portion of its grain. Plant pathologist George Harrar recruited and assembled the wheat research team in late 1944. The four other members were soil scientist William Colwell; maize breeder Edward Wellhausen; potato breeder John Niederhauser ; and Norman Borlaug, all from the United States. [26] During the sixteen years Borlaug remained with the project, he bred a series of remarkably successful high-yield, disease-resistant, semi-dwarf wheat .
Borlaug said that his first few years in Mexico were difficult. He lacked trained scientists and equipment. Local farmers were hostile towards the wheat program because of serious crop losses from 1939 to 1941 due to stem rust . "It often appeared to me that I had made a dreadful mistake in accepting the position in Mexico," he wrote in the epilogue to his book, Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . [17] He spent the first ten years breeding wheat cultivars resistant to disease, including rust . In that time, his group made 6,000 individual crossings of wheat. [27]
Initially, Borlaug's work had been concentrated in the central highlands, in the village of Chapingo near Texcoco , where the problems with rust and poor soil were most prevalent . The village never met their aims. He realized that he could speed up breeding by taking advantage of the country's two growing seasons. In the summer he would breed wheat in the central highlands as usual, then immediately take the seeds north to the Valle del Yaqui research station near Ciudad Obregón , Sonora . The difference in altitudes and temperatures would allow more crops to be grown each year. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's boss, George Harrar, was against this expansion. Besides the extra costs of doubling the work, Borlaug's plan went against a then-held principle of agronomy that has since been disproved. It was believed that to store energy for germination before being planted, seeds needed a rest period after harvesting. When Harrar vetoed his plan, Borlaug resigned. Elvin Stakman, who was visiting the project, calmed the situation, talking Borlaug into withdrawing his resignation and Harrar into allowing the double wheat season. As of 1945, wheat would then be bred at locations 700 miles (1000 km) apart, 10 degrees apart in latitude, and 8500 feet (2600 m) apart in altitude. This was called "shuttle breeding". [28]
As an unexpected benefit of the double wheat season, the new breeds did not have problems with photoperiodism . Normally, wheat varieties cannot adapt to new environments, due to the changing periods of sunlight. Borlaug later recalled, "As it worked out, in the north, we were planting when the days were getting shorter, at low elevation and high temperature. Then we'd take the seed from the best plants south and plant it at high elevation, when days were getting longer and there was lots of rain. Soon we had varieties that fit the whole range of conditions. That wasn't supposed to happen by the books". [27] This meant that the project would not need to start separate breeding programs for each geographic region of the planet.
Because purebred ( genotypically identical) plant varieties often only have one or a few major genes for disease resistance , and plant diseases such as rust are continuously producing new races that can overcome a pure line's resistance, multiple linear lines varieties were developed. Multiline varieties are mixtures of several phenotypically similar pure lines which each have different genes for disease resistance. By having similar heights, flowering and maturity dates, seed colors, and agronomic characteristics, they remain compatible with each other, and do not reduce yields when grown together on the field. [ citation needed ]
In 1953, Borlaug extended this technique by suggesting that several pure lines with different resistance genes should be developed through backcross methods using one recurrent parent. [29] Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid and subsequent generations with a recurrent parent. As a result, the genotype of the backcrossed progeny becomes increasingly similar to that of the recurrent parent. Borlaug's method would allow the various different disease-resistant genes from several donor parents to be transferred into a single recurrent parent. To make sure each line has different resistant genes, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program. Between five and ten of these lines may then be mixed depending upon the races of pathogen present in the region. As this process is repeated, some lines will become susceptible to the pathogen . These lines can easily be replaced with new resistant lines.
As new sources of resistance become available, new lines are developed. In this way, the loss of crops is kept to a minimum, because only one or a few lines become susceptible to a pathogen within a given season, and all other crops are unaffected by the disease. Because the disease would spread more slowly than if the entire population were susceptible, this also reduces the damage to susceptible lines. There is still the possibility that a new race of pathogen will develop to which all lines are susceptible, however. [30]
Dwarfing is an important agronomic quality for wheat; dwarf plants produce thick stems. The cultivars Borlaug worked with had tall, thin stalks. Taller wheat grasses better compete for sunlight, but tend to collapse under the weight of the extra grain—a trait called lodging—from the rapid growth spurts induced by nitrogen fertilizer Borlaug used in the poor soil. To prevent this, he bred wheat to favor shorter, stronger stalks that could better support larger seed heads. In 1953, he acquired a Japanese dwarf variety of wheat called Norin 10 developed by the agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka in Iwate Prefecture , including ones which had been crossed with a high-yielding American cultivar called Brevor 14 by Orville Vogel . [31] Norin 10/Brevor 14 is semi-dwarf (one-half to two-thirds the height of standard varieties) and produces more stalks and thus more heads of grain per plant. Also, larger amounts of assimilate were partitioned into the actual grains, further increasing the yield. Borlaug crossbred the semi-dwarf Norin 10/Brevor 14 cultivar with his disease-resistant cultivars to produce wheat varieties that were adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climates. [32]
Borlaug's new semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties, called Pitic 62 and Penjamo 62, changed the potential yield of spring wheat dramatically. By 1963, 95% of Mexico's wheat crops used the semi-dwarf varieties developed by Borlaug. That year, the harvest was six times larger than in 1944, the year Borlaug arrived in Mexico. Mexico had become fully self-sufficient in wheat production, and a net exporter of wheat. [33] Four other high-yield varieties were also released, in 1964: Lerma Rojo 64, Siete Cerros, Sonora 64, and Super X.
In 1961 to 1962, Borlaug's dwarf spring wheat strains were sent for multilocation testing in the International Wheat Rust Nursery, organized by the U.S. Department of Agriculture . In March 1962, a few of these strains were grown in the fields of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa, New Delhi, India. In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan , a member of IARI's wheat program, requested of Dr B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seed possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. [ citation needed ] The letter was forwarded to the Indian Ministry of Agriculture headed by Shri C. Subramaniam , which arranged with the Rockefeller Foundation for Borlaug's visit.
In March 1963, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government sent Borlaug and Dr Robert Glenn Anderson to India to continue his work. He supplied 100 kg (220 lb) of seed from each of the four most promising strains and 630 promising selections in advanced generations to the IARI in October 1963, and test plots were subsequently planted at Delhi , Ludhiana , Pant Nagar , Kanpur , Pune and Indore . [ citation needed ] Anderson stayed as head of the Rockefeller Foundation Wheat Program in New Delhi until 1975.
During the mid-1960s the Indian subcontinent was at war and experienced minor famine and starvation , which was limited partially by the U.S. shipping a fifth of its wheat production to India in 1966 & 1967. [26] The Indian and Pakistani bureaucracies and the region's cultural opposition to new agricultural techniques initially prevented Borlaug from fulfilling his desire to immediately plant the new wheat strains there. In 1965, as a response to food shortages, Borlaug imported 550 tons of seeds for the government. [17]
Biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in his 1968 bestseller The Population Bomb , "The battle to feed all of humanity is over ... In the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Ehrlich said, "I have yet to meet anyone familiar with the situation who thinks India will be self-sufficient in food by 1971," and "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980." [34]
In 1965, after extensive testing, Borlaug's team, under Anderson, began its effort by importing about 450 tons of Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 semi-dwarf seed varieties: 250 tons went to Pakistan and 200 to India. They encountered many obstacles. Their first shipment of wheat was held up in Mexican customs and so it could not be shipped from the port at Guaymas in time for proper planting. [ citation needed ] Instead, it was sent via a 30-truck convoy from Mexico to the U.S. port in Los Angeles, encountering delays at the Mexico–United States border . Once the convoy entered the U.S., it had to take a detour, as the U.S. National Guard had closed the freeway due to the Watts riots in Los Angeles. When the seeds reached Los Angeles, a Mexican bank refused to honor Pakistan treasury's payment of US$ 100,000, because the check contained three misspelled words. Still, the seed was loaded onto a freighter destined for Bombay , India, and Karachi , Pakistan . Twelve hours into the freighter's voyage, war broke out between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Borlaug received a telegram from the Pakistani minister of agriculture, Malik Khuda Bakhsh Bucha : "I'm sorry to hear you are having trouble with my check, but I've got troubles, too. Bombs are falling on my front lawn. Be patient, the money is in the bank ..." [17]
These delays prevented Borlaug's group from conducting the germination tests needed to determine seed quality and proper seeding levels. They started planting immediately and often worked in sight of artillery flashes. A week later, Borlaug discovered that his seeds were germinating at less than half the normal rate. [ citation needed ] It later turned out that the seeds had been damaged in a Mexican warehouse by over-fumigation with a pesticide. He immediately ordered all locations to double their seeding rates. [35]
The initial yields of Borlaug's crops were higher than any ever harvested in South Asia . The countries subsequently committed to importing large quantities of both the Lerma Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 varieties. In 1966, India imported 18,000 tons—the largest purchase and import of any seed in the world at that time. In 1967, Pakistan imported 42,000 tons, and Turkey 21,000 tons. Pakistan's import, planted on 1.5 million acres (6,100 km 2 ), produced enough wheat to seed the entire nation's wheatland the following year. [26] By 1968, when Ehrlich's book was released, William Gaud of the United States Agency for International Development was calling Borlaug's work a "Green Revolution". High yields led to a shortage of various utilities—labor to harvest the crops, bullock carts to haul it to the threshing floor, jute bags, trucks, rail cars, and grain storage facilities. Some local governments were forced to close school buildings temporarily to use them for grain storage. [17]
In Pakistan, wheat yields nearly doubled, from 4.6 million tons in 1965 to 7.3 million tons in 1970; Pakistan was self-sufficient in wheat production by 1968. [ citation needed ] Yields were over 21 million tons by 2000. In India, yields increased from 12.3 million tons in 1965 to 20.1 million tons in 1970. By 1974, India was self-sufficient in the production of all cereals. By 2000, India was harvesting a record 76.4 million tons (2.81 billion bushels ) of wheat. Since the 1960s, food production in both nations has increased faster than the rate of population growth. [ citation needed ] India's use of high-yield farming has prevented an estimated 100 million acres (400,000 km 2 ) of virgin land from being converted into farmland—an area about the size of California , or 13.6% of the total area of India. [36] The use of these wheat varieties has also had a substantial effect on production in six Latin American countries, six countries in the Near and Middle East , and several others in Africa. [ citation needed ]
Borlaug's work with wheat contributed to the development of high-yield semi-dwarf indica and japonica rice cultivars at the International Rice Research Institute and China's Hunan Rice Research Institute. Borlaug's colleagues at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research also developed and introduced a high-yield variety of rice throughout most of Asia. Land devoted to the semi-dwarf wheat and rice varieties in Asia expanded from 200 acres (0.8 km 2 ) in 1965 to over 40 million acres (160,000 km 2 ) in 1970. In 1970, this land accounted for over 10% of the more productive cereal land in Asia. [26]
For his contributions to the world food supply, Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. Norwegian officials notified his wife in Mexico City at 4:00 am, but Borlaug had already left for the test fields in the Toluca valley, about 40 miles (65 km) west of Mexico City. A chauffeur took her to the fields to inform her husband. According to his daughter, Jeanie Laube, "My mom said, 'You won the Nobel Peace Prize,' and he said, 'No, I haven't', ... It took some convincing ... He thought the whole thing was a hoax". [17] He was awarded the prize on December 10.
In his Nobel Lecture the following day, he speculated on his award: "When the Nobel Peace Prize Committee designated me the recipient of the 1970 award for my contribution to the 'green revolution', they were in effect, I believe, selecting an individual to symbolize the vital role of agriculture and food production in a world that is hungry, both for bread and for peace". [37] His speech repeatedly presented improvements in food production within a sober understanding of the context of population . "The green revolution has won a temporary success in man's war against hunger and deprivation; it has given man a breathing space. If fully implemented, the revolution can provide sufficient food for sustenance during the next three decades. But the frightening power of human reproduction must also be curbed; otherwise the success of the green revolution will be ephemeral only.
"Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the "Population Monster"...Since man is potentially a rational being, however, I am confident that within the next two decades he will recognize the self-destructive course he steers along the road of irresponsible population growth..." [38]
Borlaug continually advocated increasing crop yields as a means to curb deforestation. The large role he played in both increasing crop yields and promoting this view has led to this methodology being called by agricultural economists the "Borlaug hypothesis", namely that increasing the productivity of agriculture on the best farmland can help control deforestation by reducing the demand for new farmland . According to this view, assuming that global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods would also require at least one of the following: the world population to decrease, either voluntarily or as a result of mass starvations; or the conversion of forest land into crop land. It is thus argued that high-yield techniques are ultimately saving ecosystems from destruction. On a global scale, this view holds strictly true ceteris paribus , if deforestation only occurs to increase land for agriculture. But other land uses exist, such as urban areas, pasture, or fallow, so further research is necessary to ascertain what land has been converted for what purposes, to determine how true this view remains. [ according to whom? ]
Increased profits from high-yield production may also induce cropland expansion in any case, although as world food needs decrease, this expansion may decrease as well. [39]
Borlaug expressed the idea now known as the "Borlaug hypothesis" in a speech given in Oslo, Norway, in 2000, upon the occasion of the 30th anniversary of his acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize: "Had the global cereal yields of 1950 still prevailed in 1999, we would have needed nearly 1.8 billion ha of additional land of the same quality – instead of the 600 million that was used – to equal the current global harvest". [40]
Borlaug's name is nearly synonymous with the Green Revolution , against which many criticisms have been mounted over the decades by environmentalists and some nutritionists [ who? ] . Throughout his years of research, Borlaug's programs often faced opposition by nonscientists who consider genetic crossbreeding to be unnatural or to have negative effects. [41] Borlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture , input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations. [42] [ failed verification ] These farming techniques, in addition to increasing yields, often reaped large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations and were criticized by one author in 2003 as widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform . [43] [ improper synthesis? ]
Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology include the crossing of genetic barriers; the inability of a single crop to fulfill all nutritional requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the side effects of large amounts of herbicides sprayed on fields of herbicide-resistant crops; and the destruction of wilderness caused by the construction of roads in populated third-world areas. [44]
Borlaug refuted or dismissed most claims of his critics, but did take certain concerns seriously. He stated that his work has been "a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia". [45] Of environmental lobbyists opposing crop yield improvements, he stated, "some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists . They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels . If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things". [46]
Following his retirement, Borlaug continued to participate in teaching, research and activism. He spent much of the year based at CIMMYT in Mexico, conducting research, and four months of the year serving at Texas A&M University , where he had been a distinguished professor of international agriculture since 1984. From 1994 to 2003, Borlaug served on the International Fertilizer Development Center board of directors. In 1999, the university's Board of Regents named its US$16 million Center for Southern Crop Improvement in honor of Borlaug. He worked in the building's Heep Center, and taught one semester each year. [17]
In the early 1980s, environmental groups that were opposed to Borlaug's methods campaigned against his planned expansion of efforts into Africa. They prompted the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and the World Bank to stop funding most of his African agriculture projects. Western European governments were persuaded to stop supplying fertilizer to Africa. According to David Seckler, former Director General of the International Water Management Institute , "the environmental community in the 1980s went crazy pressuring the donor countries and the big foundations not to support ideas like inorganic fertilizers for Africa." [36]
In 1984, during the Ethiopian famine, Ryoichi Sasakawa , the chairman of the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation (now the Nippon Foundation ), contacted the semi-retired Borlaug, wondering why the methods used in Asia were not extended to Africa, and hoping Borlaug could help. He managed to convince Borlaug to help with this new effort, [47] and subsequently founded the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) to coordinate the project.
The SAA is a research and extension organization that aims to increase food production in African countries that are struggling with food shortages. "I assumed we'd do a few years of research first," Borlaug later recalled, "but after I saw the terrible circumstances there, I said, 'Let's just start growing'." [36] Soon, Borlaug and the SAA had projects in seven countries. Yields of maize in developed African countries tripled. Yields of wheat, sorghum , cassava , and cowpeas also increased in these countries. [36] At present (more than ten years after Borlaug's death in 2009), program activities are under way in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ethiopia , Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Malawi , Mozambique , Nigeria , Tanzania , and Uganda , all of which suffered from repeated famines in previous decades.
From 1986 to 2009, Borlaug was the President of the SAA. That year, a joint venture between The Carter Center and SAA was launched called Sasakawa-Global 2000 (SG 2000). [48] The program focuses on food, population and agricultural policy. [49] Since then, more than 8 million small-scale farmers in 15 African countries have been trained in SAA farming techniques, which have helped them to double or triple grain production. [50] Those elements that allowed Borlaug's projects to succeed in India and Pakistan, such as well-organized market economies, transportation, and irrigation systems, are severely lacking throughout much of Africa, posing additional obstacles to increasing yields and reducing the ongoing threat of food shortages. Because of these challenges, Borlaug's initial projects were restricted to relatively developed regions of the continent.
Despite these setbacks, Borlaug found encouragement. Visiting Ethiopia in 1994 after a major famine, Jimmy Carter won Prime Minister Meles Zenawi 's support for a campaign seeking to aid farmers, using the fertilizer diammonium phosphate and Borlaug's methods. The following season, Ethiopia recorded the largest harvests of major crops in history, with a 32% increase in production, and a 15% increase in average yield over the previous season. For Borlaug, the rapid increase in yields suggested that there was still hope for higher food production throughout sub-Saharan Africa, [36] despite lingering questions about population sustainability and the absence of long-term studies in Africa.
The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity or availability of food in the world. The prize was created in 1986 by Norman Borlaug, as a way to recognize personal accomplishments, and as a means of education by using the Prize to establish role models for others. The first prize was given to Borlaug's former colleague, M. S. Swaminathan , in 1987, for his work in India. The next year, Swaminathan used the US$250,000 prize to start the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation for research on sustainable development .
At the DuPont Agriculture & Nutrition Media Day held in Des Moines , Iowa , on September 25, 2000, Borlaug announced the launch of Norman Borlaug University, an Internet-based learning company for agriculture and food industry personnel. The university was unable to expand the necessary content or customer base, and since late 2001 has been defunct.
In 2005, Borlaug, with his former graduate student Ronnie Coffman , convened an international expert panel in Kenya on the emerging threat of Ug99 in east Africa. [51] The working group produced a report, " Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust ", and their work led to the formation of the Global Rust Initiative. In 2008, with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the organization was re-named the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative [52]
The limited potential for land expansion for cultivation worried Borlaug, who, in March 2005, stated that, "we will have to double the world food supply by 2050." With 85% of future growth in food production having to come from lands already in use, he recommends a multidisciplinary research focus to further increase yields, mainly through increased crop immunity to large-scale diseases, such as the rust fungus, which affects all cereals but rice. His dream was to "transfer rice immunity to cereals such as wheat, maize, sorghum and barley, and transfer bread-wheat proteins ( gliadin and glutenin ) to other cereals, especially rice and maize". [53]
Borlaug believed that genetically modified organisms (GMO) were the only way to increase food production as the world runs out of unused arable land . GMOs were not inherently dangerous "because we've been genetically modifying plants and animals for a long time. Long before we called it science, people were selecting the best breeds." [54] In a review of Borlaug's 2000 publication entitled Ending world hunger: the promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry , [55] the authors argued that Borlaug's warnings were still true in 2010, [56]
GM crops are as natural and safe as today's bread wheat, opined Dr. Borlaug, who also reminded agricultural scientists of their moral obligation to stand up to the antiscience crowd and warn policy makers that global food insecurity will not disappear without this new technology and ignoring this reality global food insecurity would make future solutions all the more difficult to achieve.— Rozwadowski and Kagale
According to Borlaug, "Africa, the former Soviet republics, and the cerrado are the last frontiers. After they are in use, the world will have no additional sizable blocks of arable land left to put into production, unless you are willing to level whole forests, which you should not do. So, future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. And though I have no doubt yields will keep going up, whether they can go up enough to feed the population monster is another matter. Unless progress with agricultural yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale, will exceed the worst of everything that has come before". [36]
Besides increasing the worldwide food supply, early in his career Borlaug stated that taking steps to decrease the rate of population growth will also be necessary to prevent food shortages. In his Nobel Lecture of 1970, Borlaug stated, "Most people still fail to comprehend the magnitude and menace of the 'Population Monster' ... If it continues to increase at the estimated present rate of two percent a year, the world population will reach 6.5 billion by the year 2000. Currently, with each second, or tick of the clock, about 2.2 additional people are added to the world population. The rhythm of increase will accelerate to 2.7, 3.3, and 4.0 for each tick of the clock by 1980, 1990, and 2000, respectively, unless man becomes more realistic and preoccupied about this impending doom. The tick-tock of the clock will continually grow louder and more menacing each decade. Where will it all end?" [37] However, some observers have suggested that by the 1990s Borlaug had changed his position on population control. They point to a quote from the year 2000 in which he stated: "I now say that the world has the technology—either available or well advanced in the research pipeline—to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people. The more pertinent question today is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology? While the affluent nations can certainly afford to adopt ultra low-risk positions, and pay more for food produced by the so-called 'organic' methods, the one billion chronically undernourished people of the low income, food-deficit nations cannot." [57] However, Borlaug remained on the advisory board of Population Media Center , an organization working to stabilize world population, until his death. [58]
Borlaug died of lymphoma at the age of 95, on September 12, 2009, in his Dallas home. [2] [59] [3]
Borlaug's children released a statement saying, "We would like his life to be a model for making a difference in the lives of others and to bring about efforts to end human misery for all mankind." [60]
The Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and President of India Pratibha Patil paid tribute to Borlaug saying, "Borlaug's life and achievement are testimony to the far-reaching contribution that one man's towering intellect, persistence and scientific vision can make to human peace and progress." [61]
The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) described Borlaug as "a towering scientist whose work rivals that of the 20th century's other great scientific benefactors of humankind" [62] and Kofi Annan , former Secretary-General of the United Nations said, "As we celebrate Dr. Borlaug's long and remarkable life, we also celebrate the long and productive lives that his achievements have made possible for so many millions of people around the world... we will continue to be inspired by his enduring devotion to the poor, needy and vulnerable of our world." [63]
In 1968, Borlaug received what he considered an especially satisfying tribute when the people of Ciudad Obregón , where some of his earliest experiments were undertaken, named a street after him. Also in that year, he became a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences .
In 1970, he was given an honorary doctorate by the Agricultural University of Norway . [64]
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee "for his contributions to the 'green revolution' that was having such an impact on food production particularly in Asia and in Latin America." [64]
In 1971, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the National Academy of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine of Argentina [65]
In 1971, he received the American Academy of Achievement 's Golden Plate Award. [66]
In 1974, he was awarded a Peace Medal (in the form of a dove, carrying a wheat ear in its beak) by Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar, India.
In 1975, he was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Iowa Academy of Science . [67]
In 1980, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards . [68]
In 1980, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences .
In 1984, his name was placed in the National Agricultural Hall of Fame at the national center in Bonner Springs , Kansas . Also that year, he was recognized for sustained service to humanity through outstanding contributions in plant breeding from the Governors Conference on Agriculture Innovations in Little Rock , Arkansas . Also in 1984, he received the Henry G. Bennet Distinguished Service Award at commencement ceremonies at Oklahoma State University . He recently received the Charles A. Black Award for his contributions to public policy and the public understanding of science .
In 1985, the University of Minnesota named a wing of the new science building in Borlaug's honor, calling it "Borlaug Hall."
In 1986, Borlaug was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame during Norsk Høstfest . [69]
In 2012, a new elementary school in the Iowa City, IA school district opened, called "Norman Borlaug Elementary".
On August 19, 2013, his statue was unveiled inside the ICAR 's NASC Complex at New Delhi , India . [71]
On March 25, 2014, a statue of Borlaug at the United States Capitol was unveiled in a ceremony on the 100th anniversary of his birth. This statue replaces the statue of James Harlan as one of the two statues given to the National Statuary Hall Collection by the state of Iowa.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Borlaug received the 1977 U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the 2002 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, [72] the 2002 Rotary International Award for World Understanding and Peace, and the 2004 National Medal of Science . As of January 2004, Borlaug had received 49 honorary degrees from as many universities, in 18 countries, the most recent from Dartmouth College on June 12, 2005, [73] and was a foreign or honorary member of 22 international Academies of Sciences. [74] In Iowa and Minnesota, " World Food Day ", October 16, is referred to as "Norman Borlaug World Food Prize Day". Throughout the United States, it is referred to as " World Food Prize Day".
In 2006, the Government of India conferred on him its second highest civilian award: the Padma Vibhushan . [75] He was awarded the Danforth Award for Plant Science by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center , St Louis, Missouri in recognition of his lifelong commitment to increasing global agricultural production through plant science.
Several research institutions and buildings have been named in his honor, including: the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Farmer Training and Education, Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Bolivia , in 1983; Borlaug Hall, on the St. Paul Campus of the University of Minnesota in 1985; Borlaug Building at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) headquarters in 1986; the Norman Borlaug Institute for Plant Science Research at De Montfort University , Leicester , United Kingdom in 1997; and the Norman E. Borlaug Center for Southern Crop Improvement, at Texas A&M University in 1999; and the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) in 2011. In 2006, the Texas A&M University System created the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture [ citation needed ] to be a premier institution for agricultural development and to continue the legacy of Dr. Borlaug.
The stained-glass World Peace Window at St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral in Minneapolis , Minnesota , depicts "peace makers" of the 20th century, including Norman Borlaug. [76] Borlaug was also prominently mentioned in an episode (" In This White House ") of the TV show The West Wing . The president of a fictional African country describes the kind of " miracle " needed to save his country from the ravages of AIDS by referencing an American scientist who was able to save the world from hunger through the development of a new type of wheat. The U.S. president replies by providing Borlaug's name.
Borlaug was also featured in an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit! , where he was referred to as the "Greatest Human Being That Ever Lived". In that episode, Penn & Teller play a card game where each card depicts a great person in history. Each player picks a few cards at random, and bets on whether one thinks one's card shows a greater person than the other players' cards based on a characterization such as humanitarianism or scientific achievement. Penn gets Norman Borlaug, and proceeds to bet all his chips, his house, his rings, his watch, and essentially everything he's ever owned. He wins because, as he says, "Norman is the greatest human being, and you've probably never heard of him." In the episode—the topic of which was genetically altered food—he is credited with saving the lives of over a billion people. [77]
In August 2006, Dr. Leon Hesser published The Man Who Fed the World: Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug and His Battle to End World Hunger , an account of Borlaug's life and work. On August 4, the book received the 2006 Print of Peace award, as part of International Read For Peace Week. Borlaug is also the subject of the documentary film The Man Who Tried to Feed the World which first aired on American Experience on April 21, 2020. [78] [79]
On September 27, 2006, the United States Senate by unanimous consent passed the Congressional Tribute to Dr. Norman E. Borlaug Act of 2006. The act authorizes that Borlaug be awarded America's highest civilian award, the Congressional Gold Medal . On December 6, 2006, the House of Representatives passed the measure by voice vote. President George Bush signed the bill into law on December 14, 2006, and it became Public Law Number 109–395. [80] According to the act, "the number of lives Dr. Borlaug has saved [is] more than a billion people" The act authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to strike and sell duplicates of the medal in bronze. [81] He was presented with the medal on July 17, 2007. [82]
Borlaug was a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences . [83]
The Borlaug Dialogue (Norman E. Borlaug International Symposium) is named in his honour.
This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( May 2019 )
- The Green Revolution, Peace, and Humanity . 1970. Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. December 11, 1970.
- Wheat in the Third World . 1982. Authors: Haldore Hanson, Norman E. Borlaug, and R. Glenn Anderson. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-357-1
- Land use, food, energy and recreation . 1983. Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. ISBN 0-940222-07-8
- Feeding a human population that increasingly crowds a fragile planet . 1994. Mexico City. ISBN 968-6201-34-3
- Norman Borlaug on World Hunger . 1997. Edited by Anwar Dil. San Diego/Islamabad/Lahore: Bookservice International. 499 pages. ISBN 0-9640492-3-6
- The Green Revolution Revisited and the Road Ahead . 2000. Anniversary Nobel Lecture, Norwegian Nobel Institute in Oslo, Norway. September 8, 2000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Borlaug | 141 |
who is called the father of green revolution | Norman Ernest Borlaug | American scientist | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Norman Borlaug
- Born:
- March 25, 1914 Iowa
- Died:
- September 12, 2009 (aged 95) Dallas Texas
- Role In:
- green revolution
Norman Ernest Borlaug , (born March 25, 1914, near Saude, Iowa , U.S.—died September 12, 2009, Dallas , Texas), American agricultural scientist, plant pathologist, and winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1970. Known as the “Father of the Green Revolution ,” Borlaug helped lay the groundwork for agricultural technological advances that alleviated world hunger.
Borlaug studied plant biology and forestry at the University of Minnesota and earned a Ph.D. in plant pathology there in 1942. He began working with the DuPont Company in 1942 but was soon recruited as a research scientist in charge of wheat improvement for the Rockefeller Foundation ’s Cooperative Mexican Agricultural Program in Mexico , where he worked from 1944 to 1960. Seeking to assist impoverished farmers who struggled with diseased and low-producing crops, Borlaug experimented with novel varieties of wheat, creating disease-resistant strains that could withstand the harsh climate. That work was founded on earlier discoveries of ways to induce genetic mutations in plants, and his methods led to modern plant breeding .
The Green Revolution resulted in increased production of food grains (especially wheat and rice ) and was in large part due to the introduction into developing countries of new, high-yielding varieties, beginning in the mid-20th century with Borlaug’s work. At a research station at Campo Atizapan, he developed a short-stemmed (“dwarf”) strain of wheat that dramatically increased crop yields. Previously, taller wheat varieties would break under the weight of the heads if production was increased by chemical fertilizers . Borlaug’s short-stemmed wheat could withstand the increased weight of fertilized heads and was a key element in the Green Revolution in developing countries. Wheat production in Mexico multiplied threefold owing to this and other varieties.
Following Borlaug’s success in Mexico, the Indian and Pakistani goverments requested his assistance, and with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Borlaug began his agricultural revolution in Asia. With India and Pakistan facing food shortages due to rapid population growth, the importation of Borlaug’s dwarf wheat in the mid-1960s was responsible for a 60 percent increase in harvests there, helping both countries to become agriculturally self-sufficient . His work in developing countries, especially on the Indian subcontinent , is estimated to have saved as many as one billion people from starvation and death.
Borlaug also created a wheat-rye hybrid known as triticale , and his methods were used by others to develop new varieties of highly productive rice. The increased yields resulting from Borlaug’s new strains empowered many developing countries, though their use required large amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides . These high-yielding crops raised concerns about cost and potentially harmful environmental effects, though Borlaug argued that uncontrolled population growth had necessitated such production methods. Although newer varieties of food grains have been developed to be high-yielding and also resistant to local pests and diseases, modern agriculture has yet to achieve environmental sustainability in the face of an ever-growing human population.
Borlaug served as director of the Inter-American Food Crop Program (1960–63) and as director of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Mexico City , from 1964 to 1979. In 1986 Borlaug created the World Food Prize to honour individuals who have contributed to improving the availability and quality of food worldwide. In constant demand as a consultant, Borlaug served on numerous committees and advisory panels on agriculture, population control, and renewable resources. He also taught at Texas A&M University (1984–2009), where the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture was established in 2006. His numerous other honours include the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977), the National Medal of Science (2004), the Congressional Gold Medal (2006), and the United Nations FAO Agricola Medal (2010).
This article was most recently revised and updated by Richard Pallardy . | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Norman-Borlaug | 141 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Ancient City of Thebes Egypt | By: ETP Team Published: 04 July, 2019 Updated: 04 August, 2021
Thebes is the ancient Egyptian Kingdom that holds the historical and cultural essence of the oldest civilization ever created in the history of mankind. This Article's main goal is to showcase all the all information and details about the legendary city of Thebes. This article was written by a group of very knowledgeable and professional historians, scholars, and tour guides who have decades of experience across the heavenly lands of Egypt. Thebes is one of the most majestic cities in the world is the ancient city of Thebes Egypt, which was used to be the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom (2040 to 1750 B.C.) and as the main capital during Egypt new kingdom ( 1570-1069 BCE ) from the 11th dynasty to the 18th dynasty. The ancient city of Thebes was built to honor the divine, the living, and the dead, plus immortalize the heritage and legacy of the greatest civilization the world has ever known for many future generations.
Thebes lay on either side of the Nile River at approximately 26° N latitude. It is located east of the Nile River about 800 Km (500 Mi) south of the Mediterranean Sea and 675 Km (419 Mi) south of modern Cairo. Thebes used to consist of the two cities of Luxor and Aswan. The main part of the city was known to be located along the Nile’s east bank, and Along the west bank was the necropolis, or “city of the dead,” an area filled with the royal tombs and mortuary temples that still existed today. Thebes had about 40,000 inhabitants in 2000 BC and by 1500 BC, Thebes had grown to with a population of about 75,000 to be the largest city in the world at that time. The city of Thebes was considered to be a cult center, a hub for religious activities, and the home of Luxor’s best monuments like the temples of the Karnak , Luxor, and Valley of the Kings where the heart and soul of the ancient Egyptian culture are immortalized.
Thebes was known as Wase or Wo’se that means "the city" or Nowe or Nuwe plus Usast or Waset which means the southern city. It was the center of worship of the god Amun the creator God as it was known as P-Amen or Pa-Amen which means "the abode of Amen". Amon was merged with the sun god Re to become the supreme god "Amun-Re" who stood on top of the Egyptian Pantheon. The Greeks named the city “ Thebai ” which was deprived of Ta-ope (The Ancient Name of Luxor) which was based & used by the famous Greek Poet Homer who believed that “ Thebes with Hundred Gates ” exists in Egypt.
Thebes was called “Nō,” in the Bible from the ancient Egyptian word "Niw" which means “city.” The Egyptians had many nicknames for Thebes: “City Victorious,” City of the Lord of Eternity,” “The Mysterious City,” “Mistress of Might,” Mistress of Temples,” and others. Thebes' modern name “Luxor,” is derived from the Arabic al-Uqsur, which means “the castles,” which in turn may derive from the Latin word “castra,” which means a military garrison.
More than sixty annual festivals were celebrated in Thebes, some of the most important festivals among these include the Feast of Opet, the Khoiak (Festival), the festival of the valley, the Festival of I Shemu, and the Festival of II Shemu. The city's most important festival was the Festival of Opet & Shemu . The site became a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1979 and is famous for being one of the most visited places in Egypt and home of some amazing temples such as (Karnak temple, Luxor temple, Valley of the kings and many more), tombs of famous kings & nobles and artifacts from the different periods of ancient Egypt.
The history of the city goes way back to Egypt old Kingdom when Thebes was the capital of “ Waset ” of Upper Egypt’s fourth nomes ( Districts ). Most of the earliest monuments are from the 11 th dynasty ( 2081-1939 BC ) and by the 12 th dynasty ( 1938-1756 BC ) the capital of Egypt was Memphis and Thebes was under the control of Foreign invaders called the Hyksos . But the city was freed by King Ahmose and the Hyksos were driven out between (1530-1520 BC). Ahmose I reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them, and Thebes was celebrated as the city which had liberated the country of Egypt and was declared as the main capital of Egypt.
The glorious history of Thebes started in the 18 th dynasty when the city became the official capital and the worship center for the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu who would be worshiped in the city for centuries. It was entirely rebuilt using the great wealth acquired from the great expeditions to the land of Nubia and Asia. The momentum of prosperity reached an extreme elevation in the 14 th century during the reign of Amenhotep III where the temples of Amon were drowning in extravagant materials, so it came to no one’s surprise when Akhenaton "Amenhotep IV" (1353-1336 BC) attempted to force monotheism in the shape of Atonism (the worship of the only god Aton) but he miserably failed, his actions led to the disturbance of the entire city for many years. Reconstruction of the city began by Tutankhamen (1333-1323 BC) to the highest level of elegance & prestige, both Seti I (1290-1279 BC) and Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) built many temples and enlarged the city as much as they can.
Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes to a new site near the city of Avaris called Per-Ramesses but in the 7th century BCE, Thebes became a capital again by Nubian pharaoh Tatanami who want to restore the glory of the past. At the near end of the new kingdom, the city Thebes fell into darkness as the government fell, the economical atmosphere began to crumble and the priests of Amon held all the power in the worst times in the history of the city of Thebes. It was conquered by Assyrians under Ashurbanipal in 666 BC, then by Persians, and later by the Romans and finally by in 640 CE by the Arab invasion of Egypt who name the temple complex at Thebes `Karnak'.
Thebes can be divided into two sections which represent all the attractions of Upper Egypt:
- Great Temple of Amun at Karnak
- Luxor Temple
- Temple of Khonsu
- Precinct of Mut
- Precinct of Montu
- Avenue of the Sphinxes
- Village of Deir el-Medina
- Ramesseum
- Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
- Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
- Mortuary Temple of Seti I
- Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III
- Valley of the Kings
- Valley of the Queens
- Tombs of the Nobles
The Greek poet Homer mentioned Egypt in his writings as "In Egyptian Thebes, the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes". The city of Thebes (modern-day Luxor) is one of the world’s biggest and most famous tourist destinations due to the infinite number of great temples and glorious monuments located within the legendary Theban Necropolis. Most of the famous attractions in the city were built during the New Kingdom by the hands of Egypt’s greatest rulers.
One of the main attractions is the incredible Valley of the Kings & Valley of the Queens that acted as the final resting place of many King and Queens. There is also the biggest house of worship during ancient times the Karnak temple which was built in (2055 BCE) to honor the creator god Amon his wife Mut goddess of justice and their son the moon god Khnosu among other famous gods like the goddess of love, beauty and joy Hathor, the crocodile god of the Nile Sobek, and the sky falcon god of victory and protection Horus. The popularity of these gods led directly to Thebes' development, influence, wealth, power, and status. The Karnak Temple Complex continued to grow in size, allure, and grandeur over the next 2,000 years, that's why it remains the largest religious structure ever built in the world.
We can’t talk about the mortuary temples of Thebes without mentioning the enchanting temple of Hatshepsut one of the most preserved ancient temples in the history of Egypt. There is also the guardian of Thebes the breathtaking Colossi of Memnon . There are also a number of temples dedicated to many pharaohs who desire to immortalize their own legacy like the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Abu Simbel which detailed his victory at the battle of Kadesh (1275 BC) which is Ramses II biggest achievement. Most of the temples also played a vital role in illustrating the religious beliefs, daily life routines through the magical artistic inscriptions on their walls and were a great contributor in providing countless antiquities of one of the most majestic civilizations in the history of humanity.
Travel to Egypt and enjoy one of our stunning Nile river cruises to witness these temples and monuments accompanied by an Egyptologist tour guide.
From: $330
Availability: Everyday | https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-au/ancient-city-of-thebes-egypt/ | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Ancient City of Thebes Egypt | By: ETP Team Published: 04 July, 2019 Updated: 04 August, 2021
Thebes is the ancient Egyptian Kingdom that holds the historical and cultural essence of the oldest civilization ever created in the history of mankind. This Article's main goal is to showcase all the all information and details about the legendary city of Thebes. This article was written by a group of very knowledgeable and professional historians, scholars, and tour guides who have decades of experience across the heavenly lands of Egypt. Thebes is one of the most majestic cities in the world is the ancient city of Thebes Egypt, which was used to be the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom (2040 to 1750 B.C.) and as the main capital during Egypt new kingdom ( 1570-1069 BCE ) from the 11th dynasty to the 18th dynasty. The ancient city of Thebes was built to honor the divine, the living, and the dead, plus immortalize the heritage and legacy of the greatest civilization the world has ever known for many future generations.
Thebes lay on either side of the Nile River at approximately 26° N latitude. It is located east of the Nile River about 800 Km (500 Mi) south of the Mediterranean Sea and 675 Km (419 Mi) south of modern Cairo. Thebes used to consist of the two cities of Luxor and Aswan. The main part of the city was known to be located along the Nile’s east bank, and Along the west bank was the necropolis, or “city of the dead,” an area filled with the royal tombs and mortuary temples that still existed today. Thebes had about 40,000 inhabitants in 2000 BC and by 1500 BC, Thebes had grown to with a population of about 75,000 to be the largest city in the world at that time. The city of Thebes was considered to be a cult center, a hub for religious activities, and the home of Luxor’s best monuments like the temples of the Karnak , Luxor, and Valley of the Kings where the heart and soul of the ancient Egyptian culture are immortalized.
Thebes was known as Wase or Wo’se that means "the city" or Nowe or Nuwe plus Usast or Waset which means the southern city. It was the center of worship of the god Amun the creator God as it was known as P-Amen or Pa-Amen which means "the abode of Amen". Amon was merged with the sun god Re to become the supreme god "Amun-Re" who stood on top of the Egyptian Pantheon. The Greeks named the city “ Thebai ” which was deprived of Ta-ope (The Ancient Name of Luxor) which was based & used by the famous Greek Poet Homer who believed that “ Thebes with Hundred Gates ” exists in Egypt.
Thebes was called “Nō,” in the Bible from the ancient Egyptian word "Niw" which means “city.” The Egyptians had many nicknames for Thebes: “City Victorious,” City of the Lord of Eternity,” “The Mysterious City,” “Mistress of Might,” Mistress of Temples,” and others. Thebes' modern name “Luxor,” is derived from the Arabic al-Uqsur, which means “the castles,” which in turn may derive from the Latin word “castra,” which means a military garrison.
More than sixty annual festivals were celebrated in Thebes, some of the most important festivals among these include the Feast of Opet, the Khoiak (Festival), the festival of the valley, the Festival of I Shemu, and the Festival of II Shemu. The city's most important festival was the Festival of Opet & Shemu . The site became a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1979 and is famous for being one of the most visited places in Egypt and home of some amazing temples such as (Karnak temple, Luxor temple, Valley of the kings and many more), tombs of famous kings & nobles and artifacts from the different periods of ancient Egypt.
The history of the city goes way back to Egypt old Kingdom when Thebes was the capital of “ Waset ” of Upper Egypt’s fourth nomes ( Districts ). Most of the earliest monuments are from the 11 th dynasty ( 2081-1939 BC ) and by the 12 th dynasty ( 1938-1756 BC ) the capital of Egypt was Memphis and Thebes was under the control of Foreign invaders called the Hyksos . But the city was freed by King Ahmose and the Hyksos were driven out between (1530-1520 BC). Ahmose I reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them, and Thebes was celebrated as the city which had liberated the country of Egypt and was declared as the main capital of Egypt.
The glorious history of Thebes started in the 18 th dynasty when the city became the official capital and the worship center for the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu who would be worshiped in the city for centuries. It was entirely rebuilt using the great wealth acquired from the great expeditions to the land of Nubia and Asia. The momentum of prosperity reached an extreme elevation in the 14 th century during the reign of Amenhotep III where the temples of Amon were drowning in extravagant materials, so it came to no one’s surprise when Akhenaton "Amenhotep IV" (1353-1336 BC) attempted to force monotheism in the shape of Atonism (the worship of the only god Aton) but he miserably failed, his actions led to the disturbance of the entire city for many years. Reconstruction of the city began by Tutankhamen (1333-1323 BC) to the highest level of elegance & prestige, both Seti I (1290-1279 BC) and Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) built many temples and enlarged the city as much as they can.
Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes to a new site near the city of Avaris called Per-Ramesses but in the 7th century BCE, Thebes became a capital again by Nubian pharaoh Tatanami who want to restore the glory of the past. At the near end of the new kingdom, the city Thebes fell into darkness as the government fell, the economical atmosphere began to crumble and the priests of Amon held all the power in the worst times in the history of the city of Thebes. It was conquered by Assyrians under Ashurbanipal in 666 BC, then by Persians, and later by the Romans and finally by in 640 CE by the Arab invasion of Egypt who name the temple complex at Thebes `Karnak'.
Thebes can be divided into two sections which represent all the attractions of Upper Egypt:
- Great Temple of Amun at Karnak
- Luxor Temple
- Temple of Khonsu
- Precinct of Mut
- Precinct of Montu
- Avenue of the Sphinxes
- Village of Deir el-Medina
- Ramesseum
- Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
- Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
- Mortuary Temple of Seti I
- Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III
- Valley of the Kings
- Valley of the Queens
- Tombs of the Nobles
The Greek poet Homer mentioned Egypt in his writings as "In Egyptian Thebes, the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes". The city of Thebes (modern-day Luxor) is one of the world’s biggest and most famous tourist destinations due to the infinite number of great temples and glorious monuments located within the legendary Theban Necropolis. Most of the famous attractions in the city were built during the New Kingdom by the hands of Egypt’s greatest rulers.
One of the main attractions is the incredible Valley of the Kings & Valley of the Queens that acted as the final resting place of many King and Queens. There is also the biggest house of worship during ancient times the Karnak temple which was built in (2055 BCE) to honor the creator god Amon his wife Mut goddess of justice and their son the moon god Khnosu among other famous gods like the goddess of love, beauty and joy Hathor, the crocodile god of the Nile Sobek, and the sky falcon god of victory and protection Horus. The popularity of these gods led directly to Thebes' development, influence, wealth, power, and status. The Karnak Temple Complex continued to grow in size, allure, and grandeur over the next 2,000 years, that's why it remains the largest religious structure ever built in the world.
We can’t talk about the mortuary temples of Thebes without mentioning the enchanting temple of Hatshepsut one of the most preserved ancient temples in the history of Egypt. There is also the guardian of Thebes the breathtaking Colossi of Memnon . There are also a number of temples dedicated to many pharaohs who desire to immortalize their own legacy like the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Abu Simbel which detailed his victory at the battle of Kadesh (1275 BC) which is Ramses II biggest achievement. Most of the temples also played a vital role in illustrating the religious beliefs, daily life routines through the magical artistic inscriptions on their walls and were a great contributor in providing countless antiquities of one of the most majestic civilizations in the history of humanity.
Travel to Egypt and enjoy one of our stunning Nile river cruises to witness these temples and monuments accompanied by an Egyptologist tour guide.
From: $330
Availability: Everyday | https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-au/ancient-city-of-thebes-egypt/ | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Thebes | Ancient Egypt | As the capital city of ancient Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom, Thebes is home to many of the most magnificent monuments from the age of antiquity.
Two parts to Thebes existed: the Eastern bank of the Nile River , home to the main city, and the Western bank, which held the Necropolis, or City of the Dead. The majority of the population lived within the city on the Eastern bank, while people who served the king, like soldiers, laborers, craftsmen, priests, etc., lived on the Western bank.
Today, the area that Thebes occupied in ancient Egypt is now home to the city of Luxor . As part of Upper Egypt, Thebes sat about 500 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea, and about 450 miles south of Cairo on the Nile River. It covered an area of 36 square miles which included both sides of the Nile River.
Egyptians started settling in the area of Thebes around 3200 B.C. Known to them as Waset, it eventually rose in importance to Egypt when royal families started lived there during the 11th dynasty. At that time, Thebes was called Nowe after Amun , its main god. It was also known as “The City of Amun”. The name “Thebes” came from the Greek name for the city, “Thebai”. During the rule of the pharaohs of the 9th and 10th dynasties, Thebes became the governmental power center of Egypt.
After the Theban nomarchs challenged the pharaohs and won, Thebes emerged as the capital city of Egypt in 2035 B.C. and remained the royal city until Akhenaton moved it to El-Armana. However, after Akhenaten’s death in 1334 B.C., Thebes was restored as Egypt’s capital city.
In 663 B.C., Thebes was plundered by Assyrians and never fully recovered enough to again be the thriving capital city it once was. However, since that time it has been a cherished Egyptian city for its mortuary temples and monuments. Thebes has always been a favorite among the pharaohs and many have lavished their wealth upon the city building shrines, public buildings, terraces and temples all in the name of Amun, one of the creation deities.
© Steve F-E-Cameron - View of the Theban Necropolis
Many monuments in Thebes still stand in good condition today and all were dedicated to Amun as he was the supreme God of Thebes. On the east side of the river in the main city of Thebes, the Karnak complex and the Luxor Temple were built and are popular tourist attractions today.
Karnak is the largest temple complex in Thebes. Construction on Karnak started during Senusret I 's reign during the Middle Kingdom and lasted until the Ptolemaic Period. 30 different pharaohs contributed to its construction and at one time it was a main place of worship for ancient Egyptians.
Founded in the New Kingdom (around 1400 BC), the Luxor Temple was the site of one of the most significant religious festivals, the Opet Festival. The Luxor Temple is dedicated to Amun, Mut and Khonsu and during the Opet Festival the statues of these gods were transported from the temple complex at Karnak to the Luxor Temple.
Across the Nile River on the West side, the Valley of the Kings , or “City of the Dead” was where many pharaohs and other members of royalty were laid to rest, especially during the New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1070 B.C.).
© Shelby Root - Valley of the Kings
Many important kings were buried in the Valley of the Kings including:
© arch2452 - Tomb Entrance, Valley of the Kings
- Amenhotep II & III
- Merenptah
- Tutankhamun
- Ramses II
This area is also home to the Valley of the Queens , where 90 known queens, princes and others of high nobility were buried. Some of these included:
- Nefertari (Wife of Ramesses II)
- Imhotep (Vizier to Thutmose I)
- Mut (Wife of Seti I and Mother to Ramesses II)
- Sitre (Wife of Ramses I )
The Temple of Hatshepsut is also one of the most impressive structures in the Thebes area. Built into a cliff, the temple’s chapels are dedicated to Anubis and Hathor .
The Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III has been mostly demolished, but what remains is an impressive 33 foot stele and two enormous statues that are known as the Colossi of Memnon.
The Temple of Seti I is still partially intact. Dedicated to Ramses I , it was completed by his grandson, Ramses II . The walls of the temple are covered with religious content.
The Ramesseum is the mortuary temple of Ramses II . The analyzing of fragments reveals that a huge statue of Ramses II, nearly 55 feet tall, stood at the entrance.
The Temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu is the most Southern temple of the group. Very well preserved, this temple has elaborate battle and worship scenes carved on the walls.
© Walwyn - View of Medinet Habu
In 1979, UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated the entire Thebes area a World Heritage Site . This included the city of Luxor, Karnak, The Valley of the Queens and the Valley of the Kings. A World Heritage Site is defined as any site that has outstanding universal value in an effort to preserve global cultural treasures.
Recently, a Spanish-Italian archaeological team discovered an ancient reproduction of the Tomb of Osiris . The tomb is believed to date back to the 25th dynasty (760-656 BC). The tomb consists of a hall supported by five pillars and a nearly 30 foot long staircase shaft that attached chamber to chamber. The tomb has reliefs of demons holding knives which are meant to protect the dead.
- The Greek Poet, Homer, wrote about Thebes’ wealth in The Iliad.
- Mentuhotep II (2061-2010 B.C.) stabilized the region and established Thebes as a thriving city.
- Known to the ancient Egyptians as “City of the Was” – a “was” was a long staff that had the head of an animal and a forked base.
- Thebes worshiped the Theban Triad which consisted of Amun, Mut and Khonsu.
- At the height of popularity and prosperity, Thebes had a population of 80,000.
- At one time, Amun was considered a lesser (more local) God, but was then merged with Ra and became a national God.
- At one time, the Luxor Temple and the Karnak Complex were linked with a nearly two mile long avenue that was flanked by sphinxes.
- King Tut’s tomb in The Valley of the Kings was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. It was one of the most well-preserved tombs in the valley.
RELATED ARTICLES | https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/thebes.html#:~:text=After%20the%20Theban%20nomarchs%20challenged%20the%20pharaohs%20and,B.C.%2C%20Thebes%20was%20restored%20as%20Egypt%E2%80%99s%20capital%20city. | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Thebes (Egypt) | Thebes was the capital of Egypt during the period of the New Kingdom (c.1570-c.1069 BCE) and became an important center of worship of the god Amun (also known as Amon or Amen, a combination of the earlier gods Atum and Ra). Its sacred name was P-Amen or Pa-Amen meaning "the abode of Amen".
It was also known to the Egyptians as Wase or Wo'se (the city ) and Usast or Waset (the southern city) and was built on either side of the Nile River with the main city on the east bank and the vast necropolis on the west. This position on the river is famously referenced in the biblical book of Nahum 3:8, when the prophet warns Nineveh of its coming destruction, claiming that not even the great Thebes "situated among rivers, the waters round about it" was safe from the wrath of God. The biblical name for the city is No-Amon or No (Ezekial 30:14,16, Jeremiah 46:25, Nahum 3:8) referencing its fame as a cult center for Amon (though this name is also associated with the city of Xois in Lower Egypt). The Greeks called it Thebai from the Coptic Greek Ta-opet (the name of the great Karnak Temple ) which became 'Thebes' - the name by which it is remembered.
The city covered 36 square miles (93 square km) and is located approximately 419 miles (675km) south of modern Cairo. In the modern day, Luxor and Karnak occupy the site of ancient Thebes, and its surrounding area features some of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt such as the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the Ramesseum (temple of Ramesses II ), the temple of Ramesses III, and the grand temple complex of Queen Hatshepsut .
Thebes was prominent by c. 3200 BCE owing largely to the rise in popularity of the cult of the god Amun and was known for its wealth and grandeur. In the 8th century BCE, long after Thebes had seen better days, the Greek poet Homer would still write famously of the city in his Iliad , "…in Egyptian Thebes the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes" and the Greeks would refer to the city as Diospolis Magna ('The Great City of the Gods').
During the Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE) Thebes was the world's largest city with a population at around 80,000 people. At this same time, Akhenaten moved the capital from Thebes to his custom-built city of Akhetaten to dramatically separate his reign from his predecessors; his son, Tutankhamun , returned the capital to Thebes once he took the throne. The powerful priests of Amun consolidated their power to the point where, during the 20th Dynasty (c. 1190-1069 BCE) they were able to reign as pharoahs from the city.
Thebes continued as an important cult center and place of pilgrimage throughout Egypt's history, even after the capital was moved to Per-Ramesses (near the older city of Avaris) by Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE). During the Ramessid Period the priests of Amun ruled from Thebes while the pharaoh governed from Per-Ramesses. The city continued to grow in grandeur, especially the Temple of Amun, throughout this time. It was sacked by the Assyrians in 666 BCE, rebuilt, and finally destroyed by Rome in the 1st century CE.
In the time of the Old Kingdom (c. 2316-2181 BCE) the city was a minor trading post in Upper Egypt, which was controlled by local clans. During the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) the kingship was centered in Memphis until the rulers moved the capital to Herakleopolis. They were just as ineffectual there, however, as they had been in the old capital and this encouraged the local magistrates at Thebes to rise against the central government. The city began to grow more powerful under the leadership of powerful governors such as Intef I (c. 2125 BCE), Mentuhotep I (c. 2115 BCE) and Wahankh Intef II (c. 2112-2063 BCE) who established themselves as royalty. Wahankh Intef II even declared himself the true king of Egypt in opposition to the kings at Herakleopolis.
The Theban rulers waged war with the kings of Herakleopolis for supremacy and to unite the land under one rule. Mentuhotep II (2061-2010 BCE), a Theban prince, finally prevailed in c. 2055 BCE defeating the Herakliopolitan kings and uniting Egypt under Theban rule. The victory of Mentuhotep II elevated his gods and, chief among them Amun, above those of Lower Egypt. This deity grew in stature from a local god of fertility to the supreme being and creator of the universe.
Thebes itself was thought to have been formed by the hands of Amun, drawn up from the Nile's waters, just as the primordial mound of the ben-ben rose from the swirling waters of chaos at the creation of the world. In the original creation story, the god Atum or Ra stands upon the ben-ben and begins the work of creation. Amun was a combination of Atum, the creator god, and Ra, the sun god and, as this supreme lord had stood on the first dry earth at the beginning of creation, Thebes was considered his sacred place on earth and, perhaps, the original ben-ben on which he stood at the beginning of time.
The veneration of Amun gave rise to the trinity known as the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khons (also known as Khonsu) who would be worshiped in the city for centuries. Amun represented the sun and the creative force; Mut was his wife symbolized as the sun's rays and the all-seeing eye; Khons was the moon, son of Amun and Mut, known as Khons the Merciful, destroyer of evil spirits, and god of healing. These three deities of Upper Egypt were drawn from the earlier gods Ptah, Sekhmet, and Khons of Lower Egypt who continued to be worshiped under their original names in Lower Egypt but whose attributes were transferred to the Amun, Mut, and Khons, deities of Thebes.
The popularity of these gods led directly to Thebes' development, wealth, and status. Construction of the Temple of Karnak, dedicated to the worship of the triad, was begun around this time (c. 2055 BCE), and the temple would continue to grow in size and grandeur over the next 2,000 years as more and more details were added. It remains the largest religious structure ever built in the world. The priests of Amun, who administered the rites of the temple, would eventually grow so powerful they would threaten the authority of the pharaoh and, by the Third Intermediate Period (1069-525 BCE) the priests of Amun would rule Upper Egypt from Thebes.
Thebes grew in status during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1532 BCE) when the Theban princes stood against the mysterious Hyksos rulers of the Delta region. The Hyksos were a people of unknown origin and ethnicity (though many theories have claimed to be able to identify them) who either invaded Egypt or migrated into the region and steadily took power. They were firmly in control of Egypt by c. 1650 BCE and were regarded by later Egyptian historians as oppressive foreigners even though evidence suggests they introduced many innovations and improvements to the culture (the chariot among the more notable).
The Thebans and the Hyksos abided by a truce which forbade hostilities but did not guarantee any amicable relations between the two. The Hyksos would sail past Thebes to trade with the Nubians to the south and the Thebans would ignore them until the Hyksos ruler Apophis (also known as Apepi) insulted Ta'O of Thebes in 1560 BCE and the truce was broken. The Theban armies under Ta'O attacked the Hyksos cities . When Ta'O died in battle his son Kamose took command of the armies and razed their stronghold of Avaris. After his death , his brother Ahmose I took charge and captured the re-built city of Avaris, the Hyksos capital. Ahmose I drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them. Thebes was celebrated as the city which had liberated the country and was elevated to the position of capital of the country.
With Egypt stabilized again, religion and religious centers flourished and none more so than Thebes.
With Egypt stabilized again, religion and religious centers flourished and none more so than Thebes. The shrines, temples, public buildings and terraces of Thebes were unsurpassed for their beauty and splendor. It was written that all other cities were judged 'after the pattern of Thebes'. The power and beauty of the great god Amun needed to be reflected fully in the holy city of Thebes and every building project sought to out-do the last in proclaiming the glory of this god.
The Tuthmosids of the 18th Dynasty (1550-1307 BCE) lavished their wealth on Thebes and made the Egyptian capital the most glorious city in Egypt. Work continued on the Temple of Karnak, but other temples and monuments rose as well. Most of the greatest monuments of ancient Thebes were either constructed, renovated, or improved upon during this period from c. 1550-1069 BCE with a brief interruption during the Amarna Period.
During the reign of Akhenaten (originally known as Amenhotep IV, 1353-1336 BCE) the priests of Amun at Thebes had become so powerful that they owned more land than the pharaoh and had more wealth than the crown. Scholars believe this situation may have prompted Amenhotep IV to adopt monotheism and proclaim the Aten - the sun disk - the supreme deity. In denying the existence of other gods, Akhenaten effectively cut off the source of the priests' wealth and power. The worship of all other gods except the Aten was outlawed, sacred icons and statuary destroyed, and the temples of Amun closed. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten (meaning "successful for Aten"), and with his proclamation of the 'one true god, Aten', Thebes was abandoned for El-Amarna and the new city of Akhetaten.
If Akhenaten's true motive for religious reformation was to crush the priests of Amun and absorb their power, it worked; there was now only one true God whose will was interpreted by Akhenaten alone. While this new belief worked well for the pharaoh and the royal family, the people of Egypt were highly resentful. The worship of the many traditional gods of Egypt was an important aspect of everyday life throughout the country, and there were many, besides the priests, who lost their jobs once Akhenaten's monotheism became the religion of the land. Every merchant who sold religious artifacts and charms, every craftsman who made them, every scribe who wrote spells or prayers, was unemployed unless they turned their efforts to promoting the pharaoh's religion.
After Akhenaten's death, his son Tutankhaten ("living image of Aten") took the throne and changed his name to Tutankhamun ("living image of Amon") and restored the old gods and their temples. The capital was returned to Thebes, and a renewed interest in building projects began, perhaps to make amends to the gods who had been neglected, which produced even more glorious temples and shrines. The western shore of Thebes became a vast and beautiful necropolis in the years and centuries following and the mortuary complexes at Deir-El Bahri (like the one of Queen Hatshepsut) were awe-inspiring in their symmetry and grandeur.
Tutankhamun was succeeded by his general Horemheb (1320-1292 BCE), who believed that the old gods of Egypt were angered by the heretic king's insult to their honor. He encouraged building projects at Thebes (and elsewhere) and destroyed any iconography related to the worship of Aten or the royal family of the Amarna Period. He named Ramesses I as his successor who founded the 19th Dynasty.
Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes to a new site near the city of Avaris called Per-Ramesses where he built a grand palace to distinguish his reign from any which preceeded it. On a simpler level, he may have done this simply because there was nothing of significance he could add to the grandeur of Thebes and he was a pharaoh who needed to make an impression. Avaris now grew in prosperity and beauty as Thebes declined in power but this was a temporary situation. The priests of Amun, able to do as they pleased so far removed from the sphere of the pharaohs at Avaris, acquired significant amounts of land through which they amassed more and more wealth and greater power. By the time of the Ramessid Period they were ruling Thebes as pharaohs and the actual rulers at Avaris could do nothing about it.
The city declined during the Third Intermediate Period but still was impressive. The continued worship of the popular Amun and the legendary beauty of the city guaranteed Thebes a special place in the hearts of the Egyptians. The Nubian pharaoh Tatanami made Thebes his capital in the 7th century BCE, linking himself to the glory of the past, but his reign was short-lived. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal invaded Egypt in 667 BCE and a second time in 666 BCE, completing the work he had left unfinished earlier, and sacked Thebes, driving Tatanami out of Egypt and leaving the city in ruins.
The Assyrians decreed that Thebes should be restored and rebuilt by Egyptian labor to compensate for their resistance to Assyrian rule. The city gradually recovered and worship of Amon continued there until the coming of Rome when it was destroyed by the Roman army in the 1st century CE. Afterwards it remained in ruins, populated only by a few people inhabiting the buildings which had been left vacant after the Romans moved on.
By the time of the historian Strabo (c. 63 BCE - 24 CE) the city was no more than a tourist attraction of ancient ruins and empty streets. Thebes retained its legendary status, however, and continued to be venerated by those who remembered its former glory. As the site of the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the great Temple of Karnak, and those of Luxor, Thebes continues as a vital link to ancient Egyptian culture and the vitality of its history into the present day. | https://www.worldhistory.org/Thebes_%28Egypt%29/ | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Ancient Thebes -- World Heritage Site -- National Geographic | Site : Ancient Thebes With Its Necropolis
Location : Egypt
Year Designated : 1979
Category : Cultural
Criteria : (i)(iii)(vi)
Reason : Towering temples and treasure-filled tombs shine a light on one of history's greatest civilizations.
* * *
Ancient Thebes was home to some of the greatest monuments of the ancient world—built to honor the living, the dead, and the divine. The city, known as Waset to ancient Egyptians and as Luxor today, was the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom (2040 to 1750 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (circa 1550 to 1070 B.C.).
Thebes was the city of Amun, whose devotees elevated him among the ranks of ancient deities. Once a relatively local Theban god, he was merged with the god Re and perched atop the entire Egyptian pantheon.
Amun’s city sat astride the Nile in Upper Egypt. On the river’s east side was the city proper and many important temples, including the legendary Karnak complex. Karnak was one of the biggest religious complexes in the world, nearly one mile by half a mile (1.5 kilometers by 800 meters), and even after more than 3,000 years it remains one of the most awe-inspiring.
This was the principal religious site of the New Kingdom, and its monuments are correspondingly enormous—Hatshepsut’s obelisk towers 90 feet (27.5 meters). The massive assemblage of structures, columns, and statuary paid tribute to four different gods.
Karnak was linked to another legendary site, the Luxor Temple, by a grand, 1.9-mile-long (3-kilometer-long) avenue lined with sphinxes.
Luxor Temple, with its soaring columns and statues of Ramses II, is nearly as familiar as the Sphinx or Pyramids at Giza. The primary structure was built during the reigns of Amenhotep III and Ramses II, circa 1500 to 1200 B.C., but other rulers from Tutankhamun to Alexander the Great added their own touches over the years.
The temple was dedicated to Amun in his form as a fertility god and was used during the annual Opet Festival of royal renewal. Today it is still a place of worship—the Abu el-Haggag mosque added in the 11th century is still operational today.
On the Nile’s west bank, the dead held sway. It was here that the Egyptians created an extensive necropolis to commemorate the lives of the royal and highborn—and to prepare them for the afterlife.
The Valley of the Kings (actually two distinct valleys) was used to bury royalty during much of the New Kingdom era, from about 1550 to 1070 B.C. Rulers were interred in elaborate underground structures, with chambers and passages decorated with paintings and filled with everything a pharaoh could desire in this world or the next.
The valley is best known for the tomb of Tutankhamun, with its legendary treasures, discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. Many other royals were buried here but few known tombs remained as unmolested as Tut’s. The Valley of the Kings was heavily looted in the 21st dynasty (1070 to 945 B.C.) and many mummies were removed for safekeeping during this era.
Secreted in the cliffs of a Y-shaped ravine, the Valley of the Queens houses some 90 known tombs of queens, princes, and other notables from the New Kingdom (1550 to 1070). As at other sites, tomb robbing was common and relatively few undisturbed tombs were found here. Yet the necropolises themselves, along with the great temples on the far shore, make Thebes one of the truly great treasures of the ancient world—and the modern one as well.
Luxor is serviced by an international airport, by train, by regular bus service, and even by Nile cruise ships.
Summer in this area is simply scorching. Winter has a far more favorable climate for exploring the sites. At any time of year it’s likely best to explore in the morning and evening hours.
Take your time. Scholars have spent careers exploring Luxor—you won’t have time to see it all and might miss the forest for the trees if you try. Leave time for relaxation in the style only Luxor can provide—like a sunset felucca cruise on the Nile. | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/article/ancient-thebes | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Thebes (Egypt) | Thebes was the capital of Egypt during the period of the New Kingdom (c.1570-c.1069 BCE) and became an important center of worship of the god Amun (also known as Amon or Amen, a combination of the earlier gods Atum and Ra). Its sacred name was P-Amen or Pa-Amen meaning "the abode of Amen".
It was also known to the Egyptians as Wase or Wo'se (the city ) and Usast or Waset (the southern city) and was built on either side of the Nile River with the main city on the east bank and the vast necropolis on the west. This position on the river is famously referenced in the biblical book of Nahum 3:8, when the prophet warns Nineveh of its coming destruction, claiming that not even the great Thebes "situated among rivers, the waters round about it" was safe from the wrath of God. The biblical name for the city is No-Amon or No (Ezekial 30:14,16, Jeremiah 46:25, Nahum 3:8) referencing its fame as a cult center for Amon (though this name is also associated with the city of Xois in Lower Egypt). The Greeks called it Thebai from the Coptic Greek Ta-opet (the name of the great Karnak Temple ) which became 'Thebes' - the name by which it is remembered.
The city covered 36 square miles (93 square km) and is located approximately 419 miles (675km) south of modern Cairo. In the modern day, Luxor and Karnak occupy the site of ancient Thebes, and its surrounding area features some of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt such as the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the Ramesseum (temple of Ramesses II ), the temple of Ramesses III, and the grand temple complex of Queen Hatshepsut .
Thebes was prominent by c. 3200 BCE owing largely to the rise in popularity of the cult of the god Amun and was known for its wealth and grandeur. In the 8th century BCE, long after Thebes had seen better days, the Greek poet Homer would still write famously of the city in his Iliad , "…in Egyptian Thebes the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes" and the Greeks would refer to the city as Diospolis Magna ('The Great City of the Gods').
During the Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE) Thebes was the world's largest city with a population at around 80,000 people. At this same time, Akhenaten moved the capital from Thebes to his custom-built city of Akhetaten to dramatically separate his reign from his predecessors; his son, Tutankhamun , returned the capital to Thebes once he took the throne. The powerful priests of Amun consolidated their power to the point where, during the 20th Dynasty (c. 1190-1069 BCE) they were able to reign as pharoahs from the city.
Thebes continued as an important cult center and place of pilgrimage throughout Egypt's history, even after the capital was moved to Per-Ramesses (near the older city of Avaris) by Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE). During the Ramessid Period the priests of Amun ruled from Thebes while the pharaoh governed from Per-Ramesses. The city continued to grow in grandeur, especially the Temple of Amun, throughout this time. It was sacked by the Assyrians in 666 BCE, rebuilt, and finally destroyed by Rome in the 1st century CE.
In the time of the Old Kingdom (c. 2316-2181 BCE) the city was a minor trading post in Upper Egypt, which was controlled by local clans. During the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) the kingship was centered in Memphis until the rulers moved the capital to Herakleopolis. They were just as ineffectual there, however, as they had been in the old capital and this encouraged the local magistrates at Thebes to rise against the central government. The city began to grow more powerful under the leadership of powerful governors such as Intef I (c. 2125 BCE), Mentuhotep I (c. 2115 BCE) and Wahankh Intef II (c. 2112-2063 BCE) who established themselves as royalty. Wahankh Intef II even declared himself the true king of Egypt in opposition to the kings at Herakleopolis.
The Theban rulers waged war with the kings of Herakleopolis for supremacy and to unite the land under one rule. Mentuhotep II (2061-2010 BCE), a Theban prince, finally prevailed in c. 2055 BCE defeating the Herakliopolitan kings and uniting Egypt under Theban rule. The victory of Mentuhotep II elevated his gods and, chief among them Amun, above those of Lower Egypt. This deity grew in stature from a local god of fertility to the supreme being and creator of the universe.
Thebes itself was thought to have been formed by the hands of Amun, drawn up from the Nile's waters, just as the primordial mound of the ben-ben rose from the swirling waters of chaos at the creation of the world. In the original creation story, the god Atum or Ra stands upon the ben-ben and begins the work of creation. Amun was a combination of Atum, the creator god, and Ra, the sun god and, as this supreme lord had stood on the first dry earth at the beginning of creation, Thebes was considered his sacred place on earth and, perhaps, the original ben-ben on which he stood at the beginning of time.
The veneration of Amun gave rise to the trinity known as the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khons (also known as Khonsu) who would be worshiped in the city for centuries. Amun represented the sun and the creative force; Mut was his wife symbolized as the sun's rays and the all-seeing eye; Khons was the moon, son of Amun and Mut, known as Khons the Merciful, destroyer of evil spirits, and god of healing. These three deities of Upper Egypt were drawn from the earlier gods Ptah, Sekhmet, and Khons of Lower Egypt who continued to be worshiped under their original names in Lower Egypt but whose attributes were transferred to the Amun, Mut, and Khons, deities of Thebes.
The popularity of these gods led directly to Thebes' development, wealth, and status. Construction of the Temple of Karnak, dedicated to the worship of the triad, was begun around this time (c. 2055 BCE), and the temple would continue to grow in size and grandeur over the next 2,000 years as more and more details were added. It remains the largest religious structure ever built in the world. The priests of Amun, who administered the rites of the temple, would eventually grow so powerful they would threaten the authority of the pharaoh and, by the Third Intermediate Period (1069-525 BCE) the priests of Amun would rule Upper Egypt from Thebes.
Thebes grew in status during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1532 BCE) when the Theban princes stood against the mysterious Hyksos rulers of the Delta region. The Hyksos were a people of unknown origin and ethnicity (though many theories have claimed to be able to identify them) who either invaded Egypt or migrated into the region and steadily took power. They were firmly in control of Egypt by c. 1650 BCE and were regarded by later Egyptian historians as oppressive foreigners even though evidence suggests they introduced many innovations and improvements to the culture (the chariot among the more notable).
The Thebans and the Hyksos abided by a truce which forbade hostilities but did not guarantee any amicable relations between the two. The Hyksos would sail past Thebes to trade with the Nubians to the south and the Thebans would ignore them until the Hyksos ruler Apophis (also known as Apepi) insulted Ta'O of Thebes in 1560 BCE and the truce was broken. The Theban armies under Ta'O attacked the Hyksos cities . When Ta'O died in battle his son Kamose took command of the armies and razed their stronghold of Avaris. After his death , his brother Ahmose I took charge and captured the re-built city of Avaris, the Hyksos capital. Ahmose I drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them. Thebes was celebrated as the city which had liberated the country and was elevated to the position of capital of the country.
With Egypt stabilized again, religion and religious centers flourished and none more so than Thebes.
With Egypt stabilized again, religion and religious centers flourished and none more so than Thebes. The shrines, temples, public buildings and terraces of Thebes were unsurpassed for their beauty and splendor. It was written that all other cities were judged 'after the pattern of Thebes'. The power and beauty of the great god Amun needed to be reflected fully in the holy city of Thebes and every building project sought to out-do the last in proclaiming the glory of this god.
The Tuthmosids of the 18th Dynasty (1550-1307 BCE) lavished their wealth on Thebes and made the Egyptian capital the most glorious city in Egypt. Work continued on the Temple of Karnak, but other temples and monuments rose as well. Most of the greatest monuments of ancient Thebes were either constructed, renovated, or improved upon during this period from c. 1550-1069 BCE with a brief interruption during the Amarna Period.
During the reign of Akhenaten (originally known as Amenhotep IV, 1353-1336 BCE) the priests of Amun at Thebes had become so powerful that they owned more land than the pharaoh and had more wealth than the crown. Scholars believe this situation may have prompted Amenhotep IV to adopt monotheism and proclaim the Aten - the sun disk - the supreme deity. In denying the existence of other gods, Akhenaten effectively cut off the source of the priests' wealth and power. The worship of all other gods except the Aten was outlawed, sacred icons and statuary destroyed, and the temples of Amun closed. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten (meaning "successful for Aten"), and with his proclamation of the 'one true god, Aten', Thebes was abandoned for El-Amarna and the new city of Akhetaten.
If Akhenaten's true motive for religious reformation was to crush the priests of Amun and absorb their power, it worked; there was now only one true God whose will was interpreted by Akhenaten alone. While this new belief worked well for the pharaoh and the royal family, the people of Egypt were highly resentful. The worship of the many traditional gods of Egypt was an important aspect of everyday life throughout the country, and there were many, besides the priests, who lost their jobs once Akhenaten's monotheism became the religion of the land. Every merchant who sold religious artifacts and charms, every craftsman who made them, every scribe who wrote spells or prayers, was unemployed unless they turned their efforts to promoting the pharaoh's religion.
After Akhenaten's death, his son Tutankhaten ("living image of Aten") took the throne and changed his name to Tutankhamun ("living image of Amon") and restored the old gods and their temples. The capital was returned to Thebes, and a renewed interest in building projects began, perhaps to make amends to the gods who had been neglected, which produced even more glorious temples and shrines. The western shore of Thebes became a vast and beautiful necropolis in the years and centuries following and the mortuary complexes at Deir-El Bahri (like the one of Queen Hatshepsut) were awe-inspiring in their symmetry and grandeur.
Tutankhamun was succeeded by his general Horemheb (1320-1292 BCE), who believed that the old gods of Egypt were angered by the heretic king's insult to their honor. He encouraged building projects at Thebes (and elsewhere) and destroyed any iconography related to the worship of Aten or the royal family of the Amarna Period. He named Ramesses I as his successor who founded the 19th Dynasty.
Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes to a new site near the city of Avaris called Per-Ramesses where he built a grand palace to distinguish his reign from any which preceeded it. On a simpler level, he may have done this simply because there was nothing of significance he could add to the grandeur of Thebes and he was a pharaoh who needed to make an impression. Avaris now grew in prosperity and beauty as Thebes declined in power but this was a temporary situation. The priests of Amun, able to do as they pleased so far removed from the sphere of the pharaohs at Avaris, acquired significant amounts of land through which they amassed more and more wealth and greater power. By the time of the Ramessid Period they were ruling Thebes as pharaohs and the actual rulers at Avaris could do nothing about it.
The city declined during the Third Intermediate Period but still was impressive. The continued worship of the popular Amun and the legendary beauty of the city guaranteed Thebes a special place in the hearts of the Egyptians. The Nubian pharaoh Tatanami made Thebes his capital in the 7th century BCE, linking himself to the glory of the past, but his reign was short-lived. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal invaded Egypt in 667 BCE and a second time in 666 BCE, completing the work he had left unfinished earlier, and sacked Thebes, driving Tatanami out of Egypt and leaving the city in ruins.
The Assyrians decreed that Thebes should be restored and rebuilt by Egyptian labor to compensate for their resistance to Assyrian rule. The city gradually recovered and worship of Amon continued there until the coming of Rome when it was destroyed by the Roman army in the 1st century CE. Afterwards it remained in ruins, populated only by a few people inhabiting the buildings which had been left vacant after the Romans moved on.
By the time of the historian Strabo (c. 63 BCE - 24 CE) the city was no more than a tourist attraction of ancient ruins and empty streets. Thebes retained its legendary status, however, and continued to be venerated by those who remembered its former glory. As the site of the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the great Temple of Karnak, and those of Luxor, Thebes continues as a vital link to ancient Egyptian culture and the vitality of its history into the present day. | https://www.worldhistory.org/Thebes_(Egypt)/ | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Thebes | Definition, History, Temples, & Facts | Four of the main complexes of ruins are discussed in separate articles. ( See Karnak ; Luxor ; Valley of the Kings ; Valley of the Queens .) Among the other chief sites of Thebes are the royal mortuary temples , the palace of Amenhotep III, and the Tombs of the Nobles.
In the New Kingdom , when the pharaohs hid their tombs in the secret Valley of the Kings (in western Thebes), ostentation had to be concentrated in their mortuary temples , which rivaled each other in size and magnificence. Although they were designed for the performance of rites connected with the mortuary cult of the builder, they were all dedicated to Amon , the supreme god of Thebes, and had the character and essential form of a New Kingdom temple. They were built in a sequence generally corresponding to a topographic arrangement from north to south. Only traces of most of the earlier ones remain. The most important will be mentioned here.
The temple of Hatshepsut (reigned 1472–58 bce ) at Dayr al-Baḥrī is the earliest large 18th-dynasty structure to survive and one of the most impressive. There in the bay of cliffs, next to the pyramid-temple of Mentuhotep II , the queen’s architect Senenmut designed ( c. 1473) a series of colonnades and courts on three levels. The approach from the valley led through an avenue of sphinxes , and in the forecourt was a garden planted with trees and vines. On either side of the sloping ramp leading to the next level, against the terrace face, was a gallery whose roof was supported on a double row of columns; a similar gallery ran along the westward side of the court on the next level, with side chapels dedicated to Anubis and Hathor . The top terrace contained a hall of columns, with further chapels on either side and a sanctuary dug into the cliff behind. Many of the surviving series of reliefs in the colonnades and chapels are of great beauty and considerable interest: one depicts the transport of two obelisks by barge from Aswān to Karnak, another the divine marriage of Queen Ahmes with the god Amon and the resultant miraculous birth of Hatshepsut herself, and a third the maritime trading expedition sent by the queen to Punt , the land of incense on the Red Sea .
The mortuary temple of Amenhotep III (reigned 1390–53 bce ) must have been the largest and most splendid of all the Theban temples. It was, however, almost completely demolished by later pharaohs, and all that is left today are a few foundations, a huge stela 33 feet (10 metres) high, and the two great statues known as the Colossi of Memnon , which once flanked the gateway in front of the temple pylon but now sit like lonely sentinels in the middle of a field. The statues represent Amenhotep III but the name Memnon is of (later) Greek origin; with their crowns the statues were about 70 feet (21 metres) high, each hewn from a single block of stone. The northern one, after cracking in an earthquake, was the “singing Memnon” celebrated in classical times because on certain days, shortly after sunrise, it emitted a curious high note; numerous Roman tourists, including the emperor Hadrian (reigned 117–138 bce ) and his wife Sabina, came to Thebes to hear this marvel, but in the reign of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus (193–211) the statue was patched with masonry and never “sang” again.
The temple of Seti I (reigned 1290–79 bce ) at Al-Qurnah survives only in part, the forecourt and pylons having disappeared. It was dedicated in part to Ramses I , the father of Seti, and was completed by Seti’s son Ramses II (reigned 1279–13), who figures in the reliefs. The walls are decorated with scenes of purely religious content in which the pharaohs make offerings to various gods or are favoured by them.
The Ramesseum , or mortuary temple of Ramses II the Great, though much ruined, retains some of its ancient grandeur . The wide outer pylon is decorated with vigorous scenes of the king’s wars against the Hittites in Syria, and the inner pylon has episodes from the Battle of Kadesh (1275) and scenes from the festival of the harvest god, Min . Tall figures of the king in the guise of Osiris decorate the pillars of the inner court. In the first court stood a seated colossus of Ramses II; only fragments of it are left, but enough to show that it was of enormous size. It must have been more than 55 feet (17 metres) high and weighed about 1,000 tons. The hypostyle hall beyond the second court is similar in design to that of the Great Temple of Amon at Karnak; beyond were further pillared halls and a sanctuary that has now disappeared. Around the temple, within the high brick enclosure wall, are very extensive remains of vaulted buildings that must have been magazines (storehouses), stables, workshops, and houses belonging to the temple staff. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (flourished 1st century bce ) described the Ramesseum under the name of “the Tomb of Ozymandias.”
The temple of Ramses III (reigned 1187–56) at Madīnat Habu is the latest and most southerly of the great New Kingdom mortuary temples. The general plan was modeled on that of the Ramesseum: a wide front pylon, outer and inner peristyle courts separated by a second pylon, a large pillared hall and two smaller vestibules , and the sanctuary surrounded by smaller rooms. The hypostyle hall is partly ruined, the pillars having been dismantled to the level of the first or second drums, but the temple is otherwise well preserved. Scenes carved on the walls of the inner halls show the king performing acts of worship before the gods. There are also scenes of battle in which the king in his chariot mows down the Libyans, attacks an Amorite city, and leads Libyans, Asians, and sea raiders as prisoners before Amon and Mut . On the external wall of the temple, a great sea battle between Egyptians and the Peleset ( Philistines ) and other Sea Peoples is depicted with much lively detail. Another outstanding relief is that on the outer face of the great pylon, which shows the pharaoh hunting wild cattle in a reed-covered, marshy landscape. Adjoining the temple are the remains of a palace. The high gate in the eastern side of the perimeter wall of the temple area is battlemented like a fortress . Within the precinct are other, smaller temples: one dates from the reign during the 15th century bce of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III but was altered and added to in various reigns and during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. There are also several mortuary chapels, a sacred lake, a well, and remains, as in the Ramesseum, of houses and vaulted magazines built of mud brick.
South of the temple of Madīnat Habu stand the ruins of what must have been one of the finest buildings in western Thebes: the palace of King Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy at Malkata. It is in fact four palaces, one of which was occupied by Tiy. There was also a vast artificial lake, still traceable by a line of mounds to the southeast of Malkata, which may have been a harbour for shipping connected with the Nile.
The limestone foothills that lie parallel to the river and about 3 miles (5 km) away from it are honeycombed for a distance of more than 2 miles (3 km) with the Tombs of the Nobles, mainly of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties . The usual plan of these tombs included a forecourt, a transverse chamber, a long, corridor-like room, and, at the end, a chapel containing statues of the deceased and his family, in the floor of which a shaft or passage ran down to the burial chamber. After the funeral the shaft was filled in, but the chapel and anterooms were kept open and visited by the family of the tomb owner. Near the villages of Dira ʿAbū al-Negaʾ al-Asasif, Al-Khū khah Shaykh ʿAbd al-Qurnah, Dayr al-Madīnah , and Qurnat Muraʾi, several hundred tomb-chapels are still open to view. The walls are decorated with mural paintings, many of them wonderfully fresh and full of vivid interest, depicting the daily occupations of the ancient Egyptians. The dead are shown, in the outer rooms of these tombs, inspecting the workmen on their estates or in their hours of leisure hunting birds in the marshes or game in the desert, listening to music, or playing checkers with their wives. In the infinite variety of these homely scenes, the whole cycle of the farmer’s year, from plowing to harvest, is depicted; sculptors, metalworkers, weavers, and brickmakers ply their trades; and butchers, brewers, and cooks prepare food for the deceased’s table. The treasurer goes on his rounds of inspection, and the vizier receives foreign envoys to the pharaoh’s court. The merry patterns on the roofs derive from those in houses of the period. In the inner chapels fewer secular scenes are found. The funeral ritual is usually depicted: the cortège crossing the Nile, the ceremony of “Opening the Mouth” by the tomb door, the funerary feast; while in the innermost chamber there are representations of the deceased man and his wife in the company of Osiris and other gods undergoing the ordeal of judgment known as the “weighing of the heart” or being given nourishment by the goddess in the sacred sycamore. In the tombs of the late New Kingdom, purely religious scenes predominate.
In ancient Egypt there were other great cities, but none that has left so great a legacy to posterity . The great temples of Thebes with their historical scenes and inscriptions, the tombs with their wealth of illustration of daily life and religious belief, and the countless antiquities that now fill the museums and private collections of the world, are all aspects of that legacy. Few other sites have contributed more to the store of knowledge about early civilizations than that of ancient Thebes. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Thebes-ancient-Egypt | 142 |
when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Ancient City of Thebes Egypt | By: ETP Team Published: 04 July, 2019 Updated: 07 December, 2021
Thebes is the ancient Egyptian Kingdom that holds the historical and cultural essence of the oldest civilization ever created in the history of mankind. This Article's main goal is to showcase all the all information and details about the legendary city of Thebes. This article was written by a group of very knowledgeable and professional historians, scholars, and tour guides who have decades of experience across the heavenly lands of Egypt. Thebes is one of the most majestic cities in the world is the ancient city of Thebes Egypt, which was used to be the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom (2040 to 1750 B.C.) and as the main capital during Egypt new kingdom ( 1570-1069 BCE ) from the 11th dynasty to the 18th dynasty. The ancient city of Thebes was built to honor the divine, the living, and the dead, plus immortalize the heritage and legacy of the greatest civilization the world has ever known for many future generations.
Thebes lay on either side of the Nile River at approximately 26° N latitude. It is located east of the Nile River about 800 Km (500 Mi) south of the Mediterranean Sea and 675 Km (419 Mi) south of modern Cairo. Thebes used to consist of the two cities of Luxor and Aswan. The main part of the city was known to be located along the Nile’s east bank, and Along the west bank was the necropolis, or “city of the dead,” an area filled with the royal tombs and mortuary temples that still existed today. Thebes had about 40,000 inhabitants in 2000 BC and by 1500 BC, Thebes had grown to with a population of about 75,000 to be the largest city in the world at that time. The city of Thebes was considered to be a cult center, a hub for religious activities, and the home of Luxor’s best monuments like the temples of the Karnak , Luxor, and Valley of the Kings where the heart and soul of the ancient Egyptian culture are immortalized.
Thebes was known as Wase or Wo’se that means "the city" or Nowe or Nuwe plus Usast or Waset which means the southern city. It was the center of worship of the god Amun the creator God as it was known as P-Amen or Pa-Amen which means "the abode of Amen". Amon was merged with the sun god Re to become the supreme god "Amun-Re" who stood on top of the Egyptian Pantheon. The Greeks named the city “ Thebai ” which was deprived of Ta-ope (The Ancient Name of Luxor) which was based & used by the famous Greek Poet Homer who believed that “ Thebes with Hundred Gates ” exists in Egypt.
Thebes was called “Nō,” in the Bible from the ancient Egyptian word "Niw" which means “city.” The Egyptians had many nicknames for Thebes: “City of Victorious,” City of the Lord of Eternity,” “The Mysterious City,” “Mistress of Might,” Mistress of Temples,” and others. Thebes' modern name “Luxor,” is derived from the Arabic al-Uqsur, which means “the castles,” which in turn may derive from the Latin word “castra,” which means a military garrison.
More than sixty annual festivals were celebrated in Thebes, some of the most important festivals among these include the Feast of Opet, the Khoiak (Festival), the festival of the valley, the Festival of I Shemu, and the Festival of II Shemu. The city's most important festival was the Festival of Opet & Shemu . The site became a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1979 and is famous for being one of the most visited places in Egypt and home of some amazing temples such as (Karnak temple, Luxor temple, Valley of the kings and many more), tombs of famous kings & nobles and artifacts from the different periods of ancient Egypt.
The history of the city goes way back to Egypt old Kingdom when Thebes was the capital of “ Waset ” of Upper Egypt’s fourth nomes ( Districts ). Most of the earliest monuments are from the 11 th dynasty ( 2081-1939 BC ) and by the 12 th dynasty ( 1938-1756 BC ) the capital of Egypt was Memphis and Thebes was under the control of Foreign invaders called the Hyksos . But the city was freed by King Ahmose and the Hyksos were driven out between (1530-1520 BC). Ahmose I reclaimed the lands formerly ruled by them, and Thebes was celebrated as the city which had liberated the country of Egypt and was declared as the main capital of Egypt.
The glorious history of Thebes started in the 18 th dynasty when the city became the official capital and the worship center for the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu who would be worshiped in the city for centuries. It was entirely rebuilt using the great wealth acquired from the great expeditions to the land of Nubia and Asia. The momentum of prosperity reached an extreme elevation in the 14 th century during the reign of Amenhotep III where the temples of Amon were drowning in extravagant materials, so it came to no one’s surprise when Akhenaton "Amenhotep IV" (1353-1336 BC) attempted to force monotheism in the shape of Atonism (the worship of the only god Aton) but he miserably failed, his actions led to the disturbance of the entire city for many years. Reconstruction of the city began by Tutankhamen (1333-1323 BC) to the highest level of elegance & prestige, both Seti I (1290-1279 BC) and Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) built many temples and enlarged the city as much as they can.
Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes to a new site near the city of Avaris called Per-Ramesses but in the 7th century BCE, Thebes became a capital again by Nubian pharaoh Tatanami who want to restore the glory of the past. At the near end of the new kingdom, the city Thebes fell into darkness as the government fell, the economical atmosphere began to crumble and the priests of Amon held all the power in the worst times in the history of the city of Thebes. It was conquered by Assyrians under Ashurbanipal in 666 BC, then by Persians, and later by the Romans and finally by in 640 CE by the Arab invasion of Egypt who name the temple complex at Thebes `Karnak'.
Thebes can be divided into two sections which represent all the attractions of Upper Egypt:
- Great Temple of Amun at Karnak
- Luxor Temple
- Temple of Khonsu
- Precinct of Mut
- Precinct of Montu
- Avenue of the Sphinxes
- Village of Deir el-Medina
- Ramesseum
- Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III
- Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
- Mortuary Temple of Seti I
- Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III
- Valley of the Kings
- Valley of the Queens
- Tombs of the Nobles
The Greek poet Homer mentioned Egypt in his writings as "In Egyptian Thebes, the heaps of precious ingots gleam, the hundred-gated Thebes". The city of Thebes (modern-day Luxor) is one of the world’s biggest and most famous tourist destinations due to the infinite number of great temples and glorious monuments located within the legendary Theban Necropolis. Most of the famous attractions in the city were built during the New Kingdom by the hands of Egypt’s greatest rulers.
One of the main attractions is the incredible Valley of the Kings & Valley of the Queens that acted as the final resting place of many King and Queens. There is also the biggest house of worship during ancient times the Karnak temple which was built in (2055 BCE) to honor the creator god Amon his wife Mut goddess of justice and their son the moon god Khnosu among other famous gods like the goddess of love, beauty and joy Hathor, the crocodile god of the Nile Sobek, and the sky falcon god of victory and protection Horus. The popularity of these gods led directly to Thebes' development, influence, wealth, power, and status. The Karnak Temple Complex continued to grow in size, allure, and grandeur over the next 2,000 years, that's why it remains the largest religious structure ever built in the world.
We can’t talk about the mortuary temples of Thebes without mentioning the enchanting temple of Hatshepsut one of the most preserved ancient temples in the history of Egypt. There is also the guardian of Thebes the breathtaking Colossi of Memnon . There are also a number of temples dedicated to many pharaohs who desire to immortalize their own legacy like the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Abu Simbel which detailed his victory at the battle of Kadesh (1275 BC) which is Ramses II biggest achievement. Most of the temples also played a vital role in illustrating the religious beliefs, daily life routines through the magical artistic inscriptions on their walls and were a great contributor in providing countless antiquities of one of the most majestic civilizations in the history of humanity.
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when did thebes become the capital of egypt | Thebes | Ancient Egypt | As the capital city of ancient Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom, Thebes is home to many of the most magnificent monuments from the age of antiquity.
Two parts to Thebes existed: the Eastern bank of the Nile River , home to the main city, and the Western bank, which held the Necropolis, or City of the Dead. The majority of the population lived within the city on the Eastern bank, while people who served the king, like soldiers, laborers, craftsmen, priests, etc., lived on the Western bank.
Today, the area that Thebes occupied in ancient Egypt is now home to the city of Luxor . As part of Upper Egypt, Thebes sat about 500 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea, and about 450 miles south of Cairo on the Nile River. It covered an area of 36 square miles which included both sides of the Nile River.
Egyptians started settling in the area of Thebes around 3200 B.C. Known to them as Waset, it eventually rose in importance to Egypt when royal families started lived there during the 11th dynasty. At that time, Thebes was called Nowe after Amun , its main god. It was also known as “The City of Amun”. The name “Thebes” came from the Greek name for the city, “Thebai”. During the rule of the pharaohs of the 9th and 10th dynasties, Thebes became the governmental power center of Egypt.
After the Theban nomarchs challenged the pharaohs and won, Thebes emerged as the capital city of Egypt in 2035 B.C. and remained the royal city until Akhenaton moved it to El-Armana. However, after Akhenaten’s death in 1334 B.C., Thebes was restored as Egypt’s capital city.
In 663 B.C., Thebes was plundered by Assyrians and never fully recovered enough to again be the thriving capital city it once was. However, since that time it has been a cherished Egyptian city for its mortuary temples and monuments. Thebes has always been a favorite among the pharaohs and many have lavished their wealth upon the city building shrines, public buildings, terraces and temples all in the name of Amun, one of the creation deities.
© Steve F-E-Cameron - View of the Theban Necropolis
Many monuments in Thebes still stand in good condition today and all were dedicated to Amun as he was the supreme God of Thebes. On the east side of the river in the main city of Thebes, the Karnak complex and the Luxor Temple were built and are popular tourist attractions today.
Karnak is the largest temple complex in Thebes. Construction on Karnak started during Senusret I 's reign during the Middle Kingdom and lasted until the Ptolemaic Period. 30 different pharaohs contributed to its construction and at one time it was a main place of worship for ancient Egyptians.
Founded in the New Kingdom (around 1400 BC), the Luxor Temple was the site of one of the most significant religious festivals, the Opet Festival. The Luxor Temple is dedicated to Amun, Mut and Khonsu and during the Opet Festival the statues of these gods were transported from the temple complex at Karnak to the Luxor Temple.
Across the Nile River on the West side, the Valley of the Kings , or “City of the Dead” was where many pharaohs and other members of royalty were laid to rest, especially during the New Kingdom (1550 B.C. to 1070 B.C.).
© Shelby Root - Valley of the Kings
Many important kings were buried in the Valley of the Kings including:
© arch2452 - Tomb Entrance, Valley of the Kings
- Amenhotep II & III
- Merenptah
- Tutankhamun
- Ramses II
This area is also home to the Valley of the Queens , where 90 known queens, princes and others of high nobility were buried. Some of these included:
- Nefertari (Wife of Ramesses II)
- Imhotep (Vizier to Thutmose I)
- Mut (Wife of Seti I and Mother to Ramesses II)
- Sitre (Wife of Ramses I )
The Temple of Hatshepsut is also one of the most impressive structures in the Thebes area. Built into a cliff, the temple’s chapels are dedicated to Anubis and Hathor .
The Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III has been mostly demolished, but what remains is an impressive 33 foot stele and two enormous statues that are known as the Colossi of Memnon.
The Temple of Seti I is still partially intact. Dedicated to Ramses I , it was completed by his grandson, Ramses II . The walls of the temple are covered with religious content.
The Ramesseum is the mortuary temple of Ramses II . The analyzing of fragments reveals that a huge statue of Ramses II, nearly 55 feet tall, stood at the entrance.
The Temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu is the most Southern temple of the group. Very well preserved, this temple has elaborate battle and worship scenes carved on the walls.
© Walwyn - View of Medinet Habu
In 1979, UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated the entire Thebes area a World Heritage Site . This included the city of Luxor, Karnak, The Valley of the Queens and the Valley of the Kings. A World Heritage Site is defined as any site that has outstanding universal value in an effort to preserve global cultural treasures.
Recently, a Spanish-Italian archaeological team discovered an ancient reproduction of the Tomb of Osiris . The tomb is believed to date back to the 25th dynasty (760-656 BC). The tomb consists of a hall supported by five pillars and a nearly 30 foot long staircase shaft that attached chamber to chamber. The tomb has reliefs of demons holding knives which are meant to protect the dead.
- The Greek Poet, Homer, wrote about Thebes’ wealth in The Iliad.
- Mentuhotep II (2061-2010 B.C.) stabilized the region and established Thebes as a thriving city.
- Known to the ancient Egyptians as “City of the Was” – a “was” was a long staff that had the head of an animal and a forked base.
- Thebes worshiped the Theban Triad which consisted of Amun, Mut and Khonsu.
- At the height of popularity and prosperity, Thebes had a population of 80,000.
- At one time, Amun was considered a lesser (more local) God, but was then merged with Ra and became a national God.
- At one time, the Luxor Temple and the Karnak Complex were linked with a nearly two mile long avenue that was flanked by sphinxes.
- King Tut’s tomb in The Valley of the Kings was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. It was one of the most well-preserved tombs in the valley.
RELATED ARTICLES | https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/thebes.html | 142 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Spanish royal family - Wikipedia | The Spanish royal family , a branch of the House of Bourbon , is headed by King Felipe VI .
The current royal family consists of King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia , their children ( Leonor, Princess of Asturias and Infanta Sofía of Spain ), and Felipe's parents, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía . The royal family lives at Zarzuela Palace in Madrid, although their official residence is the Royal Palace of Madrid . The membership of the royal family is defined by royal decree and consists of: the King of Spain, the monarch's spouse, the monarch's parents, his children, and the heir to the Spanish throne. [1]
The titles and styles of the Royal Family are as follows: [2]
- The occupant of the throne is the King ( Spanish : el Rey ) or the Queen (Spanish: la Reina ), together with other titles pertaining to the Crown or belonging to members of the royal family. They are styled His or Her Majesty .
- The King's wife bears the title of Queen (consort) with the style Her Majesty .
- The husband of the Queen regnant , known as "Consort to the Queen of Spain", bears the title of Prince and is styled His Royal Highness . [a]
- The King's heir apparent or heir presumptive bears the title of Prince or Princess of Asturias with the style Royal Highness .
- A monarch's children besides the Prince or Princess of Asturias, as well as the children of the Prince or Princess, bear the title of Infante or Infanta and use the style Royal Highness . The children of an Infante or Infanta have the rank (but not the title) of Grandees and the style of Excellency .
- Spouses and widows/widowers of the monarch's sons and daughters, other than those of the Prince or Princess of Asturias, are entitled to the form of address and honours the monarch may grant them.
- The sovereign may also grant the dignity of Infante or Infanta with the style of Highness .
- The King was born on 30 January 1968. He is the third child and only son of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía . [3] He became heir apparent when his father became king in 1975, and was named Prince of Asturias in 1977. [4] He married Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano on 22 May 2004. [5] He became king on 19 June 2014 upon his father's abdication. [6]
- The Queen was born on 15 September 1972, [7] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez and María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez. [8] The King and Queen have two daughters. [9] [10]
- The Princess of Asturias is the elder daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia, [9] and the heir presumptive to the Spanish throne since her father's accession in 2014. [6] She was born on 31 October 2005. [9]
- Infanta Sofía is the younger daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia. She was born on 29 April 2007. [10]
- King Juan Carlos I is the former king of Spain , reigning from 1975 to 2014 . He was born on 5 January 1938 as the eldest son and second child of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , and Princess María de las Mercedes, Countess of Barcelona . Through his father, he is a grandson of King Alfonso XIII . On 14 May 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark , with whom he has three children. [11] In 1969, the Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco named Juan Carlos as his successor with the title Prince of Spain. Following General Franco's death, Juan Carlos was proclaimed king on 22 November 1975. [12] On 19 June 2014, he abdicated and his son was enthroned as King Felipe VI. [6]
- Queen Sofía is the wife of King Juan Carlos I. She was born on 2 November 1938, and is the eldest child of King Paul and Queen Frederica of Greece . Sofía was the queen consort of Spain during her husband's reign. [13]
- The Duchess of Lugo , born 20 December 1963, is the eldest child of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía. [14] She married Jaime de Marichalar y Sáenz de Tejada on 18 March 1995, [15] and they divorced in December 2009. [16] The Duchess has two children with Marichalar:
- Infanta Cristina , born 13 June 1965, is the second child and younger daughter of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía. She married Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert on 4 October 1997, [19] and they separated in January 2022. [20] Infanta Cristina and Iñaki Urdangarin have four children:
- King Felipe's aunt, the late Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz , had five children with her husband Luis Gómez-Acebo y Duque de Estrada, 2nd Viscount of La Torre. The children of the Duchess and the Viscount are:
- Doña Simoneta Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 31 October 1968)
- The Viscount of La Torre (born 6 December 1969)
- Don Bruno Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 15 June 1971)
- Don Luis Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 20 May 1973)
- Don Fernando Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 13 September 1974)
- The Duke of Soria and Hernani was born on 9 October 1943 [24] as the son of Carlos Zurita y González-Vidalte and María del Carmen Delgado y Fernández de Santaella. [25] The Duchess and Duke of Soria have two children:
- Don Alfonso Zurita y Borbón (born 9 August 1973)
- Doña María Zurita y Borbón (born 16 September 1975)
- The Dowager Duchess of Calabria is the widow of Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria (16 January 1938 – 5 October 2015), who was the cousin and close friend of King Juan Carlos I . [26] The Duchess of Calabria was born on 4 December 1938, and she is the daughter of Henri, Count of Paris , and Princess Isabelle of Orléans-Braganza . [27] She married the Duke on 11 May 1965. [28]
The Dowager Duchess
* - Member of the Royal Family (as opposed to the Family of the King, or extended family)
** - Member of the Extended royal family
Members of the Spanish Royal Family are often asked by non-profit charitable , cultural , or religious organizations within and without Spain to become their patrons , a role the Spanish constitution recognizes and codified in Title II Article 62 (j). It is incumbent for the monarch "to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies". [29] Royal patronage conveys a sense of official credibility as the organization is scrutinized for suitability. A royal presence often greatly raises the profile of the organization and attracts media publicity and public interest that the organization may not have otherwise garnered, aiding in the charitable cause or cultural event. Royalty make use of their considerable celebrity to assist the organization to raise funds or to promote government policy.
Additionally, members of the royal family may also pursue their own charitable and cultural interests. Queen Sofía devotes much of her time to the Queen Sofia Foundation ( Fundación Reina Sofía ); [30] while Leonor, Princess of Asturias presents the annual Princess of Asturias Awards ( Premios Princesa de Asturias ), which aims to promote "scientific, cultural and humanistic values that form part of mankind's universal heritage." [31] The Princess of Asturias Foundation ( Fundación Princesa de Asturias ) holds the annual Princess of Asturias Awards acknowledging the contributions of individuals, entities, and/or organizations from around the world who make notable achievements in the sciences, humanities, or public affairs.
King Felipe VI serves as president of the Organization of Ibero-American States which hosts the annual Ibero-American Summit , serves as president of the Codespa Foundation, which finances specific economic and social development activities in Latin American and other countries, and serves as president of the Spanish branch of the Association of European Journalists , which is composed of achieving communications professionals. [32] King Felipe VI also serves as honorary chair of the Ministry of Culture National Awards Ceremonies. [33]
Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo , Juan Carlos' elder daughter, is the Director of Cultural and Social Projects of Mapfre Foundation, [34] while Infanta Cristina , Juan Carlos' younger daughter, served as the Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations for the 2nd World Assembly on Ageing, and is a member of the Dali Foundation Board of Trustees, president of the International Foundation for Disabled Sailing , and Director of Social Welfare at the La Caixa Foundation in Barcelona where she lives with her family. [35]
King Juan Carlos, Queen Sofia, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group , an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, and other world issues. [36] [37] [38] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_royal_family | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Queen Letizia of Spain - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In this Spanish name , the first or paternal surname is Ortiz and the second or maternal family name is Rocasolano .
|Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano|
|Queen consort of Spain|
|Tenure||19 June 2014 – present|
|Born|| 15 September 1972 |
Oviedo , Asturias , Spain
|Spouse|
( m. 1998 ; div. 1999)
( m. 2004 )
|Issue|
|House||Bourbon-Anjou (by marriage)|
|Father||Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez|
|Mother||María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez|
|Signature|
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano ( pronounced [leˈtiθja oɾˈtiθ rokasoˈlano] ; 15 September 1972) is Queen of Spain as the wife of King Felipe VI .
Letizia came from a middle-class family. She worked as a journalist for ABC and EFE before becoming a news anchor at CNN+ and Televisión Española . In 1998, she married Alonso Guerrero Pérez , whom she divorced the following year. In 2004, Letizia married Felipe , then Prince of Asturias as the son and heir of King Juan Carlos I . The couple have two daughters, Leonor and Sofía . As Princess of Asturias , Letizia represented her father-in-law in Spain and abroad. On Juan Carlos's abdication in June 2014, Felipe became king, making Letizia queen consort .
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano was born on 15 September 1972 at Miñor Sanatorium in Oviedo , Asturias , [1] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez, a journalist, and his first wife, María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez, a registered nurse and hospital union representative. [2] She has two younger sisters, Telma (b. 1973) and Érika (1975–2007), whose death was widely reported by press as due to an intentional prescription drug overdose. [3]
Letizia's parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores. [4] [5]
Letizia's paternal grandparents were José Luis Ortiz Velasco (ca. 1923–2005), a commercial employee at Olivetti ; [6] and María del Carmen "Menchu" Álvarez del Valle (1928–2021), a radio broadcaster in Asturias for over 40 years. Her maternal grandfather was Francisco Julio Rocasolano Camacho (1918–2015), a mechanic and cab driver in Madrid for over 20 years who was of French and Occitan origin. [7] [8] [9] Letizia's maternal grandmother, Enriqueta Rodriguez Figueredo (1919–2008) was born in the Philippines to Filipino and Spanish parents. [10] [11]
British genealogists have provided evidence that through her mother's Rocasolano lineage, Letizia descends from Astorg Roquesoulane (died c.1564), and her coat of arms incorporates the arms of the Rocasolano family. [12] Reports have suggested – and remain unproven – that on her paternal grandfather's side, Letizia is a descendant of an untitled family descended from medieval nobility who served as constables of Castile . [13]
Letizia attended La Gesta School in Oviedo, before her family moved to Rivas-Vaciamadrid [14] near Madrid , where she attended the Ramiro de Maeztu High School. [15] She completed a bachelor's degree in journalism, at the Complutense University of Madrid , as well as a master's degree in audiovisual journalism at the Institute for Studies in Audiovisual Journalism. [16]
During her studies, Letizia worked for the Asturian daily newspaper La Nueva España and later for the newspaper ABC and the news agency EFE . [15] [16] After completing her master's degree, she travelled to Guadalajara , Mexico, where she worked at the newspaper Siglo 21 and began work toward a PhD. She did not, however, complete her doctoral thesis because she returned to Spain. [17] After returning to Spain, she worked for the Spanish version of the economic channel Bloomberg before moving to the news network CNN+ . [16]
In 2000, she moved to TVE , where she started working for the news channel 24 Horas . In 2002, she anchored the weekly news report programme Informe Semanal and later the daily morning news programme Telediario Matinal on TVE 1. [15] [16] In August 2003, a few months before her engagement to Felipe, Letizia was promoted to anchor of the TVE daily evening news programme Telediario 2 , the most viewed newscast in Spain. [18] In 2000, Letizia reported from Washington, D.C., on the presidential elections . In September 2001, she broadcast live from Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks in New York and in 2003, she filed reports from Iraq following the war . [19] In 2002 she sent several reports from Galicia in northern Spain following the ecological disaster when the oil tanker Prestige sank. [20]
Letizia married Alonso Guerrero Pérez (born in 1962), a writer and a high school literature teacher, on 7 August 1998, in a simple civil ceremony at Almendralejo , in Badajoz , after a 10-year courtship. [21] The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1999. [19]
On 1 November 2003, to the surprise of many, the Royal Household announced Letizia's engagement to Felipe , then Prince of Asturias . [16] Afterwards, she moved to live in a wing of the Zarzuela Palace until the day of her wedding. [22] The Prince of Asturias had proposed to her with a 16- baguette diamond engagement ring with a white gold trim. She marked the occasion by giving him white gold and sapphire cufflinks and a classic book. [23]
The wedding took place on 22 May 2004 in the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid. [24] It was the first royal wedding in this cathedral. It had been nearly a century since the capital celebrated a royal wedding, as the prince's parents married in Athens , and his sisters, Infanta Elena and Infanta Cristina , married in Seville and Barcelona respectively. Letizia's bridal gown was designed by Spanish fashion designer Manuel Pertegaz , her bridal shoes by Pura López; and the veil, a gift from Felipe to his bride, was made of off-white silk tulle and hand-embroidered with detailing. [25] As Letizia's previous marriage involved only a civil ceremony, the Catholic Church does not consider it canonically valid and therefore did not require an annulment to proceed with a Catholic marriage to the Prince of Asturias. [26]
Letizia and Felipe have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias , born on 31 October 2005; [27] and Infanta Sofía , born on 29 April 2007. They were born at Ruber International Hospital in Madrid . [28]
Princess Letizia immediately joined in the duties of her husband and travelled extensively through Spain representing her father-in-law. They also represented Spain in other countries: she has travelled along with her husband to Jordan , Mexico, Peru, Hungary, the Dominican Republic, Panama, the United States, Serbia, Brazil, Uruguay, Sweden, Denmark, Japan, China, and Portugal. She also greeted international dignitaries, along with other members of the royal family, and attended gatherings of foreign royalty in Luxembourg, for the silver wedding anniversary of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg , and in the Netherlands for the 40th birthday of the Prince of Orange . [29]
Her solo agenda was announced in 2006, shortly after the announcement of her second pregnancy. Letizia has performed a couple of audiences and her work focuses on social issues such as children's rights, culture, and education. In late 2007, her solo agenda started to grow in the number of events she performed by herself and Felipe's and Letizia's agendas became more distinct and separate. [30]
On 19 June 2014, Letizia became Queen of Spain ; as such, she holds the style of Majesty . [31] She is the first Spanish-born queen consort since Mercedes of Orléans , the first wife of Alfonso XII , in 1878. [32] She is also the first Spanish queen to have been born as a commoner . [19] Queen Letizia undertook her first solo engagement as queen on 23 June 2014 at the inauguration of the El Greco and modern painting exhibition at the National Prado museum in Madrid. [33]
In their first overseas trip as king and queen, Felipe VI and Letizia met Pope Francis on 30 June 2014, in the Apostolic Palace . They later met with Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin , accompanied by Mgsr. Antoine Camilleri , under-secretary for Relations with States. The visit followed one by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia on 28 April. [34] In 2015, Letizia was named Special Ambassador for Nutrition for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . [35]
In March 2016, leaked text messages between Letizia and businessman Javier López Madrid created a controversy. Together with other executives and board members of the Caja Madrid and Bankia financial group, Madrid had been accused of corruption. In October 2014 Letizia pledged her support for him, texting "We know who you are and you know who we are. We know each other, like each other, respect each other. To hell with the rest. Kisses yoga mate (miss you!!!)". Felipe also joined in, texting "We do indeed!" The newspaper El Diario later published these texts. A palace official subsequently stated that the King and Queen were no longer friends with López Madrid due to his legal issues. [36] [37]
For the 2020 Rey Jaime I Awards in Valencia, Queen Letizia presented the award-winners with their gold medals and gave a short speech praising the "talent, effort and generosity" (el talento, el esfuerzo y la generosidad) of prize-winners. [38] [39] [40]
On 21 May 2004, the day before her marriage to Prince Felipe, Letizia was appointed a Dame Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles III . [41] Since then, Letizia has received different appointments and decorations by foreign states and other Spanish honours.
Letizia was styled as "Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias" from her marriage to her husband's accession in 2014, and as "Her Majesty The Queen" since.
The coat of arms of Queen Letizia was adopted in 2014, based on the design created for her by the Asturian Academy of Heraldry and Genealogy ( Academia Asturiana de Heráldica y Genealogía ) in May 2004 and approved by Vicente de Cadenas y Vicent , Cronista Rey de Armas ; this was used by her as Princess of Asturias. [42] The revision of 2014 was confirmed by Don Alfonso Ceballos-Escalera y Gil , Chronicler of Arms for Castile and León.
The Queen's coat of arms has no official status, as in Spain only those of the King of the King emeritus Juan Carlos, and of the Princess of Asturias are so recognized byRoyal Decree. [43] [44]
From 2004 to 2014 The coat of arms used as the princess was the whole differenced with a label of three points Azure (used as a difference of the Spanish heir-apparent) and the crown as Spanish heir-apparent, it had four half-arches (with Crown's arches differenced as consort). [43] [44]
- ^ Álvarez, Leticia (19 June 2014). "Letizia Ortiz, Reina de España" . El Comercio (in Spanish) . Retrieved 29 March 2021 .
- ^ "Paloma Rocasolano, enlace sindical" (in Spanish). ES : Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 16 February 2007.
- ^ "Una muerte por ingestión de pastillas" . El País (in Spanish) (impresa ed.). ES. 9 February 2007.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz, el discreto consuegro del Rey" (in Spanish). ES: Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 22 May 2007.
- ^ "Princess Letizia, Spain" . womenfitness.net . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
Her parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried ... in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores N, born ca. 1955.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz: 'Como abuelo me siento emocionado'" . El Periódico (in Spanish). Aragón, ES. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Letizia_of_Spain | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | What You Should Know About Queen Letizia of Spain | If you’re semi-familiar with Princess Charlene , Princess Caroline , and the royal princesses of Sweden , chances are that you’ve at least heard of Spain’s Queen Letizia. Perhaps you saw her recent stylish turn in an olive-green cape dress , or perhaps you have a faint recollection that she used to be a journalist. But compared to royal heavy-hitters like Kate Middleton , she is relatively unknown on this side of the Atlantic.
So, what exactly should you know about the Queen of Spain? Queen Letizia was born Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano in Oviedo, Spain in 1972. She was the first child of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez and María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez, who went on to have two more daughters together. Her mother worked as a nurse, while her father pursued a career in journalism. Letizia, for her part, went on to follow in her father’s footsteps. She reported for a series of newspapers, before ultimately working in Spanish broadcast television. Notably, she was an anchor for Telediario, a nightly news program in Spain, and covered the 2000 U.S. presidential election.
In 2003, she became engaged to Felipe, Prince of Asturias. The engagement came as a surprise to many, not only because Letizia is one of the few non-royals to become engaged to a royal , but also because she had been previously married. In 1998, Letizia wed teacher Alonso Guerrero Pérez. The marriage ended in divorce the following year.
On May 22, 2004, Letizia and Prince Filipe wed in a Catholic ceremony in Madrid. Letizia wore a long-sleeved gown with gold embroidered details. Upon her marriage, Letizia became Princess of Asturias. In 2005, the couple welcomed their first child together, Princess Leonor. And in 2007, their second daughter, Princess Sofia, was born.
After ten years as Princess of Asturias, Letizia became Queen in 2014. She assumed her new title when her father-in-law, King Juan Carlos, abdicated the throne, and her husband became King Felipe VI of Spain. At the time, there was much speculation as to how Letizia could in fact boost Spain’s fashion industry . And if her style—and that of her family —is any indication, she may indeed be well on her way. | https://www.vogue.com/article/queen-letizia-everything-you-need-to-know | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Queen Letizia of Spain - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In this Spanish name , the first or paternal surname is Ortiz and the second or maternal family name is Rocasolano .
|Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano|
|Queen consort of Spain|
|Tenure||19 June 2014 – present|
|Born|| 15 September 1972 |
Oviedo , Asturias , Spain
|Spouse|
( m. 1998 ; div. 1999)
( m. 2004 )
|Issue|
|House||Bourbon-Anjou (by marriage)|
|Father||Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez|
|Mother||María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez|
|Signature|
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano ( pronounced [leˈtiθja oɾˈtiθ rokasoˈlano] ; 15 September 1972) is Queen of Spain as the wife of King Felipe VI .
Letizia came from a middle-class family. She worked as a journalist for ABC and EFE before becoming a news anchor at CNN+ and Televisión Española . In 1998, she married Alonso Guerrero Pérez , whom she divorced the following year. In 2004, Letizia married Felipe , then Prince of Asturias as the son and heir of King Juan Carlos I . The couple have two daughters, Leonor and Sofía . As Princess of Asturias , Letizia represented her father-in-law in Spain and abroad. On Juan Carlos's abdication in June 2014, Felipe became king, making Letizia queen consort .
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano was born on 15 September 1972 at Miñor Sanatorium in Oviedo , Asturias , [1] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez, a journalist, and his first wife, María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez, a registered nurse and hospital union representative. [2] She has two younger sisters, Telma (b. 1973) and Érika (1975–2007), whose death was widely reported by press as due to an intentional prescription drug overdose. [3]
Letizia's parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores. [4] [5]
Letizia's paternal grandparents were José Luis Ortiz Velasco (ca. 1923–2005), a commercial employee at Olivetti ; [6] and María del Carmen "Menchu" Álvarez del Valle (1928–2021), a radio broadcaster in Asturias for over 40 years. Her maternal grandfather was Francisco Julio Rocasolano Camacho (1918–2015), a mechanic and cab driver in Madrid for over 20 years who was of French and Occitan origin. [7] [8] [9] Letizia's maternal grandmother, Enriqueta Rodriguez Figueredo (1919–2008) was born in the Philippines to Filipino and Spanish parents. [10] [11]
British genealogists have provided evidence that through her mother's Rocasolano lineage, Letizia descends from Astorg Roquesoulane (died c.1564), and her coat of arms incorporates the arms of the Rocasolano family. [12] Reports have suggested – and remain unproven – that on her paternal grandfather's side, Letizia is a descendant of an untitled family descended from medieval nobility who served as constables of Castile . [13]
Letizia attended La Gesta School in Oviedo, before her family moved to Rivas-Vaciamadrid [14] near Madrid , where she attended the Ramiro de Maeztu High School. [15] She completed a bachelor's degree in journalism, at the Complutense University of Madrid , as well as a master's degree in audiovisual journalism at the Institute for Studies in Audiovisual Journalism. [16]
During her studies, Letizia worked for the Asturian daily newspaper La Nueva España and later for the newspaper ABC and the news agency EFE . [15] [16] After completing her master's degree, she travelled to Guadalajara , Mexico, where she worked at the newspaper Siglo 21 and began work toward a PhD. She did not, however, complete her doctoral thesis because she returned to Spain. [17] After returning to Spain, she worked for the Spanish version of the economic channel Bloomberg before moving to the news network CNN+ . [16]
In 2000, she moved to TVE , where she started working for the news channel 24 Horas . In 2002, she anchored the weekly news report programme Informe Semanal and later the daily morning news programme Telediario Matinal on TVE 1. [15] [16] In August 2003, a few months before her engagement to Felipe, Letizia was promoted to anchor of the TVE daily evening news programme Telediario 2 , the most viewed newscast in Spain. [18] In 2000, Letizia reported from Washington, D.C., on the presidential elections . In September 2001, she broadcast live from Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks in New York and in 2003, she filed reports from Iraq following the war . [19] In 2002 she sent several reports from Galicia in northern Spain following the ecological disaster when the oil tanker Prestige sank. [20]
Letizia married Alonso Guerrero Pérez (born in 1962), a writer and a high school literature teacher, on 7 August 1998, in a simple civil ceremony at Almendralejo , in Badajoz , after a 10-year courtship. [21] The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1999. [19]
On 1 November 2003, to the surprise of many, the Royal Household announced Letizia's engagement to Felipe , then Prince of Asturias . [16] Afterwards, she moved to live in a wing of the Zarzuela Palace until the day of her wedding. [22] The Prince of Asturias had proposed to her with a 16- baguette diamond engagement ring with a white gold trim. She marked the occasion by giving him white gold and sapphire cufflinks and a classic book. [23]
The wedding took place on 22 May 2004 in the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid. [24] It was the first royal wedding in this cathedral. It had been nearly a century since the capital celebrated a royal wedding, as the prince's parents married in Athens , and his sisters, Infanta Elena and Infanta Cristina , married in Seville and Barcelona respectively. Letizia's bridal gown was designed by Spanish fashion designer Manuel Pertegaz , her bridal shoes by Pura López; and the veil, a gift from Felipe to his bride, was made of off-white silk tulle and hand-embroidered with detailing. [25] As Letizia's previous marriage involved only a civil ceremony, the Catholic Church does not consider it canonically valid and therefore did not require an annulment to proceed with a Catholic marriage to the Prince of Asturias. [26]
Letizia and Felipe have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias , born on 31 October 2005; [27] and Infanta Sofía , born on 29 April 2007. They were born at Ruber International Hospital in Madrid . [28]
Princess Letizia immediately joined in the duties of her husband and travelled extensively through Spain representing her father-in-law. They also represented Spain in other countries: she has travelled along with her husband to Jordan , Mexico, Peru, Hungary, the Dominican Republic, Panama, the United States, Serbia, Brazil, Uruguay, Sweden, Denmark, Japan, China, and Portugal. She also greeted international dignitaries, along with other members of the royal family, and attended gatherings of foreign royalty in Luxembourg, for the silver wedding anniversary of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg , and in the Netherlands for the 40th birthday of the Prince of Orange . [29]
Her solo agenda was announced in 2006, shortly after the announcement of her second pregnancy. Letizia has performed a couple of audiences and her work focuses on social issues such as children's rights, culture, and education. In late 2007, her solo agenda started to grow in the number of events she performed by herself and Felipe's and Letizia's agendas became more distinct and separate. [30]
On 19 June 2014, Letizia became Queen of Spain ; as such, she holds the style of Majesty . [31] She is the first Spanish-born queen consort since Mercedes of Orléans , the first wife of Alfonso XII , in 1878. [32] She is also the first Spanish queen to have been born as a commoner . [19] Queen Letizia undertook her first solo engagement as queen on 23 June 2014 at the inauguration of the El Greco and modern painting exhibition at the National Prado museum in Madrid. [33]
In their first overseas trip as king and queen, Felipe VI and Letizia met Pope Francis on 30 June 2014, in the Apostolic Palace . They later met with Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin , accompanied by Mgsr. Antoine Camilleri , under-secretary for Relations with States. The visit followed one by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia on 28 April. [34] In 2015, Letizia was named Special Ambassador for Nutrition for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . [35]
In March 2016, leaked text messages between Letizia and businessman Javier López Madrid created a controversy. Together with other executives and board members of the Caja Madrid and Bankia financial group, Madrid had been accused of corruption. In October 2014 Letizia pledged her support for him, texting "We know who you are and you know who we are. We know each other, like each other, respect each other. To hell with the rest. Kisses yoga mate (miss you!!!)". Felipe also joined in, texting "We do indeed!" The newspaper El Diario later published these texts. A palace official subsequently stated that the King and Queen were no longer friends with López Madrid due to his legal issues. [36] [37]
For the 2020 Rey Jaime I Awards in Valencia, Queen Letizia presented the award-winners with their gold medals and gave a short speech praising the "talent, effort and generosity" (el talento, el esfuerzo y la generosidad) of prize-winners. [38] [39] [40]
On 21 May 2004, the day before her marriage to Prince Felipe, Letizia was appointed a Dame Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles III . [41] Since then, Letizia has received different appointments and decorations by foreign states and other Spanish honours.
Letizia was styled as "Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias" from her marriage to her husband's accession in 2014, and as "Her Majesty The Queen" since.
The coat of arms of Queen Letizia was adopted in 2014, based on the design created for her by the Asturian Academy of Heraldry and Genealogy ( Academia Asturiana de Heráldica y Genealogía ) in May 2004 and approved by Vicente de Cadenas y Vicent , Cronista Rey de Armas ; this was used by her as Princess of Asturias. [42] The revision of 2014 was confirmed by Don Alfonso Ceballos-Escalera y Gil , Chronicler of Arms for Castile and León.
The Queen's coat of arms has no official status, as in Spain only those of the King of the King emeritus Juan Carlos, and of the Princess of Asturias are so recognized byRoyal Decree. [43] [44]
From 2004 to 2014 The coat of arms used as the princess was the whole differenced with a label of three points Azure (used as a difference of the Spanish heir-apparent) and the crown as Spanish heir-apparent, it had four half-arches (with Crown's arches differenced as consort). [43] [44]
- ^ Álvarez, Leticia (19 June 2014). "Letizia Ortiz, Reina de España" . El Comercio (in Spanish) . Retrieved 29 March 2021 .
- ^ "Paloma Rocasolano, enlace sindical" (in Spanish). ES : Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 16 February 2007.
- ^ "Una muerte por ingestión de pastillas" . El País (in Spanish) (impresa ed.). ES. 9 February 2007.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz, el discreto consuegro del Rey" (in Spanish). ES: Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 22 May 2007.
- ^ "Princess Letizia, Spain" . womenfitness.net . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
Her parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried ... in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores N, born ca. 1955.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz: 'Como abuelo me siento emocionado'" . El Periódico (in Spanish). Aragón, ES. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Letizia_of_Spain | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Spanish royal family - Wikipedia | The Spanish royal family , a branch of the House of Bourbon , is headed by King Felipe VI .
The current royal family consists of King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia , their children ( Leonor, Princess of Asturias and Infanta Sofía of Spain ), and Felipe's parents, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía . The royal family lives at Zarzuela Palace in Madrid, although their official residence is the Royal Palace of Madrid . The membership of the royal family is defined by royal decree and consists of: the King of Spain, the monarch's spouse, the monarch's parents, his children, and the heir to the Spanish throne. [1]
The titles and styles of the Royal Family are as follows: [2]
- The occupant of the throne is the King ( Spanish : el Rey ) or the Queen (Spanish: la Reina ), together with other titles pertaining to the Crown or belonging to members of the royal family. They are styled His or Her Majesty .
- The King's wife bears the title of Queen (consort) with the style Her Majesty .
- The husband of the Queen regnant , known as "Consort to the Queen of Spain", bears the title of Prince and is styled His Royal Highness . [a]
- The King's heir apparent or heir presumptive bears the title of Prince or Princess of Asturias with the style Royal Highness .
- A monarch's children besides the Prince or Princess of Asturias, as well as the children of the Prince or Princess, bear the title of Infante or Infanta and use the style Royal Highness . The children of an Infante or Infanta have the rank (but not the title) of Grandees and the style of Excellency .
- Spouses and widows/widowers of the monarch's sons and daughters, other than those of the Prince or Princess of Asturias, are entitled to the form of address and honours the monarch may grant them.
- The sovereign may also grant the dignity of Infante or Infanta with the style of Highness .
- The King was born on 30 January 1968. He is the third child and only son of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía . [3] He became heir apparent when his father became king in 1975, and was named Prince of Asturias in 1977. [4] He married Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano on 22 May 2004. [5] He became king on 19 June 2014 upon his father's abdication. [6]
- The Queen was born on 15 September 1972, [7] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez and María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez. [8] The King and Queen have two daughters. [9] [10]
- The Princess of Asturias is the elder daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia, [9] and the heir presumptive to the Spanish throne since her father's accession in 2014. [6] She was born on 31 October 2005. [9]
- Infanta Sofía is the younger daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia. She was born on 29 April 2007. [10]
- King Juan Carlos I is the former king of Spain , reigning from 1975 to 2014 . He was born on 5 January 1938 as the eldest son and second child of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , and Princess María de las Mercedes, Countess of Barcelona . Through his father, he is a grandson of King Alfonso XIII . On 14 May 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark , with whom he has three children. [11] In 1969, the Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco named Juan Carlos as his successor with the title Prince of Spain. Following General Franco's death, Juan Carlos was proclaimed king on 22 November 1975. [12] On 19 June 2014, he abdicated and his son was enthroned as King Felipe VI. [6]
- Queen Sofía is the wife of King Juan Carlos I. She was born on 2 November 1938, and is the eldest child of King Paul and Queen Frederica of Greece . Sofía was the queen consort of Spain during her husband's reign. [13]
- The Duchess of Lugo , born 20 December 1963, is the eldest child of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía. [14] She married Jaime de Marichalar y Sáenz de Tejada on 18 March 1995, [15] and they divorced in December 2009. [16] The Duchess has two children with Marichalar:
- Infanta Cristina , born 13 June 1965, is the second child and younger daughter of King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía. She married Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert on 4 October 1997, [19] and they separated in January 2022. [20] Infanta Cristina and Iñaki Urdangarin have four children:
- King Felipe's aunt, the late Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz , had five children with her husband Luis Gómez-Acebo y Duque de Estrada, 2nd Viscount of La Torre. The children of the Duchess and the Viscount are:
- Doña Simoneta Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 31 October 1968)
- The Viscount of La Torre (born 6 December 1969)
- Don Bruno Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 15 June 1971)
- Don Luis Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 20 May 1973)
- Don Fernando Gómez-Acebo y Borbón (born 13 September 1974)
- The Duke of Soria and Hernani was born on 9 October 1943 [24] as the son of Carlos Zurita y González-Vidalte and María del Carmen Delgado y Fernández de Santaella. [25] The Duchess and Duke of Soria have two children:
- Don Alfonso Zurita y Borbón (born 9 August 1973)
- Doña María Zurita y Borbón (born 16 September 1975)
- The Dowager Duchess of Calabria is the widow of Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria (16 January 1938 – 5 October 2015), who was the cousin and close friend of King Juan Carlos I . [26] The Duchess of Calabria was born on 4 December 1938, and she is the daughter of Henri, Count of Paris , and Princess Isabelle of Orléans-Braganza . [27] She married the Duke on 11 May 1965. [28]
The Dowager Duchess
* - Member of the Royal Family (as opposed to the Family of the King, or extended family)
** - Member of the Extended royal family
Members of the Spanish Royal Family are often asked by non-profit charitable , cultural , or religious organizations within and without Spain to become their patrons , a role the Spanish constitution recognizes and codified in Title II Article 62 (j). It is incumbent for the monarch "to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies". [29] Royal patronage conveys a sense of official credibility as the organization is scrutinized for suitability. A royal presence often greatly raises the profile of the organization and attracts media publicity and public interest that the organization may not have otherwise garnered, aiding in the charitable cause or cultural event. Royalty make use of their considerable celebrity to assist the organization to raise funds or to promote government policy.
Additionally, members of the royal family may also pursue their own charitable and cultural interests. Queen Sofía devotes much of her time to the Queen Sofia Foundation ( Fundación Reina Sofía ); [30] while Leonor, Princess of Asturias presents the annual Princess of Asturias Awards ( Premios Princesa de Asturias ), which aims to promote "scientific, cultural and humanistic values that form part of mankind's universal heritage." [31] The Princess of Asturias Foundation ( Fundación Princesa de Asturias ) holds the annual Princess of Asturias Awards acknowledging the contributions of individuals, entities, and/or organizations from around the world who make notable achievements in the sciences, humanities, or public affairs.
King Felipe VI serves as president of the Organization of Ibero-American States which hosts the annual Ibero-American Summit , serves as president of the Codespa Foundation, which finances specific economic and social development activities in Latin American and other countries, and serves as president of the Spanish branch of the Association of European Journalists , which is composed of achieving communications professionals. [32] King Felipe VI also serves as honorary chair of the Ministry of Culture National Awards Ceremonies. [33]
Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo , Juan Carlos' elder daughter, is the Director of Cultural and Social Projects of Mapfre Foundation, [34] while Infanta Cristina , Juan Carlos' younger daughter, served as the Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations for the 2nd World Assembly on Ageing, and is a member of the Dali Foundation Board of Trustees, president of the International Foundation for Disabled Sailing , and Director of Social Welfare at the La Caixa Foundation in Barcelona where she lives with her family. [35]
King Juan Carlos, Queen Sofia, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group , an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, and other world issues. [36] [37] [38] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_royal_family | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Everything We Know About the Spanish Royal Family | Published Dec 26, 2019
We know just about everything there is to know about Prince William and Kate Middleton, but the same can’t be said about the Spanish royal family.
From the reigning monarch to the line of succession, keep reading for everything you need to know about the Spanish royal family.
Royal Press Department/Getty Images
The current heads of the family are King Felipe VI and his wife, Queen Letizia.
Ian Waldie/Getty Images
His full name is Felipe Juan Pablo Alfonso de Todos los Santos. The 51-year-old royal is considered a relatively new king, since he ascended the throne in 2014 following the abdication of his father, King Juan Carlos I.
Felipe was born in Madrid and completed several programs during his collegiate career. Not only does he have a law degree from the Autonomous University of Madrid, but he also obtained a Master of Science in Foreign Service from Georgetown University.
During his younger days, Felipe was quite the athlete. The then-Prince of Asturias even competed during the 1992 Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona as a member of the Spanish sailing team.
Chesnot/Getty Images
In her early days, Letizia studied journalism at the Complutense University of Madrid and the Institute for Studies in Audiovisual Journalism. The 47-year-old met Felipe while working as a news anchor, though she wasn’t originally welcomed into the royal family.
You see, Letizia was previously married to Alonso Guerrero Pérez. Although the marriage only lasted a year, her status as a “divorcée” forced the couple to keep things under wraps until they were serious.
In May 2004, she and Felipe exchanged vows at the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid. They now have two daughters together, Leonor, Princess of Asturias (14) and Infanta Sofía (12).
Juan Manuel Serrano Arce/Getty Images
Leonor is the oldest daughter of King Felipe and Queen Letizia. She’s first in the line of succession to the Spanish throne. Since she’s still technically a child, she hasn’t made very many public appearances.
In fact, Leonor attended her first official outing as the Princess of Asturias back in October.
Juan Manuel Serrano Arce/Getty Images
Infanta Sofía is the youngest child of King Felipe and Queen Letizia. Although she follows Leonor in the Spanish line of succession, she’s not expected to take over the throne, since Leonor’s future children will precede her in the ranking.
Carlos Alvarez/Getty Images
“Infanta” is a title that is given to the daughters of the ruling monarch. (The male version is “infante.”) But there’s a reason that Leonor doesn’t have the “Infanta” prefix anymore.
She was born as Infanta Leonor de Todos los Santos de Borbón y Ortiz. However, when her father stepped up as king in 2014, she became the official heir to the throne. So, she dropped “Infanta” and inherited a new title: Princess of Asturias. Confusing, we know.
Cristina García Rodero/Royal Press Department/Getty Images
The family resides at the Zarzuela Palace, which is located on the outskirts of Madrid.
RELATED | https://www.purewow.com/entertainment/spanish-royal-family | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | The Stunning Transformation Of Princess Leonor, The Future Queen Of Spain | Spain's future queen, Princess Leonor, was born October 31, 2005, as the Infanta Leonor de Borbón y Ortiz (via The Irish Times ). Her parents are Their Majesties King Felipe VI of Spain and Queen Letizia , per the Spanish royal family . At the time of Leonor's birth, Felipe was crown Prince of Spain, aka the Prince of Asturias . It was only when Felipe ascended in 2014 that Leonor became a Princess. Because of the circumstances under which her father came to reign (the abdication of his father and predecessor, King Juan Carlos), Princess Leonor shares with Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II the unusual distinction among European heirs to the throne of being alive contemporaneously with both the current sovereign and the former (via Brittanica ).
All of that being said, Princess Leonor is not the heir apparent, but the heir presumptive. That's because Spain's monarchy adheres to male primogeniture, by which a future-born legitimate son of a monarch could trump a living female's place in the line of succession (via Unofficial Royalty ). Nevertheless, with her married parents in their fifties and not getting any younger, the royal presumption has become increasingly compelling over time. In any event, Princess Leonor has long been regarded by the Spanish people as their future queen. If she does become queen, she will be the first queen regnant (i.e., by blood) since the 1800s, per Hello! Magazine . Join us as we trace the stunning transformation of this future Queen of Spain.
All three of His Royal Highness, Prince William's children (George, Charlotte, and Louis) have had the title HRH Prince/Princess since birth, per Harper's Bazaar . Although we may take this for granted as a given because their father is the future King of England, it is, in fact, nothing more than a construct dating back more than 100 years to the reign of King George V, the grandfather of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, per Tatler . In 1917, George V issued Letters Patent proclaiming that the title of Prince/Princess would, henceforth, be available to the reigning monarch's children and to the children of the sons of the reigning monarch.
By contrast, no such construct exists with regard to the Spanish monarchy, under which only the heir apparent or presumptive bears the Prince/Princess title -- i.e., the crown prince/princess, per El Pais . All other children and grandchildren of the monarch are born with the title Infante or Infanta, depending on their gender assignment at birth (via Britannica ). At the time of Leonor's birth in 2005, her father, then-crown Prince Felipe, was not the monarch, but rather, the heir apparent to his father, then-King Juan Carlos. Accordingly, at birth, Leonor was known as HRH Infanta Leonor, and had to wait until her father ascended the throne in 2014 to use the Princess title. Her younger sister, Sofia, was born HRH Infanta and remains as such, even now that her father is King.
The first time the people of Spain met the Infanta Leonor, it was as a sweetly swaddled newborn outside Madrid's royal-family-friendly Ruber International Clinic (per The Irish Times ). Although her future as queen has always hinged on her father's producing no legitimate male heirs, per the Spanish monarchy's order of succession , Princess Leonor has always been regarded by the people of Spain as their future queen -- similar to how Queen Elizabeth had been regarded as the future monarch after her father ascended the throne, despite that she too had male primogeniture working against her (per Time ).
Synonymous as she is with the future of Spain, Princess Leonor has lived her life in the public eye, per Hola . Indeed, many of her milestones have been well documented. This includes her 2006 baptism, which, in keeping with Spanish royal tradition, used holy water from the River Jordan. Throughout the years, she's also been photographed at outings to sailing regattas, social events with other members of European royalty, summers spent at the Palacio de Marivent in Mallorca, and various royal engagements.
Just as the birth of Prince William to Prince Charles and Princess Diana was a thrilling moment for many Brits because it put a cherubic face to the future of Britain, the birth of the Infanta Leonor was seen as highly auspicious in Spain (via The Irish Times ). Nevertheless, even after 17 years of being Spain's next monarch, the possibility remains, however unlikely, that her father, Felipe, could still produce a legitimate male heir. If he were to do so, this would bump Leonor from the order of succession (via Unofficial Royalty ). The 2007 birth of her younger sister, Infanta Sofia , eliminated some degree of the uncertainty regarding Leonor's status. However, it could not eliminate all of it, especially when you consider how things went down for Felipe's two sisters vis-à-vis the royal line of succession.
By the time Felipe was born in 1968, King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofia were already parents to two daughters, the Infantas Elena (b. 1963) and Cristina (b. 1965), per Hello! Magazine . Like Leonor, Elena was regarded, at birth, as the heir presumptive. And so it remained, even after the birth of her younger sister, Cristina. Five years into her life, however, Elena lost her status as heir presumptive -- when Felipe, a legitimate male heir to the crown, was born.
The Spanish title of Prince/Princess is exclusive to the person next in line to the living monarch, per El Pais . Born while her father was still crown prince, Leonor was known as an Infanta until Felipe ascended the throne in 2014. At that point, Leonor was officially proclaimed Heir to the Throne, per the official website of the Spanish royal family. At the same time, she also acquired her title as Princess of Asturias, which, like the British title Prince/Princess of Wales, denotes that the person who holds it is the next in line to the throne. Unlike the Wales title, however, which the British monarch must bestow upon in its owner, per Town & Country , the Heir to the Throne in Spain is automatically endowed with the Asturias title upon the investiture of their parent as monarch of Spain, per Article 57(2) of the Spanish Constitution .
Accordingly, when Leonor's father, Felipe, became king on June 19, 2014, Leonor's title changed automatically from Infanta Leonor to Princess Leonor of Asturias. She also holds the titles of "Princess of Girona and Princess of Viana, corresponding to the firstborn of the Kingdom of Castile, the Throne of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre, whose union formed the Spanish Monarchy in the 16th century," as well as the Duchess of Montblanc, the Countess of Cervera, and the Lady of Balaguer, according to the Spanish royal family website.
In 1936, when Princess Elizabeth of York was just 10 , her uncle, King Edward VIII, abdicated the British throne with no legitimate heirs to his name (via History .) Under the order of succession, the crown went to Edward's next younger brother, Prince Albert of York, who was known, from then on, as King George VI, per Britannica and Time . Since George VI was Princess Elizabeth's father, Elizabeth became heir presumptive, while her younger sister, Princess Margaret, who was known to be the more affable and outgoing of the two, looked on with what some characterize as envy (per Marie Claire ).
In 2014, when Infanta Leonor was just eight, her grandfather, King Juan Carlos, abdicated the throne in favor of his son Felipe. Like Elizabeth, Leonor was, at that point, thrust into her new role as daughter of the monarch, crown princess, and heir presumptive. Like Elizabeth, Leonor is the more reserved of the two sisters, per Royal Central . Although we can't say if Sofia feels envy towards Leonor for being first in line to the throne, the parallels between Queen Elizabeth II's journey to the throne and Leonor's are still quite notable. In fact, just as Leonor's birthright to the crown could be wiped out by the birth of a younger brother, so too could have been Elizabeth's. Of course, we know how that went for Elizabeth. Given Felipe and Letizia's respective ages, it's quite possible history will repeat itself.
In May 2015, less than a year after her father ascended the throne, nine-year-old Princess Leonor received her first communion, according to Hello! Magazine . Traditionally, the Spanish royal family, which is Roman Catholic (via Unofficial Royalty ), makes quite the big to-do over its family members' first communions, tending to hold them as lavish affairs at the royal palace of Zarzuela itself, and with only the one young royal family member receiving the sacrament. Nevertheless, the Princess of Asturias received her first communion at a church in a Madrid suburb (the Asunción de Nuestra Señora church in Aravaca), per The San Diego Union-Tribune . Rather than wearing a dress designed specially for the occasion, Leonor wore the same navy and gray uniform that she wore daily to her private school in Madrid. And, presumably, so did the other two dozen or so classmates of Leonor who were also there to receive their own respective first communions.
Although the presence of the King and Queen as well as the emeritus king and queen made the event newsworthy, it would seem that not much else did, per Hola , which called the event "discreet and familiar." Apparently, that's how King Felipe wanted it. "Since King Felipe VI came to the throne last year, he has sought to open up the monarchy and bring it closer to Spaniards," the Union-Tribune noted at the time.
In October 2015, on the occasion of Princess Leonor's 10th birthday, King Felipe VI awarded her with the Order of the Golden Fleece, per Hello! Magazine . The Order of the Golden Fleece was founded in 1430 to "defend the Roman Catholic religion, to uphold the usages of chivalry, and to ... settle all disputes between its knights," according to Britannica . Known as one of Spain's highest honors, the Order of the Golden Fleece has been awarded to only 1,200 people over the course of these last eight centuries. Prior to 2015, only three of its recipients had been female, one of whom was Queen Elizabeth II, who received the honor from King Juan Carlos.
Although the honor was first bestowed upon Leonor in 2015, the official ceremony by which she received the insignia of the Order did not occur until January 30, 2018, per El Pais . Since that day coincided with King Felipe VI's 50th birthday, and because Leonor would be turning 13 later that year -- the same age at which Felipe embarked on his public life as crown prince, El Pais interpreted the occasion as the symbolic launch of Leonor's public life as crown princess. Indeed, as Felipe remarked during the ceremony, "Today, Leonor, you are taking a very important and symbolic step towards your future role" (via Hello! Magazine).
Although her receipt of the Order of the Golden Fleece in January 2018 may have marked Princess Leonor's symbolic entry into public life as crown princess of Spain, per El Pais , it wasn't until her birthday later that same year that she took an even bigger step toward that end. On October 31, 2018, the same day that Princess Leonor of Spain turned 13, she delivered her very first public address to the people of Spain, according to Town & Country .
Not only was it the Princess' birthday, but it was also the 40th anniversary of Spain's Constitution (aka the Carta Magna) which Spain approved in 1978 as final severing of ties to Francisco Franco's dictatorship -- which officially ended in 1975 when Franco died, and Juan Carlos became king, per The Guardian . At a commemorative event held at the Cervantes Institute in Madrid, Princess Leonor stood up and read from the Carta Magna in a "firm voice," but only after her father warmed up the crowd with his reading of the preamble, according to AP News . Perhaps not surprisingly, King Felipe was also 13 when gave his own first public address as crown prince.
Still 13 on October 18, 2019, Princess Leonor also presided for the first time over her namesake award ceremony, The Princess of Asturias Awards. Perhaps most significantly, she took that opportunity to pledge herself to the service of Spain and its people (per Royal Central ).
Throughout the year she turned 13, Princess Leonor made other official public appearances. For example, on June 19, 2019, she helped her father, Felipe, as he gave out awards in connection with the Order of Civil Merit Ceremony, per Just Jared Jr . Founded by Princess Leonor's great-great-grandfather, King Alfonso XIII on June 25, 1926, the Order of Civil Merit was intended to recognize and reward the good work of public servants in service of the nation, per Government of Spain .
These days, the Order has been broadened to include Spanish nationals who aren't necessarily public servants, but who have provided an important service to the nation through "extraordinary works, beneficial initiatives or exemplary constancy in the fulfillment of their duties" as well as non-Spanish nationals in service of Spain. What is most significant here is that "His Majesty the King" is the Order's "Grand Master," with all awards being "conferred in his name." Accordingly, in giving her father a hand with these awards, it looks as if Princess Leonor may be preparing for her own future as the Order's next Grand Master.
Princess Leonor was on hand once again at 2021's Order of Civil Merit Ceremony, during which the awards focused on recognizing the contributions of front line workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, per ThinkSpain . Recipients included not only healthcare workers but also "manufacturers, food producers, and transport and distribution drivers."
On March 24, 2021, Princess Leonor checked off yet another important milestone in her journey toward the Spanish throne by conducting her first solo engagement as Spain's crown princess, per Hola . For the engagement, Princess Leonor deposited into a safe deposit box the copy of the Constitution she had read on her birthday in 2018, as well as a copy of "Don Quixote" she read at another event in 2020. She sported a dress she'd already worn the previous year (relatable!) along with kitten heels and a face mask. A warm welcome from the public and a banner that read "The future is Leonor" greeted her.
Four months later, Princess Leonor made her first joint appearance with her sister, Infanta Sofia, without their parents, per Royal Central . This engagement involved planting trees in a nature preserve in Madrid in honor of World Environment Day.
In presenting Princess Leonor with the Order of the Golden Fleece in 2018, King Felipe remarked that Spain's future queen will have "lots of challenges and responsibilities to face, all important and difficult" (via Hello! Magazine ). In fact, as Leonor approaches adulthood and takes a more active role within the royal family, it would appear that she has already begun to experience some of those challenges firsthand.
Like her father, Princess Leonor has had to deal with ongoing backlash concerning the financial and political scandals that factored into Juan Carlos' abdication in favor of Felipe in 2014, per AP News . Although the king emeritus has been living in exile in the United Arab Emirates since August 2020, his various scandals (via The New York Times and Politico ) continue to rankle the people of Spain and tarnish the reputation of the royal family (via Town & Country and British Vogue ).
Despite everything King Felipe has done toward rehabilitating the reputation of the Spanish monarchy, including making public disclosure of his assets and distancing himself financially from his father (via ABC ), anti-royal protests have marred his reign -- which now directly affects Princess Leonor. For example, in 2019, People noted that when Princess Leonor delivered her speech at the Princess of Girona Foundation awards in Barcelona in 2019, she did so "bravely" amid a "backdrop of anti-royal street protests."
As much as King Felipe has made efforts to curtail the lavish displays of wealth that characterized the later years of his father's reign (via Daily Mail ), he has apparently spared no expense in educating the Princess of Asturias. After attending a nursery school for members of the Spanish Royal Guard (per Study International ), she attended the same private grammar school in Madrid as her father, per La Prensa Latina Media .
Since 2021, Leonor has been attending UWC Atlantic College, an exclusive boarding school located in a 12th century castle on the southern coast of Wales, according to AP News . She is pursuing her International Baccalaureate, which La Prensa describes as a two-year program that promotes an "international view of the world." Although some refer to the Welsh institution as a " school for princesses ," Leonor is said to have applied "anonymously," and the school is said to have accepted her without knowing that she is the heir to the Spanish throne.
Tuition for Leonor's two-year course of study comes in at just under $93,000. Although the Spanish royal family receives in the vicinity of $10 million from the state budget for purposes of maintaining their household, the King and Queen are paying the school's tuition with their own money. Not surprisingly, the royal family's decision to send Leonora out of the country to complete her education has drawn criticism from some, according to the AP.
When the King and Queen of Spain announced in 2021 that they were sending their eldest child and heir to the Spanish throne, Leonor, to Wales to finish her primary education, radio station RTVE, reported that "Leonor is leaving Spain, like her grandfather." This headline, which was subsequently scrubbed, seemed to suggest an analogy between Leonor's being sent off to school in Wales, on the one hand, and her grandfather's political exile in Abu Dhabi, on the other. The radio station later apologized for the inflammatory fake-ish news. Indeed, whereas Juan Carlos actively distanced himself from Spain and the royal family for the sake of his son Felipe's public image (per Reuters ), Leonor remains in good stead with her family and continues to participate in royal engagements whenever she is home from school.
For example, on April 20, 2022, while home on Easter break, Princess Leonor conducted her second solo royal engagement (the first was in March 2021, per Hola ). This one was a cybersecurity conference at a Spanish high school, at which she participated in a roundtable discussion regarding cybersecurity and social media in an expert-moderated debate, per Royal Central . A few days later, on April 23, she and her parents and younger sister spent the Saturday before Easter visiting with refugees from Ukraine, per Royal Central . | https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-stunning-transformation-of-princess-leonor-the-future-queen-of-spain/ar-AAZmOkL | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Queen Letizia of Spain - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In this Spanish name , the first or paternal surname is Ortiz and the second or maternal family name is Rocasolano .
|Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano|
|Queen consort of Spain|
|Tenure||19 June 2014 – present|
|Born|| 15 September 1972 |
Oviedo , Asturias , Spain
|Spouse|
( m. 1998 ; div. 1999)
( m. 2004 )
|Issue|
|House||Bourbon-Anjou (by marriage)|
|Father||Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez|
|Mother||María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez|
|Signature|
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano ( pronounced [leˈtiθja oɾˈtiθ rokasoˈlano] ; 15 September 1972) is Queen of Spain as the wife of King Felipe VI .
Letizia came from a middle-class family. She worked as a journalist for ABC and EFE before becoming a news anchor at CNN+ and Televisión Española . In 1998, she married Alonso Guerrero Pérez , whom she divorced the following year. In 2004, Letizia married Felipe , then Prince of Asturias as the son and heir of King Juan Carlos I . The couple have two daughters, Leonor and Sofía . As Princess of Asturias , Letizia represented her father-in-law in Spain and abroad. On Juan Carlos's abdication in June 2014, Felipe became king, making Letizia queen consort .
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano was born on 15 September 1972 at Miñor Sanatorium in Oviedo , Asturias , [1] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez, a journalist, and his first wife, María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez, a registered nurse and hospital union representative. [2] She has two younger sisters, Telma (b. 1973) and Érika (1975–2007), whose death was widely reported by press as due to an intentional prescription drug overdose. [3]
Letizia's parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores. [4] [5]
Letizia's paternal grandparents were José Luis Ortiz Velasco (ca. 1923–2005), a commercial employee at Olivetti ; [6] and María del Carmen "Menchu" Álvarez del Valle (1928–2021), a radio broadcaster in Asturias for over 40 years. Her maternal grandfather was Francisco Julio Rocasolano Camacho (1918–2015), a mechanic and cab driver in Madrid for over 20 years who was of French and Occitan origin. [7] [8] [9] Letizia's maternal grandmother, Enriqueta Rodriguez Figueredo (1919–2008) was born in the Philippines to Filipino and Spanish parents. [10] [11]
British genealogists have provided evidence that through her mother's Rocasolano lineage, Letizia descends from Astorg Roquesoulane (died c.1564), and her coat of arms incorporates the arms of the Rocasolano family. [12] Reports have suggested – and remain unproven – that on her paternal grandfather's side, Letizia is a descendant of an untitled family descended from medieval nobility who served as constables of Castile . [13]
Letizia attended La Gesta School in Oviedo, before her family moved to Rivas-Vaciamadrid [14] near Madrid , where she attended the Ramiro de Maeztu High School. [15] She completed a bachelor's degree in journalism, at the Complutense University of Madrid , as well as a master's degree in audiovisual journalism at the Institute for Studies in Audiovisual Journalism. [16]
During her studies, Letizia worked for the Asturian daily newspaper La Nueva España and later for the newspaper ABC and the news agency EFE . [15] [16] After completing her master's degree, she travelled to Guadalajara , Mexico, where she worked at the newspaper Siglo 21 and began work toward a PhD. She did not, however, complete her doctoral thesis because she returned to Spain. [17] After returning to Spain, she worked for the Spanish version of the economic channel Bloomberg before moving to the news network CNN+ . [16]
In 2000, she moved to TVE , where she started working for the news channel 24 Horas . In 2002, she anchored the weekly news report programme Informe Semanal and later the daily morning news programme Telediario Matinal on TVE 1. [15] [16] In August 2003, a few months before her engagement to Felipe, Letizia was promoted to anchor of the TVE daily evening news programme Telediario 2 , the most viewed newscast in Spain. [18] In 2000, Letizia reported from Washington, D.C., on the presidential elections . In September 2001, she broadcast live from Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks in New York and in 2003, she filed reports from Iraq following the war . [19] In 2002 she sent several reports from Galicia in northern Spain following the ecological disaster when the oil tanker Prestige sank. [20]
Letizia married Alonso Guerrero Pérez (born in 1962), a writer and a high school literature teacher, on 7 August 1998, in a simple civil ceremony at Almendralejo , in Badajoz , after a 10-year courtship. [21] The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1999. [19]
On 1 November 2003, to the surprise of many, the Royal Household announced Letizia's engagement to Felipe , then Prince of Asturias . [16] Afterwards, she moved to live in a wing of the Zarzuela Palace until the day of her wedding. [22] The Prince of Asturias had proposed to her with a 16- baguette diamond engagement ring with a white gold trim. She marked the occasion by giving him white gold and sapphire cufflinks and a classic book. [23]
The wedding took place on 22 May 2004 in the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid. [24] It was the first royal wedding in this cathedral. It had been nearly a century since the capital celebrated a royal wedding, as the prince's parents married in Athens , and his sisters, Infanta Elena and Infanta Cristina , married in Seville and Barcelona respectively. Letizia's bridal gown was designed by Spanish fashion designer Manuel Pertegaz , her bridal shoes by Pura López; and the veil, a gift from Felipe to his bride, was made of off-white silk tulle and hand-embroidered with detailing. [25] As Letizia's previous marriage involved only a civil ceremony, the Catholic Church does not consider it canonically valid and therefore did not require an annulment to proceed with a Catholic marriage to the Prince of Asturias. [26]
Letizia and Felipe have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias , born on 31 October 2005; [27] and Infanta Sofía , born on 29 April 2007. They were born at Ruber International Hospital in Madrid . [28]
Princess Letizia immediately joined in the duties of her husband and travelled extensively through Spain representing her father-in-law. They also represented Spain in other countries: she has travelled along with her husband to Jordan , Mexico, Peru, Hungary, the Dominican Republic, Panama, the United States, Serbia, Brazil, Uruguay, Sweden, Denmark, Japan, China, and Portugal. She also greeted international dignitaries, along with other members of the royal family, and attended gatherings of foreign royalty in Luxembourg, for the silver wedding anniversary of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg , and in the Netherlands for the 40th birthday of the Prince of Orange . [29]
Her solo agenda was announced in 2006, shortly after the announcement of her second pregnancy. Letizia has performed a couple of audiences and her work focuses on social issues such as children's rights, culture, and education. In late 2007, her solo agenda started to grow in the number of events she performed by herself and Felipe's and Letizia's agendas became more distinct and separate. [30]
On 19 June 2014, Letizia became Queen of Spain ; as such, she holds the style of Majesty . [31] She is the first Spanish-born queen consort since Mercedes of Orléans , the first wife of Alfonso XII , in 1878. [32] She is also the first Spanish queen to have been born as a commoner . [19] Queen Letizia undertook her first solo engagement as queen on 23 June 2014 at the inauguration of the El Greco and modern painting exhibition at the National Prado museum in Madrid. [33]
In their first overseas trip as king and queen, Felipe VI and Letizia met Pope Francis on 30 June 2014, in the Apostolic Palace . They later met with Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin , accompanied by Mgsr. Antoine Camilleri , under-secretary for Relations with States. The visit followed one by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia on 28 April. [34] In 2015, Letizia was named Special Ambassador for Nutrition for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . [35]
In March 2016, leaked text messages between Letizia and businessman Javier López Madrid created a controversy. Together with other executives and board members of the Caja Madrid and Bankia financial group, Madrid had been accused of corruption. In October 2014 Letizia pledged her support for him, texting "We know who you are and you know who we are. We know each other, like each other, respect each other. To hell with the rest. Kisses yoga mate (miss you!!!)". Felipe also joined in, texting "We do indeed!" The newspaper El Diario later published these texts. A palace official subsequently stated that the King and Queen were no longer friends with López Madrid due to his legal issues. [36] [37]
For the 2020 Rey Jaime I Awards in Valencia, Queen Letizia presented the award-winners with their gold medals and gave a short speech praising the "talent, effort and generosity" (el talento, el esfuerzo y la generosidad) of prize-winners. [38] [39] [40]
On 21 May 2004, the day before her marriage to Prince Felipe, Letizia was appointed a Dame Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles III . [41] Since then, Letizia has received different appointments and decorations by foreign states and other Spanish honours.
Letizia was styled as "Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias" from her marriage to her husband's accession in 2014, and as "Her Majesty The Queen" since.
The coat of arms of Queen Letizia was adopted in 2014, based on the design created for her by the Asturian Academy of Heraldry and Genealogy ( Academia Asturiana de Heráldica y Genealogía ) in May 2004 and approved by Vicente de Cadenas y Vicent , Cronista Rey de Armas ; this was used by her as Princess of Asturias. [42] The revision of 2014 was confirmed by Don Alfonso Ceballos-Escalera y Gil , Chronicler of Arms for Castile and León.
The Queen's coat of arms has no official status, as in Spain only those of the King of the King emeritus Juan Carlos, and of the Princess of Asturias are so recognized byRoyal Decree. [43] [44]
From 2004 to 2014 The coat of arms used as the princess was the whole differenced with a label of three points Azure (used as a difference of the Spanish heir-apparent) and the crown as Spanish heir-apparent, it had four half-arches (with Crown's arches differenced as consort). [43] [44]
- ^ Álvarez, Leticia (19 June 2014). "Letizia Ortiz, Reina de España" . El Comercio (in Spanish) . Retrieved 29 March 2021 .
- ^ "Paloma Rocasolano, enlace sindical" (in Spanish). ES : Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 16 February 2007.
- ^ "Una muerte por ingestión de pastillas" . El País (in Spanish) (impresa ed.). ES. 9 February 2007.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz, el discreto consuegro del Rey" (in Spanish). ES: Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 22 May 2007.
- ^ "Princess Letizia, Spain" . womenfitness.net . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
Her parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried ... in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores N, born ca. 1955.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz: 'Como abuelo me siento emocionado'" . El Periódico (in Spanish). Aragón, ES. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Letizia_of_Spain | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Queen Letizia of Spain - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is Ortiz and the second or maternal family name is Rocasolano .
Queen Letizia of Spain ( Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano , born 15 September 1972), is the wife of Felipe VI of Spain, former Prince of Asturias , the heir apparent to the Spanish throne. Before her marriage to the prince , she worked as a journalist for several mass media companies . These included the Austrian newspaper La Nueva España , ABC and EFE . She also presented the news on television . In 2000, she received the Larra Prize for her work as the best journalist under 30 years of age.
In 1998, she married Alfonso Guerrero. The next year they divorced . Later she met the Prince Felipe at a dinner party. They married on May 22, 2004. Their daughter Leonor was born in October 2005. She is the second in the line of succession for the Spanish Crown. Sofía, her second daughter, was born in April 2007.
Since her second wedding, she has had the title of Princess of Asturias . She accompanies her husband on official travel wherever she can. She very much likes fashion . People and the press are always noticing what she is wearing.
Following the abdication of her father-in-law in June 2014, her husband succeeded to the Spanish throne as Felipe VI with Letizia as his queen.
- 15 September 1972 – 6/7 August 1998 : Miss Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano
- 6/7 August 1998 – 1999 : Mrs. Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano de Guerrero
- 1999 – 22 May 2004 : Ms. Doña Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano
- 22 May 2004 – 18 June 2014 : Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias
- 19 June 2014 – present : Her Majesty The Queen | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Letizia_of_Spain | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Who Is Queen Letizia? The Spanish Royal ‘Born A Commoner’ The World Can’t Get Enough Of | by Georgia Aspinall |
Posted on
This morning, ‘King Felipe and Queen Letizia of Spain’ was a breakout search term on Google. The royal couple have been trending ever since it was confirmed that they will fly over to the UK to attend the Queen’s state funeral on Monday. Now, it appears as though the public want to know more about the Spanish rulers.
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano is the queen of Spain and wife of King Felipe VI. Known as the ‘commoner Queen’, Letizia came from a middle-class background and worked as a journalist before marrying Felipe. Much like the early days of Kate Middleton’s romance with Prince William, tabloid media have jumped on the fact that – despite being very middle-class – she doesn’t come from a long-line of heirs or aristocrats. In fact, her father was a fellow journalist and her mother, a registered nurse and hospital union representative.
Educated in Madrid, Letizia has a journalism degree and masters in audio-visual journalism, going on to work toward a PhD that she never completed. Instead, she got a job at Bloomberg, later moving to CNN+ and then news channel 24 Horas. In fact, she was an anchor on Telediario 2 – the most viewed newscast in Spain – reporting on the 2000 presidential elections and on the ground in New York during the 9/11 attacks. In 2003, she reported on the Iraq war on the ground too.
That all ended when she married Felipe though, announced in late 2003 to the surprise of many. Reports state that the then Prince of Asturias proposed to her with a 16-baguette diamond engagement ring with a white gold trim, while she marked the occasion by giving him white gold and sapphire cufflinks and a classic book.
Letizia has previously been married once before to a high school literature teacher. In possibly the most disconcerting case of art mimicking life a la Pretty Little Liars, her first husband Alonso Perez is said to have courted her for 10 years prior to their 1998 marriage. That means she was just 16 when the courtship began, while he was 26. He wasn’t actually her teacher like Aria and Ezra, but we’re still… uncomfortable. The marriage lasted just one year, but her being a divorced woman was enough to cause controversy when her engagement to Felipe was announced to the world. However, because her first marriage only involved a civil ceremony, the Catholic Church did not consider it valid and therefore didn’t require an annulment to proceed with her marriage.
Their royal wedding, in May 2004, was the first celebrated in the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid, in nearly a century. Her gown was designed by Spanish fashion designer Manuel Pertegaz.
Letizia and Felipe went on to have two daughters, Leonor Princess of Asturias in 2005 – now aged 17 – and Infanta Sofia in 2007, now aged 15. Their daughters are not expected to attend Queen Elizabeth II’s funeral.
Having had to step back from journalism in place of royal duties, Queen Letizia’s work mostly focuses on social issues such as children's rights, culture, and education. In 2007, still a princess at the time, she began attending several events alone as her and Felipe’s began to forge their own separate work agendas.
In 2014, Felipe’s father, Juan Carlos I, abdicated the throne (citing personal reasons) after a series of controversies around alleged improper ties to Saudia Arabia business deals – he now lives in self-imposed exile. Felipe VI became king and with that, Letizia the first Spanish queen ‘born a commoner’, as the Spanish tabloids would say.
Now, there’s an alleged row going on inside the Spanish royal family about whether former King Juan Carlos I should attend the Queen’s funeral with them. He is actually Queen Elizabeth II’s cousin, and El Debate report that he received an invitation from the British royal family. However, the Spanish government has urged him not to travel to London; if he did, it would be the first time he has been seen at a royal event since his abdication.
Juan is also awaiting trial in the UK after the High Court ruled that he does not have right to Sovereign Immunity in a case involved the alleged harassment of German businesswoman Corinna zu Sayn-Wittgenstein who claims he sent Spanish agents to Britain to spy on her. So, as you can imagine the presence of Juan might cause some… drama.
It would certainly take some of the spotlight off King Felipe and Queen Letizia, who is often photographed not just because of her royal status, but because of her impeccable style choices which you can find out more about here.
Just so you know, whilst we may receive a commission or other compensation from the links on this website, we never allow this to influence product selections - read why you should trust us | https://graziadaily.co.uk/life/in-the-news/who-is-queen-letizia-background-journalist-children-commoner/ | 143 |
what is the queen of spain's name | Queen Letizia of Spain - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In this Spanish name , the first or paternal surname is Ortiz and the second or maternal family name is Rocasolano .
|Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano|
|Queen consort of Spain|
|Tenure||19 June 2014 – present|
|Born|| 15 September 1972 |
Oviedo , Asturias , Spain
|Spouse|
( m. 1998 ; div. 1999)
( m. 2004 )
|Issue|
|House||Bourbon-Anjou (by marriage)|
|Father||Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez|
|Mother||María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez|
|Signature|
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano ( pronounced [leˈtiθja oɾˈtiθ rokasoˈlano] ; 15 September 1972) is Queen of Spain as the wife of King Felipe VI .
Letizia came from a middle-class family. She worked as a journalist for ABC and EFE before becoming a news anchor at CNN+ and Televisión Española . In 1998, she married Alonso Guerrero Pérez , whom she divorced the following year. In 2004, Letizia married Felipe , then Prince of Asturias as the son and heir of King Juan Carlos I . The couple have two daughters, Leonor and Sofía . As Princess of Asturias , Letizia represented her father-in-law in Spain and abroad. On Juan Carlos's abdication in June 2014, Felipe became king, making Letizia queen consort .
Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano was born on 15 September 1972 at Miñor Sanatorium in Oviedo , Asturias , [1] the eldest daughter of Jesús José Ortiz Álvarez, a journalist, and his first wife, María de la Paloma Rocasolano Rodríguez, a registered nurse and hospital union representative. [2] She has two younger sisters, Telma (b. 1973) and Érika (1975–2007), whose death was widely reported by press as due to an intentional prescription drug overdose. [3]
Letizia's parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores. [4] [5]
Letizia's paternal grandparents were José Luis Ortiz Velasco (ca. 1923–2005), a commercial employee at Olivetti ; [6] and María del Carmen "Menchu" Álvarez del Valle (1928–2021), a radio broadcaster in Asturias for over 40 years. Her maternal grandfather was Francisco Julio Rocasolano Camacho (1918–2015), a mechanic and cab driver in Madrid for over 20 years who was of French and Occitan origin. [7] [8] [9] Letizia's maternal grandmother, Enriqueta Rodriguez Figueredo (1919–2008) was born in the Philippines to Filipino and Spanish parents. [10] [11]
British genealogists have provided evidence that through her mother's Rocasolano lineage, Letizia descends from Astorg Roquesoulane (died c.1564), and her coat of arms incorporates the arms of the Rocasolano family. [12] Reports have suggested – and remain unproven – that on her paternal grandfather's side, Letizia is a descendant of an untitled family descended from medieval nobility who served as constables of Castile . [13]
Letizia attended La Gesta School in Oviedo, before her family moved to Rivas-Vaciamadrid [14] near Madrid , where she attended the Ramiro de Maeztu High School. [15] She completed a bachelor's degree in journalism, at the Complutense University of Madrid , as well as a master's degree in audiovisual journalism at the Institute for Studies in Audiovisual Journalism. [16]
During her studies, Letizia worked for the Asturian daily newspaper La Nueva España and later for the newspaper ABC and the news agency EFE . [15] [16] After completing her master's degree, she travelled to Guadalajara , Mexico, where she worked at the newspaper Siglo 21 and began work toward a PhD. She did not, however, complete her doctoral thesis because she returned to Spain. [17] After returning to Spain, she worked for the Spanish version of the economic channel Bloomberg before moving to the news network CNN+ . [16]
In 2000, she moved to TVE , where she started working for the news channel 24 Horas . In 2002, she anchored the weekly news report programme Informe Semanal and later the daily morning news programme Telediario Matinal on TVE 1. [15] [16] In August 2003, a few months before her engagement to Felipe, Letizia was promoted to anchor of the TVE daily evening news programme Telediario 2 , the most viewed newscast in Spain. [18] In 2000, Letizia reported from Washington, D.C., on the presidential elections . In September 2001, she broadcast live from Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks in New York and in 2003, she filed reports from Iraq following the war . [19] In 2002 she sent several reports from Galicia in northern Spain following the ecological disaster when the oil tanker Prestige sank. [20]
Letizia married Alonso Guerrero Pérez (born in 1962), a writer and a high school literature teacher, on 7 August 1998, in a simple civil ceremony at Almendralejo , in Badajoz , after a 10-year courtship. [21] The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1999. [19]
On 1 November 2003, to the surprise of many, the Royal Household announced Letizia's engagement to Felipe , then Prince of Asturias . [16] Afterwards, she moved to live in a wing of the Zarzuela Palace until the day of her wedding. [22] The Prince of Asturias had proposed to her with a 16- baguette diamond engagement ring with a white gold trim. She marked the occasion by giving him white gold and sapphire cufflinks and a classic book. [23]
The wedding took place on 22 May 2004 in the Cathedral Santa María la Real de la Almudena in Madrid. [24] It was the first royal wedding in this cathedral. It had been nearly a century since the capital celebrated a royal wedding, as the prince's parents married in Athens , and his sisters, Infanta Elena and Infanta Cristina , married in Seville and Barcelona respectively. Letizia's bridal gown was designed by Spanish fashion designer Manuel Pertegaz , her bridal shoes by Pura López; and the veil, a gift from Felipe to his bride, was made of off-white silk tulle and hand-embroidered with detailing. [25] As Letizia's previous marriage involved only a civil ceremony, the Catholic Church does not consider it canonically valid and therefore did not require an annulment to proceed with a Catholic marriage to the Prince of Asturias. [26]
Letizia and Felipe have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias , born on 31 October 2005; [27] and Infanta Sofía , born on 29 April 2007. They were born at Ruber International Hospital in Madrid . [28]
Princess Letizia immediately joined in the duties of her husband and travelled extensively through Spain representing her father-in-law. They also represented Spain in other countries: she has travelled along with her husband to Jordan , Mexico, Peru, Hungary, the Dominican Republic, Panama, the United States, Serbia, Brazil, Uruguay, Sweden, Denmark, Japan, China, and Portugal. She also greeted international dignitaries, along with other members of the royal family, and attended gatherings of foreign royalty in Luxembourg, for the silver wedding anniversary of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg , and in the Netherlands for the 40th birthday of the Prince of Orange . [29]
Her solo agenda was announced in 2006, shortly after the announcement of her second pregnancy. Letizia has performed a couple of audiences and her work focuses on social issues such as children's rights, culture, and education. In late 2007, her solo agenda started to grow in the number of events she performed by herself and Felipe's and Letizia's agendas became more distinct and separate. [30]
On 19 June 2014, Letizia became Queen of Spain ; as such, she holds the style of Majesty . [31] She is the first Spanish-born queen consort since Mercedes of Orléans , the first wife of Alfonso XII , in 1878. [32] She is also the first Spanish queen to have been born as a commoner . [19] Queen Letizia undertook her first solo engagement as queen on 23 June 2014 at the inauguration of the El Greco and modern painting exhibition at the National Prado museum in Madrid. [33]
In their first overseas trip as king and queen, Felipe VI and Letizia met Pope Francis on 30 June 2014, in the Apostolic Palace . They later met with Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Parolin , accompanied by Mgsr. Antoine Camilleri , under-secretary for Relations with States. The visit followed one by King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia on 28 April. [34] In 2015, Letizia was named Special Ambassador for Nutrition for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . [35]
In March 2016, leaked text messages between Letizia and businessman Javier López Madrid created a controversy. Together with other executives and board members of the Caja Madrid and Bankia financial group, Madrid had been accused of corruption. In October 2014 Letizia pledged her support for him, texting "We know who you are and you know who we are. We know each other, like each other, respect each other. To hell with the rest. Kisses yoga mate (miss you!!!)". Felipe also joined in, texting "We do indeed!" The newspaper El Diario later published these texts. A palace official subsequently stated that the King and Queen were no longer friends with López Madrid due to his legal issues. [36] [37]
For the 2020 Rey Jaime I Awards in Valencia, Queen Letizia presented the award-winners with their gold medals and gave a short speech praising the "talent, effort and generosity" (el talento, el esfuerzo y la generosidad) of prize-winners. [38] [39] [40]
On 21 May 2004, the day before her marriage to Prince Felipe, Letizia was appointed a Dame Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles III . [41] Since then, Letizia has received different appointments and decorations by foreign states and other Spanish honours.
Letizia was styled as "Her Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias" from her marriage to her husband's accession in 2014, and as "Her Majesty The Queen" since.
The coat of arms of Queen Letizia was adopted in 2014, based on the design created for her by the Asturian Academy of Heraldry and Genealogy ( Academia Asturiana de Heráldica y Genealogía ) in May 2004 and approved by Vicente de Cadenas y Vicent , Cronista Rey de Armas ; this was used by her as Princess of Asturias. [42] The revision of 2014 was confirmed by Don Alfonso Ceballos-Escalera y Gil , Chronicler of Arms for Castile and León.
The Queen's coat of arms has no official status, as in Spain only those of the King of the King emeritus Juan Carlos, and of the Princess of Asturias are so recognized byRoyal Decree. [43] [44]
From 2004 to 2014 The coat of arms used as the princess was the whole differenced with a label of three points Azure (used as a difference of the Spanish heir-apparent) and the crown as Spanish heir-apparent, it had four half-arches (with Crown's arches differenced as consort). [43] [44]
- ^ Álvarez, Leticia (19 June 2014). "Letizia Ortiz, Reina de España" . El Comercio (in Spanish) . Retrieved 29 March 2021 .
- ^ "Paloma Rocasolano, enlace sindical" (in Spanish). ES : Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 16 February 2007.
- ^ "Una muerte por ingestión de pastillas" . El País (in Spanish) (impresa ed.). ES. 9 February 2007.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz, el discreto consuegro del Rey" (in Spanish). ES: Diario de Navarra. Archived from the original on 22 May 2007.
- ^ "Princess Letizia, Spain" . womenfitness.net . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
Her parents divorced in 1999 and her father remarried ... in Madrid on 18 March 2004 to fellow journalist Ana Togores N, born ca. 1955.
- ^ "Jesús Ortiz: 'Como abuelo me siento emocionado'" . El Periódico (in Spanish). Aragón, ES. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Letizia_of_Spain | 143 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | PlayStation 4 - Wikipedia | "PS4" redirects here. For other uses, see PS4 (disambiguation) .
|Also known as||PS4|
|Developer||Sony Interactive Entertainment|
|Manufacturer||Sony Electronics , Foxconn [1]|
|Product family||PlayStation|
|Type||Home video game console|
|Generation||Eighth|
|Release date|
|Lifespan||2013–present|
|Introductory price||US$399.99, €399.99, £349.99|
|Discontinued||JP : January 5, 2021 (some models)|
|Units sold||106 million (as of December 31, 2019) [4]|
|Units shipped||117.2 million (as of March 31, 2022) [5]|
|Media|
|Operating system||PlayStation 4 system software|
|CPU|| Semi-custom 8-core AMD x86-64 Jaguar 1.6 GHz CPU (2.13 GHz on PS4 Pro) (integrated into APU ) [6] |
Secondary low power processor (for background tasks) [7]
|Memory|
|Storage|
|Display|
|Graphics|
|Controller input||DualShock 4 , PlayStation Move , PlayStation Vita|
|Camera||PlayStation Camera|
|Connectivity|
|Power||Via internal wide voltage range (110–240 V AC 50 Hz/60 Hz) switched-mode power supply|
|Online services|
|Dimensions|
|Mass|
|Predecessor||PlayStation 3|
|Successor||PlayStation 5|
|Website|| playstation |
The PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) is a home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment . Announced as the successor to the PlayStation 3 in February 2013, it was launched on November 15, 2013, in North America, November 29, 2013 in Europe, South America and Australia, and on February 22, 2014 in Japan. A console of the eighth generation , it competes with Microsoft 's Xbox One and Nintendo 's Wii U and Switch .
Moving away from the more complex Cell microarchitecture of its predecessor, the console features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) built upon the x86-64 architecture, which can theoretically peak at 1.84 teraflops ; AMD stated that it was the "most powerful" APU it had developed to date. The PlayStation 4 places an increased emphasis on social interaction and integration with other devices and services, including the ability to play games off-console on PlayStation Vita and other supported devices (" Remote Play "), the ability to stream gameplay online or to friends, with them controlling gameplay remotely ("Share Play"). The console's controller was also redesigned and improved over the PlayStation 3, with improved buttons and analog sticks, and an integrated touchpad among other changes. The console also supports HDR10 High-dynamic-range video and playback of 4K resolution multimedia.
The PlayStation 4 was released to critical acclaim, with critics praising Sony for acknowledging its consumers' needs, embracing independent game development , and for not imposing the restrictive digital rights management schemes like those originally announced by Microsoft for the Xbox One. Critics and third-party studios, before its launch, also praised the capabilities of the PlayStation 4 in comparison to its competitors; developers described the performance difference between the console and Xbox One as "significant" and "obvious". Heightened demand also helped Sony top global console sales. By October 2019, PS4 became the second-best-selling home game console of all time, behind the PlayStation 2 .
On September 7, 2016, Sony unveiled the PlayStation 4 Slim, a smaller version of the console; and a high-end version called the PlayStation 4 Pro, which features an upgraded GPU and a higher CPU clock rate to support enhanced performance and 4K resolution in supported games.
Its successor, the PlayStation 5 , was released in November 2020, with Sony discontinuing in Japan all PlayStation 4 models except the Slim version in January 2021, with it still being produced in Western markets following their statement of 3-year support of PS4.
According to lead architect Mark Cerny , the development of Sony's fourth video game console began as early as 2008. [9] [10]
Less than two years earlier, the PlayStation 3 had been launched after months of delays due to issues with production. [11] The delay placed Sony almost a year behind Microsoft's Xbox 360 , which was already approaching unit sales of 10 million by the time the PS3 launched. [11] Sony Computer Entertainment Europe CEO Jim Ryan said Sony wanted to avoid repeating the same mistake with PS3's successor. [12]
In designing the system, Sony worked with software developer Bungie , who offered their input on the controller and how to make it better for shooting games. [13] In 2012, Sony began shipping development kits to game developers, consisting of a modified PC running the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit chipset. [14] These development kits were known as "Orbis". [15] [16]
In early 2013, Sony announced that an event known as PlayStation Meeting 2013 would be held in New York City , U.S., on February 20, 2013, to cover the "future of PlayStation". [17] [18] Sony officially announced the PlayStation 4 at the event. [19] [20] It revealed details about the console's hardware and discussed some of the new features it would introduce. [19] [21] Sony also showed off real-time footage of games in development, as well as some technical demonstrations. [22] [23] The design of the console was unveiled in June at E3 2013 , and the initial recommended retail prices of $399 (NA), €399 (Europe), and £349 (UK) given. [24] [25] Sony took advantage of problems that Microsoft had been having with their positioning of their newly announced Xbox One , which included its higher price point ($499 in North America), as well as strict regulations on how users could share game media. Besides its lower price point, Sony focused on the ease one would have in sharing media with the PS4. [26]
The company revealed release dates for North America, Central America, South America, Europe, and Australia, as well as final pieces of information, at a Gamescom press event in Cologne , Germany, on August 20, 2013. The console was released on November 15, 2013, in the United States and Canada , followed by further releases on November 29, 2013. [2] By the end of 2013, the PS4 was launched in more European, Asian and South American countries. [27] [28] The PS4 was released in Japan at ¥39,980 on February 22, 2014. [29]
Sony finalized a deal with the Chinese government in May 2014 to sell its products in mainland China, and the PS4 will be the first product to be released. Kazuo Hirai , chief executive officer of Sony, said in May: "The Chinese market, just given the size of it, is obviously potentially a very large market for video game products ... I think that we will be able to replicate the kind of success we have had with PS4 in other parts of the world in China ." [30]
In September 2015, Sony reduced the price of the PS4 in Japan to ¥34,980, [31] with similar price drops in other Southeast Asian markets. [32] The first official sub-£300 PS4 bundle was the £299.99 "Uncharted Nathan Drake Collection 500GB", and was released in the UK on October 9, 2015; a 1 TB £329.99 version was offered at the same time. [33] On October 9, 2015, the first official price cut of the PS4 in North America was announced: a reduction of $50 to $349.99 (US) and by $20 to $429.99 (Canada). [34] [35] [36] An official price cut in Europe followed in late October 2015, reduced to €349.99/£299.99. [37]
On June 10, 2016, Sony confirmed that a hardware revision of the PlayStation 4, rumored to be codenamed "Neo", was under development. The new revision is a higher-end model that is meant to support gameplay in 4K . The new model will be sold alongside the existing model, and all existing software will be compatible between the two models. [38] Layden stated that Sony has no plans to "bifurcate the market", only that gamers playing on the Neo will "have the same experience, but one will be delivered at a higher resolution, with an enhanced graphical experience, but everything else is going to be exactly as you'd expect". [39] The high-end console was publicly revealed on September 7, 2016, as PlayStation 4 Pro. [40] At the same time, Sony unveiled an updated version of the original PS4 model with a smaller form factor. [41]
In May 2018, during a presentation to investors, Sony Interactive Entertainment CEO John Kodera stated that the PlayStation 4 was heading into the end of its lifecycle and that the company was anticipating decreasing year-over-year hardware sales. [42] He explained that Sony would be countering the expected decline by focusing on "strengthen[ing] user engagement" including continued investments into new first-party games and other online services for PS4. "We will use the next three years to prepare the next step, to crouch down so that we can jump higher in the future," Kodera added in an interview with the press the following day. [43]
Following the launch of the PlayStation 5 in November 2020, Sony discontinued production in Japan of all but the 500GB Slim model of the PlayStation 4 on January 5, 2021, with the standard PS4 and PS4 Pro still being produced for western markets. [44] According to a report from Bloomberg News in January 2022, Sony had been poised to discontinue the PlayStation 4 at the end of 2021 in favor of the PlayStation 5, but due to the ongoing semiconductor shortage that made it difficult for Sony to keep up with PlayStation 5 demand, the company instead planned to continue PlayStation 4 production. Besides helping to offset the PlayStation 5 shortage, this production method would help assure deals with its component providers for the PlayStation 5. [45]
The technology in the PlayStation 4 is similar to the hardware found in modern personal computers . [46] This familiarity is designed to make it easier and less expensive for game studios to develop games for the PS4. [47] [48]
"[We] have not built an APU quite like that for anyone else in the market. It is by far the most powerful APU we have built to date".
- John Taylor, AMD [49]
The PlayStation 4 uses an Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony. It combines a central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU), as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder . [50] The CPU consists of two 28 nm quad-core Jaguar modules totaling 8 64-bit x86-64 cores , [50] [51] 7 of which are available for game developers to use. [52] The GPU consists of 18 compute units to produce a theoretical peak performance of 1.84 TFLOPS . [23] The system's GDDR5 memory is capable of running at a maximum clock frequency of 2.75 GHz (5500 MT/s) and has a maximum memory bandwidth of 176 GB/s. [23] [53] [54] The console contains 8 GB of GDDR5 memory, [23] [55] 16 times the amount of RAM found in the PS3 and is expected to give the console considerable longevity. [46] [56] It also includes secondary custom chips that handle tasks associated with downloading, uploading, and social gameplay. [57] [58] These tasks can be handled seamlessly in the background during gameplay or while the system is in sleep mode . [59] The console also contains an audio module, which can support in-game chat as well as "a very large number" of audio streams for use in-game. [60] All PlayStation 4 models support high dynamic range (HDR) color profiles. [61]
Its read-only optical drive is capable of reading Blu-ray Discs at speeds of up to three times that of its predecessor. [56] [62] The console features a hardware on-the-fly zlib decompression module. [60] The original PS4 model supports up to 1080p and 1080i video standards, [63] while the Pro model supports 4K resolution . [64] The console includes a 500 gigabyte hard drive for additional storage, [65] which can be upgraded by the user. [66] System Software 4.50, which was released on March 9, 2017, [67] enabled the use of external USB hard drives up to 8 TB for additional storage. [68]
The PlayStation 4 features Wi-Fi and Ethernet connectivity, Bluetooth , and two USB 3.0 ports. [23] [56] An auxiliary port is also included for connection to the PlayStation Camera , a motion detection digital camera device first introduced on the PS3. [23] A mono headset, which can be plugged into the DualShock 4, is bundled with the system. [69] Audio/video output options include HDMI TV and optical S/PDIF audio. [23] The console does not have an analog audio/video output. [70]
The PS4 features a " Rest mode " feature. This places the console in a low-power state while allowing users to immediately resume their game or app once the console is awoken. The console also is able to download content such as game and OS updates while it is in this state. [71] [72]
The DualShock 4 is PlayStation 4's primary controller; it maintains a similar design to previous iterations of the DualShock series, but with additional features and design refinements. [73] Among other tweaks, the caps of the analog sticks were given a concave design (similar to the Xbox 360 controller ), the shape of the triggers and shoulder buttons was refined, the D-pad buttons were given a steeper downward angle to provide a resting space in the center for the user's thumb, [73] [74] and the hand grips were made thicker and given microtexturing to improve their feel. [73] [74]
A major addition to the DualShock 4 is a touchpad ; it is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous touch presses, and can also be pressed down as a button. [73] The "Start" and "Select" buttons were replaced by "Options" and "Share" buttons; the latter is designed to allow access to the PlayStation 4's social features (including streaming, video recording, and screenshot tools). [73] [75] The DualShock 4 is powered by a non-removable, rechargeable lithium-ion battery, which can be charged using its micro USB connector. The controller also features an internal speaker, and a headphone jack for headsets or headphones; the console is bundled with a pair of headset earbuds . [76] [77] [73]
The controller's motion tracking system is more sensitive than those of the PlayStation 3's controllers. An LED "light bar" was additionally added to the front of the controller; it is designed to allow the PlayStation Camera accessory to further track its motion, but can also be used to provide visual effects and feedback within games (such as, for instance, reflecting a player's low health by turning red). [78] [76] [75] [79]
Although the PS4 and DualShock 4 continue to use Bluetooth for wireless connectivity, the console is incompatible with PlayStation 3 controllers. [80] An exception are the PlayStation Move motion controllers originally released for PS3, which are officially supported for use with the PlayStation Camera. [76] [81] In October 2013, Shuhei Yoshida stated on Twitter that the DualShock 4 would support "basic functions" when attached to a PC. [82] In August 2016, Sony unveiled an official USB wireless adapter for the DualShock 4, enabling use of all of the controller's functionality on PC. [83] In December 2016, Valve 's Steam platform was updated to provide support and controller customization functionality for DualShock 4, through existing APIs for the Steam Controller . [84] [85]
A revision of the DualShock 4 was released alongside the "Slim" and Pro models in 2016, and is bundled with these systems. It is largely identical to the original model, except that the touchpad now contains a "stripe" along the top which the light bar's LED can shine through, and the controller can communicate non-wirelessly when connected to the console over USB. [86]
Main article: PlayStation Camera
The PlayStation Camera is an optional motion sensor and camera for the PlayStation 4, similar to Kinect on Xbox . It includes two 1280×800 pixel lenses operating with an aperture of f /2.0, with 30 cm focusing distance, and an 85° field of view . [69] The dual camera setup allows for different modes of operation, depending on the initiated and running application. [87] The two cameras can be used together for depth-sensing of its surrounding objects in its field of vision. [88] Alternatively, one of the cameras can be used for generating the video image, with the other used for motion tracking. [89]
PlayStation Camera also features a four-channel microphone array, which helps reduce unwanted background noise and can be used for voice commands. [87] With the PlayStation Camera connected, different users can automatically log-on to the system via face detection . [69]
Main article: PlayStation VR
PlayStation VR is a virtual reality system for PlayStation 4; it consists of a headset , which features a 1080p display panel, LED lights on the headset that are used by PlayStation Camera to track its motion, and a control box that processes 3D audio effects , as well as video output to the external display (either simulcasting the player's VR perspective, or providing an asymmetrical secondary perspective). PlayStation VR can also be used with PlayStation Move motion controllers. [90] [91]
The PlayStation 4's operating system is called "Orbis OS", based upon a customized FreeBSD 9. [92] [93] [94] [95]
The console does not require an Internet connection for usage, although more functionality is available when connected. [96] The PS4 is the first to include a WebKit -based web browser, which is a departure from its predecessor's NetFront browser; [ citation needed ] it is based on the same modern WebKit core as Google Chrome and Safari , giving it high compatibility in HTML5 compliance testing. [97]
The console introduces a customizable menu interface, the "PlayStation Dynamic Menu", featuring a variety of color schemes. [72] The interface displays the player's profile, recent activity, notifications, and other details in addition to unlocked trophies . [98] It allows multiple user accounts, all with their own pass-codes. Each player account has the option to share their real name with friends, or use a nickname in other situations when anonymity is important. Facebook profiles can be connected to PlayStation Network accounts, making it easier to recognize friends. [99] The default home screen features real time content from friends. The "What's New" activity feed includes shared media, recently played games, and other notifications. [23] Services from third-party vendors, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video , can be accessed within the interface. [100] Multitasking is available during gameplay, such as opening the browser or managing party chat, and switching between applications is done by double-tapping the "PS" button. [23]
The PlayStation Camera or a microphone enables the user to control the system using voice input . Players can command the interface to start a game, take screenshots, and save videos. Saying "PlayStation" initiates voice control, and "All Commands" displays a list of possible commands. [101]
The PlayStation 4 supports Blu-ray and DVD playback, including 3D Blu-ray. The playing of CD is no longer supported, [102] as the console no longer has an infrared 780 nm laser. Custom music and video files can still be played from USB drives and DLNA servers using the Media Player app. [103]
Main article: PlayStation Network
The PlayStation 4 allows users to access a variety of free and premium PlayStation Network (PSN) services, including the PlayStation Store , PlayStation Plus subscription service, PlayStation Music powered by Spotify , and the PlayStation Video subscription service, which allows owners to rent or buy TV shows and films à la carte . [23] A United States-exclusive cloud-based television-on-demand service known as PlayStation Vue began beta testing in late November 2014. [104] [105] Sony intends to expand and evolve the services it offers over the console's lifespan. [106] Unlike PS3, a PlayStation Plus membership is required to access multiplayer in most games; this requirement does not apply to free-to-play or subscription-based games. [107]
Smartphones and tablets can interact with the PlayStation 4 as second screen devices, and can also wake the console from sleep mode. [108] A Sony Xperia smartphone, tablet or the PlayStation Vita can be used for streaming gameplay from the console to handheld, allowing supported games to be played remotely from around a household or away from home. [109] [110] Sony has ambitions to make all PS4 games playable on PlayStation Vita. [23] Developers can add Vita-specific controls for use via Remote Play. [111] This feature was later expanded to enable PS4 Remote Play functionality on Microsoft Windows PCs and on Apple OS X Macs. The update, released in April 2016, allows for Remote Play functionality on computers running Windows 8.1 , Windows 10 , OS X Yosemite , and OS X El Capitan . Remote Play supports resolution options of 360p, 540p, and 720p (1080p is available on PS4 Pro), frame rate options of 30–60 FPS, and the DualShock 4 can be connected via USB . [112]
The PlayStation App allows iOS and Android mobile devices to interact with the PlayStation 4 from their device. The user can use this application to purchase PS4 games from the console and have them remotely downloaded, watch live streams of other gamers, and/or view in-game maps while playing games. [113]
"Ustream's integration within PS4 consoles will put gamers on a new media field. They will have the ability to direct, produce, and star in their own video game production, simply by being an awesome (or not so awesome!) gamer."
Sony is focused on "social" aspects as a major feature of the console. Although the PS4 has improved social functionality, the features are optional and can be disabled. [106]
Users have the option to create or join community groups based on personal interest. Communities include a discussion board, accomplishments and game clips shared by other members, plus the ability to join group chat and launch cooperative games. Sony stated that "communities are a good way to socialize with like-minded players", particularly when "you want to tackle a big multiplayer raid, but don't have enough friends available." [115] Sony has officially stated that starting April 2021, the community system of the PlayStation Network will be discontinued. This, however, will not prevent users from communicating with their friends in private messaging or in group chats on the PlayStation Network. [116]
The DualShock 4 controller includes a "SHARE" button, allowing the player to cycle through the last 60 minutes of recorded gameplay to select a screenshot or video clip appropriate for sharing. Media is uploaded seamlessly from the console to other PSN users or social networking sites such as Dailymotion , Facebook , Twitter and YouTube , or else users can copy media to a USB flash drive and upload to a social network or website of their preference. [117] Players can also use a free video editing application named ShareFactory to cut and assemble their favorite video clips and add custom music or voice commentary with green screen effects. Subsequent updates have added options for picture-in-picture layouts, the ability to create photo collages and animated GIFs . [118] [119]
Gamers can either watch live gameplay of games which their friends are playing through the PS4 interface with cross-game camera and microphone input, spectate silently, or broadcast their own gameplay live via DailyMotion , Twitch , [120] Ustream , [23] Niconico , [121] or YouTube Gaming , [115] allowing for friends and members of the public to view and comment upon them from other web browsers and devices. If a user is not screen-casting, a friend can send them a "Request to Watch" notification. [115]
"SharePlay" redirects here. For FaceTime feature, see FaceTime § History .
Share Play allows users to invite an online friend to join their play session via streaming, even if they do not own a copy of the game. Users can pass control of the game entirely to the remote user or partake in cooperative multiplayer as if they were physically present. Mark Cerny says that remote assistance is particularly useful when confronted by a potentially game-defeating obstacle. "You can even see that your friend is in trouble and reach out through the network to take over the controller and assist them through some difficult portion of the game," he said. Share Play requires a PlayStation Plus subscription and can only be used for one hour at a time. [122] [123]
PlayStation 4 games are distributed at retail on Blu-ray Disc , and digitally as downloads through the PlayStation Store . [124] Games are not region-locked, so games purchased in one region can be played on consoles in all regions, [125] and players can sign-on to any PS4 console to access their entire digital game library. [126] All PlayStation 4 games must be installed to the console's storage. [127] Additionally a system called "PlayGo" allows users to begin to play portions of a game (such as opening levels) once the installation or download reaches a specific point, while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background. Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby. [60] PS4 users will, in the future, be able to browse games and stream games via Gaikai to demo them almost instantaneously. [23] [128] Sony says it is committed to releasing an ever-increasing number of free-to-play games, including PlanetSide 2 and War Thunder . [129] [130] Sony also took steps to make it easier for independent game developers to release games for the PS4 by giving them the option to self-publish their own games rather than rely upon others to distribute their games. [131] [132]
PlayStation 4 is not compatible with any disc of older PlayStation consoles. [133] [134] Emulated versions of selected PlayStation, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games are available for purchase via PlayStation Store, which are upscaled to high definition and have support for PS4 social features. [133] [135]
Main article: PlayStation Now
In December 2013, Andrew House indicated that Sony was planning to launch a cloud gaming service for the PS4 in North America within the third quarter of 2014, with a European launch to follow in 2015. [136] [137]
At Consumer Electronics Show on January 7, 2014, Sony unveiled PlayStation Now , a digital distribution service which will initially allow users to access PlayStation 3 games on the PS4 via a cloud-based streaming system, purchasing games individually or via a subscription, as a solution of no backwards compatibility on the hardware of the console. [138] The United States Open Beta went live on July 31, 2014. [139] The official United States release of the service was on January 13, 2015. [140] As of March 2015 PlayStation Now was in closed beta in the United Kingdom. [141]
"It's abundantly clear that PS4 is being driven as a collaboration between East and West, as opposed to a dictation from one side to the other. Developers are fully involved, activated, discussed and doing really cool collaborative things."
Pre-release reception to the console from developers and journalists was positive. Mark Rein of Epic Games praised the "enhanced" architecture of Sony's system, describing it as "a phenomenal piece of hardware". [142] John Carmack , programmer and co-founder of id Software , also commended the design by saying "Sony made wise engineering choices", [143] while Randy Pitchford of Gearbox Software expressed satisfaction with the amount of high-speed memory in the console. [144] Eurogamer also called the graphics technology in the PS4 "impressive" and an improvement from the difficulties developers experienced on the PlayStation 3. [56]
Numerous industry professionals have acknowledged the PlayStation 4's performance advantage over the Xbox One. Speaking to Edge magazine, multiple game developers have described the difference as "significant" and "obvious". [145] ExtremeTech says the PS4's graphics processing unit offers a "serious advantage" over the competition, but due to the nature of cross-platform development, games that share the same assets will appear "very similar". In other scenarios, designers may tap some of PS4's additional power in a straightforward manner, to boost frame rate or output at a higher resolution, whereas games from Sony's own first-party studios that take full advantage of the hardware "will probably look significantly better than anything on the Xbox One." [146]
In response to concerns surrounding the possibility of DRM measures to hinder the resale of used games (and in particular, the initial DRM policies of Xbox One , which did contain such restrictions), Jack Tretton explicitly stated during Sony's E3 press conference that there would be "no restrictions" on the resale and trading of PS4 games on physical media, while software product development head Scott Rohde specified that Sony was planning to disallow online passes as well, going on to say that the policies were designed to be "consumer-friendly, extremely retailer-friendly, and extremely publisher-friendly". [147] [148] After Sony's E3 2013 press conference, IGN responded positively to Sony's attitude towards indie developers and trading games, stating they thought "most gamers would agree" that "if you care about games like [Sony] do, you'll buy a PlayStation 4". [149] PlayStation 4's removable and upgradable hard drive also drew praise from IGN, [150] with Scott Lowe commenting that the decision gave the console "another advantage" over the Xbox One, whose hard drive cannot be accessed. [151]
GameSpot called the PlayStation 4 "the gamer's choice for next-generation", citing its price, lack of restrictive digital rights management , and most importantly, Sony's efforts to "acknowledge its consumers" and "respect its audience" as major factors. [152]
The PlayStation 4 has received very positive reviews by critics. Scott Lowe of IGN gave it an 8.2 rating out of 10 praising the console's DualShock 4 design and social integration features. He criticized the console's lack of software features and for underutilizing the DualShock 4's touch pad. [153] The Gadget Show gave a similar review complimenting the DualShock 4's new triggers and control sticks, in addition to the new Remote Play feature, yet criticized the system's lack of media support at launch. [154] IGN compared the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 over various categories, allowing their readers to vote for their preferred system. The PS4 won every category offered, and IGN awarded the PS4 with their People's Choice Award. [155]
Shortly following the launch, it became apparent that some games released on multiple platforms were available in higher resolutions on the PS4 as opposed to other video game consoles. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku reported on the differences in early games such as Call of Duty: Ghosts and Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag which ran at 1080p on the PS4, but in 720p and 900p, respectively, on the Xbox One . [156]
|Region||Lifetime sell-through by region||Lifetime sell-through by country|
|North America||30M||United States 30M (as of September 2019) [157] [158]|
|Europe||~24M|| Germany 7.2M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158] |
United Kingdom 6.8M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158]
France ~6M (as of September 2019) ; [158]
Italy ~3M (as of December 2018) ; [159]
Spain 700K (as of June 17, 2015) ; [160]
Portugal 100K (as of May 4, 2015) [161]
|Asia||+10M|| Japan 8.3M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158] |
China ~1.5M (as of August 2, 2018) ; [162]
India ~250,000 (as of March 2018) [163]
|Others||200,000|| Mexico, Brazil, Argentina ~150,000 (as of December 2014) ; [164] |
South Africa 50,000 (as of December 12, 2014) [165]
|Worldwide||106.0M (as of December 31, 2019) [4]|
Demand for PlayStation 4 was strong. In August 2013, Sony announced the placement of over a million preorders for the console, [166] while on the North American launch alone, one million PlayStation 4 consoles were sold. [167] In the UK, the PlayStation 4 became the best-selling console at launch, with the sale of 250,000 consoles within a 48-hour period [168] and 530,000 in the first five weeks. [169]
On January 7, 2014, Andrew House announced in his Consumer Electronics Show keynote speech that 4.2 million PS4 units had been sold-through by the end of 2013, [170] with more than 9.7 million software units sold. [171] On February 18, 2014, Sony announced that, as of February 8, it had sold over 5.3 million console units following the release of the PS4 onto the North American and Western/Central European markets. [172] [173] Within the first two days of release in Japan during the weekend of February 22, 2014, 322,083 consoles were sold. [174] PS4 software unit sales surpassed 20.5 million on April 13, 2014. [175] During Japan's 2013 fiscal year , heightened demand for the PS4 helped Sony top global console sales, beating Nintendo for the first time in eight years. [176]
According to data released by Nielsen in August 2014, nine months after the PS4 was released, thirty-one percent of its sales were to existing Wii and Xbox 360 owners, none of whom had by then owned a PS3. [177] At Gamescom 2014, it was announced that 10 million PS4 units had been sold-through to consumers worldwide, [178] and on November 13, it was announced that the PlayStation 4 was the top-selling console in the U.S. for the tenth consecutive month. [179]
In its first sales announcement of 2015, Sony confirmed on January 4 that it had sold-through 18.5 million PlayStation 4 units. [180] Sony updated the sell-through figures for the system throughout 2015: over 20 million consoles as of March 3, 2015, [181] over 30 million as of November 22, 2015, [182] and over 35 million by the end of 2015. [183] As of May 22, 2016, total worldwide sell-through reached 40 million. [184] As of December 2018, over 91 million consoles and more than 876 million PlayStation 4 games have been sold worldwide. By October 2019, the PS4 had sold 102.8 million times, making it the second best-selling home video game console of all time, behind the PlayStation 2 . [185]
The PlayStation 4 holds a market share of at least 70% within all European countries, as of June 2015. [186]
|Lifetime worldwide hardware sell-through||Lifetime worldwide software sell-through||Tie ratio|
|1.0M (as of November 16, 2013) [187]||—||—|
|2.1M (as of December 1, 2013) [188]||—||—|
|4.2M (as of December 28, 2013) [189]||9.7M (as of December 28, 2013)||2.31 games/console|
|5.3M (as of February 8, 2014) [190]||—||—|
|6.0M (as of March 2, 2014) [191]||13.7M (as of March 2, 2014)||2.28 games/console|
|7.0M (as of April 6, 2014) [192]||20.5M (as of April 13, 2014)||2.93 games/console|
|10.0M (as of August 10, 2014) [193]||30.0M (as of August 10, 2014)||3.00 games/console|
|14.4M (as of November 22, 2014) [194]||64.0M (as of November 22, 2014)||4.44 games/console|
|18.5M (as of January 4, 2015) [194]||81.8M (as of January 4, 2015)||4.42 games/console|
|20.2M (as of March 1, 2015) [195]||—||—|
|30.2M (as of November 22, 2015) [196]||—||—|
|35.9M (as of January 3, 2016) [197]||—||—|
|40.0M (as of May 22, 2016) [184]||270.9M (as of May 22, 2016)||6.77 games/console|
|50.0M (as of December 6, 2016) [198]||369.6M (as of December 4, 2016)||7.39 games/console|
|53.4M (as of January 1, 2017) [183]||401.1M (as of January 1, 2017) [199]||7.51 games/console|
|60.4M (as of June 11, 2017) [200]||487.8M (as of June 11, 2017)||8.08 games/console|
|70.6M (as of December 3, 2017) [201]||617.8M (as of December 3, 2017)||8.75 games/console|
|73.6M (as of December 31, 2017) [202]||645.0M (as of December 31, 2017)||8.76 games/console|
|—||777.9M (as of June 30, 2018) [203]||—|
|81.2M (as of July 22, 2018) [204]||—||—|
|86.0M (as of November 18, 2018) [205]||825.3M (as of November 18, 2018) [205]||9.59 games/console|
|91.6M (as of December 31, 2018) [205]||924.0M (as of December 31, 2018) [205] [206]||10.09 games/console|
|106.0M (as of December 31, 2019) [4]||1.181B (as of December 31, 2019) [4] [206]||11.14 games/console|
|Worldwide hardware shipments||Worldwide hardware shipments (including returned and refurbished consoles)|
|Quarterly [207]||Lifetime||Quarterly [208]||Lifetime|
|4.5M (Launch – December 31, 2013)||4.5M (as of December 31, 2013)||4.5M (Launch – December 31, 2013)||4.5M (as of December 31, 2013)|
|3.0M (January 1, 2014 – March 31, 2014)||7.5M (as of March 31, 2014)||3.1M (January 1, 2014 – March 31, 2014)||7.6M (as of March 31, 2014)|
|2.7M (April 1, 2014 – June 30, 2014)||10.2M (as of June 30, 2014)||2.8M (April 1, 2014 – June 30, 2014)||10.4M (as of June 30, 2014)|
|3.3M (July 1, 2014 – September 30, 2014)||13.5M (as of September 30, 2014)||3.4M (July 1, 2014 – September 30, 2014)||13.8M (as of September 30, 2014)|
|6.4M (October 1, 2014 – December 31, 2014)||19.9M (as of December 31, 2014)||6.4M (October 1, 2014 – December 31, 2014)||20.2M (as of December 31, 2014)|
|2.4M (January 1, 2015 – March 31, 2015)||22.3M (as of March 31, 2015)||2.3M (January 1, 2015 – March 31, 2015)||22.5M (as of March 31, 2015)|
|3.0M (April 1, 2015 – June 30, 2015)||25.3M (as of June 30, 2015)||2.9M (April 1, 2015 – June 30, 2015)||25.4M (as of June 30, 2015)|
|4.0M (July 1, 2015 – September 30, 2015)||29.3M (as of September 30, 2015)||4.0M (July 1, 2015 – September 30, 2015)||29.4M (as of September 30, 2015)|
|8.4M (October 1, 2015 – December 31, 2015)||37.7M (as of December 31, 2015)||8.4M (October 1, 2015 – December 31, 2015)||37.8M (as of December 31, 2015)|
|2.3M (January 1, 2016 – March 31, 2016)||40.0M (as of March 31, 2016)||2.4M (January 1, 2016 – March 31, 2016)||40.2M (as of March 31, 2016)|
|3.5M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||43.5M (as of June 30, 2016)||3.5M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||43.7M (as of June 30, 2016)|
|3.9M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||47.4M (as of September 30, 2016)||3.9M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||47.6M (as of September 30, 2016)|
|9.7M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||57.1M (as of December 31, 2016)||9.7M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||57.3M (as of December 31, 2016)|
|2.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||60.0M (as of March 31, 2017)||2.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||60.2M (as of March 31, 2017)|
|3.3M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||63.3M (as of June 30, 2017)||3.3M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||63.5M (as of June 30, 2017)|
|4.2M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||67.5M (as of September 30, 2017)||4.2M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||67.7M (as of September 30, 2017)|
|9.0M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||76.5M (as of December 31, 2017)||9.0M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||76.7M (as of December 31, 2017)|
|2.5M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||79.0M (as of March 31, 2018)||2.5M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||79.2M (as of March 31, 2018)|
|3.2M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||82.2M (as of June 30, 2018)||3.2M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||82.4M (as of June 30, 2018)|
|3.9M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||86.1M (as of September 30, 2018)||3.9M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||86.3M (as of September 30, 2018)|
|8.1M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||94.2M (as of December 31, 2018)||8.1M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||94.4M (as of December 31, 2018)|
|2.6M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||96.8M (as of March 31, 2019)||2.6M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||97.0M (as of March 31, 2019)|
|3.2M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||100.0M (as of June 30, 2019)||3.2M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||100.2M (as of June 30, 2019)|
|2.8M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||102.8M (as of September 30, 2019)||2.8M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||103.0M (as of September 30, 2019)|
|6.1M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||108.9M (as of December 31, 2019)||6.0M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||109.0M (as of December 31, 2019)|
|1.5M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||110.4M (as of March 31, 2020)||1.4M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||110.4M (as of March 31, 2020)|
|1.9M (April 1, 2020 – June 30, 2020)||112.3M (as of June 30, 2020)|
|1.5M (July 1, 2020 – September 30, 2020)||113.8M (as of September 30, 2020)|
|1.4M (October 1, 2020 – December 31, 2020)||115.2M (as of December 31, 2020)|
|1.0M (January 1, 2021 – March 31, 2021)||116.2M (as of March 31, 2021)|
|0.5M (April 1, 2021 – June 30, 2021)||116.7M (as of June 30, 2021)|
|0.2M (July 1, 2021 – September 30, 2021)||116.9M (as of September 30, 2021)|
|0.2M (October 1, 2021 – December 31, 2021)||117.1M (as of December 31, 2021)|
|0.1M (January 1, 2022 – March 31, 2022)||117.2M (as of March 31, 2022)|
|Worldwide full game software shipments [209] [187] [203] [210] [211] [212] [213]|
|Quarterly||Yearly||Tie ratio||Digital download ratio|
|36.7M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||10.49 games/console|
|50.1M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||12.85 games/console|
|80.5M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||8.30 games/console|
|50.6M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||17.45 games/console|
|217.9M (April 1, 2016 – March 31, 2017)||10.90 games/console||27%|
|38.7M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||11.73 games/console||39%|
|69.7M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||16.60 games/console||27%|
|86.5M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||9.61 games/console||28%|
|52.0M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||20.80 games/console||43%|
|246.9M (April 1, 2017 – March 31, 2018)||12.99 games/console||32%|
|40.6M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||12.69 games/console||43%|
|75.1M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||19.26 games/console||28%|
|87.2M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||10.77 games/console||37%|
|54.7M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||21.04 games/console||45%|
|257.6M (April 1, 2018 – March 31, 2019)||14.47 games/console||37%|
|42.9M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||13.41 games/console||53%|
|61.3M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||21.89 games/console||37%|
|81.1M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||13.30 games/console||49%|
|59.6M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||39.73 games/console||66%|
|245.0M (April 1, 2019 – March 31, 2020)||18.01 games/console||51%|
|Worldwide total software unit sales (including download-only, bundled, and PS VR titles) [207] [214]|
|Quarterly||Yearly||Tie ratio||First party||First party ratio||Digital download ratio|
|39.9M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||11.40 games/console|
|54.0M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||13.85 games/console|
|85.5M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||8.81 games/console|
|54.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||18.93 games/console|
|234.2M (April 1, 2016 – March 31, 2017)||11.71 games/console||27%|
|45.9M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||13.91 games/console||39%|
|76.1M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||18.12 games/console||27%|
|92.8M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||10.31 games/console||28%|
|59.4M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||23.76 games/console||43%|
|274.2M (April 1, 2017 – March 31, 2018)||14.43 games/console||32%|
|47.7M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||14.91 games/console||43%|
|82.3M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||21.10 games/console||28%|
|95.6M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||11.80 games/console||37%|
|62.3M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||23.96 games/console||45%|
|287.9M (April 1, 2018 – March 31, 2019)||16.17 games/console||50.6M||18%||37%|
|49.8M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||15.56 games/console||11.7M||23%||53%|
|70.6M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||25.21 games/console||6.3M||9%||37%|
|83.3M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||13.88 games/console||16.3M||20%||49%|
|64.9M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||46.36 games/console||9.1M||14%||66%|
|268.7M (April 1, 2019 – March 31, 2020)||19.90 games/console||43.3M||16%||51%|
|91.0M (April 1, 2020 – June 30, 2020)||47.89 games/console||18.5M||20%||74%|
|PlayStation Plus subscribers [187] [203] [210] [211] [212]||Monthly active users [214]|
|20.8M (as of March 31, 2016)|
|26.4M (as of March 31, 2017)|
|27.0M (as of June 30, 2017)|
|28.1M (as of September 30, 2017)|
|31.5M (as of December 31, 2017)|
|34.2M (as of March 31, 2018)|
|33.9M (as of June 30, 2018)|
|34.3M (as of September 30, 2018)|
|36.3M (as of December 31, 2018)|
|36.4M (as of March 31, 2019)|
|36.2M (as of June 30, 2019)|
|36.9M (as of September 30, 2019)|
|38.8M (as of December 31, 2019)|
|41.5M (as of March 31, 2020)|
|44.9M (as of June 30, 2020)|
|47.6M (as of March 31, 2021)||109M (as of March, 2021)|
The PlayStation 4 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Pro. Successive models have added or removed various features, and each model has variations of Limited Edition consoles.
On September 7, 2016, Sony announced a hardware revision of the PlayStation 4, model number CUH-2000, known colloquially as the PlayStation 4 Slim , which phased out the original model. [215] It is a revision of the original PS4 hardware with a smaller form factor; it has a rounded body with a matte finish on the top of the console rather than a two-tone finish, and is 40% smaller in size than the original model. The two USB ports on the front have been updated to the newer USB 3.1 standard and have a larger gap between them, and the optical audio port was removed. [216] This model also features support for USB 3.1, Bluetooth 4.0 and 5.0 GHz Wi-Fi. [217]
It was released on September 15, 2016, with a 500 GB model at the same price as the original version of the PlayStation 4. [41] On April 18, 2017, Sony announced that it had replaced this base model with a 1 TB version at the same MSRP. [218]
The PlayStation 4 Pro (codenamed Neo , model number CUH-7000) [38] was announced on September 7, 2016, and launched worldwide on November 10, 2016. [219] [220] It is an upgraded version of the PlayStation 4 with improved hardware to enable 4K rendering and improved PlayStation VR performance, including an upgraded GPU with 4.198 teraflops of processing power [221] and hardware support for checkerboard rendering , [222] and a higher CPU clock. As with PS4 "Slim", this model also features support for USB 3.1, Bluetooth 4.0 and 5.0 GHz Wi-Fi. [217] The PS4 Pro also includes 1 GB of DDR3 memory that is used to swap out non-gaming applications that run in the background, allowing games to utilize an additional 512 MB of the console's GDDR5 memory. [223] Although capable of streaming 4K video, the PS4 Pro does not support Ultra HD Blu-ray . [224] [225] [226]
Games marketed by Sony as PS4 Pro Enhanced have specific optimizations when played on this model, such as 4K resolution graphics and/or higher performance. [227] For games not specifically optimized, an option known as "Boost Mode" was added on system software 4.5, which can be enabled to force higher CPU and GPU clock rates on existing games to possibly improve performance. [228]
Rendering games at 4K resolution is achieved through various rendering techniques and hardware features; PlayStation technical chief Mark Cerny explained that Sony could not "brute force" 4K without compromising form factor and cost, so the console was designed to support "streamlined rendering techniques" using custom hardware, "best-in-breed temporal and spatial anti-aliasing algorithms", and "many new features from the AMD Polaris architecture as well as several even beyond it". The most prominent technique used is checkerboard rendering, wherein the console only renders portions of a scene using a checkerboard pattern, and then uses algorithms to fill in the non-rendered segments. The checkerboarded screen can then be smoothed using an anti-aliasing filter. Hermen Hulst of Guerrilla Games explained that PS4 Pro could render something "perceptively so close [to 4K] that you wouldn't be able to see the difference". [229] [230] [231]
PS4 Pro supports Remote Play, Share Play, and streaming at up to 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second, as well as capturing screenshots at 2160p, and 1080p video at 30 frames per second. [232]
In late 2017, Sony issued a new PS4 Pro revision (model number CUH-7100) that featured updated internal components. The actual hardware specifications and performance remained the same as the original model, although it was found that the revised console has a slightly quieter fan profile than the original and as a result was operating at a slightly higher temperature under load than the CUH-7000. In October 2018, Sony quietly issued another revision (model number CUH-7200), initially as part of Red Dead Redemption 2 hardware bundles. The revision has a different power supply which uses the same type of cord as the "Slim" model, and was shown to have further improvements to acoustics. [233] [234] [235]
- ^ Mishkin, Sarah (November 13, 2013). "Foxconn profits beat expectations" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2013 . Retrieved November 19, 2013 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4 | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | When is the PlayStation 4 UK release date? Release date, price, bundles, features and games | One of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year, the PS4 is the first new console Sony have released since 2006
Image: PA)
- Bookmark
We are counting down the days until the PlayStation 4 is released in the UK.
The PS4 is one of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year - the PlayStation 3 came out seven years ago in 2006.
But when is it available? What will you be able to play when it comes out? What's different about it?
Fear not, we can answer all of your PS4-related questions.
When can I buy the PS4?
Pre-order sales for the PS4 are open now - although lots of retailers have closed pre-orders due to fears of running out of consoles before Christmas.
The UK release date for the PlayStation 4 is November 29, and it will go on sale at midnight at stores across the country.
Seth Barton of technology website Expert Reviews said: "If you've got a PS4 pre-order you will definitely get one for Christmas, but if you haven't then that boat has sailed and you haven't got a hope of getting one.
"It's quite possible the console will sell out before Christmas and you won't be able to get it."
How much will it cost?
It will cost £349 - £80 cheaper than the Xbox One from Microsoft.
Some retailers raised the pre-order price by £50 , which was criticised by fans and retail authorities alike.
Are there any bundles available?
You can buy a copy of either Killzone: Shadow Fall with the basic console pack (which includes a single controller). Amazon are selling both of these packs for £389 - a saving of £10.
Alternatively, you can buy a bigger bundle which includes the console with two controllers, PS4 Camera and a copy of Killzone: Shadow Fall.
At Amazon's own prices these would cost £508 but are discounted here down to £449, a considerable saving of £59
What are the new features?
The PS4 has a single-chip x86 AMD "Jaguar" processor with 8 cores, and a Blu-ray/DVD optical drive.
It has an AMD Radeon Graphics Core Next engine GPU with 1152 shaders.
The console also has an impressive 8GB GDDR5 RAM, with 500GB of removable storage.
SIMILAR ARTICLES TO THIS
Powered by | https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/playstation-4-uk-release-date-2852915 | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | PlayStation 4 Release Date - PlayStation 4 Wiki Guide - IGN | The PlayStation 4 was originally announced for a Holiday 2013 release, but later confirmed for release on November 29th, 2013 in Europe and November 15 in the US and Canada . This page contains a list of release dates in other territories, including Europe, Australia, Japan and Asia. [1]
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- PlayStation 4 US and Canada Release Date: November 15, 2013
- PlayStation 4 EU European Release Date: November 29, 2013
- PlayStation 4 Australian and New Zealand Release Date: November 29, 2013 [2]
- PlayStation 4 Slovenian Release Date: January 29, 2014
- PlayStation 4 Japanese Release Date: February 22, 2014
- "Asia Regions" Release Date: Middle of December 2013 [3]
PS4 games and accessories however were released before the console's launch, at certain retailers, even as early as November 5th and a few PlayStation 4 units were received early via promotions such as a Taco Bell giveaway. | https://www.ign.com/wikis/playstation-4/PlayStation_4_Release_Date | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | When is the PlayStation 4 coming out in the UK? Release date, price, bundles, features and games | One of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year, the PS4 is the first new console Sony have released since 2006
Image: PA)
We are counting down the days until the PlayStation 4 is released in the UK.
The PS4 is one of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year - the PlayStation 3 came out seven years ago in 2006.
But when is it available? What will you be able to play when it comes out? What's different about it?
Fear not, we can answer all of your PS4-related questions.
When can I buy the PS4?
Pre-order sales for the PS4 are open now - although lots of retailers have closed pre-orders due to fears of running out of consoles before Christmas.
The UK release date for the PlayStation 4 is November 29, and it will go on sale at midnight at stores across the country.
Seth Barton of technology website Expert Reviews said: "If you've got a PS4 pre-order you will definitely get one for Christmas, but if you haven't then that boat has sailed and you haven't got a hope of getting one.
"It's quite possible the console will sell out before Christmas and you won't be able to get it."
How much will it cost?
It will cost £349 - £80 cheaper than the Xbox One from Microsoft.
Some retailers raised the pre-order price by £50 , which was criticised by fans and retail authorities alike.
Are there any bundles available?
You can buy a copy of either Killzone: Shadow Fall with the basic console pack (which includes a single controller). Amazon are selling both of these packs for £389 - a saving of £10.
Alternatively, you can buy a bigger bundle which includes the console with two controllers, PS4 Camera and a copy of Killzone: Shadow Fall.
At Amazon's own prices these would cost £508 but are discounted here down to £449, a considerable saving of £59
What are the new features?
The PS4 has a single-chip x86 AMD "Jaguar" processor with 8 cores, and a Blu-ray/DVD optical drive.
It has an AMD Radeon Graphics Core Next engine GPU with 1152 shaders.
The console also has an impressive 8GB GDDR5 RAM, with 500GB of removable storage.
SIMILAR ARTICLES TO THIS
Powered by | https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/playstation-4-coming-out-uk-2461863 | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | PlayStation 4 - Wikipedia | "PS4" redirects here. For other uses, see PS4 (disambiguation) .
|Also known as||PS4|
|Developer||Sony Interactive Entertainment|
|Manufacturer||Sony Electronics , Foxconn [1]|
|Product family||PlayStation|
|Type||Home video game console|
|Generation||Eighth|
|Release date|
|Lifespan||2013–present|
|Introductory price||US$399.99, €399.99, £349.99|
|Discontinued||JP : January 5, 2021 (some models)|
|Units sold||106 million (as of December 31, 2019) [4]|
|Units shipped||117.2 million (as of March 31, 2022) [5]|
|Media|
|Operating system||PlayStation 4 system software|
|CPU|| Semi-custom 8-core AMD x86-64 Jaguar 1.6 GHz CPU (2.13 GHz on PS4 Pro) (integrated into APU ) [6] |
Secondary low power processor (for background tasks) [7]
|Memory|
|Storage|
|Display|
|Graphics|
|Controller input||DualShock 4 , PlayStation Move , PlayStation Vita|
|Camera||PlayStation Camera|
|Connectivity|
|Power||Via internal wide voltage range (110–240 V AC 50 Hz/60 Hz) switched-mode power supply|
|Online services|
|Dimensions|
|Mass|
|Predecessor||PlayStation 3|
|Successor||PlayStation 5|
|Website|| playstation |
The PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) is a home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment . Announced as the successor to the PlayStation 3 in February 2013, it was launched on November 15, 2013, in North America, November 29, 2013 in Europe, South America and Australia, and on February 22, 2014 in Japan. A console of the eighth generation , it competes with Microsoft 's Xbox One and Nintendo 's Wii U and Switch .
Moving away from the more complex Cell microarchitecture of its predecessor, the console features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) built upon the x86-64 architecture, which can theoretically peak at 1.84 teraflops ; AMD stated that it was the "most powerful" APU it had developed to date. The PlayStation 4 places an increased emphasis on social interaction and integration with other devices and services, including the ability to play games off-console on PlayStation Vita and other supported devices (" Remote Play "), the ability to stream gameplay online or to friends, with them controlling gameplay remotely ("Share Play"). The console's controller was also redesigned and improved over the PlayStation 3, with improved buttons and analog sticks, and an integrated touchpad among other changes. The console also supports HDR10 High-dynamic-range video and playback of 4K resolution multimedia.
The PlayStation 4 was released to critical acclaim, with critics praising Sony for acknowledging its consumers' needs, embracing independent game development , and for not imposing the restrictive digital rights management schemes like those originally announced by Microsoft for the Xbox One. Critics and third-party studios, before its launch, also praised the capabilities of the PlayStation 4 in comparison to its competitors; developers described the performance difference between the console and Xbox One as "significant" and "obvious". Heightened demand also helped Sony top global console sales. By October 2019, PS4 became the second-best-selling home game console of all time, behind the PlayStation 2 .
On September 7, 2016, Sony unveiled the PlayStation 4 Slim, a smaller version of the console; and a high-end version called the PlayStation 4 Pro, which features an upgraded GPU and a higher CPU clock rate to support enhanced performance and 4K resolution in supported games.
Its successor, the PlayStation 5 , was released in November 2020, with Sony discontinuing in Japan all PlayStation 4 models except the Slim version in January 2021, with it still being produced in Western markets following their statement of 3-year support of PS4.
According to lead architect Mark Cerny , the development of Sony's fourth video game console began as early as 2008. [9] [10]
Less than two years earlier, the PlayStation 3 had been launched after months of delays due to issues with production. [11] The delay placed Sony almost a year behind Microsoft's Xbox 360 , which was already approaching unit sales of 10 million by the time the PS3 launched. [11] Sony Computer Entertainment Europe CEO Jim Ryan said Sony wanted to avoid repeating the same mistake with PS3's successor. [12]
In designing the system, Sony worked with software developer Bungie , who offered their input on the controller and how to make it better for shooting games. [13] In 2012, Sony began shipping development kits to game developers, consisting of a modified PC running the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit chipset. [14] These development kits were known as "Orbis". [15] [16]
In early 2013, Sony announced that an event known as PlayStation Meeting 2013 would be held in New York City , U.S., on February 20, 2013, to cover the "future of PlayStation". [17] [18] Sony officially announced the PlayStation 4 at the event. [19] [20] It revealed details about the console's hardware and discussed some of the new features it would introduce. [19] [21] Sony also showed off real-time footage of games in development, as well as some technical demonstrations. [22] [23] The design of the console was unveiled in June at E3 2013 , and the initial recommended retail prices of $399 (NA), €399 (Europe), and £349 (UK) given. [24] [25] Sony took advantage of problems that Microsoft had been having with their positioning of their newly announced Xbox One , which included its higher price point ($499 in North America), as well as strict regulations on how users could share game media. Besides its lower price point, Sony focused on the ease one would have in sharing media with the PS4. [26]
The company revealed release dates for North America, Central America, South America, Europe, and Australia, as well as final pieces of information, at a Gamescom press event in Cologne , Germany, on August 20, 2013. The console was released on November 15, 2013, in the United States and Canada , followed by further releases on November 29, 2013. [2] By the end of 2013, the PS4 was launched in more European, Asian and South American countries. [27] [28] The PS4 was released in Japan at ¥39,980 on February 22, 2014. [29]
Sony finalized a deal with the Chinese government in May 2014 to sell its products in mainland China, and the PS4 will be the first product to be released. Kazuo Hirai , chief executive officer of Sony, said in May: "The Chinese market, just given the size of it, is obviously potentially a very large market for video game products ... I think that we will be able to replicate the kind of success we have had with PS4 in other parts of the world in China ." [30]
In September 2015, Sony reduced the price of the PS4 in Japan to ¥34,980, [31] with similar price drops in other Southeast Asian markets. [32] The first official sub-£300 PS4 bundle was the £299.99 "Uncharted Nathan Drake Collection 500GB", and was released in the UK on October 9, 2015; a 1 TB £329.99 version was offered at the same time. [33] On October 9, 2015, the first official price cut of the PS4 in North America was announced: a reduction of $50 to $349.99 (US) and by $20 to $429.99 (Canada). [34] [35] [36] An official price cut in Europe followed in late October 2015, reduced to €349.99/£299.99. [37]
On June 10, 2016, Sony confirmed that a hardware revision of the PlayStation 4, rumored to be codenamed "Neo", was under development. The new revision is a higher-end model that is meant to support gameplay in 4K . The new model will be sold alongside the existing model, and all existing software will be compatible between the two models. [38] Layden stated that Sony has no plans to "bifurcate the market", only that gamers playing on the Neo will "have the same experience, but one will be delivered at a higher resolution, with an enhanced graphical experience, but everything else is going to be exactly as you'd expect". [39] The high-end console was publicly revealed on September 7, 2016, as PlayStation 4 Pro. [40] At the same time, Sony unveiled an updated version of the original PS4 model with a smaller form factor. [41]
In May 2018, during a presentation to investors, Sony Interactive Entertainment CEO John Kodera stated that the PlayStation 4 was heading into the end of its lifecycle and that the company was anticipating decreasing year-over-year hardware sales. [42] He explained that Sony would be countering the expected decline by focusing on "strengthen[ing] user engagement" including continued investments into new first-party games and other online services for PS4. "We will use the next three years to prepare the next step, to crouch down so that we can jump higher in the future," Kodera added in an interview with the press the following day. [43]
Following the launch of the PlayStation 5 in November 2020, Sony discontinued production in Japan of all but the 500GB Slim model of the PlayStation 4 on January 5, 2021, with the standard PS4 and PS4 Pro still being produced for western markets. [44] According to a report from Bloomberg News in January 2022, Sony had been poised to discontinue the PlayStation 4 at the end of 2021 in favor of the PlayStation 5, but due to the ongoing semiconductor shortage that made it difficult for Sony to keep up with PlayStation 5 demand, the company instead planned to continue PlayStation 4 production. Besides helping to offset the PlayStation 5 shortage, this production method would help assure deals with its component providers for the PlayStation 5. [45]
The technology in the PlayStation 4 is similar to the hardware found in modern personal computers . [46] This familiarity is designed to make it easier and less expensive for game studios to develop games for the PS4. [47] [48]
"[We] have not built an APU quite like that for anyone else in the market. It is by far the most powerful APU we have built to date".
- John Taylor, AMD [49]
The PlayStation 4 uses an Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony. It combines a central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU), as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder . [50] The CPU consists of two 28 nm quad-core Jaguar modules totaling 8 64-bit x86-64 cores , [50] [51] 7 of which are available for game developers to use. [52] The GPU consists of 18 compute units to produce a theoretical peak performance of 1.84 TFLOPS . [23] The system's GDDR5 memory is capable of running at a maximum clock frequency of 2.75 GHz (5500 MT/s) and has a maximum memory bandwidth of 176 GB/s. [23] [53] [54] The console contains 8 GB of GDDR5 memory, [23] [55] 16 times the amount of RAM found in the PS3 and is expected to give the console considerable longevity. [46] [56] It also includes secondary custom chips that handle tasks associated with downloading, uploading, and social gameplay. [57] [58] These tasks can be handled seamlessly in the background during gameplay or while the system is in sleep mode . [59] The console also contains an audio module, which can support in-game chat as well as "a very large number" of audio streams for use in-game. [60] All PlayStation 4 models support high dynamic range (HDR) color profiles. [61]
Its read-only optical drive is capable of reading Blu-ray Discs at speeds of up to three times that of its predecessor. [56] [62] The console features a hardware on-the-fly zlib decompression module. [60] The original PS4 model supports up to 1080p and 1080i video standards, [63] while the Pro model supports 4K resolution . [64] The console includes a 500 gigabyte hard drive for additional storage, [65] which can be upgraded by the user. [66] System Software 4.50, which was released on March 9, 2017, [67] enabled the use of external USB hard drives up to 8 TB for additional storage. [68]
The PlayStation 4 features Wi-Fi and Ethernet connectivity, Bluetooth , and two USB 3.0 ports. [23] [56] An auxiliary port is also included for connection to the PlayStation Camera , a motion detection digital camera device first introduced on the PS3. [23] A mono headset, which can be plugged into the DualShock 4, is bundled with the system. [69] Audio/video output options include HDMI TV and optical S/PDIF audio. [23] The console does not have an analog audio/video output. [70]
The PS4 features a " Rest mode " feature. This places the console in a low-power state while allowing users to immediately resume their game or app once the console is awoken. The console also is able to download content such as game and OS updates while it is in this state. [71] [72]
The DualShock 4 is PlayStation 4's primary controller; it maintains a similar design to previous iterations of the DualShock series, but with additional features and design refinements. [73] Among other tweaks, the caps of the analog sticks were given a concave design (similar to the Xbox 360 controller ), the shape of the triggers and shoulder buttons was refined, the D-pad buttons were given a steeper downward angle to provide a resting space in the center for the user's thumb, [73] [74] and the hand grips were made thicker and given microtexturing to improve their feel. [73] [74]
A major addition to the DualShock 4 is a touchpad ; it is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous touch presses, and can also be pressed down as a button. [73] The "Start" and "Select" buttons were replaced by "Options" and "Share" buttons; the latter is designed to allow access to the PlayStation 4's social features (including streaming, video recording, and screenshot tools). [73] [75] The DualShock 4 is powered by a non-removable, rechargeable lithium-ion battery, which can be charged using its micro USB connector. The controller also features an internal speaker, and a headphone jack for headsets or headphones; the console is bundled with a pair of headset earbuds . [76] [77] [73]
The controller's motion tracking system is more sensitive than those of the PlayStation 3's controllers. An LED "light bar" was additionally added to the front of the controller; it is designed to allow the PlayStation Camera accessory to further track its motion, but can also be used to provide visual effects and feedback within games (such as, for instance, reflecting a player's low health by turning red). [78] [76] [75] [79]
Although the PS4 and DualShock 4 continue to use Bluetooth for wireless connectivity, the console is incompatible with PlayStation 3 controllers. [80] An exception are the PlayStation Move motion controllers originally released for PS3, which are officially supported for use with the PlayStation Camera. [76] [81] In October 2013, Shuhei Yoshida stated on Twitter that the DualShock 4 would support "basic functions" when attached to a PC. [82] In August 2016, Sony unveiled an official USB wireless adapter for the DualShock 4, enabling use of all of the controller's functionality on PC. [83] In December 2016, Valve 's Steam platform was updated to provide support and controller customization functionality for DualShock 4, through existing APIs for the Steam Controller . [84] [85]
A revision of the DualShock 4 was released alongside the "Slim" and Pro models in 2016, and is bundled with these systems. It is largely identical to the original model, except that the touchpad now contains a "stripe" along the top which the light bar's LED can shine through, and the controller can communicate non-wirelessly when connected to the console over USB. [86]
Main article: PlayStation Camera
The PlayStation Camera is an optional motion sensor and camera for the PlayStation 4, similar to Kinect on Xbox . It includes two 1280×800 pixel lenses operating with an aperture of f /2.0, with 30 cm focusing distance, and an 85° field of view . [69] The dual camera setup allows for different modes of operation, depending on the initiated and running application. [87] The two cameras can be used together for depth-sensing of its surrounding objects in its field of vision. [88] Alternatively, one of the cameras can be used for generating the video image, with the other used for motion tracking. [89]
PlayStation Camera also features a four-channel microphone array, which helps reduce unwanted background noise and can be used for voice commands. [87] With the PlayStation Camera connected, different users can automatically log-on to the system via face detection . [69]
Main article: PlayStation VR
PlayStation VR is a virtual reality system for PlayStation 4; it consists of a headset , which features a 1080p display panel, LED lights on the headset that are used by PlayStation Camera to track its motion, and a control box that processes 3D audio effects , as well as video output to the external display (either simulcasting the player's VR perspective, or providing an asymmetrical secondary perspective). PlayStation VR can also be used with PlayStation Move motion controllers. [90] [91]
The PlayStation 4's operating system is called "Orbis OS", based upon a customized FreeBSD 9. [92] [93] [94] [95]
The console does not require an Internet connection for usage, although more functionality is available when connected. [96] The PS4 is the first to include a WebKit -based web browser, which is a departure from its predecessor's NetFront browser; [ citation needed ] it is based on the same modern WebKit core as Google Chrome and Safari , giving it high compatibility in HTML5 compliance testing. [97]
The console introduces a customizable menu interface, the "PlayStation Dynamic Menu", featuring a variety of color schemes. [72] The interface displays the player's profile, recent activity, notifications, and other details in addition to unlocked trophies . [98] It allows multiple user accounts, all with their own pass-codes. Each player account has the option to share their real name with friends, or use a nickname in other situations when anonymity is important. Facebook profiles can be connected to PlayStation Network accounts, making it easier to recognize friends. [99] The default home screen features real time content from friends. The "What's New" activity feed includes shared media, recently played games, and other notifications. [23] Services from third-party vendors, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video , can be accessed within the interface. [100] Multitasking is available during gameplay, such as opening the browser or managing party chat, and switching between applications is done by double-tapping the "PS" button. [23]
The PlayStation Camera or a microphone enables the user to control the system using voice input . Players can command the interface to start a game, take screenshots, and save videos. Saying "PlayStation" initiates voice control, and "All Commands" displays a list of possible commands. [101]
The PlayStation 4 supports Blu-ray and DVD playback, including 3D Blu-ray. The playing of CD is no longer supported, [102] as the console no longer has an infrared 780 nm laser. Custom music and video files can still be played from USB drives and DLNA servers using the Media Player app. [103]
Main article: PlayStation Network
The PlayStation 4 allows users to access a variety of free and premium PlayStation Network (PSN) services, including the PlayStation Store , PlayStation Plus subscription service, PlayStation Music powered by Spotify , and the PlayStation Video subscription service, which allows owners to rent or buy TV shows and films à la carte . [23] A United States-exclusive cloud-based television-on-demand service known as PlayStation Vue began beta testing in late November 2014. [104] [105] Sony intends to expand and evolve the services it offers over the console's lifespan. [106] Unlike PS3, a PlayStation Plus membership is required to access multiplayer in most games; this requirement does not apply to free-to-play or subscription-based games. [107]
Smartphones and tablets can interact with the PlayStation 4 as second screen devices, and can also wake the console from sleep mode. [108] A Sony Xperia smartphone, tablet or the PlayStation Vita can be used for streaming gameplay from the console to handheld, allowing supported games to be played remotely from around a household or away from home. [109] [110] Sony has ambitions to make all PS4 games playable on PlayStation Vita. [23] Developers can add Vita-specific controls for use via Remote Play. [111] This feature was later expanded to enable PS4 Remote Play functionality on Microsoft Windows PCs and on Apple OS X Macs. The update, released in April 2016, allows for Remote Play functionality on computers running Windows 8.1 , Windows 10 , OS X Yosemite , and OS X El Capitan . Remote Play supports resolution options of 360p, 540p, and 720p (1080p is available on PS4 Pro), frame rate options of 30–60 FPS, and the DualShock 4 can be connected via USB . [112]
The PlayStation App allows iOS and Android mobile devices to interact with the PlayStation 4 from their device. The user can use this application to purchase PS4 games from the console and have them remotely downloaded, watch live streams of other gamers, and/or view in-game maps while playing games. [113]
"Ustream's integration within PS4 consoles will put gamers on a new media field. They will have the ability to direct, produce, and star in their own video game production, simply by being an awesome (or not so awesome!) gamer."
Sony is focused on "social" aspects as a major feature of the console. Although the PS4 has improved social functionality, the features are optional and can be disabled. [106]
Users have the option to create or join community groups based on personal interest. Communities include a discussion board, accomplishments and game clips shared by other members, plus the ability to join group chat and launch cooperative games. Sony stated that "communities are a good way to socialize with like-minded players", particularly when "you want to tackle a big multiplayer raid, but don't have enough friends available." [115] Sony has officially stated that starting April 2021, the community system of the PlayStation Network will be discontinued. This, however, will not prevent users from communicating with their friends in private messaging or in group chats on the PlayStation Network. [116]
The DualShock 4 controller includes a "SHARE" button, allowing the player to cycle through the last 60 minutes of recorded gameplay to select a screenshot or video clip appropriate for sharing. Media is uploaded seamlessly from the console to other PSN users or social networking sites such as Dailymotion , Facebook , Twitter and YouTube , or else users can copy media to a USB flash drive and upload to a social network or website of their preference. [117] Players can also use a free video editing application named ShareFactory to cut and assemble their favorite video clips and add custom music or voice commentary with green screen effects. Subsequent updates have added options for picture-in-picture layouts, the ability to create photo collages and animated GIFs . [118] [119]
Gamers can either watch live gameplay of games which their friends are playing through the PS4 interface with cross-game camera and microphone input, spectate silently, or broadcast their own gameplay live via DailyMotion , Twitch , [120] Ustream , [23] Niconico , [121] or YouTube Gaming , [115] allowing for friends and members of the public to view and comment upon them from other web browsers and devices. If a user is not screen-casting, a friend can send them a "Request to Watch" notification. [115]
"SharePlay" redirects here. For FaceTime feature, see FaceTime § History .
Share Play allows users to invite an online friend to join their play session via streaming, even if they do not own a copy of the game. Users can pass control of the game entirely to the remote user or partake in cooperative multiplayer as if they were physically present. Mark Cerny says that remote assistance is particularly useful when confronted by a potentially game-defeating obstacle. "You can even see that your friend is in trouble and reach out through the network to take over the controller and assist them through some difficult portion of the game," he said. Share Play requires a PlayStation Plus subscription and can only be used for one hour at a time. [122] [123]
PlayStation 4 games are distributed at retail on Blu-ray Disc , and digitally as downloads through the PlayStation Store . [124] Games are not region-locked, so games purchased in one region can be played on consoles in all regions, [125] and players can sign-on to any PS4 console to access their entire digital game library. [126] All PlayStation 4 games must be installed to the console's storage. [127] Additionally a system called "PlayGo" allows users to begin to play portions of a game (such as opening levels) once the installation or download reaches a specific point, while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background. Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby. [60] PS4 users will, in the future, be able to browse games and stream games via Gaikai to demo them almost instantaneously. [23] [128] Sony says it is committed to releasing an ever-increasing number of free-to-play games, including PlanetSide 2 and War Thunder . [129] [130] Sony also took steps to make it easier for independent game developers to release games for the PS4 by giving them the option to self-publish their own games rather than rely upon others to distribute their games. [131] [132]
PlayStation 4 is not compatible with any disc of older PlayStation consoles. [133] [134] Emulated versions of selected PlayStation, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games are available for purchase via PlayStation Store, which are upscaled to high definition and have support for PS4 social features. [133] [135]
Main article: PlayStation Now
In December 2013, Andrew House indicated that Sony was planning to launch a cloud gaming service for the PS4 in North America within the third quarter of 2014, with a European launch to follow in 2015. [136] [137]
At Consumer Electronics Show on January 7, 2014, Sony unveiled PlayStation Now , a digital distribution service which will initially allow users to access PlayStation 3 games on the PS4 via a cloud-based streaming system, purchasing games individually or via a subscription, as a solution of no backwards compatibility on the hardware of the console. [138] The United States Open Beta went live on July 31, 2014. [139] The official United States release of the service was on January 13, 2015. [140] As of March 2015 PlayStation Now was in closed beta in the United Kingdom. [141]
"It's abundantly clear that PS4 is being driven as a collaboration between East and West, as opposed to a dictation from one side to the other. Developers are fully involved, activated, discussed and doing really cool collaborative things."
Pre-release reception to the console from developers and journalists was positive. Mark Rein of Epic Games praised the "enhanced" architecture of Sony's system, describing it as "a phenomenal piece of hardware". [142] John Carmack , programmer and co-founder of id Software , also commended the design by saying "Sony made wise engineering choices", [143] while Randy Pitchford of Gearbox Software expressed satisfaction with the amount of high-speed memory in the console. [144] Eurogamer also called the graphics technology in the PS4 "impressive" and an improvement from the difficulties developers experienced on the PlayStation 3. [56]
Numerous industry professionals have acknowledged the PlayStation 4's performance advantage over the Xbox One. Speaking to Edge magazine, multiple game developers have described the difference as "significant" and "obvious". [145] ExtremeTech says the PS4's graphics processing unit offers a "serious advantage" over the competition, but due to the nature of cross-platform development, games that share the same assets will appear "very similar". In other scenarios, designers may tap some of PS4's additional power in a straightforward manner, to boost frame rate or output at a higher resolution, whereas games from Sony's own first-party studios that take full advantage of the hardware "will probably look significantly better than anything on the Xbox One." [146]
In response to concerns surrounding the possibility of DRM measures to hinder the resale of used games (and in particular, the initial DRM policies of Xbox One , which did contain such restrictions), Jack Tretton explicitly stated during Sony's E3 press conference that there would be "no restrictions" on the resale and trading of PS4 games on physical media, while software product development head Scott Rohde specified that Sony was planning to disallow online passes as well, going on to say that the policies were designed to be "consumer-friendly, extremely retailer-friendly, and extremely publisher-friendly". [147] [148] After Sony's E3 2013 press conference, IGN responded positively to Sony's attitude towards indie developers and trading games, stating they thought "most gamers would agree" that "if you care about games like [Sony] do, you'll buy a PlayStation 4". [149] PlayStation 4's removable and upgradable hard drive also drew praise from IGN, [150] with Scott Lowe commenting that the decision gave the console "another advantage" over the Xbox One, whose hard drive cannot be accessed. [151]
GameSpot called the PlayStation 4 "the gamer's choice for next-generation", citing its price, lack of restrictive digital rights management , and most importantly, Sony's efforts to "acknowledge its consumers" and "respect its audience" as major factors. [152]
The PlayStation 4 has received very positive reviews by critics. Scott Lowe of IGN gave it an 8.2 rating out of 10 praising the console's DualShock 4 design and social integration features. He criticized the console's lack of software features and for underutilizing the DualShock 4's touch pad. [153] The Gadget Show gave a similar review complimenting the DualShock 4's new triggers and control sticks, in addition to the new Remote Play feature, yet criticized the system's lack of media support at launch. [154] IGN compared the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 over various categories, allowing their readers to vote for their preferred system. The PS4 won every category offered, and IGN awarded the PS4 with their People's Choice Award. [155]
Shortly following the launch, it became apparent that some games released on multiple platforms were available in higher resolutions on the PS4 as opposed to other video game consoles. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku reported on the differences in early games such as Call of Duty: Ghosts and Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag which ran at 1080p on the PS4, but in 720p and 900p, respectively, on the Xbox One . [156]
|Region||Lifetime sell-through by region||Lifetime sell-through by country|
|North America||30M||United States 30M (as of September 2019) [157] [158]|
|Europe||~24M|| Germany 7.2M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158] |
United Kingdom 6.8M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158]
France ~6M (as of September 2019) ; [158]
Italy ~3M (as of December 2018) ; [159]
Spain 700K (as of June 17, 2015) ; [160]
Portugal 100K (as of May 4, 2015) [161]
|Asia||+10M|| Japan 8.3M (as of September 2019) ; [157] [158] |
China ~1.5M (as of August 2, 2018) ; [162]
India ~250,000 (as of March 2018) [163]
|Others||200,000|| Mexico, Brazil, Argentina ~150,000 (as of December 2014) ; [164] |
South Africa 50,000 (as of December 12, 2014) [165]
|Worldwide||106.0M (as of December 31, 2019) [4]|
Demand for PlayStation 4 was strong. In August 2013, Sony announced the placement of over a million preorders for the console, [166] while on the North American launch alone, one million PlayStation 4 consoles were sold. [167] In the UK, the PlayStation 4 became the best-selling console at launch, with the sale of 250,000 consoles within a 48-hour period [168] and 530,000 in the first five weeks. [169]
On January 7, 2014, Andrew House announced in his Consumer Electronics Show keynote speech that 4.2 million PS4 units had been sold-through by the end of 2013, [170] with more than 9.7 million software units sold. [171] On February 18, 2014, Sony announced that, as of February 8, it had sold over 5.3 million console units following the release of the PS4 onto the North American and Western/Central European markets. [172] [173] Within the first two days of release in Japan during the weekend of February 22, 2014, 322,083 consoles were sold. [174] PS4 software unit sales surpassed 20.5 million on April 13, 2014. [175] During Japan's 2013 fiscal year , heightened demand for the PS4 helped Sony top global console sales, beating Nintendo for the first time in eight years. [176]
According to data released by Nielsen in August 2014, nine months after the PS4 was released, thirty-one percent of its sales were to existing Wii and Xbox 360 owners, none of whom had by then owned a PS3. [177] At Gamescom 2014, it was announced that 10 million PS4 units had been sold-through to consumers worldwide, [178] and on November 13, it was announced that the PlayStation 4 was the top-selling console in the U.S. for the tenth consecutive month. [179]
In its first sales announcement of 2015, Sony confirmed on January 4 that it had sold-through 18.5 million PlayStation 4 units. [180] Sony updated the sell-through figures for the system throughout 2015: over 20 million consoles as of March 3, 2015, [181] over 30 million as of November 22, 2015, [182] and over 35 million by the end of 2015. [183] As of May 22, 2016, total worldwide sell-through reached 40 million. [184] As of December 2018, over 91 million consoles and more than 876 million PlayStation 4 games have been sold worldwide. By October 2019, the PS4 had sold 102.8 million times, making it the second best-selling home video game console of all time, behind the PlayStation 2 . [185]
The PlayStation 4 holds a market share of at least 70% within all European countries, as of June 2015. [186]
|Lifetime worldwide hardware sell-through||Lifetime worldwide software sell-through||Tie ratio|
|1.0M (as of November 16, 2013) [187]||—||—|
|2.1M (as of December 1, 2013) [188]||—||—|
|4.2M (as of December 28, 2013) [189]||9.7M (as of December 28, 2013)||2.31 games/console|
|5.3M (as of February 8, 2014) [190]||—||—|
|6.0M (as of March 2, 2014) [191]||13.7M (as of March 2, 2014)||2.28 games/console|
|7.0M (as of April 6, 2014) [192]||20.5M (as of April 13, 2014)||2.93 games/console|
|10.0M (as of August 10, 2014) [193]||30.0M (as of August 10, 2014)||3.00 games/console|
|14.4M (as of November 22, 2014) [194]||64.0M (as of November 22, 2014)||4.44 games/console|
|18.5M (as of January 4, 2015) [194]||81.8M (as of January 4, 2015)||4.42 games/console|
|20.2M (as of March 1, 2015) [195]||—||—|
|30.2M (as of November 22, 2015) [196]||—||—|
|35.9M (as of January 3, 2016) [197]||—||—|
|40.0M (as of May 22, 2016) [184]||270.9M (as of May 22, 2016)||6.77 games/console|
|50.0M (as of December 6, 2016) [198]||369.6M (as of December 4, 2016)||7.39 games/console|
|53.4M (as of January 1, 2017) [183]||401.1M (as of January 1, 2017) [199]||7.51 games/console|
|60.4M (as of June 11, 2017) [200]||487.8M (as of June 11, 2017)||8.08 games/console|
|70.6M (as of December 3, 2017) [201]||617.8M (as of December 3, 2017)||8.75 games/console|
|73.6M (as of December 31, 2017) [202]||645.0M (as of December 31, 2017)||8.76 games/console|
|—||777.9M (as of June 30, 2018) [203]||—|
|81.2M (as of July 22, 2018) [204]||—||—|
|86.0M (as of November 18, 2018) [205]||825.3M (as of November 18, 2018) [205]||9.59 games/console|
|91.6M (as of December 31, 2018) [205]||924.0M (as of December 31, 2018) [205] [206]||10.09 games/console|
|106.0M (as of December 31, 2019) [4]||1.181B (as of December 31, 2019) [4] [206]||11.14 games/console|
|Worldwide hardware shipments||Worldwide hardware shipments (including returned and refurbished consoles)|
|Quarterly [207]||Lifetime||Quarterly [208]||Lifetime|
|4.5M (Launch – December 31, 2013)||4.5M (as of December 31, 2013)||4.5M (Launch – December 31, 2013)||4.5M (as of December 31, 2013)|
|3.0M (January 1, 2014 – March 31, 2014)||7.5M (as of March 31, 2014)||3.1M (January 1, 2014 – March 31, 2014)||7.6M (as of March 31, 2014)|
|2.7M (April 1, 2014 – June 30, 2014)||10.2M (as of June 30, 2014)||2.8M (April 1, 2014 – June 30, 2014)||10.4M (as of June 30, 2014)|
|3.3M (July 1, 2014 – September 30, 2014)||13.5M (as of September 30, 2014)||3.4M (July 1, 2014 – September 30, 2014)||13.8M (as of September 30, 2014)|
|6.4M (October 1, 2014 – December 31, 2014)||19.9M (as of December 31, 2014)||6.4M (October 1, 2014 – December 31, 2014)||20.2M (as of December 31, 2014)|
|2.4M (January 1, 2015 – March 31, 2015)||22.3M (as of March 31, 2015)||2.3M (January 1, 2015 – March 31, 2015)||22.5M (as of March 31, 2015)|
|3.0M (April 1, 2015 – June 30, 2015)||25.3M (as of June 30, 2015)||2.9M (April 1, 2015 – June 30, 2015)||25.4M (as of June 30, 2015)|
|4.0M (July 1, 2015 – September 30, 2015)||29.3M (as of September 30, 2015)||4.0M (July 1, 2015 – September 30, 2015)||29.4M (as of September 30, 2015)|
|8.4M (October 1, 2015 – December 31, 2015)||37.7M (as of December 31, 2015)||8.4M (October 1, 2015 – December 31, 2015)||37.8M (as of December 31, 2015)|
|2.3M (January 1, 2016 – March 31, 2016)||40.0M (as of March 31, 2016)||2.4M (January 1, 2016 – March 31, 2016)||40.2M (as of March 31, 2016)|
|3.5M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||43.5M (as of June 30, 2016)||3.5M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||43.7M (as of June 30, 2016)|
|3.9M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||47.4M (as of September 30, 2016)||3.9M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||47.6M (as of September 30, 2016)|
|9.7M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||57.1M (as of December 31, 2016)||9.7M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||57.3M (as of December 31, 2016)|
|2.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||60.0M (as of March 31, 2017)||2.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||60.2M (as of March 31, 2017)|
|3.3M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||63.3M (as of June 30, 2017)||3.3M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||63.5M (as of June 30, 2017)|
|4.2M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||67.5M (as of September 30, 2017)||4.2M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||67.7M (as of September 30, 2017)|
|9.0M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||76.5M (as of December 31, 2017)||9.0M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||76.7M (as of December 31, 2017)|
|2.5M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||79.0M (as of March 31, 2018)||2.5M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||79.2M (as of March 31, 2018)|
|3.2M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||82.2M (as of June 30, 2018)||3.2M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||82.4M (as of June 30, 2018)|
|3.9M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||86.1M (as of September 30, 2018)||3.9M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||86.3M (as of September 30, 2018)|
|8.1M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||94.2M (as of December 31, 2018)||8.1M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||94.4M (as of December 31, 2018)|
|2.6M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||96.8M (as of March 31, 2019)||2.6M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||97.0M (as of March 31, 2019)|
|3.2M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||100.0M (as of June 30, 2019)||3.2M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||100.2M (as of June 30, 2019)|
|2.8M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||102.8M (as of September 30, 2019)||2.8M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||103.0M (as of September 30, 2019)|
|6.1M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||108.9M (as of December 31, 2019)||6.0M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||109.0M (as of December 31, 2019)|
|1.5M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||110.4M (as of March 31, 2020)||1.4M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||110.4M (as of March 31, 2020)|
|1.9M (April 1, 2020 – June 30, 2020)||112.3M (as of June 30, 2020)|
|1.5M (July 1, 2020 – September 30, 2020)||113.8M (as of September 30, 2020)|
|1.4M (October 1, 2020 – December 31, 2020)||115.2M (as of December 31, 2020)|
|1.0M (January 1, 2021 – March 31, 2021)||116.2M (as of March 31, 2021)|
|0.5M (April 1, 2021 – June 30, 2021)||116.7M (as of June 30, 2021)|
|0.2M (July 1, 2021 – September 30, 2021)||116.9M (as of September 30, 2021)|
|0.2M (October 1, 2021 – December 31, 2021)||117.1M (as of December 31, 2021)|
|0.1M (January 1, 2022 – March 31, 2022)||117.2M (as of March 31, 2022)|
|Worldwide full game software shipments [209] [187] [203] [210] [211] [212] [213]|
|Quarterly||Yearly||Tie ratio||Digital download ratio|
|36.7M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||10.49 games/console|
|50.1M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||12.85 games/console|
|80.5M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||8.30 games/console|
|50.6M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||17.45 games/console|
|217.9M (April 1, 2016 – March 31, 2017)||10.90 games/console||27%|
|38.7M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||11.73 games/console||39%|
|69.7M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||16.60 games/console||27%|
|86.5M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||9.61 games/console||28%|
|52.0M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||20.80 games/console||43%|
|246.9M (April 1, 2017 – March 31, 2018)||12.99 games/console||32%|
|40.6M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||12.69 games/console||43%|
|75.1M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||19.26 games/console||28%|
|87.2M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||10.77 games/console||37%|
|54.7M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||21.04 games/console||45%|
|257.6M (April 1, 2018 – March 31, 2019)||14.47 games/console||37%|
|42.9M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||13.41 games/console||53%|
|61.3M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||21.89 games/console||37%|
|81.1M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||13.30 games/console||49%|
|59.6M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||39.73 games/console||66%|
|245.0M (April 1, 2019 – March 31, 2020)||18.01 games/console||51%|
|Worldwide total software unit sales (including download-only, bundled, and PS VR titles) [207] [214]|
|Quarterly||Yearly||Tie ratio||First party||First party ratio||Digital download ratio|
|39.9M (April 1, 2016 – June 30, 2016)||11.40 games/console|
|54.0M (July 1, 2016 – September 30, 2016)||13.85 games/console|
|85.5M (October 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016)||8.81 games/console|
|54.9M (January 1, 2017 – March 31, 2017)||18.93 games/console|
|234.2M (April 1, 2016 – March 31, 2017)||11.71 games/console||27%|
|45.9M (April 1, 2017 – June 30, 2017)||13.91 games/console||39%|
|76.1M (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2017)||18.12 games/console||27%|
|92.8M (October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017)||10.31 games/console||28%|
|59.4M (January 1, 2018 – March 31, 2018)||23.76 games/console||43%|
|274.2M (April 1, 2017 – March 31, 2018)||14.43 games/console||32%|
|47.7M (April 1, 2018 – June 30, 2018)||14.91 games/console||43%|
|82.3M (July 1, 2018 – September 30, 2018)||21.10 games/console||28%|
|95.6M (October 1, 2018 – December 31, 2018)||11.80 games/console||37%|
|62.3M (January 1, 2019 – March 31, 2019)||23.96 games/console||45%|
|287.9M (April 1, 2018 – March 31, 2019)||16.17 games/console||50.6M||18%||37%|
|49.8M (April 1, 2019 – June 30, 2019)||15.56 games/console||11.7M||23%||53%|
|70.6M (July 1, 2019 – September 30, 2019)||25.21 games/console||6.3M||9%||37%|
|83.3M (October 1, 2019 – December 31, 2019)||13.88 games/console||16.3M||20%||49%|
|64.9M (January 1, 2020 – March 31, 2020)||46.36 games/console||9.1M||14%||66%|
|268.7M (April 1, 2019 – March 31, 2020)||19.90 games/console||43.3M||16%||51%|
|91.0M (April 1, 2020 – June 30, 2020)||47.89 games/console||18.5M||20%||74%|
|PlayStation Plus subscribers [187] [203] [210] [211] [212]||Monthly active users [214]|
|20.8M (as of March 31, 2016)|
|26.4M (as of March 31, 2017)|
|27.0M (as of June 30, 2017)|
|28.1M (as of September 30, 2017)|
|31.5M (as of December 31, 2017)|
|34.2M (as of March 31, 2018)|
|33.9M (as of June 30, 2018)|
|34.3M (as of September 30, 2018)|
|36.3M (as of December 31, 2018)|
|36.4M (as of March 31, 2019)|
|36.2M (as of June 30, 2019)|
|36.9M (as of September 30, 2019)|
|38.8M (as of December 31, 2019)|
|41.5M (as of March 31, 2020)|
|44.9M (as of June 30, 2020)|
|47.6M (as of March 31, 2021)||109M (as of March, 2021)|
The PlayStation 4 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Pro. Successive models have added or removed various features, and each model has variations of Limited Edition consoles.
On September 7, 2016, Sony announced a hardware revision of the PlayStation 4, model number CUH-2000, known colloquially as the PlayStation 4 Slim , which phased out the original model. [215] It is a revision of the original PS4 hardware with a smaller form factor; it has a rounded body with a matte finish on the top of the console rather than a two-tone finish, and is 40% smaller in size than the original model. The two USB ports on the front have been updated to the newer USB 3.1 standard and have a larger gap between them, and the optical audio port was removed. [216] This model also features support for USB 3.1, Bluetooth 4.0 and 5.0 GHz Wi-Fi. [217]
It was released on September 15, 2016, with a 500 GB model at the same price as the original version of the PlayStation 4. [41] On April 18, 2017, Sony announced that it had replaced this base model with a 1 TB version at the same MSRP. [218]
The PlayStation 4 Pro (codenamed Neo , model number CUH-7000) [38] was announced on September 7, 2016, and launched worldwide on November 10, 2016. [219] [220] It is an upgraded version of the PlayStation 4 with improved hardware to enable 4K rendering and improved PlayStation VR performance, including an upgraded GPU with 4.198 teraflops of processing power [221] and hardware support for checkerboard rendering , [222] and a higher CPU clock. As with PS4 "Slim", this model also features support for USB 3.1, Bluetooth 4.0 and 5.0 GHz Wi-Fi. [217] The PS4 Pro also includes 1 GB of DDR3 memory that is used to swap out non-gaming applications that run in the background, allowing games to utilize an additional 512 MB of the console's GDDR5 memory. [223] Although capable of streaming 4K video, the PS4 Pro does not support Ultra HD Blu-ray . [224] [225] [226]
Games marketed by Sony as PS4 Pro Enhanced have specific optimizations when played on this model, such as 4K resolution graphics and/or higher performance. [227] For games not specifically optimized, an option known as "Boost Mode" was added on system software 4.5, which can be enabled to force higher CPU and GPU clock rates on existing games to possibly improve performance. [228]
Rendering games at 4K resolution is achieved through various rendering techniques and hardware features; PlayStation technical chief Mark Cerny explained that Sony could not "brute force" 4K without compromising form factor and cost, so the console was designed to support "streamlined rendering techniques" using custom hardware, "best-in-breed temporal and spatial anti-aliasing algorithms", and "many new features from the AMD Polaris architecture as well as several even beyond it". The most prominent technique used is checkerboard rendering, wherein the console only renders portions of a scene using a checkerboard pattern, and then uses algorithms to fill in the non-rendered segments. The checkerboarded screen can then be smoothed using an anti-aliasing filter. Hermen Hulst of Guerrilla Games explained that PS4 Pro could render something "perceptively so close [to 4K] that you wouldn't be able to see the difference". [229] [230] [231]
PS4 Pro supports Remote Play, Share Play, and streaming at up to 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second, as well as capturing screenshots at 2160p, and 1080p video at 30 frames per second. [232]
In late 2017, Sony issued a new PS4 Pro revision (model number CUH-7100) that featured updated internal components. The actual hardware specifications and performance remained the same as the original model, although it was found that the revised console has a slightly quieter fan profile than the original and as a result was operating at a slightly higher temperature under load than the CUH-7000. In October 2018, Sony quietly issued another revision (model number CUH-7200), initially as part of Red Dead Redemption 2 hardware bundles. The revision has a different power supply which uses the same type of cord as the "Slim" model, and was shown to have further improvements to acoustics. [233] [234] [235]
- ^ Mishkin, Sarah (November 13, 2013). "Foxconn profits beat expectations" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on November 14, 2013 . Retrieved November 19, 2013 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4 | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | When Did The PS4 Come Out? - PlayStation Universe | When did the PS4 come out, when was ps4 released – Given how long the PS4 has been around, and with all the talk of the forthcoming PS5 release date , specs and other next-gen consoles , it can be easy to forget the original PS4 release date. As such folks have started to ask, when was the PS4 released? Let’s see!
The PS4 release date was November 15, 2013 in North America, November 29, 2013 in Europe, South America and Australia, and then was followed by a February 22, 2014 release in Japan. | https://www.psu.com/news/when-did-the-ps4-come-out/ | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | When is the PlayStation 4 coming out in the UK? Release date, price, bundles, features and games | One of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year, the PS4 is the first new console Sony have released since 2006
Image: PA)
We are counting down the days until the PlayStation 4 is released in the UK.
The PS4 is one of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year - the PlayStation 3 came out seven years ago in 2006.
But when is it available? What will you be able to play when it comes out? What's different about it?
Fear not, we can answer all of your PS4-related questions.
When can I buy the PS4?
Pre-order sales for the PS4 are open now - although lots of retailers have closed pre-orders due to fears of running out of consoles before Christmas.
The UK release date for the PlayStation 4 is November 29, and it will go on sale at midnight at stores across the country.
Seth Barton of technology website Expert Reviews said: "If you've got a PS4 pre-order you will definitely get one for Christmas, but if you haven't then that boat has sailed and you haven't got a hope of getting one.
"It's quite possible the console will sell out before Christmas and you won't be able to get it."
How much will it cost?
It will cost £349 - £80 cheaper than the Xbox One from Microsoft.
Some retailers raised the pre-order price by £50 , which was criticised by fans and retail authorities alike.
Are there any bundles available?
You can buy a copy of either Killzone: Shadow Fall with the basic console pack (which includes a single controller). Amazon are selling both of these packs for £389 - a saving of £10.
Alternatively, you can buy a bigger bundle which includes the console with two controllers, PS4 Camera and a copy of Killzone: Shadow Fall.
At Amazon's own prices these would cost £508 but are discounted here down to £449, a considerable saving of £59
What are the new features?
The PS4 has a single-chip x86 AMD "Jaguar" processor with 8 cores, and a Blu-ray/DVD optical drive.
It has an AMD Radeon Graphics Core Next engine GPU with 1152 shaders.
The console also has an impressive 8GB GDDR5 RAM, with 500GB of removable storage.
SIMILAR ARTICLES TO THIS
Powered by | https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/playstation-4-coming-out-uk-2461863 | 144 |
when did the ps4 come out in the uk | When is the PlayStation 4 coming out in the UK? Release date, price, bundles, features and games | One of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year, the PS4 is the first new console Sony have released since 2006
Image: PA)
We are counting down the days until the PlayStation 4 is released in the UK.
The PS4 is one of the most hotly-anticipated new consoles of the year - the PlayStation 3 came out seven years ago in 2006.
But when is it available? What will you be able to play when it comes out? What's different about it?
Fear not, we can answer all of your PS4-related questions.
When can I buy the PS4?
Pre-order sales for the PS4 are open now - although lots of retailers have closed pre-orders due to fears of running out of consoles before Christmas.
The UK release date for the PlayStation 4 is November 29, and it will go on sale at midnight at stores across the country.
Seth Barton of technology website Expert Reviews said: "If you've got a PS4 pre-order you will definitely get one for Christmas, but if you haven't then that boat has sailed and you haven't got a hope of getting one.
"It's quite possible the console will sell out before Christmas and you won't be able to get it."
How much will it cost?
It will cost £349 - £80 cheaper than the Xbox One from Microsoft.
Some retailers raised the pre-order price by £50 , which was criticised by fans and retail authorities alike.
Are there any bundles available?
You can buy a copy of either Killzone: Shadow Fall with the basic console pack (which includes a single controller). Amazon are selling both of these packs for £389 - a saving of £10.
Alternatively, you can buy a bigger bundle which includes the console with two controllers, PS4 Camera and a copy of Killzone: Shadow Fall.
At Amazon's own prices these would cost £508 but are discounted here down to £449, a considerable saving of £59
What are the new features?
The PS4 has a single-chip x86 AMD "Jaguar" processor with 8 cores, and a Blu-ray/DVD optical drive.
It has an AMD Radeon Graphics Core Next engine GPU with 1152 shaders.
The console also has an impressive 8GB GDDR5 RAM, with 500GB of removable storage.
SIMILAR ARTICLES TO THIS
Powered by | https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/technology-science/technology/playstation-4-coming-out-uk-2461863 | 144 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | Jimmy Eat World - Wikipedia | Jimmy Eat World is an American rock band formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . The band is composed of lead vocalist and lead guitarist Jim Adkins , rhythm guitarist and backing vocalist Tom Linton, bassist Rick Burch, and drummer Zach Lind. They have released 10 studio albums , the last nine featuring the current lineup.
The four-piece's commercial breakthrough came with the release of several singles from their album Bleed American (2001), four of which charted within the top 20 positions of the Alternative Songs chart , with " The Middle " reaching No. 1. Their follow-up album, Futures (2004), featured the No. 1 song " Pain ".
The RIAA certified Bleed American platinum and Futures gold, rewarding the two albums for selling over 1.5 million records between them. The band's sixth LP, Chase This Light (2007), became their highest-charting album and peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200 . The band released their tenth album, Surviving , in October 2019.
Jimmy Eat World formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . Frontman Jim Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, who had been friends since preschool, joined guitarist Tom Linton and bassist Mitch Porter to try their hand at music. They originally formed with a punk rock sound and first released a demo tape in 1993, followed by a debut EP titled One, Two, Three, Four in 1994. Their debut self-titled album (1994) was released with Linton singing most of the lead vocals on the album. Within the span of a couple of years, the band recorded and released three singles and a full-length album on local label Wooden Blue Records.
During their formative period the band claimed as influences such pop-punk bands as Mr. T Experience , Radon, and Horace Pinker . [7]
The band's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton's younger brothers, Jim and Ed Linton, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world". [8]
Eventually, spurred by bands such as Sunny Day Real Estate , the band began to experiment with slower tempos and more varied song structures. As they began writing songs and touring in the indie scene, the band encountered like-minded bands, such as Christie Front Drive , Sense Field , and Seven Storey Mountain , that were working on similar sounds.
The band began to attract increasing attention following the release of numerous recordings and concurrent touring. [9] In response to this self-generated exposure, Capitol Records offered the band a deal in mid-1995, following the interest of Craig Aaronson, the A&R director of the label. [10] Just prior to signing with Capitol, bass player Mitch Porter parted ways with the band and was replaced by Linton's friend Rick Burch.
After a brief scouting for producers, the band joined up with Drive Like Jehu drummer Mark Trombino and Wes Kidd from Triple Fast Action to record its major-label debut Static Prevails that featured their first singles "Call It in the Air" and "Rockstar". In the ensuing years, the band's agreement with Capitol permitted the release of singles on independent labels, including split 7-inch singles with Christie Front Drive (Wooden Blue Records, 1995), Jejune (Big Wheel Recreation, 1997), Blueprint (Abridged Records, 1996), Sense Field, and Mineral .
From late 1998 to early 1999, the band recorded their next album Clarity at two studios, Sound City Studios ( Van Nuys , California ) and Clear Lake Audio ( North Hollywood , California). The tracks were mixed at One on One Studios ( Los Angeles , California) and Music Grinder Studios, and were mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering ( Hollywood , California). Both the band and Trombino produced the album, with the latter also responsible for the album's mixing duties. Clarity marks the start of Adkins's primary role as lead vocalist and, instead, Linton's focus was guitar work. Clarity was also released on vinyl through the now-defunct American independent record label Big Wheel Recreation. [11]
The third album contained the single "Lucky Denver Mint" and a radio remix of the song was featured in the film Never Been Kissed ; the song garnered a cult following . [ citation needed ] The album's closing song "Goodbye Sky Harbor" is based on the John Irving novel A Prayer for Owen Meany . [12] Overlooked upon its release, Clarity has since amassed cult status and critical acclaim .
The band decided to record its next album without the help of a label, supporting itself with touring and by compiling its previously released singles into Singles , which was released on indie label Big Wheel Recreation . The band also took on day jobs, saving as much as they could to spend on the sessions. [13] They worked for a third time with Trombino, who agreed to defer payment until after the album's release in order to keep costs down. [14] Some of the drum tracks were recorded at Cherokee, and then the band moved to Doug Messenger's harddrive analog and digital in North Hollywood, where five weeks of tracking completed the recording phase. Trombino then mixed the record at Extasy in Hollywood.
The finished album was titled Bleed American . Joining with Gersh's new management company, GAS Entertainment, the band scouted for a new label. The band eventually signed with DreamWorks . The completed album was released in July 2001, which included a vinyl edition through the now-defunct Grand Royal label, founded by the band the Beastie Boys in 1993. [11] [15] The title track (titled "Salt Sweat Sugar" in the UK) was the lead single. The album's second single, " The Middle " became the band's biggest single to date, reaching number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The video for the song received significant airplay on MTV, including on Total Request Live . The album was certified platinum by the RIAA . [16] Following the September 11 attacks , the band decided to re-issue the album as Jimmy Eat World out of concern that the title Bleed American might be misinterpreted, possibly as a threatening "bleed, American". [17] That year the band performed at Edgefest II in Toronto. [18]
In 2008, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition and renamed to its original title, Bleed American . This edition contains a total of 32 tracks—the original 11 as well as 21 bonus tracks, which are live recordings, demos and B-sides.
After lengthy touring in support of Bleed American , the band regrouped to work on the follow-up in early 2004. Once again, the band joined up with Trombino, but the collaboration was short lived. As the sessions began, the band decided that they did not have enough material for a cohesive album. The band's desire to spend more time writing songs conflicted with Trombino's availability, who already had other projects on his schedule. [19]
Instead, the band brought in producer Gil Norton , well known for his work with the Pixies and the Foo Fighters . Lind explained in 2007, "After we left the studio with Trombino, we came up with 'Polaris', 'Work', 'Pain', [and] '23' – the songs that really gave Futures its heartbeat." [19] Futures was released in October 2004, with "Pain" serving as the lead single. (By this time, DreamWorks had been acquired by Interscope Records .)
Subsequent months saw the release of "Work" and the title track as singles. Having already toured the U.S. alone and with Taking Back Sunday , the band signed on to tour in 2005 with Green Day . In September 2005, the band released the Stay on My Side Tonight EP, which contained reworked versions of demos recorded with producer Mark Trombino that were not used for the album. [19] The album was eventually awarded Gold status in the US by the RIAA. [16]
After its tour, Jimmy Eat World headed home to Tempe and started working on material for a sixth album. The band decided to self-produce the album, enlisting Chris Testa ( Dixie Chicks ) and John Fields ( Switchfoot , Mandy Moore ) as co-producers and Butch Vig ( Nirvana , Garbage , The Smashing Pumpkins , Green Day ) as executive producer. As Burch explained to the St. Petersburg Times , "[Vig's] role wasn't in the studio everyday. We would send Butch samples of what we were doing every couple of days." [20] Chase This Light was released on October 16, 2007, with " Big Casino " as the lead single. " Always Be " was the last single off the album, released in December 2007.
On June 13, 2008, the band revealed that they would begin work on their seventh album later that year [21] and would also consider, upon the expiration of their contract with Interscope, self-releasing the record. Jimmy Eat World performed a tour in early 2009 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Clarity , completing ten stops across the U.S., performing the entire record on each occasion. [22]
On March 22, 2010, the band stated that they were in the process of mixing the next album. [23] The band also revealed that, for the first time since Clarity , the album would contain a song with lead vocals provided by original vocalist Linton. [24] On June 7, 2010, Jimmy Eat World stated on Twitter: "Our new album is officially done. Now we wait for a release date. We'll keep you posted." [25] Invented , the follow-up album after Chase This Light, was released on September 28, 2010, on Interscope Records , a date that was previously announced on July 14, 2010, in a Jimmy Eat World Twitter update. [26]
In October 2011, Adkins announced that the band would be writing and recording for their next album. [27] [28] Lind stated in a Twitter post that the band will begin recording its next album during the latter part of August 2012 [29] and, on September 5, 2012, another Twitter post stated that recording had begun for the eighth studio album with engineer/producer Alain Johannes . [30]
On October 5, 2012, Jimmy Eat World posted on Twitter that the band had completed recording its eighth album and that the recording was being mixed at that time; [31] the mastering process then commenced after a November 30, 2012, Twitter update indicated that the mixing process had been completed. [32] On January 29, 2013, Jimmy Eat World stated on both its Twitter and Facebook profiles that the eighth studio album was "officially mastered and sequenced". [33] [34] In a Twitter post on Lind's individual profile, the drummer revealed that, as of January 29, 2013, the band was still seeking out a record label for the release of the eighth album. Lind briefly responded to a fan's query with: "@CallumSty no announcement coming soon. still looking for a label." [35]
The official details of the eighth album, entitled Damage , emerged in early April 2013 and on April 10, 2013, a lead single titled " I Will Steal You Back " was revealed via the band's website. The title track Damage appears on the 7-inch Damage EP along with a cover version of the Radiohead song " Stop Whispering ". The EP was released on April 20, 2013, for Record Store Day , an internationally recognized celebration in support of music and independent retail outlets. [36] Jimmy Eat World also released the album's track-listing, consisting of ten songs, and June 11, 2013, as the official release date. Adkins explained in a Rolling Stone magazine interview that Damage is a "pretty energetic" work that explores the issue of relationship break-ups from the perspective of an adult: "I'm 37 and the world around me is a lot different than when I was writing break-up songs in my 20s. I tried to reflect that in what the lyrics are." [37]
The release of Damage also signifies the cessation of Jimmy Eat World's independent era, [38] as the band signed a recording contract with the Toronto, Canada-based record label Dine Alone Records. RCA Records released the eighth album in the U.S. on April 4, 2013 [39] [40] and internationally April 11, 2013. [41] The album was recorded in Johannes' Los Angeles, U.S. home and was mixed by James Brown, who had previously worked with Sound City, Nine Inch Nails , and The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart .
The band posted a music video for the song " I Will Steal You Back " on their VEVO YouTube page on May 31, 2013. [42] In October 2013, the band announced a series of December 2013 US tour dates that followed a UK/European tour. [43]
In mid-2014, the band announced the "Futures 10 Year Anniversary Tour" in commemoration of the 10-year anniversary of the Futures studio album. Vinyl reissues of Futures , Static Prevails and Clarity were released prior to the commencement of the tour, which began in Ventura, California , U.S. [44] Prior to the Tempe, Arizona, stop of the tour at the end of October, Adkins confirmed that new material was being compiled by the band, but a release time frame was not available. [45] An Oceania leg of the tour occurred in November 2014. [46]
In April 2016, Apple debuted an ad to promote Apple Music which featured Taylor Swift lip syncing and dancing to Jimmy Eat World's "The Middle". [47] This caused significant renewed interest in the band; their song "The Middle" rose to #32 on the iTunes Top Songs Chart, while Pandora noted a 325% increase in Jimmy Eat World station ads in the first day after the ad premiered. [48]
On August 18, 2016, the band's Facebook page linked to a 14-second video of instrumental music to the image of a country road, with the words "Stay tuned ...", further hinting at an upcoming release of the band's ninth album. [49] On August 21, 2016, the band released a new song titled "Get Right", available for free download from their official website. On August 30, 2016, the band debuted the single "Sure and Certain" on radio and announced a new album, Integrity Blues , which was released on October 21. The band planned to tour in 2018 as part of the "Integrity Blues Tour" with supporting acts The Hotelier and Microwave.
On May 4, 2018, the band released "Love Never" / "half heart", featuring two new songs. [50]
On February 14, 2019, Jimmy Eat World played a surprise show at The Rebel Lounge in Phoenix, Arizona to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their first show. [51]
On May 17, 2019, Jimmy Eat World announced the completion of their tenth studio album, planned for release in the fall. [52] On September 18, 2019, Kerrang! magazine interviewed Jimmy Eat World about their new album, Surviving . It features ten tracks including "Congratulations", "Surviving" and "Criminal Energy", as well as the previously released single "Love Never". [53] The band released Surviving on October 18, 2019.
Because the band was unable to tour the following year due to the COVID-19 pandemic , much of their activity was put on hold. Adkins revealed that, during this time, he chose not to write new music, as he felt burnt out from very recently writing and recording Surviving , and wanted to take a break. [54] Once the members were able to safely meet in person again, they focused their efforts on an online concert series called "Phoenix Sessions", in which they played multiple shows covering all of the songs on Surviving , Futures and Clarity . [55] The band returned to playing live shows in 2021, first appearing at Lollapalooza 2021 in Chicago .
Adkins began writing new music once the band was able to play shows again, which he took inspiration from and the excitement that it brought the band, specifically the When We Were Young festival. In May 2022, the band announced a headlining North American tour named after their new single, " Something Loud ", which released on June 10, 2022. [56] The single was the band's first to be released independently, and Adkins remarked that this newfound freedom found the band wanting to "focus on less music, but hopefully more often". [54] Non-album singles have continued to release following "Something Loud," including "Place Your Debts" in October 2022. [57]
On March 13, 2023, Jimmy Eat World announced a North American co-headline tour with Manchester Orchestra titled "The Amplified Echoes Tour", with Middle Kids serving as its opener. [58] That same month, the band toured Australia in support of My Chemical Romance . [59]
Current members
- Jim Adkins – lead guitar (1993–present) ; lead vocals (1995–present) , keyboards (1998–2004) ; percussion (2001–2002) ; backing vocals (1993–1995) [60] [61]
- Tom Linton – rhythm guitar (1993–present) , backing vocals (2000–present) , lead vocals (1993–2000, 2010) , keyboards (1998–2004, 2012–2013)
- Zach Lind – drums (1993–present) , percussion (1998–present) , programming (1998–2004) , accordion, concertina (1993–1998)
- Rick Burch – bass guitar (1995–present) , backing vocals (2000–present)
Current touring musicians
- Robin Vining – keyboards, guitar, percussion, backing vocals (2011–present)
Former members
- Mitch Porter – bass guitar (1993–1995)
Former touring musicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Eat_World | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | Jimmy Eat World - Wikipedia | Jimmy Eat World is an American rock band formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . The band is composed of lead vocalist and lead guitarist Jim Adkins , rhythm guitarist and backing vocalist Tom Linton, bassist Rick Burch, and drummer Zach Lind. They have released 10 studio albums , the last nine featuring the current lineup.
The four-piece's commercial breakthrough came with the release of several singles from their album Bleed American (2001), four of which charted within the top 20 positions of the Alternative Songs chart , with " The Middle " reaching No. 1. Their follow-up album, Futures (2004), featured the No. 1 song " Pain ".
The RIAA certified Bleed American platinum and Futures gold, rewarding the two albums for selling over 1.5 million records between them. The band's sixth LP, Chase This Light (2007), became their highest-charting album and peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200 . The band released their tenth album, Surviving , in October 2019.
Jimmy Eat World formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . Frontman Jim Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, who had been friends since preschool, joined guitarist Tom Linton and bassist Mitch Porter to try their hand at music. They originally formed with a punk rock sound and first released a demo tape in 1993, followed by a debut EP titled One, Two, Three, Four in 1994. Their debut self-titled album (1994) was released with Linton singing most of the lead vocals on the album. Within the span of a couple of years, the band recorded and released three singles and a full-length album on local label Wooden Blue Records.
During their formative period the band claimed as influences such pop-punk bands as Mr. T Experience , Radon, and Horace Pinker . [7]
The band's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton's younger brothers, Jim and Ed Linton, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world". [8]
Eventually, spurred by bands such as Sunny Day Real Estate , the band began to experiment with slower tempos and more varied song structures. As they began writing songs and touring in the indie scene, the band encountered like-minded bands, such as Christie Front Drive , Sense Field , and Seven Storey Mountain , that were working on similar sounds.
The band began to attract increasing attention following the release of numerous recordings and concurrent touring. [9] In response to this self-generated exposure, Capitol Records offered the band a deal in mid-1995, following the interest of Craig Aaronson, the A&R director of the label. [10] Just prior to signing with Capitol, bass player Mitch Porter parted ways with the band and was replaced by Linton's friend Rick Burch.
After a brief scouting for producers, the band joined up with Drive Like Jehu drummer Mark Trombino and Wes Kidd from Triple Fast Action to record its major-label debut Static Prevails that featured their first singles "Call It in the Air" and "Rockstar". In the ensuing years, the band's agreement with Capitol permitted the release of singles on independent labels, including split 7-inch singles with Christie Front Drive (Wooden Blue Records, 1995), Jejune (Big Wheel Recreation, 1997), Blueprint (Abridged Records, 1996), Sense Field, and Mineral .
From late 1998 to early 1999, the band recorded their next album Clarity at two studios, Sound City Studios ( Van Nuys , California ) and Clear Lake Audio ( North Hollywood , California). The tracks were mixed at One on One Studios ( Los Angeles , California) and Music Grinder Studios, and were mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering ( Hollywood , California). Both the band and Trombino produced the album, with the latter also responsible for the album's mixing duties. Clarity marks the start of Adkins's primary role as lead vocalist and, instead, Linton's focus was guitar work. Clarity was also released on vinyl through the now-defunct American independent record label Big Wheel Recreation. [11]
The third album contained the single "Lucky Denver Mint" and a radio remix of the song was featured in the film Never Been Kissed ; the song garnered a cult following . [ citation needed ] The album's closing song "Goodbye Sky Harbor" is based on the John Irving novel A Prayer for Owen Meany . [12] Overlooked upon its release, Clarity has since amassed cult status and critical acclaim .
The band decided to record its next album without the help of a label, supporting itself with touring and by compiling its previously released singles into Singles , which was released on indie label Big Wheel Recreation . The band also took on day jobs, saving as much as they could to spend on the sessions. [13] They worked for a third time with Trombino, who agreed to defer payment until after the album's release in order to keep costs down. [14] Some of the drum tracks were recorded at Cherokee, and then the band moved to Doug Messenger's harddrive analog and digital in North Hollywood, where five weeks of tracking completed the recording phase. Trombino then mixed the record at Extasy in Hollywood.
The finished album was titled Bleed American . Joining with Gersh's new management company, GAS Entertainment, the band scouted for a new label. The band eventually signed with DreamWorks . The completed album was released in July 2001, which included a vinyl edition through the now-defunct Grand Royal label, founded by the band the Beastie Boys in 1993. [11] [15] The title track (titled "Salt Sweat Sugar" in the UK) was the lead single. The album's second single, " The Middle " became the band's biggest single to date, reaching number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The video for the song received significant airplay on MTV, including on Total Request Live . The album was certified platinum by the RIAA . [16] Following the September 11 attacks , the band decided to re-issue the album as Jimmy Eat World out of concern that the title Bleed American might be misinterpreted, possibly as a threatening "bleed, American". [17] That year the band performed at Edgefest II in Toronto. [18]
In 2008, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition and renamed to its original title, Bleed American . This edition contains a total of 32 tracks—the original 11 as well as 21 bonus tracks, which are live recordings, demos and B-sides.
After lengthy touring in support of Bleed American , the band regrouped to work on the follow-up in early 2004. Once again, the band joined up with Trombino, but the collaboration was short lived. As the sessions began, the band decided that they did not have enough material for a cohesive album. The band's desire to spend more time writing songs conflicted with Trombino's availability, who already had other projects on his schedule. [19]
Instead, the band brought in producer Gil Norton , well known for his work with the Pixies and the Foo Fighters . Lind explained in 2007, "After we left the studio with Trombino, we came up with 'Polaris', 'Work', 'Pain', [and] '23' – the songs that really gave Futures its heartbeat." [19] Futures was released in October 2004, with "Pain" serving as the lead single. (By this time, DreamWorks had been acquired by Interscope Records .)
Subsequent months saw the release of "Work" and the title track as singles. Having already toured the U.S. alone and with Taking Back Sunday , the band signed on to tour in 2005 with Green Day . In September 2005, the band released the Stay on My Side Tonight EP, which contained reworked versions of demos recorded with producer Mark Trombino that were not used for the album. [19] The album was eventually awarded Gold status in the US by the RIAA. [16]
After its tour, Jimmy Eat World headed home to Tempe and started working on material for a sixth album. The band decided to self-produce the album, enlisting Chris Testa ( Dixie Chicks ) and John Fields ( Switchfoot , Mandy Moore ) as co-producers and Butch Vig ( Nirvana , Garbage , The Smashing Pumpkins , Green Day ) as executive producer. As Burch explained to the St. Petersburg Times , "[Vig's] role wasn't in the studio everyday. We would send Butch samples of what we were doing every couple of days." [20] Chase This Light was released on October 16, 2007, with " Big Casino " as the lead single. " Always Be " was the last single off the album, released in December 2007.
On June 13, 2008, the band revealed that they would begin work on their seventh album later that year [21] and would also consider, upon the expiration of their contract with Interscope, self-releasing the record. Jimmy Eat World performed a tour in early 2009 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Clarity , completing ten stops across the U.S., performing the entire record on each occasion. [22]
On March 22, 2010, the band stated that they were in the process of mixing the next album. [23] The band also revealed that, for the first time since Clarity , the album would contain a song with lead vocals provided by original vocalist Linton. [24] On June 7, 2010, Jimmy Eat World stated on Twitter: "Our new album is officially done. Now we wait for a release date. We'll keep you posted." [25] Invented , the follow-up album after Chase This Light, was released on September 28, 2010, on Interscope Records , a date that was previously announced on July 14, 2010, in a Jimmy Eat World Twitter update. [26]
In October 2011, Adkins announced that the band would be writing and recording for their next album. [27] [28] Lind stated in a Twitter post that the band will begin recording its next album during the latter part of August 2012 [29] and, on September 5, 2012, another Twitter post stated that recording had begun for the eighth studio album with engineer/producer Alain Johannes . [30]
On October 5, 2012, Jimmy Eat World posted on Twitter that the band had completed recording its eighth album and that the recording was being mixed at that time; [31] the mastering process then commenced after a November 30, 2012, Twitter update indicated that the mixing process had been completed. [32] On January 29, 2013, Jimmy Eat World stated on both its Twitter and Facebook profiles that the eighth studio album was "officially mastered and sequenced". [33] [34] In a Twitter post on Lind's individual profile, the drummer revealed that, as of January 29, 2013, the band was still seeking out a record label for the release of the eighth album. Lind briefly responded to a fan's query with: "@CallumSty no announcement coming soon. still looking for a label." [35]
The official details of the eighth album, entitled Damage , emerged in early April 2013 and on April 10, 2013, a lead single titled " I Will Steal You Back " was revealed via the band's website. The title track Damage appears on the 7-inch Damage EP along with a cover version of the Radiohead song " Stop Whispering ". The EP was released on April 20, 2013, for Record Store Day , an internationally recognized celebration in support of music and independent retail outlets. [36] Jimmy Eat World also released the album's track-listing, consisting of ten songs, and June 11, 2013, as the official release date. Adkins explained in a Rolling Stone magazine interview that Damage is a "pretty energetic" work that explores the issue of relationship break-ups from the perspective of an adult: "I'm 37 and the world around me is a lot different than when I was writing break-up songs in my 20s. I tried to reflect that in what the lyrics are." [37]
The release of Damage also signifies the cessation of Jimmy Eat World's independent era, [38] as the band signed a recording contract with the Toronto, Canada-based record label Dine Alone Records. RCA Records released the eighth album in the U.S. on April 4, 2013 [39] [40] and internationally April 11, 2013. [41] The album was recorded in Johannes' Los Angeles, U.S. home and was mixed by James Brown, who had previously worked with Sound City, Nine Inch Nails , and The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart .
The band posted a music video for the song " I Will Steal You Back " on their VEVO YouTube page on May 31, 2013. [42] In October 2013, the band announced a series of December 2013 US tour dates that followed a UK/European tour. [43]
In mid-2014, the band announced the "Futures 10 Year Anniversary Tour" in commemoration of the 10-year anniversary of the Futures studio album. Vinyl reissues of Futures , Static Prevails and Clarity were released prior to the commencement of the tour, which began in Ventura, California , U.S. [44] Prior to the Tempe, Arizona, stop of the tour at the end of October, Adkins confirmed that new material was being compiled by the band, but a release time frame was not available. [45] An Oceania leg of the tour occurred in November 2014. [46]
In April 2016, Apple debuted an ad to promote Apple Music which featured Taylor Swift lip syncing and dancing to Jimmy Eat World's "The Middle". [47] This caused significant renewed interest in the band; their song "The Middle" rose to #32 on the iTunes Top Songs Chart, while Pandora noted a 325% increase in Jimmy Eat World station ads in the first day after the ad premiered. [48]
On August 18, 2016, the band's Facebook page linked to a 14-second video of instrumental music to the image of a country road, with the words "Stay tuned ...", further hinting at an upcoming release of the band's ninth album. [49] On August 21, 2016, the band released a new song titled "Get Right", available for free download from their official website. On August 30, 2016, the band debuted the single "Sure and Certain" on radio and announced a new album, Integrity Blues , which was released on October 21. The band planned to tour in 2018 as part of the "Integrity Blues Tour" with supporting acts The Hotelier and Microwave.
On May 4, 2018, the band released "Love Never" / "half heart", featuring two new songs. [50]
On February 14, 2019, Jimmy Eat World played a surprise show at The Rebel Lounge in Phoenix, Arizona to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their first show. [51]
On May 17, 2019, Jimmy Eat World announced the completion of their tenth studio album, planned for release in the fall. [52] On September 18, 2019, Kerrang! magazine interviewed Jimmy Eat World about their new album, Surviving . It features ten tracks including "Congratulations", "Surviving" and "Criminal Energy", as well as the previously released single "Love Never". [53] The band released Surviving on October 18, 2019.
Because the band was unable to tour the following year due to the COVID-19 pandemic , much of their activity was put on hold. Adkins revealed that, during this time, he chose not to write new music, as he felt burnt out from very recently writing and recording Surviving , and wanted to take a break. [54] Once the members were able to safely meet in person again, they focused their efforts on an online concert series called "Phoenix Sessions", in which they played multiple shows covering all of the songs on Surviving , Futures and Clarity . [55] The band returned to playing live shows in 2021, first appearing at Lollapalooza 2021 in Chicago .
Adkins began writing new music once the band was able to play shows again, which he took inspiration from and the excitement that it brought the band, specifically the When We Were Young festival. In May 2022, the band announced a headlining North American tour named after their new single, " Something Loud ", which released on June 10, 2022. [56] The single was the band's first to be released independently, and Adkins remarked that this newfound freedom found the band wanting to "focus on less music, but hopefully more often". [54] Non-album singles have continued to release following "Something Loud," including "Place Your Debts" in October 2022. [57]
On March 13, 2023, Jimmy Eat World announced a North American co-headline tour with Manchester Orchestra titled "The Amplified Echoes Tour", with Middle Kids serving as its opener. [58] That same month, the band toured Australia in support of My Chemical Romance . [59]
Current members
- Jim Adkins – lead guitar (1993–present) ; lead vocals (1995–present) , keyboards (1998–2004) ; percussion (2001–2002) ; backing vocals (1993–1995) [60] [61]
- Tom Linton – rhythm guitar (1993–present) , backing vocals (2000–present) , lead vocals (1993–2000, 2010) , keyboards (1998–2004, 2012–2013)
- Zach Lind – drums (1993–present) , percussion (1998–present) , programming (1998–2004) , accordion, concertina (1993–1998)
- Rick Burch – bass guitar (1995–present) , backing vocals (2000–present)
Current touring musicians
- Robin Vining – keyboards, guitar, percussion, backing vocals (2011–present)
Former members
- Mitch Porter – bass guitar (1993–1995)
Former touring musicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Eat_World#:~:text=The%20band%27s%20name%20came%20from%20a%20crayon%20drawing,picture%20bore%20the%20caption%20%22Jimmy%20eat%20world%22.%20 | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | 25 years of Jimmy Eat World: Jim Adkins on new music, memories and 'The Middle' | Jim Adkins is calling from Cleveland, where Jimmy Eat World are about to play Jacobs Pavilion on a co-headlining tour with Third Eye Blind. It's Jimmy Eat World's 25th summer on the road.
"It's surprising," Adkins says of the fact that he's spending that 25th summer touring amphitheaters. "And definitely not expected. I mean, nothing is expected, really. That's the mindset that we live in. If you're not expecting anything, whatever happens is a nice surprise."
Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, a friend since preschool, were seniors at Mountain View High School when they formed the group in 1993 with guitarist Tom Linton and founding bassist Mitch Porter, both of whom had gone to Westwood High.
"Somewhere around junior high when we all got into punk rock and started playing our respective instruments, it wasn't hard to find people," the singer-guitarist recalls. "I mean, you found everybody who liked what you liked pretty easily because there wasn't a lot of you. And back in those days, playing an instrument or playing in a band was definitely not all that cool."
When he first started playing guitar, Adkins says, "it was more about the metal, more virtuoso-type players. Then, at some point, I realized 'There’s no way I’ll ever do that.’ So it just morphed into a quest for musicianship over technical prowess."
That was part of what drew him to punk.
The other part?
"I was, like, 14," he says, with a laugh. "You have a lot of things happening when you're 14, 15, 16 that you need an outlet for, and punk rock seemed to be the natural fit for that."
At first, like any young musicians, Adkins figures they sounded a lot like the sum of their record collections.
"I remember at our first jams," he says, "we'd just play Propagandhi, Face to Face and NOFX, things more like that. We listened to a lot of faster but melodic kind of things, rather than just pure abrasion or pure aggression. After a few years, we just kind of got more in tune with the way each other played. And you sort of pick up on what your strengths and weaknesses are gonna be the longer that you do something. So you’ve just gotta sort of work through that. After a certain amount of time, you know where you can lean in to use a strength. You also realize where you can push to get past something that might be uncomfortable."
Although Adkins eventually would become their primary lead vocalist, he's Jim, not Jimmy. The band name is based on a painting done by one of Linton's younger brothers — who were fighting.
As Adkins once told The Republic, "The older brother, Jim, apparently won against Ed. This must have been when they were pretty young. Like, under 8. In an attempt to get back at him, Ed drew a picture of Jim and a globe in his mouth. He wrote the caption 'jimmy eat world' to insult him, saying he was so fat he could eat the world."
As they started playing out, Adkins says, "There were so few people doing it. I feel like there was there wasn't really much of a scene to break into because we were promoting our own shows. Or we were trying to get on gigs with friends of ours."
They were too young, he says, "to really be invited to the thing that was happening with the Tempe people, and we weren't even on the radar of what was happening in Phoenix. Not that there was a ton of stuff happening in Phoenix. So we just kind of broke in on ourselves."
There were a few things happening, he says. "There was always the all-ages art space that was open for, like, seven months at a time before it would get shut down by the police. So we would play those places."
They'd managed to generate sufficient buzz on the strength of a self-titled debut released in 1994 on a Phoenix-based imprint called Wooden Tree Records that Capitol Records offered them a deal in 1995. They signed just after parting ways with Porter. His replacement — Linton's friend Rick Burch — has been their bassist ever since.
Asked if it felt like things were moving fast at that point, Adkins, who was 19 when they signed, says, "Well, we had no idea what fast was or what normal was."
He laughs, then says, "We started working with Capitol Records in 1995. And for me to say that out loud? Or for someone to read that on paper? The reality of that is going to be much different than whatever you might think it is."
Their first record on Capitol, "Static Prevails," hit the streets in the summer of 1996. And yet, they were still being booked by their drummer.
"We were doing these month-and-a-half-long tours playing for nobody with a record out on Capitol," Adkins recalls with a laugh. "Playing punk rock festivals with 40 bands and no one getting paid. And there’d be 20 people in attendance."
It didn't bother them. They were kids. And as Adkins recalls their mindset at the time, "We had no illusions about anything. We weren't expecting much from Capitol. We just figured at worst, we're gonna have some funny stories about going to California."
It's an attitude he feels was based in part on having come up through the scene in Arizona.
"There's a lot of people doing great work," Adkins says. "But it’s always been really hard to rally that critical support to break out. The good news is you can do whatever you want because no one cares. The bad news is no one cares."
It's not that Adkins is complaining.
"It's totally cool," he says. "It’s the kind of place where if you want to put a specific type of project together, you totally can, and there's great people that will help you do it. The bad news is — you’d better be OK with the reward of that being just seeing it happen. Because anything beyond that is not guaranteed to you. And we kind of approached the thing with the record label, and everything, with that mindset."
In retrospect, Adkins thinks Jimmy Eat World were "still figuring out some things" in the "Static Prevails" era. It was on "Clarity," their second Capitol release, that Adkins says, "I feel like we were really exploring a voice that was ours."
Although the album failed to chart in 1999, it went on to be viewed as something of a seminal recording, one of two albums by Jimmy Eat World to make Rolling Stone magazine's countdown of the 40 Greatest Emo Albums of All Time.
Not that Adkins would've used that term to sum up "Clarity" or any other album they've released; although he will say, "I totally understand people’s need to quantify the musical experience, to have some verbal way to talk about it."
It was after being dropped by Capitol that Adkins and his bandmates chose to come up with the cash to cut their next move, "Bleed American," which went on to become their mainstream breakthrough after they signed their second major-label deal with DreamWorks – thanks in large part to the airplay they were getting on a single called "The Middle."
Despite a title change after Sept. 11 for fear that "Bleed American" could be misread as "Bleed, American," the now-self-titled album was certified platinum in mid-2002.
"I don't think any of us really appreciated it or realized what was happening until maybe a couple years after all that had happened," Adkins says of the album's success.
"I mean, from our perspective, the entire thing leading up to even, like, the ‘Futures’ album was all just one kind of upward trajectory. Like there'd be a few more people at a show. Or we’d get offered a better opening slot to somebody. And when 'Bleed American' was doing really well and ‘The Middle’ was going off, it was like, 'OK; things are crazier. There's more people here. I guess we're playing. Cool.'"
It was maybe a few months after they stopped touring on the album that the reality of what had happened really hit him.
"When you're right in the middle of it," Adkins says, "you don't have time to really put things into a true larger-picture perspective because you’ve got to focus on what you're doing."
Jeremiah Gratza was 19 when "Bleed American" came out. By that point, he already had "Can you still feel the butterflies," a favorite line from "For Me This is Heaven," a track from the "Clarity" album, tattooed on his chest.
Today, he's director of operations at Stateside Presents.
As Gratza recalls the excitement on the local scene when "Bleed American" began to break, "They were an integral part of growing up in Arizona to me. I remember going to Nita's Hideaway in high school to see them film the music video for 'Bleed American.' We were all so proud of them."
"The Middle" peaked at No. 5 on Billboard's Hot 100, also topping the magazine's Alternative Songs chart. In 2009, by which point "Bleed American" had reclaimed its original title, "The Middle" was covered by Prince at his post-Oscar bash at the Avalon Ballroom in what a reporter form Rolling Stone called a "true-to-the-original" rendition. Seven years later, Taylor Swift lip-synced the song in an Apple Music ad.
"It’s kind of nuts," Adkins says with a laugh. "I mean, hearing that Prince had covered it at whatever Grammy after-party he did or Taylor Swift hand-picking it to use for an Apple commercial? It’s like what?! What is that? I don’t know. I still freak out anytime I hear ‘The Middle’ or anything we've done, like, on the radio."
They've had plenty of songs on the radio since then. This includes six more Top 10 entries on Billboard' s Alternative Songs chart, from the "Bleed American" highlight "Sweetness" through the chart-topping "Pain," from 2004's "Futures," to "Sure and Certain," from their latest album, 2016's "Integrity Blues."
They're also consistently being celebrated in lists.
In Rolling Stone magazine's countdown of the 40 Greatest Emo Albums of All Time, "Clarity" was hailed as "a cult classic," ranked at No. 13. "Bleed American" was four spots higher, hailed as "the album that propelled them from playing with underground bands like Mineral and Christie Front Drive to full-blown mainstream success — platinum certification, MTV play and a Top 10 single."
They were also named the 20th most influential band of the years 1986-2015 in Alternative Press .
"Few bands can claim one iconic album," the entry read. "Jimmy Eat World have released no fewer than three over their career. From the emo landmark 'Clarity' through the mainstream breakthrough 'Bleed American' to the brooding 'Futures,' this Arizona quartet are the rare breed of band who are both revered and still relevant more than two decades in."
Adkins is too well-adjusted — and humble — to place much stock in accolades as high as that, although he has learned to appreciate them.
"It’s hard for me to really agree about our significance in the role of the advancement of music," he says, with a laugh. "I mean, what kind of (expletive) would you be to be like, ‘Oh yeah, totally. We’re the godfathers of this scene.’ It’s not at all how I identify. But I guess it is a big compliment that other people might see it that way. I’ve gotten better about accepting compliments as time has gone on. I'm really bad at that. But there’s other people I look up to. I know how that feels. So I just have to accept that when we’re the object of that for somebody else, that's, like, a big deal. And I try to appreciate that."
It's been three years since "Integrity Blues," and Adkins says there is new music on the way.
"I don’t have a release date I can tell you, so I'm hesitant to really get into that until that happens," he says. "I don't want to say, 'Oh, we’ve got a new record' and then it's not happening until next year or whatever. But I’m almost positive it’s going to be in the fall."
As to what fans can expect from the album, Adkins says, "Judging from the past things that we've done, you can kind of get a guess who we are. There's definitely a more guitar-based rock thing that we do. There’s also a more textural, moody, possibly more mellow thing we do. I think the album is definitely gonna have all sides of what we do, but I feel it’s a lot more weighted on the sound of a four-piece band rocking."
This will be Jimmy Eat World's 10th studio album. Every album they've released since 2002, when "Bleed American" went platinum, has gone Top 20 on the U.S. album chart while spawning at least one alternative radio hit.
And through it all, they've stayed here in the Valley.
"Where else are we gonna go?" Adkins says, with a laugh. "Like, are you gonna go to LA? What are you gonna do in LA? Do you know how many people are in LA? Do you know how many bands there are trying to make it? It's like, we can do what we want in Phoenix. We know people, and our family’s there. Our friends are there. We travel so much to play gigs that it's like, why? We're gonna pay, like, four times as much money to have our stuff live in a room when we could just stay in Arizona. And it’s much easier to see the results of your work in Arizona. You can see results for the work that you put in. If you're really trying to make a difference or really trying to create something special, you can do it there. And the results might not be this giant thing, but you can see something happen for sure."
When: 7 p.m. Wednesday, July 31.
Where: Ak-Chin Pavilion, 2121 N. 83rd Ave., Phoenix.
Admission: $29.50 and up.
Details: 602-254-7200, livenation.com .
Reach the reporter at [email protected] or 602-444-4495. Follow him on Twitter @EdMasley . | https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2019/07/26/how-jimmy-eat-world-became-biggest-arizona-rock-band-century/1801623001/ | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | Jimmy Eat World - Wikipedia | Jimmy Eat World is an American rock band formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . The band is composed of lead vocalist and lead guitarist Jim Adkins , rhythm guitarist and backing vocalist Tom Linton, bassist Rick Burch, and drummer Zach Lind. They have released 10 studio albums , the last nine featuring the current lineup.
The four-piece's commercial breakthrough came with the release of several singles from their album Bleed American (2001), four of which charted within the top 20 positions of the Alternative Songs chart , with " The Middle " reaching No. 1. Their follow-up album, Futures (2004), featured the No. 1 song " Pain ".
The RIAA certified Bleed American platinum and Futures gold, rewarding the two albums for selling over 1.5 million records between them. The band's sixth LP, Chase This Light (2007), became their highest-charting album and peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200 . The band released their tenth album, Surviving , in October 2019.
Jimmy Eat World formed in 1993 in Mesa, Arizona . Frontman Jim Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, who had been friends since preschool, joined guitarist Tom Linton and bassist Mitch Porter to try their hand at music. They originally formed with a punk rock sound and first released a demo tape in 1993, followed by a debut EP titled One, Two, Three, Four in 1994. Their debut self-titled album (1994) was released with Linton singing most of the lead vocals on the album. Within the span of a couple of years, the band recorded and released three singles and a full-length album on local label Wooden Blue Records.
During their formative period the band claimed as influences such pop-punk bands as Mr. T Experience , Radon, and Horace Pinker . [7]
The band's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton's younger brothers, Jim and Ed Linton, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world". [8]
Eventually, spurred by bands such as Sunny Day Real Estate , the band began to experiment with slower tempos and more varied song structures. As they began writing songs and touring in the indie scene, the band encountered like-minded bands, such as Christie Front Drive , Sense Field , and Seven Storey Mountain , that were working on similar sounds.
The band began to attract increasing attention following the release of numerous recordings and concurrent touring. [9] In response to this self-generated exposure, Capitol Records offered the band a deal in mid-1995, following the interest of Craig Aaronson, the A&R director of the label. [10] Just prior to signing with Capitol, bass player Mitch Porter parted ways with the band and was replaced by Linton's friend Rick Burch.
After a brief scouting for producers, the band joined up with Drive Like Jehu drummer Mark Trombino and Wes Kidd from Triple Fast Action to record its major-label debut Static Prevails that featured their first singles "Call It in the Air" and "Rockstar". In the ensuing years, the band's agreement with Capitol permitted the release of singles on independent labels, including split 7-inch singles with Christie Front Drive (Wooden Blue Records, 1995), Jejune (Big Wheel Recreation, 1997), Blueprint (Abridged Records, 1996), Sense Field, and Mineral .
From late 1998 to early 1999, the band recorded their next album Clarity at two studios, Sound City Studios ( Van Nuys , California ) and Clear Lake Audio ( North Hollywood , California). The tracks were mixed at One on One Studios ( Los Angeles , California) and Music Grinder Studios, and were mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering ( Hollywood , California). Both the band and Trombino produced the album, with the latter also responsible for the album's mixing duties. Clarity marks the start of Adkins's primary role as lead vocalist and, instead, Linton's focus was guitar work. Clarity was also released on vinyl through the now-defunct American independent record label Big Wheel Recreation. [11]
The third album contained the single "Lucky Denver Mint" and a radio remix of the song was featured in the film Never Been Kissed ; the song garnered a cult following . [ citation needed ] The album's closing song "Goodbye Sky Harbor" is based on the John Irving novel A Prayer for Owen Meany . [12] Overlooked upon its release, Clarity has since amassed cult status and critical acclaim .
The band decided to record its next album without the help of a label, supporting itself with touring and by compiling its previously released singles into Singles , which was released on indie label Big Wheel Recreation . The band also took on day jobs, saving as much as they could to spend on the sessions. [13] They worked for a third time with Trombino, who agreed to defer payment until after the album's release in order to keep costs down. [14] Some of the drum tracks were recorded at Cherokee, and then the band moved to Doug Messenger's harddrive analog and digital in North Hollywood, where five weeks of tracking completed the recording phase. Trombino then mixed the record at Extasy in Hollywood.
The finished album was titled Bleed American . Joining with Gersh's new management company, GAS Entertainment, the band scouted for a new label. The band eventually signed with DreamWorks . The completed album was released in July 2001, which included a vinyl edition through the now-defunct Grand Royal label, founded by the band the Beastie Boys in 1993. [11] [15] The title track (titled "Salt Sweat Sugar" in the UK) was the lead single. The album's second single, " The Middle " became the band's biggest single to date, reaching number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The video for the song received significant airplay on MTV, including on Total Request Live . The album was certified platinum by the RIAA . [16] Following the September 11 attacks , the band decided to re-issue the album as Jimmy Eat World out of concern that the title Bleed American might be misinterpreted, possibly as a threatening "bleed, American". [17] That year the band performed at Edgefest II in Toronto. [18]
In 2008, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition and renamed to its original title, Bleed American . This edition contains a total of 32 tracks—the original 11 as well as 21 bonus tracks, which are live recordings, demos and B-sides.
After lengthy touring in support of Bleed American , the band regrouped to work on the follow-up in early 2004. Once again, the band joined up with Trombino, but the collaboration was short lived. As the sessions began, the band decided that they did not have enough material for a cohesive album. The band's desire to spend more time writing songs conflicted with Trombino's availability, who already had other projects on his schedule. [19]
Instead, the band brought in producer Gil Norton , well known for his work with the Pixies and the Foo Fighters . Lind explained in 2007, "After we left the studio with Trombino, we came up with 'Polaris', 'Work', 'Pain', [and] '23' – the songs that really gave Futures its heartbeat." [19] Futures was released in October 2004, with "Pain" serving as the lead single. (By this time, DreamWorks had been acquired by Interscope Records .)
Subsequent months saw the release of "Work" and the title track as singles. Having already toured the U.S. alone and with Taking Back Sunday , the band signed on to tour in 2005 with Green Day . In September 2005, the band released the Stay on My Side Tonight EP, which contained reworked versions of demos recorded with producer Mark Trombino that were not used for the album. [19] The album was eventually awarded Gold status in the US by the RIAA. [16]
After its tour, Jimmy Eat World headed home to Tempe and started working on material for a sixth album. The band decided to self-produce the album, enlisting Chris Testa ( Dixie Chicks ) and John Fields ( Switchfoot , Mandy Moore ) as co-producers and Butch Vig ( Nirvana , Garbage , The Smashing Pumpkins , Green Day ) as executive producer. As Burch explained to the St. Petersburg Times , "[Vig's] role wasn't in the studio everyday. We would send Butch samples of what we were doing every couple of days." [20] Chase This Light was released on October 16, 2007, with " Big Casino " as the lead single. " Always Be " was the last single off the album, released in December 2007.
On June 13, 2008, the band revealed that they would begin work on their seventh album later that year [21] and would also consider, upon the expiration of their contract with Interscope, self-releasing the record. Jimmy Eat World performed a tour in early 2009 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Clarity , completing ten stops across the U.S., performing the entire record on each occasion. [22]
On March 22, 2010, the band stated that they were in the process of mixing the next album. [23] The band also revealed that, for the first time since Clarity , the album would contain a song with lead vocals provided by original vocalist Linton. [24] On June 7, 2010, Jimmy Eat World stated on Twitter: "Our new album is officially done. Now we wait for a release date. We'll keep you posted." [25] Invented , the follow-up album after Chase This Light, was released on September 28, 2010, on Interscope Records , a date that was previously announced on July 14, 2010, in a Jimmy Eat World Twitter update. [26]
In October 2011, Adkins announced that the band would be writing and recording for their next album. [27] [28] Lind stated in a Twitter post that the band will begin recording its next album during the latter part of August 2012 [29] and, on September 5, 2012, another Twitter post stated that recording had begun for the eighth studio album with engineer/producer Alain Johannes . [30]
On October 5, 2012, Jimmy Eat World posted on Twitter that the band had completed recording its eighth album and that the recording was being mixed at that time; [31] the mastering process then commenced after a November 30, 2012, Twitter update indicated that the mixing process had been completed. [32] On January 29, 2013, Jimmy Eat World stated on both its Twitter and Facebook profiles that the eighth studio album was "officially mastered and sequenced". [33] [34] In a Twitter post on Lind's individual profile, the drummer revealed that, as of January 29, 2013, the band was still seeking out a record label for the release of the eighth album. Lind briefly responded to a fan's query with: "@CallumSty no announcement coming soon. still looking for a label." [35]
The official details of the eighth album, entitled Damage , emerged in early April 2013 and on April 10, 2013, a lead single titled " I Will Steal You Back " was revealed via the band's website. The title track Damage appears on the 7-inch Damage EP along with a cover version of the Radiohead song " Stop Whispering ". The EP was released on April 20, 2013, for Record Store Day , an internationally recognized celebration in support of music and independent retail outlets. [36] Jimmy Eat World also released the album's track-listing, consisting of ten songs, and June 11, 2013, as the official release date. Adkins explained in a Rolling Stone magazine interview that Damage is a "pretty energetic" work that explores the issue of relationship break-ups from the perspective of an adult: "I'm 37 and the world around me is a lot different than when I was writing break-up songs in my 20s. I tried to reflect that in what the lyrics are." [37]
The release of Damage also signifies the cessation of Jimmy Eat World's independent era, [38] as the band signed a recording contract with the Toronto, Canada-based record label Dine Alone Records. RCA Records released the eighth album in the U.S. on April 4, 2013 [39] [40] and internationally April 11, 2013. [41] The album was recorded in Johannes' Los Angeles, U.S. home and was mixed by James Brown, who had previously worked with Sound City, Nine Inch Nails , and The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart .
The band posted a music video for the song " I Will Steal You Back " on their VEVO YouTube page on May 31, 2013. [42] In October 2013, the band announced a series of December 2013 US tour dates that followed a UK/European tour. [43]
In mid-2014, the band announced the "Futures 10 Year Anniversary Tour" in commemoration of the 10-year anniversary of the Futures studio album. Vinyl reissues of Futures , Static Prevails and Clarity were released prior to the commencement of the tour, which began in Ventura, California , U.S. [44] Prior to the Tempe, Arizona, stop of the tour at the end of October, Adkins confirmed that new material was being compiled by the band, but a release time frame was not available. [45] An Oceania leg of the tour occurred in November 2014. [46]
In April 2016, Apple debuted an ad to promote Apple Music which featured Taylor Swift lip syncing and dancing to Jimmy Eat World's "The Middle". [47] This caused significant renewed interest in the band; their song "The Middle" rose to #32 on the iTunes Top Songs Chart, while Pandora noted a 325% increase in Jimmy Eat World station ads in the first day after the ad premiered. [48]
On August 18, 2016, the band's Facebook page linked to a 14-second video of instrumental music to the image of a country road, with the words "Stay tuned ...", further hinting at an upcoming release of the band's ninth album. [49] On August 21, 2016, the band released a new song titled "Get Right", available for free download from their official website. On August 30, 2016, the band debuted the single "Sure and Certain" on radio and announced a new album, Integrity Blues , which was released on October 21. The band planned to tour in 2018 as part of the "Integrity Blues Tour" with supporting acts The Hotelier and Microwave.
On May 4, 2018, the band released "Love Never" / "half heart", featuring two new songs. [50]
On February 14, 2019, Jimmy Eat World played a surprise show at The Rebel Lounge in Phoenix, Arizona to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their first show. [51]
On May 17, 2019, Jimmy Eat World announced the completion of their tenth studio album, planned for release in the fall. [52] On September 18, 2019, Kerrang! magazine interviewed Jimmy Eat World about their new album, Surviving . It features ten tracks including "Congratulations", "Surviving" and "Criminal Energy", as well as the previously released single "Love Never". [53] The band released Surviving on October 18, 2019.
Because the band was unable to tour the following year due to the COVID-19 pandemic , much of their activity was put on hold. Adkins revealed that, during this time, he chose not to write new music, as he felt burnt out from very recently writing and recording Surviving , and wanted to take a break. [54] Once the members were able to safely meet in person again, they focused their efforts on an online concert series called "Phoenix Sessions", in which they played multiple shows covering all of the songs on Surviving , Futures and Clarity . [55] The band returned to playing live shows in 2021, first appearing at Lollapalooza 2021 in Chicago .
Adkins began writing new music once the band was able to play shows again, which he took inspiration from and the excitement that it brought the band, specifically the When We Were Young festival. In May 2022, the band announced a headlining North American tour named after their new single, " Something Loud ", which released on June 10, 2022. [56] The single was the band's first to be released independently, and Adkins remarked that this newfound freedom found the band wanting to "focus on less music, but hopefully more often". [54] Non-album singles have continued to release following "Something Loud," including "Place Your Debts" in October 2022. [57]
On March 13, 2023, Jimmy Eat World announced a North American co-headline tour with Manchester Orchestra titled "The Amplified Echoes Tour", with Middle Kids serving as its opener. [58] That same month, the band toured Australia in support of My Chemical Romance . [59]
Current members
- Jim Adkins – lead guitar (1993–present) ; lead vocals (1995–present) , keyboards (1998–2004) ; percussion (2001–2002) ; backing vocals (1993–1995) [60] [61]
- Tom Linton – rhythm guitar (1993–present) , backing vocals (2000–present) , lead vocals (1993–2000, 2010) , keyboards (1998–2004, 2012–2013)
- Zach Lind – drums (1993–present) , percussion (1998–present) , programming (1998–2004) , accordion, concertina (1993–1998)
- Rick Burch – bass guitar (1995–present) , backing vocals (2000–present)
Current touring musicians
- Robin Vining – keyboards, guitar, percussion, backing vocals (2011–present)
Former members
- Mitch Porter – bass guitar (1993–1995)
Former touring musicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Eat_World | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | 25 years of Jimmy Eat World: Jim Adkins on new music, memories and 'The Middle' | Jim Adkins is calling from Cleveland, where Jimmy Eat World are about to play Jacobs Pavilion on a co-headlining tour with Third Eye Blind. It's Jimmy Eat World's 25th summer on the road.
"It's surprising," Adkins says of the fact that he's spending that 25th summer touring amphitheaters. "And definitely not expected. I mean, nothing is expected, really. That's the mindset that we live in. If you're not expecting anything, whatever happens is a nice surprise."
Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, a friend since preschool, were seniors at Mountain View High School when they formed the group in 1993 with guitarist Tom Linton and founding bassist Mitch Porter, both of whom had gone to Westwood High.
"Somewhere around junior high when we all got into punk rock and started playing our respective instruments, it wasn't hard to find people," the singer-guitarist recalls. "I mean, you found everybody who liked what you liked pretty easily because there wasn't a lot of you. And back in those days, playing an instrument or playing in a band was definitely not all that cool."
When he first started playing guitar, Adkins says, "it was more about the metal, more virtuoso-type players. Then, at some point, I realized 'There’s no way I’ll ever do that.’ So it just morphed into a quest for musicianship over technical prowess."
That was part of what drew him to punk.
The other part?
"I was, like, 14," he says, with a laugh. "You have a lot of things happening when you're 14, 15, 16 that you need an outlet for, and punk rock seemed to be the natural fit for that."
At first, like any young musicians, Adkins figures they sounded a lot like the sum of their record collections.
"I remember at our first jams," he says, "we'd just play Propagandhi, Face to Face and NOFX, things more like that. We listened to a lot of faster but melodic kind of things, rather than just pure abrasion or pure aggression. After a few years, we just kind of got more in tune with the way each other played. And you sort of pick up on what your strengths and weaknesses are gonna be the longer that you do something. So you’ve just gotta sort of work through that. After a certain amount of time, you know where you can lean in to use a strength. You also realize where you can push to get past something that might be uncomfortable."
Although Adkins eventually would become their primary lead vocalist, he's Jim, not Jimmy. The band name is based on a painting done by one of Linton's younger brothers — who were fighting.
As Adkins once told The Republic, "The older brother, Jim, apparently won against Ed. This must have been when they were pretty young. Like, under 8. In an attempt to get back at him, Ed drew a picture of Jim and a globe in his mouth. He wrote the caption 'jimmy eat world' to insult him, saying he was so fat he could eat the world."
As they started playing out, Adkins says, "There were so few people doing it. I feel like there was there wasn't really much of a scene to break into because we were promoting our own shows. Or we were trying to get on gigs with friends of ours."
They were too young, he says, "to really be invited to the thing that was happening with the Tempe people, and we weren't even on the radar of what was happening in Phoenix. Not that there was a ton of stuff happening in Phoenix. So we just kind of broke in on ourselves."
There were a few things happening, he says. "There was always the all-ages art space that was open for, like, seven months at a time before it would get shut down by the police. So we would play those places."
They'd managed to generate sufficient buzz on the strength of a self-titled debut released in 1994 on a Phoenix-based imprint called Wooden Tree Records that Capitol Records offered them a deal in 1995. They signed just after parting ways with Porter. His replacement — Linton's friend Rick Burch — has been their bassist ever since.
Asked if it felt like things were moving fast at that point, Adkins, who was 19 when they signed, says, "Well, we had no idea what fast was or what normal was."
He laughs, then says, "We started working with Capitol Records in 1995. And for me to say that out loud? Or for someone to read that on paper? The reality of that is going to be much different than whatever you might think it is."
Their first record on Capitol, "Static Prevails," hit the streets in the summer of 1996. And yet, they were still being booked by their drummer.
"We were doing these month-and-a-half-long tours playing for nobody with a record out on Capitol," Adkins recalls with a laugh. "Playing punk rock festivals with 40 bands and no one getting paid. And there’d be 20 people in attendance."
It didn't bother them. They were kids. And as Adkins recalls their mindset at the time, "We had no illusions about anything. We weren't expecting much from Capitol. We just figured at worst, we're gonna have some funny stories about going to California."
It's an attitude he feels was based in part on having come up through the scene in Arizona.
"There's a lot of people doing great work," Adkins says. "But it’s always been really hard to rally that critical support to break out. The good news is you can do whatever you want because no one cares. The bad news is no one cares."
It's not that Adkins is complaining.
"It's totally cool," he says. "It’s the kind of place where if you want to put a specific type of project together, you totally can, and there's great people that will help you do it. The bad news is — you’d better be OK with the reward of that being just seeing it happen. Because anything beyond that is not guaranteed to you. And we kind of approached the thing with the record label, and everything, with that mindset."
In retrospect, Adkins thinks Jimmy Eat World were "still figuring out some things" in the "Static Prevails" era. It was on "Clarity," their second Capitol release, that Adkins says, "I feel like we were really exploring a voice that was ours."
Although the album failed to chart in 1999, it went on to be viewed as something of a seminal recording, one of two albums by Jimmy Eat World to make Rolling Stone magazine's countdown of the 40 Greatest Emo Albums of All Time.
Not that Adkins would've used that term to sum up "Clarity" or any other album they've released; although he will say, "I totally understand people’s need to quantify the musical experience, to have some verbal way to talk about it."
It was after being dropped by Capitol that Adkins and his bandmates chose to come up with the cash to cut their next move, "Bleed American," which went on to become their mainstream breakthrough after they signed their second major-label deal with DreamWorks – thanks in large part to the airplay they were getting on a single called "The Middle."
Despite a title change after Sept. 11 for fear that "Bleed American" could be misread as "Bleed, American," the now-self-titled album was certified platinum in mid-2002.
"I don't think any of us really appreciated it or realized what was happening until maybe a couple years after all that had happened," Adkins says of the album's success.
"I mean, from our perspective, the entire thing leading up to even, like, the ‘Futures’ album was all just one kind of upward trajectory. Like there'd be a few more people at a show. Or we’d get offered a better opening slot to somebody. And when 'Bleed American' was doing really well and ‘The Middle’ was going off, it was like, 'OK; things are crazier. There's more people here. I guess we're playing. Cool.'"
It was maybe a few months after they stopped touring on the album that the reality of what had happened really hit him.
"When you're right in the middle of it," Adkins says, "you don't have time to really put things into a true larger-picture perspective because you’ve got to focus on what you're doing."
Jeremiah Gratza was 19 when "Bleed American" came out. By that point, he already had "Can you still feel the butterflies," a favorite line from "For Me This is Heaven," a track from the "Clarity" album, tattooed on his chest.
Today, he's director of operations at Stateside Presents.
As Gratza recalls the excitement on the local scene when "Bleed American" began to break, "They were an integral part of growing up in Arizona to me. I remember going to Nita's Hideaway in high school to see them film the music video for 'Bleed American.' We were all so proud of them."
"The Middle" peaked at No. 5 on Billboard's Hot 100, also topping the magazine's Alternative Songs chart. In 2009, by which point "Bleed American" had reclaimed its original title, "The Middle" was covered by Prince at his post-Oscar bash at the Avalon Ballroom in what a reporter form Rolling Stone called a "true-to-the-original" rendition. Seven years later, Taylor Swift lip-synced the song in an Apple Music ad.
"It’s kind of nuts," Adkins says with a laugh. "I mean, hearing that Prince had covered it at whatever Grammy after-party he did or Taylor Swift hand-picking it to use for an Apple commercial? It’s like what?! What is that? I don’t know. I still freak out anytime I hear ‘The Middle’ or anything we've done, like, on the radio."
They've had plenty of songs on the radio since then. This includes six more Top 10 entries on Billboard' s Alternative Songs chart, from the "Bleed American" highlight "Sweetness" through the chart-topping "Pain," from 2004's "Futures," to "Sure and Certain," from their latest album, 2016's "Integrity Blues."
They're also consistently being celebrated in lists.
In Rolling Stone magazine's countdown of the 40 Greatest Emo Albums of All Time, "Clarity" was hailed as "a cult classic," ranked at No. 13. "Bleed American" was four spots higher, hailed as "the album that propelled them from playing with underground bands like Mineral and Christie Front Drive to full-blown mainstream success — platinum certification, MTV play and a Top 10 single."
They were also named the 20th most influential band of the years 1986-2015 in Alternative Press .
"Few bands can claim one iconic album," the entry read. "Jimmy Eat World have released no fewer than three over their career. From the emo landmark 'Clarity' through the mainstream breakthrough 'Bleed American' to the brooding 'Futures,' this Arizona quartet are the rare breed of band who are both revered and still relevant more than two decades in."
Adkins is too well-adjusted — and humble — to place much stock in accolades as high as that, although he has learned to appreciate them.
"It’s hard for me to really agree about our significance in the role of the advancement of music," he says, with a laugh. "I mean, what kind of (expletive) would you be to be like, ‘Oh yeah, totally. We’re the godfathers of this scene.’ It’s not at all how I identify. But I guess it is a big compliment that other people might see it that way. I’ve gotten better about accepting compliments as time has gone on. I'm really bad at that. But there’s other people I look up to. I know how that feels. So I just have to accept that when we’re the object of that for somebody else, that's, like, a big deal. And I try to appreciate that."
It's been three years since "Integrity Blues," and Adkins says there is new music on the way.
"I don’t have a release date I can tell you, so I'm hesitant to really get into that until that happens," he says. "I don't want to say, 'Oh, we’ve got a new record' and then it's not happening until next year or whatever. But I’m almost positive it’s going to be in the fall."
As to what fans can expect from the album, Adkins says, "Judging from the past things that we've done, you can kind of get a guess who we are. There's definitely a more guitar-based rock thing that we do. There’s also a more textural, moody, possibly more mellow thing we do. I think the album is definitely gonna have all sides of what we do, but I feel it’s a lot more weighted on the sound of a four-piece band rocking."
This will be Jimmy Eat World's 10th studio album. Every album they've released since 2002, when "Bleed American" went platinum, has gone Top 20 on the U.S. album chart while spawning at least one alternative radio hit.
And through it all, they've stayed here in the Valley.
"Where else are we gonna go?" Adkins says, with a laugh. "Like, are you gonna go to LA? What are you gonna do in LA? Do you know how many people are in LA? Do you know how many bands there are trying to make it? It's like, we can do what we want in Phoenix. We know people, and our family’s there. Our friends are there. We travel so much to play gigs that it's like, why? We're gonna pay, like, four times as much money to have our stuff live in a room when we could just stay in Arizona. And it’s much easier to see the results of your work in Arizona. You can see results for the work that you put in. If you're really trying to make a difference or really trying to create something special, you can do it there. And the results might not be this giant thing, but you can see something happen for sure."
When: 7 p.m. Wednesday, July 31.
Where: Ak-Chin Pavilion, 2121 N. 83rd Ave., Phoenix.
Admission: $29.50 and up.
Details: 602-254-7200, livenation.com .
Reach the reporter at [email protected] or 602-444-4495. Follow him on Twitter @EdMasley . | https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/music/2019/07/26/how-jimmy-eat-world-became-biggest-arizona-rock-band-century/1801623001/ | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | Jimmy Eat World warn new bands about the regretful way they named their band | One bad decision and one "dumb ass party" led to Jimmy Eat World
By
In a new Twitter thread, Jimmy Eat World have told the story of how their band got their name and warned upcoming bands about the dangers of acronyms.
Posting on Twitter , lead singer Jim Adkins, using the band’s account began: “Advice for new bands: When coming up with a band name, make sure it’s acronym displayed really large on your artwork or t shirts won’t be complicating matters. You’re welcome.”
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The thread went on to describe where the band where in February 1994, how one party invite forced the band to settle on a name and how they used one of the temporary names two of the band members used in another band. “It was brought up and we discussed it for less than 5 min, no shit, we decided to call ourselves Jimmy Eat World so we could play this dumb ass party.”
The thread concludes: “So moral of the story: even seemingly small and insignificant decisions can be much bigger than you could imagine. Slow down sometimes and make sure it’s right.”
Read the full thread below.
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One fan pointed out the complicated issue of using the acronym of Jimmy Eat World could have been solved if they’d just changed their name to ‘Jimmy Ate World’.
Speaking to NME backstage before their set on the main stage at Leeds festival last year, Jim Adkins explained that keeping up with events back home was trickier because of the time-difference, which he said merely delayed the pain. “Every day, there’s a new disgusting thing,” he added.
In November 2016, the veteran Arizona band released ‘My Enemy’, from the 30 Days, 30 Songs playlist, where a new anti-Trump song was unveiled every day until the presidential election. In it, they called out Trump’s hate-fuelled rhetoric.”
- Related Topics | https://www.nme.com/news/music/jimmy-eat-world-reveal-named-band-twitter-thread-2360699 | 145 |
how did jimmy eat world get their name | Jimmy Eat World Shares Advice for Picking a Band Name Based on the Awkward Situation They Accidentally Created | Picking a catchy name is part of the fun of the music industry. While some groups, like Daughtry, prefer to keep it simple by naming themselves after their founder and lead singer, others like Pink Floyd like to keep it interesting. Jimmy Eat World, however, came up with its name in a unique way. The band once shared advice on making an awkward situation into an opportunity.
The members of Jimmy Eat World are pioneers in the alt-rock world. While the band name seems to align with the genre of music, it’s interesting to know they gave the decision just five minutes of deliberation.
In 2018, one of the band members, Zach Lind, gave Jimmy Eat World fans “a little history” lesson and some “advice for new bands” concerning the acronym used on merchandise (via a Twitter thread captured by Billboard ).
After they landed a gig in February 1994, they realized they didn’t yet have an official name for their group. Lind revealed that his bandmates, Tom Linton and Rick Burch, had played in another band that regularly changed its name. A name they used once, Jimmy Eat World, “stuck with [him].” “I’m not sure who threw that name out but it was brought up and we discussed it for less than 5 min.”
Though Lind doesn’t dislike the name, he notes, “when we have to design merch or artwork I often wish we would have deliberated a bit more” due to the acronym, JEW.
Jimmy Eat World gained prominence after releasing numerous recordings in the late ’90s, having landed a recording deal with Capitol Records in 1995. The band released Clarity in 1999, but the album didn’t take off. Still, they continued to record music releasing more albums, including Bleed American (which featured the smash hit “The Middle”) , Futures, and Chase This Light .
In 2019, the band announced that the completion of their tenth studio album, Surviving , was underway with a fall release date. Surviving dropped on October 18, 2019. In December 2020, Jimmy Eat World announced a virtual concert amidst the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic.
The group returned to playing live shows in 2021 with an appearance at Lollapalooza in Chicago. They are also scheduled to perform at the We Were Young Festival alongside other bands like Paramore and A Day To Remember.
Related
Jimmy Eat World is far from the only band with a somewhat odd name and a story to go with it. According to MTV , another ’90s band, Bowling for Soup, adapted their name from a Steve Martin comedy routine.
Another band from the era, Fall Out Boy , was also inspired by pop culture. The group got their name from a fictional character with the same name in the widely popular animated series, The Simpsons . Apparently, a fan at a concert yelled out the suggestion, and it stuck.
Like Jimmy Eat World, other bands aren’t happy with their names. “Foo Fighters is like the stupidest f—ing band name you’ve ever heard,” Dave Grohl told Conan O’Brien in 2011. He explained he “read it in a UFO book, and it stuck.” | https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/jimmy-eat-world-shares-advice-picking-band-name-based-awkward-situation-accidentally-created.html/ | 145 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin | Kororā | New Zealand Birds Online | Other names: little blue penguin, blue penguin, fairy penguin, white-flippered penguin, korora
Geographical variation: Two subspecies recognised: (1) Australian populations ( E. m. novaehollandiae ) and some Otago birds, and (2) all remaining populations including some Otago birds ( E. m. minor) . The second clade includes all birds previously assigned to E. m. iredalei (northern New Zealand), E. m. variabilis (Cook Strait), E. m. albosignata (the white-flippered penguin of North Canterbury), E. minor chathamensis (Chatham Islands), and some E. m. minor (southern New Zealand).
Little penguin | Kororā. Adult swimming. Aorangi, Poor Knights Islands, March 1985. Image © Department of Conservation ( image ref: 10031421 ) by Rod Morris Department of Conservation Courtesy of Department of Conservation
As their name suggests, the little penguin is the smallest species of penguin. They are also the most common penguin found around all coasts of New Zealand’s mainland and many of the surrounding islands. Primarily nocturnal on land, they are sometimes found close to human settlements and often nest under and around coastal buildings, keeping the owners awake at night with their noisy vocal displays. They live up to their scientific name ‘ Eudyptula’ meaning “good little diver”, as they are excellent pursuit hunters in shallow waters.
Identification
The little penguin is the smallest penguin. They are medium blue to dark indigo-blue dorsally, sometimes with a greenish cast, and have white underparts. Dark slate-blue on the face extends to just below the eye. Birds from Banks Peninsula and North Canterbury are the palest dorsally, have wider white margins on the front and back edges of the dorsal surface of their flippers, and may have more white on their face and rump. Before the annual moult, dorsal surfaces may be pale brown. The robust, hooked bill is dark grey, the iris blue-grey or hazel, and the legs and feet are off-white with dark soles. Males are slightly larger than females, with more robust bills. Recently fledged young are bright blue dorsally, and markedly smaller than adults.
Voice: the main call at nesting sites is a loud bray ending in an inhalant squeal; also deep growls. A contact ’ bark ’ is given at sea.
Similar species: recently-fledged crested penguins (e.g. Fiordland crested penguin) are also dark-blue dorsally, have dark bills, are much smaller than adults, and have reduced crests. All are at least half as large again as little penguin, and have at least a trace of yellow in front of or over the eye.
Distribution and habitat
Little penguins are widely distributed along the coastlines of the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands and their offshore islands. They visit (but are not known to breed at) the Three Kings Islands, and are vagrant to the Snares Islands. Little penguins are also common in south-western and south-eastern Australia, where they are also known as fairy penguin. Little penguins are mainly found within 25 km of the shore during the breeding season, but can travel further out to sea when not breeding. Major breeding areas in New Zealand include Hauraki Gulf islands, Wellington Harbour, Cook Strait islands and Marlborough Sounds, West Coast, Fiordland, Motunau Island, Banks Peninsula, Oamaru, Otago Peninsula, islands in Foveaux Strait and around Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands.
Population
Common along most New Zealand coastlines, especially where offshore islands provide protection from predators and disturbance, or where protection measures are in place on the mainland. The largest colonies are on Motunau Island (1650 nests), Pohatu Bay, Banks Peninsula (1250 pairs), and at the Oamaru Blue Penguin colony (>1,000 individuals).
Threats and conservation
Many colonies are in decline due to predation by introduced predators including cats, dogs and ferrets. Little penguins at sea are at risk of entanglement in set nets. Some mainland colonies are also affected by human encroachment onto important breeding areas, and individual pairs are often physically removed or blocked out of nest sites under houses, when owners object to their loud calls and fishy odour. Many adult penguins are hit and killed by cars where coastal roads run between breeding areas and the sea, e.g. around Wellington harbour and parts of north Westland. Little penguins respond well to predator control and provision of nest boxes to provide safe nesting sites, with populations around Wellington Harbour, Banks Peninsula and the Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony increasing as a result.
Breeding
Little penguins can breed as isolated pairs, in colonies, or semi-colonially. Nests are situated close to the sea in burrows excavated by the birds or other species, or in caves, rock crevices, under logs or in or under a variety of man-made structures including nest boxes, pipes, stacks of wood or timber, and buildings. They are monogamous within a breeding season, and share incubation and chick rearing duties. They are the only species of penguin capable of producing more than one clutch of eggs per breeding season, but few populations do so. The 1-2 white or lightly mottled brown eggs are laid from July to mid-November, and with rarer second (or even third) clutches beginning as late as December. Incubation takes up to 36 days. Chicks are brooded for 18-38 days, and fledge after 7-8 weeks. Pairs are often highly faithful to nest sites.
Behaviour and ecology
Little penguins are nocturnal on land. They return to nesting areas at dusk, congregating in small groups, or “rafts” offshore. Rafts usually come ashore together and are comprised of the same individuals each night. They feed at sea as solitary individuals or small groups, rarely more than 6 individuals. They must stay ashore continuously for about 2 weeks during the annual moult (mainly between January and March), when all feathers are replaced simultaneously.
Food
During the breeding season little penguins forage within 20 km of the colony, pursuit diving for prey generally in waters less than 50 m deep. Their diet is composed of varying proportions of small shoaling fish, squid and crustacean species. Important prey items include arrow squid ( Nototodarus sloanii ), slender sprat ( Sprattus antipodum ), Graham’s gudgeon ( Grahamichthys radiata ), red cod ( Pseudophycis bachus ), ahuru ( Auchenoceros punctatus ) and stomatopod larvae.
Weblinks | https://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/little-penguin | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin | Kororā | New Zealand Birds Online | Other names: little blue penguin, blue penguin, fairy penguin, white-flippered penguin, korora
Geographical variation: Two subspecies recognised: (1) Australian populations ( E. m. novaehollandiae ) and some Otago birds, and (2) all remaining populations including some Otago birds ( E. m. minor) . The second clade includes all birds previously assigned to E. m. iredalei (northern New Zealand), E. m. variabilis (Cook Strait), E. m. albosignata (the white-flippered penguin of North Canterbury), E. minor chathamensis (Chatham Islands), and some E. m. minor (southern New Zealand).
Little penguin | Kororā. Adult swimming. Aorangi, Poor Knights Islands, March 1985. Image © Department of Conservation ( image ref: 10031421 ) by Rod Morris Department of Conservation Courtesy of Department of Conservation
As their name suggests, the little penguin is the smallest species of penguin. They are also the most common penguin found around all coasts of New Zealand’s mainland and many of the surrounding islands. Primarily nocturnal on land, they are sometimes found close to human settlements and often nest under and around coastal buildings, keeping the owners awake at night with their noisy vocal displays. They live up to their scientific name ‘ Eudyptula’ meaning “good little diver”, as they are excellent pursuit hunters in shallow waters.
Identification
The little penguin is the smallest penguin. They are medium blue to dark indigo-blue dorsally, sometimes with a greenish cast, and have white underparts. Dark slate-blue on the face extends to just below the eye. Birds from Banks Peninsula and North Canterbury are the palest dorsally, have wider white margins on the front and back edges of the dorsal surface of their flippers, and may have more white on their face and rump. Before the annual moult, dorsal surfaces may be pale brown. The robust, hooked bill is dark grey, the iris blue-grey or hazel, and the legs and feet are off-white with dark soles. Males are slightly larger than females, with more robust bills. Recently fledged young are bright blue dorsally, and markedly smaller than adults.
Voice: the main call at nesting sites is a loud bray ending in an inhalant squeal; also deep growls. A contact ’ bark ’ is given at sea.
Similar species: recently-fledged crested penguins (e.g. Fiordland crested penguin) are also dark-blue dorsally, have dark bills, are much smaller than adults, and have reduced crests. All are at least half as large again as little penguin, and have at least a trace of yellow in front of or over the eye.
Distribution and habitat
Little penguins are widely distributed along the coastlines of the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands and their offshore islands. They visit (but are not known to breed at) the Three Kings Islands, and are vagrant to the Snares Islands. Little penguins are also common in south-western and south-eastern Australia, where they are also known as fairy penguin. Little penguins are mainly found within 25 km of the shore during the breeding season, but can travel further out to sea when not breeding. Major breeding areas in New Zealand include Hauraki Gulf islands, Wellington Harbour, Cook Strait islands and Marlborough Sounds, West Coast, Fiordland, Motunau Island, Banks Peninsula, Oamaru, Otago Peninsula, islands in Foveaux Strait and around Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands.
Population
Common along most New Zealand coastlines, especially where offshore islands provide protection from predators and disturbance, or where protection measures are in place on the mainland. The largest colonies are on Motunau Island (1650 nests), Pohatu Bay, Banks Peninsula (1250 pairs), and at the Oamaru Blue Penguin colony (>1,000 individuals).
Threats and conservation
Many colonies are in decline due to predation by introduced predators including cats, dogs and ferrets. Little penguins at sea are at risk of entanglement in set nets. Some mainland colonies are also affected by human encroachment onto important breeding areas, and individual pairs are often physically removed or blocked out of nest sites under houses, when owners object to their loud calls and fishy odour. Many adult penguins are hit and killed by cars where coastal roads run between breeding areas and the sea, e.g. around Wellington harbour and parts of north Westland. Little penguins respond well to predator control and provision of nest boxes to provide safe nesting sites, with populations around Wellington Harbour, Banks Peninsula and the Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony increasing as a result.
Breeding
Little penguins can breed as isolated pairs, in colonies, or semi-colonially. Nests are situated close to the sea in burrows excavated by the birds or other species, or in caves, rock crevices, under logs or in or under a variety of man-made structures including nest boxes, pipes, stacks of wood or timber, and buildings. They are monogamous within a breeding season, and share incubation and chick rearing duties. They are the only species of penguin capable of producing more than one clutch of eggs per breeding season, but few populations do so. The 1-2 white or lightly mottled brown eggs are laid from July to mid-November, and with rarer second (or even third) clutches beginning as late as December. Incubation takes up to 36 days. Chicks are brooded for 18-38 days, and fledge after 7-8 weeks. Pairs are often highly faithful to nest sites.
Behaviour and ecology
Little penguins are nocturnal on land. They return to nesting areas at dusk, congregating in small groups, or “rafts” offshore. Rafts usually come ashore together and are comprised of the same individuals each night. They feed at sea as solitary individuals or small groups, rarely more than 6 individuals. They must stay ashore continuously for about 2 weeks during the annual moult (mainly between January and March), when all feathers are replaced simultaneously.
Food
During the breeding season little penguins forage within 20 km of the colony, pursuit diving for prey generally in waters less than 50 m deep. Their diet is composed of varying proportions of small shoaling fish, squid and crustacean species. Important prey items include arrow squid ( Nototodarus sloanii ), slender sprat ( Sprattus antipodum ), Graham’s gudgeon ( Grahamichthys radiata ), red cod ( Pseudophycis bachus ), ahuru ( Auchenoceros punctatus ) and stomatopod larvae.
Weblinks | https://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/little-penguin | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Penguins in New Zealand | 100% Pure NZ | New Zealand is home to three species of penguins, a unique group of charming, flightless seabirds that are at home on land and in the sea.
New Zealand has several places around the country to go on tours and penguin-spotting experiences. Keep our penguins and their colonies safe by giving them space when you encounter them. Avoid disturbing their natural behavior, especially when they’re nesting. Doing so helps contribute to their conservation.
Of New Zealand's species, the korora, or little blue penguin, is the world’s smallest penguin. You’ll find these penguins when they come ashore at night in the Marlborough Sounds , Akaroa Harbour , Oamaru , Dunedin and Stewart Island .
The rare hoiho, or yellow-eyed penguin, is distinguished by its vivid yellow eye band. You’ll find them on the Otago Peninsula, just south of Dunedin and round the Catlins region. Dunedin offers the best wildlife tours, giving you an incredible close-up view of penguins, sea lions and fur seals in their natural habitat.
The rare Fiordland Crested Penguin (Tawaki), is a beautiful bird that lives in the rainforests of Haast, Lake Moeraki, Stewart Island and Fiordland in the South Island. | https://www.newzealand.com/int/penguins/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin/kororā | View a nest live stream and learn more about the world’s smallest penguin. The little penguin is just over 25 cm and weighs about 1 kg.
New Zealand status: Native
Conservation: At Risk–Declining
Threats: Dogs, predation, road kills
Species information: Little penguin on NZ Birds Online
This species use to be called little blue penguin.
During 2020 a 24/7 live stream brought viewers into the lives of a nesting pair of little penguins/kororā. You can see video highlights of the pair preparing for the breeding season, incubating eggs and caring for their chicks.
These birds are easily disturbed by humans, so a live stream is a perfect way to experience them up close while giving them the space they need.
Kāpiti Coast Biodiversity Project and Groundtruth with support from DOC and Air New Zealand set up the live stream. It streamed the entire breeding season from August to December 2020, when the chicks fledged and left the nest.
Little penguins were common in New Zealand, but most are now on offshore islands where there is less disturbance.
Their paddle-like flippers are excellent for ‘flying’ through the water at speeds of up to 6 km/h.
Their population and range of has been declining in areas not protected from predators. Where predator control is in place, populations have been stable or increasing.
Dogs are likely the greatest threat to little penguin. Cats, ferrets and stoats will also kill them.
These threats have increased with more coastal development bringing more dogs and the clearance of traditional nesting sites.
Little penguins are also killed crossing coastal roads, being hit by boats, or caught in set nets.
Adult birds come ashore between May and June to prepare nests. They may waddle up to 1.5 km from the sea, and climb 300 m to find the perfect nest site.
Traditional nests are in underground burrows, under vegetation, in crevices, between rocks or in caves. Since people came onto the coastal scene, little penguins have also taken to nesting under houses and boat sheds, in stormwater pipes, and stacks of timber.
Adults also come ashore to shed their feathers and grow a new waterproof coat. This moult period lasts about two weeks and can happen any time between November and March. The penguins are especially vulnerable at this time as they cannot swim.
By day little penguins are out at sea, fishing and feeding, or in their burrows roosting, moulting or tending eggs or chicks. They are more likely to be seen in sheltered harbours and inlets where they may be spotted from a boat.
They are rarely seen on land, and generally only come ashore under the cover of darkness.
You may join an organised tour to see little penguins at Oamaru, Taiaroa Head, and recognised observation spots at other coastal sites.
From May to June, when birds are pairing up and sorting out nests, they are very noisy. You can sometimes hear them if you visit the coast just after dusk.
Many penguins in Wellington harbour have been banded, providing valuable information about their movements and lifespan. We now know that birds do not often move far from home. When ready to breed, many young animals settle just metres from where they themselves were raised. And once settled in an area, they seldom move away.
Little penguins are protected by the Wildlife Act, which is administered by DOC.
DOC has helped community groups by fencing off areas and providing nest boxes for penguins.
A research project was carried out as part of the National Marine Reserves Monitoring and Reporting programme, funded by DOC's partnership with Air New Zealand. Read the Little penguin behaviour and ecoystem health factsheet (PDF, 8,530K) (opens in new window)
- Leave penguins alone. Usually scruffy birds are simply moulting.
- Put your dog on a leash around penguin areas.
- Keep your dog away from nests, and warn others nearby of the location.
- Donate your time or money to help penguin protection groups, such as the Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust and Forest & Bird.
If you find a dead penguin, leave it alone. Community groups regularly count dead seabirds and will remove them from beaches.
If a sick penguin is at risk from attack by dogs or other predators, place it under vegetation in the rear-dune well away from people. Or you can take it to a local bird rescue centre.
Do not give emaciated penguins food. The rehabilitation of seabirds requires specialist knowledge and training.
If a penguin is clearly injured or in immediate danger, contact the emergency hotline 0800 DOC HOT ( 0800 362 468 ). Try and give the exact location and take photos to help us make an assessment.
People and penguins like to live in the same places – prime coastal habitat – and penguins still try to live with people.
But what if you don’t want noisy penguins nesting under your house?
- Little penguins often return to where they hatched. In late March to April (before the breeding season), you should block up access points under your house.
- Check you haven’t blocked a bird in, or separated a parent from its chicks. It is risky to block penguins’ access while they are nesting or moulting (from May to early March), as you may trap birds under the house. Also, by sealing them out, you may expose a moulting bird to predators.
- Consider providing a nest box elsewhere on your section.
Call 0800 DOC HOT ( 0800 362 468 ) immediately if you see anyone catching, harming or killing native wildlife.
- Trap predators on your property.
- Be a responsible cat owner.
- Find and volunteer with your local community group
- Trap predators in your community
- Get kids or schools involved
- Leave nesting birds alone.
- Use available access ways to get to the beach.
- Avoid leaving old fishing lines in the water.
- Follow the water care code and local navigation bylaws.
- Do not drive on riverbeds, or keep to formed tracks if you have to.
- Check for pests if visiting pest-free islands .
- Only take dogs to areas that allow them, and keep them under control.
- If you come across wildlife put your dog on a lead and lead it away.
- Warn other dog owners at the location.
- Notify DOC if you see wildlife being harassed by people or dogs.
- Get your dog trained in avian awareness.
- Learn about the Lead the Way programme which encourages dog owners to become wildlife wise and know how to act to protect coastal wildlife. | https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/little-penguin-korora/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin - Wikipedia | "Kororā" redirects here. For the extinct penguin genus, see Korora .
This article is about the species endemic to New Zealand. For the species found in Australia and Otago, New Zealand, see Eudyptula novaehollandiae .
|Little penguin|
|Little penguin ( Eudyptula minor ), moving up from the shore at night towards its burrow on Kapiti Island , New Zealand .|
Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [1] [a]
|Scientific classification|
|Kingdom:||Animalia|
|Phylum:||Chordata|
|Class:||Aves|
|Order:||Sphenisciformes|
|Family:||Spheniscidae|
|Genus:||Eudyptula|
|Species:|
E. minor
|Binomial name|
| Eudyptula minor |
( Forster , 1781)
|The range of Eudyptula minor is in blue. [2]|
The little penguin ( Eudyptula minor ) is a species of penguin from New Zealand . They are commonly known as little blue penguins or blue penguins owing to their slate -blue plumage and are also known by their Māori name kororā .
The Australian little penguin ( Eudyptula novaehollandiae ) from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand is considered a separate species by a 2016 study [3] and a 2019 study. [4]
The little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The holotypes of the subspecies E. m. variabilis [5] and Eudyptula minor chathamensis [6] are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa . The white-flippered penguin ( E. m. albosignata or E. m. minor morpha albosignata ) is currently considered by most taxonomists to be a colour morph or subspecies of Eudyptula minor. In 2008, Shirihai treated the little penguin and white-flippered penguin as allospecies . [7] However, as of 2012, the IUCN and BirdLife International consider the white-flippered penguin to be a subspecies or morph of the little penguin.
Little penguins from New Zealand and Australia were once considered to be the same species, called Eudyptula minor . Analysis of mtDNA in 2002 revealed two clades in Eudyptula : one containing little penguins of New Zealand's North Island , Cook Strait and Chatham Island , as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand. [8] Preliminary analysis of braying calls and cluster analysis of morphometrics partially supported these results. [8] A 2016 study described the Australian little penguin as a new and separate species, Eudyptula novaehollandiae . E. minor is endemic to New Zealand, while E. novaehollandiae is found in Australia and Otago. [3] A 2019 study supported the recognition of E. minor and E. novaehollandiae as separate species. [4]
Like those of all penguins , the wings of Eudyptula species have developed into flippers used for swimming.
Eudyptula species typically grow to between 30 and 33 cm (12 and 13 in) tall and on average weigh 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). The head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. Their flippers are blue in colour. The dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a shorter bill and lighter upperparts. [9]
Like most seabirds, the Eudyptula species have a long lifespan. The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show that in very exceptional cases they may live up to 25 years in captivity. [10]
Eudyptula minor does not have the distinct bright blue feathers that distinguish Eudyptula novaehollandiae. In addition, the vocalisation patterns of the New Zealand lineage located on Tiritiri Matangi Island vary from the Australian lineage located in Oamaru . Females are known to prefer the local call of the New Zealand lingeage.
There are also behavioural differences that help differentiate these penguins. Those of the Australian lineage will swim together in a large group after dusk and walk along the shore to reach their nesting sites. This may be an effective predator avoidance strategy by traveling in a large group simultaneously. This has not been seen by those of the New Zealand lineage. Eudyptula minor only recently encountered terrestrial vertebrate predators, while Eudyptula novaehollandiae would have had to deal with carnivorous marsupials .
Also, Eudyptula novaehollandiae located in Australia will double brood. Birds will double brood by laying another clutch of eggs in hopes to increase their reproductive success. They complete this after the first clutch has successfully fledged. They may also do this due to the increasing sea surface temperatures and changing sources of food that are available. This behaviour has never been observed by those in New Zealand. [11]
Eudyptula minor breeds along most of the coastline of New Zealand , including the Chatham Islands . However, Eudyptula minor does not occur in Otago , which is located on the east coast of New Zealand's South Island . The Australian species Eudyptula novaehollandiae occurs in Otago. [12] E. novaehollandiae was originally endemic to Australia. Using ancient-DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating using historical, pre-human, as well as archaeological Eudyptula remains, the arrival of the Australian species in New Zealand was determined to have occurred roughly between AD 1500 and 1900. When the E. minor population declined in New Zealand, it left a genetic opening for E. novaehollandiae . The decrease of E. minor was most likely due to anthropogenic effects, such as being hunted by humans as well as introduced predators, [13] including dogs brought from overseas.
It has been determined that the population of Eudyptula novaehollandiae in Otago arrived even more recently than previously estimated due to mulitlocus coalescent analyses. [14]
Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing. Some colonies have become extinct, and others continue to be at risk. [15] Some new colonies have been established in urban areas. [16] The species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island . Since the 1960s, the mainland population has declined by 60-70%; though a small increase has occurred on Motunau Island. A colony exists in Wellington Harbor on Matiu / Somes Island .
Eudyptula species have also been reported from Chile , where they are known as pingüino pequeño or pingüino azul. Sightings include Isla Chañaral 1996 and Playa de Santo Domingo, San Antonio , 16 March 1997. Eudyptula species have also been reported from South Africa , It is unclear whether these birds were vagrants .
Little penguins feed by hunting small clupeoid fish, cephalopods , and crustaceans , for which they travel and dive quite extensively [17] [18] including to the sea floor. Important little penguin prey items include arrow squid , slender sprat , Graham's gudgeon , red cod , and ahuru . [19]
Protestors have opposed the development of a marina at Kennedy Point, Waiheke Island in New Zealand for the risk it poses to little penguins and their habitat. [20] Protesters claimed that they exhausted all legal means to oppose the project and have had to resort to occupation and non-violent resistance. Several arrests have been made for trespassing. [21]
Introduced mammalian predators present the greatest terrestrial risk to little penguins and include cats, dogs, rats, and particularly ferrets and stoats . [16] [15] As examples significant dog attacks have been recorded at the colony at Little Kaiteriteri Beach, [22] and a suspected stoat or ferret attack at Doctor's Point near Dunedin , New Zealand claimed the lives of 29 little blue penguins in November 2014. [23]
Little penguin populations have been significantly affected by a major oil spill with the grounding of the Rena off New Zealand in 2011, which killed 2,000 seabirds (including little penguins) directly, and killed an estimated 20,000 in total based on wider ecosystem impacts. [24] [25] Oil spills are the most common cause of the little penguins being admitted to the rehabilitation facilities at Phillip Island Nature Park (PINP). These oil spill recurrences have endangered not just the little penguins, but the entire penguin population. This can further decline the population, which can lead to possible extinction. [26]
Eudyptula species are classified as "at risk - declining" under New Zealand's Wildlife Act 1953 . [27]
Zoological exhibits featuring purpose-built enclosures for Eudyptula species can be seen in Australia at the Adelaide Zoo , Melbourne Zoo , the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra , Perth Zoo , Caversham Wildlife Park (Perth), Ballarat Wildlife Park , Sea Life Sydney Aquarium , [28] and the Taronga Zoo in Sydney . [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] Enclosures include nesting boxes or similar structures for the animals to retire into, a reconstruction of a pool and in some cases, a transparent aquarium wall to allow patrons to view the animals underwater while they swim.
Eudyptula penguin exhibit exists at Sea World , on the Gold Coast, Queensland , Australia. In early March 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure. [36] [37] [38] It is still not known what caused the deaths of the penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure where the penguins became ill. [39] A new enclosure for the little penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008. [40]
In New Zealand, Eudyptula penguin exhibits exist at the Auckland Zoo , the Wellington Zoo , and the National Aquarium of New Zealand . [41] Since 2017, the National Aquarium of New Zealand, has featured a monthly "Penguin of the Month" board, declaring two of their resident animals the "Naughty" and "Nice" penguin for that month. Photos of the board have gone viral and gained the aquarium a large worldwide social media following. [42]
In the United States, Eudyptula penguins can be seen at the Louisville Zoo [43] the Bronx Zoo , [44] and the Cincinnati Zoo . [45] [46] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_penguin | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin | Kororā | New Zealand Birds Online | Other names: little blue penguin, blue penguin, fairy penguin, white-flippered penguin, korora
Geographical variation: Two subspecies recognised: (1) Australian populations ( E. m. novaehollandiae ) and some Otago birds, and (2) all remaining populations including some Otago birds ( E. m. minor) . The second clade includes all birds previously assigned to E. m. iredalei (northern New Zealand), E. m. variabilis (Cook Strait), E. m. albosignata (the white-flippered penguin of North Canterbury), E. minor chathamensis (Chatham Islands), and some E. m. minor (southern New Zealand).
Little penguin | Kororā. Adult swimming. Aorangi, Poor Knights Islands, March 1985. Image © Department of Conservation ( image ref: 10031421 ) by Rod Morris Department of Conservation Courtesy of Department of Conservation
As their name suggests, the little penguin is the smallest species of penguin. They are also the most common penguin found around all coasts of New Zealand’s mainland and many of the surrounding islands. Primarily nocturnal on land, they are sometimes found close to human settlements and often nest under and around coastal buildings, keeping the owners awake at night with their noisy vocal displays. They live up to their scientific name ‘ Eudyptula’ meaning “good little diver”, as they are excellent pursuit hunters in shallow waters.
Identification
The little penguin is the smallest penguin. They are medium blue to dark indigo-blue dorsally, sometimes with a greenish cast, and have white underparts. Dark slate-blue on the face extends to just below the eye. Birds from Banks Peninsula and North Canterbury are the palest dorsally, have wider white margins on the front and back edges of the dorsal surface of their flippers, and may have more white on their face and rump. Before the annual moult, dorsal surfaces may be pale brown. The robust, hooked bill is dark grey, the iris blue-grey or hazel, and the legs and feet are off-white with dark soles. Males are slightly larger than females, with more robust bills. Recently fledged young are bright blue dorsally, and markedly smaller than adults.
Voice: the main call at nesting sites is a loud bray ending in an inhalant squeal; also deep growls. A contact ’ bark ’ is given at sea.
Similar species: recently-fledged crested penguins (e.g. Fiordland crested penguin) are also dark-blue dorsally, have dark bills, are much smaller than adults, and have reduced crests. All are at least half as large again as little penguin, and have at least a trace of yellow in front of or over the eye.
Distribution and habitat
Little penguins are widely distributed along the coastlines of the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands and their offshore islands. They visit (but are not known to breed at) the Three Kings Islands, and are vagrant to the Snares Islands. Little penguins are also common in south-western and south-eastern Australia, where they are also known as fairy penguin. Little penguins are mainly found within 25 km of the shore during the breeding season, but can travel further out to sea when not breeding. Major breeding areas in New Zealand include Hauraki Gulf islands, Wellington Harbour, Cook Strait islands and Marlborough Sounds, West Coast, Fiordland, Motunau Island, Banks Peninsula, Oamaru, Otago Peninsula, islands in Foveaux Strait and around Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands.
Population
Common along most New Zealand coastlines, especially where offshore islands provide protection from predators and disturbance, or where protection measures are in place on the mainland. The largest colonies are on Motunau Island (1650 nests), Pohatu Bay, Banks Peninsula (1250 pairs), and at the Oamaru Blue Penguin colony (>1,000 individuals).
Threats and conservation
Many colonies are in decline due to predation by introduced predators including cats, dogs and ferrets. Little penguins at sea are at risk of entanglement in set nets. Some mainland colonies are also affected by human encroachment onto important breeding areas, and individual pairs are often physically removed or blocked out of nest sites under houses, when owners object to their loud calls and fishy odour. Many adult penguins are hit and killed by cars where coastal roads run between breeding areas and the sea, e.g. around Wellington harbour and parts of north Westland. Little penguins respond well to predator control and provision of nest boxes to provide safe nesting sites, with populations around Wellington Harbour, Banks Peninsula and the Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony increasing as a result.
Breeding
Little penguins can breed as isolated pairs, in colonies, or semi-colonially. Nests are situated close to the sea in burrows excavated by the birds or other species, or in caves, rock crevices, under logs or in or under a variety of man-made structures including nest boxes, pipes, stacks of wood or timber, and buildings. They are monogamous within a breeding season, and share incubation and chick rearing duties. They are the only species of penguin capable of producing more than one clutch of eggs per breeding season, but few populations do so. The 1-2 white or lightly mottled brown eggs are laid from July to mid-November, and with rarer second (or even third) clutches beginning as late as December. Incubation takes up to 36 days. Chicks are brooded for 18-38 days, and fledge after 7-8 weeks. Pairs are often highly faithful to nest sites.
Behaviour and ecology
Little penguins are nocturnal on land. They return to nesting areas at dusk, congregating in small groups, or “rafts” offshore. Rafts usually come ashore together and are comprised of the same individuals each night. They feed at sea as solitary individuals or small groups, rarely more than 6 individuals. They must stay ashore continuously for about 2 weeks during the annual moult (mainly between January and March), when all feathers are replaced simultaneously.
Food
During the breeding season little penguins forage within 20 km of the colony, pursuit diving for prey generally in waters less than 50 m deep. Their diet is composed of varying proportions of small shoaling fish, squid and crustacean species. Important prey items include arrow squid ( Nototodarus sloanii ), slender sprat ( Sprattus antipodum ), Graham’s gudgeon ( Grahamichthys radiata ), red cod ( Pseudophycis bachus ), ahuru ( Auchenoceros punctatus ) and stomatopod larvae.
Weblinks | https://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/little-penguin | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Penguins in New Zealand | 100% Pure NZ | New Zealand is home to three species of penguins, a unique group of charming, flightless seabirds that are at home on land and in the sea.
New Zealand has several places around the country to go on tours and penguin-spotting experiences. Keep our penguins and their colonies safe by giving them space when you encounter them. Avoid disturbing their natural behavior, especially when they’re nesting. Doing so helps contribute to their conservation.
Of New Zealand's species, the korora, or little blue penguin, is the world’s smallest penguin. You’ll find these penguins when they come ashore at night in the Marlborough Sounds , Akaroa Harbour , Oamaru , Dunedin and Stewart Island .
The rare hoiho, or yellow-eyed penguin, is distinguished by its vivid yellow eye band. You’ll find them on the Otago Peninsula, just south of Dunedin and round the Catlins region. Dunedin offers the best wildlife tours, giving you an incredible close-up view of penguins, sea lions and fur seals in their natural habitat.
The rare Fiordland Crested Penguin (Tawaki), is a beautiful bird that lives in the rainforests of Haast, Lake Moeraki, Stewart Island and Fiordland in the South Island. | https://www.newzealand.com/int/penguins/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony | Waitaki, New Zealand | The Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony offers a unique opportunity to observe the world's smallest penguin.
Blue penguins are found right around the coast of New Zealand and southern Australia, but none closer to human activity than in Oamaru. The birds nest right around the harbour area and the Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony offers a unique opportunity for you to observe the world's smallest penguin arriving home from their day at sea and returning to their nests.
Each evening, groups of blue penguins gather offshore and wait for dark. Just after dark, they swim ashore below the viewing stands. They quickly climb the steep bank, before resting a while at the top. When they are ready, they cross the parade area and head towards their nest sites, often to be greeted by mates or hungry chicks. | https://www.newzealand.com/us/feature/spying-on-the-little-blue-penguins/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little or Blue penguin - West Coast Penguin Trust | Kororā
Eudyptula minor
little blue penguin, fairy penguin, white-flippered penguin
The blue penguin is the world’s smallest penguin at just 35-43cm tall, and weighs a little over 1kg. It is found in many places around New Zealand and Australia and is a protected native species.
The blue penguin population is declining throughout New Zealand. On the West Coast it is estimated blue penguins only number in the high hundreds to low thousands. Blue penguins need our protection from coastal development, predators, dogs and traffic and we’re working on these issues with your help.
- Blue penguins are the smallest penguins in the world at just 35-43cm tall
- They weigh between 1 and 1.5kg
- The average life span is 6.5 years, but there are some records of penguins living up to 20 years
- Penguins can travel 15–75 km at sea each day
- Long-term partnerships are the norm, but ‘divorce’ is not uncommon
- Underwater, penguins can reach speeds of up to 6km/hr but average 2–4km/hr
- Their scientific name is Eudyptula , which means good little diver
- There are two species or subspecies, the Australian penguin in Australia and Otago, and the New Zealand penguin elsewhere in New Zealand
- Small colonies of up to 40 breeding pairs are found scattered along the West Coast in both rural and urban areas
- Chicks will often return to within a few metres of where they were raised and, once settled in an area, never breed elsewhere
- Blue penguins only come ashore under the cover of darkness
- On the West Coast, penguins come ashore to lay eggs (generally two) and raise young in burrows between June and December
- The chicks are guarded for the first 2-3 weeks, after which both parents go to sea to keep up the supply of fish
- Adults feed their chicks but never their mate. They take over incubation duties so their mate can go to sea to feed
- Chicks usually fledge 8 weeks after hatching and are independent from then on.
- By March they have moulted and returned to the sea.
- Blue penguins feed on surface schooling fish, squid and crustaceans.
On the West Coast blue penguin colonies can be found near towns, and on our most remote beaches. Colonies are small, many have less than five pairs, the largest have 20-40 pairs.
Blue penguins commonly nest in dunes, coastal forest, farmland and rocky areas up to 200m inland. Colonies can be found up to 500m upstream from river mouths – well within common whitebaiting zones.
They nest in burrows, caves, rocky crevices, tree roots, and nest boxes. Find out more about nest boxes here . It is common to see penguins nesting under baches and houses close to the sea.
Blue penguins can be found on West Coast beaches for much of the year, whether they are breeding or moulting.
Find more about research and conservation needs in this State of Penguins: New Zealand report .
More facts about the penguins are on the Department of Conservation website , and the NZ Birds Online website .
The West Coast Penguin Trust and the Department of Conservation have been compiling a database of penguin deaths since 2006.
The major cause of reported deaths of blue penguins on the West Coast is on coast roads, being killed by vehicles , generally at night. This has been reduced through the installation of our Penguin Protection Fence north of Punakaiki where four colonies are now protected, but reports of penguins being killed on coastal roads continue to be received from other parts of the coast.
The second biggest killer of penguins in our region are dogs . Even small mild mannered dogs can harass and kill or maim penguins. In 2007, a penguin colony at Camerons near Greymouth was almost wiped out by one dog over a period of weeks and a similar incident happened near Westport in 2012 when 18 penguins were killed.
Find out more in this review of the mortality database with charts illustrating the continued threat posed by vehicles and dogs and the success of penguin protection fencing along the coast road north of Punakaiki.
Stoats and cats can kill penguins but we believe vehicles and dogs are the main threats that require attention.
You can help.
If you drive on coastal roads:
- slow down in areas where penguins cross roads at night, particularly the coast road between Punakaiki and Charleston, between Hokitika and Kumara Junction, around Cobden, and on all roads near the sea.
If you are a dog owner, dogs and penguins can safely share the beach if you:
- keep your dog under direct control at all times
- ensure your dog cannot roam freely if you live near the beach
- keep your dog away from the dunes or coastal vegetation where penguins may be nesting, or keep your dog on a lead if crossing these areas
- enjoy the beach during daylight hours when penguins will generally be at sea or in burrows
- keep your dog on a lead and take special care at dawn and dusk, and particularly if out during the hours of darkness, when penguins may walk between the sea and their burrows.
Blue penguins move between sea and shore under cover of darkness, so you’re unlikely to see them, but look for their prints when you walk the beach, especially in the early morning. Penguin tracks head straight for the sea and the lines of footprints are easy to see, most commonly during the breeding season, around July to December. | https://www.westcoastpenguintrust.org.nz/birds/blue-penguin/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | 8 Best Places to See Penguins in New Zealand | © NZPocketGuide.com
New Zealand gives you the rare opportunity to observe penguins in their natural habitat. The three main penguin species native to New Zealand are the little blue penguins, yellow-eyed penguins and Fiordland-crested penguins. There are many penguin-spotting options in New Zealand, from the commercial operations where you are most likely to see penguins to seeing them by chance on New Zealand’s beaches. When going to observe penguins by yourself, be sure to give them enough space in order to not disturb their natural behaviour. So where can you see penguins in New Zealand?
Well, blue penguins/little penguins are the most common sightings in New Zealand with some being seen as far north as Auckland all the way down to Stewart Island. Take a look at the list below for a list of where to see some of the rarest penguins in New Zealand.
The largest mainland colony of little blue penguins can be found on the Banks Peninsula outside of Christchurch. They also hold a species of white-flippered little blue penguins only found here in Canterbury. With feedings for blue penguins in rehabilitation and plenty of spots to observe them behaving naturally from Pohatu Penguins’ tour leaving Akaroa, the Banks Peninsula allows you to get the closest look at New Zealand’s little blue penguins. It’s likely that you’ll spot the odd blue penguin out on the water in the Akaroa Harbour. Learn more in The Complete Travel Guide to Akaroa .
Location: Tours start from Akaroa, Banks Peninsula, Christchurch
© NZPocketGuide.com
See blue penguins and yellow-eyed penguins just before sunset. Oamaru has even been dubbed Penguintown. Either spot them finding their nesting burrows along the coastline at dusk or watch rafts of penguins come home after a hard day’s fishing at the Blue Penguin Colony. Find out more in Oamaru & Waitaki – Guide for Backpackers
A popular backpacker destination, Dunedin hosts wildlife tours and has several yellow-eyed penguin conservation areas. Although you may spot penguins randomly on the beaches on the Otago Peninsula, we recommend taking a wildlife tour to significantly increase your chances of spotting one of the rarest penguin species in the world. Check out The Complete Travel Guide to Dunedin .
Location: Otago Peninsula, Dunedin
© NZPocketGuide.com
As well as the little blue penguins, the Marlborough Sounds is a great place to also see dolphins, seals and whales. Keep your eyes peeled when taking a boat cruise through this stunning area on the top of the South Island.
Location: Marlborough Sounds, Picton, Marlborough
© NZPocketGuide.com
Stewart Island is arguably one of the best places to see a variety of birds in New Zealand. Among that variety of birds are possible sightings of little blue penguins and yellow-eyed penguins. Have a look around the wharf in Oban and the coastline at dusk for your best chances of spotting them.
Find out more about how to get to Stewart Island here: Stewart Island – Guide for Backpackers .
© NZPocketGuide.com
Munro Beach is home to the world’s second rarest penguin species: Tawaki a.k.a Fiordland-crested penguin. If you are lucky enough to see one, enjoy observing them from a distance in order to not disturb their natural behaviour.
Location: Munro Beach, Lake Moeraki, 30km north of Haast.
© Francesco Veronesi on Wikipedia
Little blue penguins flock to Caroline Bay at dusk, nesting along the edges of the beach in the roped-off areas. Observe them from behind the rope, watching parents feed their chicks and nesting burrow interactions.
Location: Caroline Bay, Timaru, Canterbury
© NZPocketGuide.com
The Catlins Coast in Southland is home to many fascinating marine wildlife, including penguins! A commonplace to see yellow-eyed penguins is at Curio Bay when parents are often seen coming back to shore in the early morning/evening to feed their chicks. Please respect the signs at Curio Bay to indicate how far you should keep your distance. Find out more in 18 Amazing Attractions You Can’t Miss in The Catlins .
Location: Curio Bay, Catlins, Southland/Otago
© Tourism NZ | https://nzpocketguide.com/5-best-places-to-see-penguins-in-new-zealand/ | 146 |
where do blue penguins live in new zealand | Little penguin - Wikipedia | "Kororā" redirects here. For the extinct penguin genus, see Korora .
This article is about the species endemic to New Zealand. For the species found in Australia and Otago, New Zealand, see Eudyptula novaehollandiae .
|Little penguin|
|Little penguin ( Eudyptula minor ), moving up from the shore at night towards its burrow on Kapiti Island , New Zealand .|
Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) [1] [a]
|Scientific classification|
|Kingdom:||Animalia|
|Phylum:||Chordata|
|Class:||Aves|
|Order:||Sphenisciformes|
|Family:||Spheniscidae|
|Genus:||Eudyptula|
|Species:|
E. minor
|Binomial name|
| Eudyptula minor |
( Forster , 1781)
|The range of Eudyptula minor is in blue. [2]|
The little penguin ( Eudyptula minor ) is a species of penguin from New Zealand . They are commonly known as little blue penguins or blue penguins owing to their slate -blue plumage and are also known by their Māori name kororā .
The Australian little penguin ( Eudyptula novaehollandiae ) from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand is considered a separate species by a 2016 study [3] and a 2019 study. [4]
The little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The holotypes of the subspecies E. m. variabilis [5] and Eudyptula minor chathamensis [6] are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa . The white-flippered penguin ( E. m. albosignata or E. m. minor morpha albosignata ) is currently considered by most taxonomists to be a colour morph or subspecies of Eudyptula minor. In 2008, Shirihai treated the little penguin and white-flippered penguin as allospecies . [7] However, as of 2012, the IUCN and BirdLife International consider the white-flippered penguin to be a subspecies or morph of the little penguin.
Little penguins from New Zealand and Australia were once considered to be the same species, called Eudyptula minor . Analysis of mtDNA in 2002 revealed two clades in Eudyptula : one containing little penguins of New Zealand's North Island , Cook Strait and Chatham Island , as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand. [8] Preliminary analysis of braying calls and cluster analysis of morphometrics partially supported these results. [8] A 2016 study described the Australian little penguin as a new and separate species, Eudyptula novaehollandiae . E. minor is endemic to New Zealand, while E. novaehollandiae is found in Australia and Otago. [3] A 2019 study supported the recognition of E. minor and E. novaehollandiae as separate species. [4]
Like those of all penguins , the wings of Eudyptula species have developed into flippers used for swimming.
Eudyptula species typically grow to between 30 and 33 cm (12 and 13 in) tall and on average weigh 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). The head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. Their flippers are blue in colour. The dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a shorter bill and lighter upperparts. [9]
Like most seabirds, the Eudyptula species have a long lifespan. The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show that in very exceptional cases they may live up to 25 years in captivity. [10]
Eudyptula minor does not have the distinct bright blue feathers that distinguish Eudyptula novaehollandiae. In addition, the vocalisation patterns of the New Zealand lineage located on Tiritiri Matangi Island vary from the Australian lineage located in Oamaru . Females are known to prefer the local call of the New Zealand lingeage.
There are also behavioural differences that help differentiate these penguins. Those of the Australian lineage will swim together in a large group after dusk and walk along the shore to reach their nesting sites. This may be an effective predator avoidance strategy by traveling in a large group simultaneously. This has not been seen by those of the New Zealand lineage. Eudyptula minor only recently encountered terrestrial vertebrate predators, while Eudyptula novaehollandiae would have had to deal with carnivorous marsupials .
Also, Eudyptula novaehollandiae located in Australia will double brood. Birds will double brood by laying another clutch of eggs in hopes to increase their reproductive success. They complete this after the first clutch has successfully fledged. They may also do this due to the increasing sea surface temperatures and changing sources of food that are available. This behaviour has never been observed by those in New Zealand. [11]
Eudyptula minor breeds along most of the coastline of New Zealand , including the Chatham Islands . However, Eudyptula minor does not occur in Otago , which is located on the east coast of New Zealand's South Island . The Australian species Eudyptula novaehollandiae occurs in Otago. [12] E. novaehollandiae was originally endemic to Australia. Using ancient-DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating using historical, pre-human, as well as archaeological Eudyptula remains, the arrival of the Australian species in New Zealand was determined to have occurred roughly between AD 1500 and 1900. When the E. minor population declined in New Zealand, it left a genetic opening for E. novaehollandiae . The decrease of E. minor was most likely due to anthropogenic effects, such as being hunted by humans as well as introduced predators, [13] including dogs brought from overseas.
It has been determined that the population of Eudyptula novaehollandiae in Otago arrived even more recently than previously estimated due to mulitlocus coalescent analyses. [14]
Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing. Some colonies have become extinct, and others continue to be at risk. [15] Some new colonies have been established in urban areas. [16] The species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island . Since the 1960s, the mainland population has declined by 60-70%; though a small increase has occurred on Motunau Island. A colony exists in Wellington Harbor on Matiu / Somes Island .
Eudyptula species have also been reported from Chile , where they are known as pingüino pequeño or pingüino azul. Sightings include Isla Chañaral 1996 and Playa de Santo Domingo, San Antonio , 16 March 1997. Eudyptula species have also been reported from South Africa , It is unclear whether these birds were vagrants .
Little penguins feed by hunting small clupeoid fish, cephalopods , and crustaceans , for which they travel and dive quite extensively [17] [18] including to the sea floor. Important little penguin prey items include arrow squid , slender sprat , Graham's gudgeon , red cod , and ahuru . [19]
Protestors have opposed the development of a marina at Kennedy Point, Waiheke Island in New Zealand for the risk it poses to little penguins and their habitat. [20] Protesters claimed that they exhausted all legal means to oppose the project and have had to resort to occupation and non-violent resistance. Several arrests have been made for trespassing. [21]
Introduced mammalian predators present the greatest terrestrial risk to little penguins and include cats, dogs, rats, and particularly ferrets and stoats . [16] [15] As examples significant dog attacks have been recorded at the colony at Little Kaiteriteri Beach, [22] and a suspected stoat or ferret attack at Doctor's Point near Dunedin , New Zealand claimed the lives of 29 little blue penguins in November 2014. [23]
Little penguin populations have been significantly affected by a major oil spill with the grounding of the Rena off New Zealand in 2011, which killed 2,000 seabirds (including little penguins) directly, and killed an estimated 20,000 in total based on wider ecosystem impacts. [24] [25] Oil spills are the most common cause of the little penguins being admitted to the rehabilitation facilities at Phillip Island Nature Park (PINP). These oil spill recurrences have endangered not just the little penguins, but the entire penguin population. This can further decline the population, which can lead to possible extinction. [26]
Eudyptula species are classified as "at risk - declining" under New Zealand's Wildlife Act 1953 . [27]
Zoological exhibits featuring purpose-built enclosures for Eudyptula species can be seen in Australia at the Adelaide Zoo , Melbourne Zoo , the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra , Perth Zoo , Caversham Wildlife Park (Perth), Ballarat Wildlife Park , Sea Life Sydney Aquarium , [28] and the Taronga Zoo in Sydney . [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] Enclosures include nesting boxes or similar structures for the animals to retire into, a reconstruction of a pool and in some cases, a transparent aquarium wall to allow patrons to view the animals underwater while they swim.
Eudyptula penguin exhibit exists at Sea World , on the Gold Coast, Queensland , Australia. In early March 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure. [36] [37] [38] It is still not known what caused the deaths of the penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure where the penguins became ill. [39] A new enclosure for the little penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008. [40]
In New Zealand, Eudyptula penguin exhibits exist at the Auckland Zoo , the Wellington Zoo , and the National Aquarium of New Zealand . [41] Since 2017, the National Aquarium of New Zealand, has featured a monthly "Penguin of the Month" board, declaring two of their resident animals the "Naughty" and "Nice" penguin for that month. Photos of the board have gone viral and gained the aquarium a large worldwide social media following. [42]
In the United States, Eudyptula penguins can be seen at the Louisville Zoo [43] the Bronx Zoo , [44] and the Cincinnati Zoo . [45] [46] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_penguin | 146 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | Fan Capacitor : Circuit, Working, Types & Its Applications | Electric Fans are used everywhere like in our homes, industries, offices, cars, computers, factories, trains, etc. These fans are classified into three types based on the power supply type AC fans, DC fans, and AC/DC fans. And also there are different models of electric fans are available like ceiling fans, table fans, pedestal fans, and exhaust fans. Generally, a ceiling fan is used by hanging from the ceiling in our bedrooms, living rooms, kitchens, etc. These fans are generally specified through the blade span size where the standard sizes of ceiling fans are 36 inches (900mm), 48 inches (1200mm) & 52 inches (1300mm) being the popular options. To make the fan rotate smoothly a capacitor is required, which is called as a FAN Capacitor. This article discusses on what is fan capacitor and its role and applications.
A capacitor that is used to operate a ceiling fan is known as a fan capacitor. The capacitor used in a ceiling fan is a non-polarized electrolytic AC capacitor. The electrical parts of the ceiling fan include a stator , capacitor, rotor , and regulator where a capacitor plays a key role to make the fan work properly. The main function of a capacitor in a fan is not only to operate but also it makes to rotate.
Fan capacitor specifications include the following.
- Through-hole mounting type.
- Capacitance ranges from 1.5 MFD to 4 MFD (micro-Farad).
- The voltage rating is 440 VAC.
- The diameter is 27 mm.
- Tolerance is 5%.
- Cylindrical shape.
- The frequency is 50Hz.
- The number of phases – 1 phase.
- Temperature ranges from -25 to +85 Deg C
- Wire terminals.
- The size of the capacitor is 27 x 52.
Let understand the working of a Capacitor with an example like When we turn on a ceiling fan, an electric current will flow through the circuit, causing it to rotate. However, if we want the fan to operate at different speeds, we need a way to regulate its energy output. This is where a capacitor comes in. A capacitor allows you to vary the amount of energy flowing into the motor, which in turn determines its rotational speed.
Most ceiling fans contain two capacitors: a starting capacitor and a running capacitor. Both are called as Fan Capacitors. The start capacitor is used to give the motor an initial push while the run capacitor is used to maintain speed. However, some capacitors may have both functions.
Start capacitors are generally large, cylindrical aluminum or oil-filled cans with two leads coming out of the top. Run capacitors are smaller than start capacitors and may be either cylindrical or flat in shape. They are generally rated for continuous duty and offer no over-voltage protection. The capacitance range for single phase run capacitors is from 1.0 µF up to 50 µF, with voltage ratings from 120V up to 450V (250VAC for 50/60 Hz).
A run capacitor is self-healing, which means that it can recover after being overloaded as long as it is not overheated. Run capacitors are designed to stay energized at all times and therefore do not have any polarity markings on them; they can be connected in either direction without affecting performance. Let’s see
How does fan capacitor controls the speed of the FAN?
When we switch on the fan the capacitor starts charging slowly stores energy and release it in an electric arc to give a boost of energy at the start up of the FAN by increasing the current through the windings of the motor. This causes a high torque which makes the motor to rotate. The rotation of the motor increases, thus increasing its speed.
The ceiling fan capacitor doesn’t have a polarity so they are non-polarized capacitors. The connection of this capacitor can be done at the outside metal layer of the fan. The direction of fan rotation will remain the same, in the first positive half cycle of supply, the phase will be positive whereas, in the negative half cycle, neutral will be positive.
Please refer to this link to know more about capacitor polarity .
The circuit diagram of the ceiling fan with a capacitor is shown below. This circuit provides the proper connection of the ceiling fan with a switch, capacitor, and regulator. So we can get an idea about how to connect a capacitor with a ceiling fan.
Generally, in the ceiling fan, there are two windings running winding & starting winding. A capacitor must be connected to the starting winding in series after that, it must be connected across the power supply. Alternatively, the running winding is directly connected to the power supply.
For that initially, we have to recognize both the windings in the fan. When you observe in the above diagram, the ceiling fan includes three wires blue, black and red located outside.
Usually, most of these fans include three wires outside and in the winding connection also you can also observe, that one terminal of every winding is connected jointly & it is brought outside like a regular wire. Here, the winding terminals can be observed by measuring their resistance. Suppose we measure the three terminals’ resistance as;
- The resistance of Red & Black color wire is 200 ohm.
- The resistance of Red & Blue color wire is 210 ohm.
- The resistance of Blue & Black color wire is 500 ohm.
If the resistance between black & blue color wires have higher so these are the starting and running winding terminals. Thus the red terminal wire is common and is connected through both windings.
We know that starting winding the resistance is higher as compared to running winding. So when the resistance between Red & blue color wire is higher as compared to red & black color wires, then the blue color wire is the starting winding terminal & black color wire is the running winding terminal.
When you recognized the ceiling fans terminals, and the capacitor must be connected in between both windings like running & starting as shown in the diagram.
If a ceiling fan is used without a capacitor then the two windings starting & running winding will be connected in parallel. Once the power supply is given to the ceiling fan, then both windings will generate fluxes which will be in phase, so the fan will not turn, so the capacitor is simply connected in series through the starting winding to perform some phase shifting, Once the capacitor is connected to a fan, then phase leads with 90 degrees & the ceiling fan will start to revolve. So this capacitor is used to perform the phase shift within the ceiling fan.
There are different types of capacitors used in ceiling fans which are discussed below.
In-ceiling fans, a nonpolarized electrolytic capacitor is used and it is non-polarized which means it has no polarity, so it can be connected in any way within a circuit. Other applications of this capacitor mainly involve feedback, coupling, compensation, oscillation, and decoupling circuits.
Please refer to this link to know more about Non-polarized Capacitor .
A fixed capacitor is used to store a fixed amount of electric charge. This electric charge is not changeable because while manufacturing, these values are fixed. This capacitor helps in maintaining a fixed charge & energy output within electric devices or appliances. So these are applicable to ceiling fans.
Oil-filled capacitors are applicable in different high-voltage or high-current-based applications like motor-run, fan-run, power factor correction & energy storage. In these capacitors, the oil will help to cool down the large capacitors, so it moves air to avoid corrosion & decrease the destructive corona chances.
These capacitors have been used for many years without losing capacitance Value. So they play a major role while maintaining the ceiling Fan speed. These capacitors have a leak-proof design and they are the most frequently used capacitors in many countries.
The features of the fan capacitor include the following.
- There is no capacitance loss.
- It works with the same efficiency over a wide range of humidity and extreme temperatures.
- It gives long life service.
- The dissipation factor is low.
- Self-healing properties.
- High insulation resistance.
- No leakage.
The applications of a fan capacito r include the following.
- This capacitor is connected to the ceiling fan to make it self-starting.
- It provides a phase shift within the fan windings.
- It creates torque to make the ceiling fan revolve.
Thus, this is all about an overview of a fan capacitor and its working in fans. These capacitors are composed of two conductors which are separated through a dielectric material. Once the voltage is noticed through the two conductors, then electrical energy can be stored within the capacitor, so this energy provides an increase in mechanical force. Every ceiling fan generally requires different capacitors as they change energy from electrical to mechanical to turn the blades. Here is a question for you, what are different fans available in the market? | https://www.elprocus.com/fan-capacitor/ | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | What Does A Ceiling Fan Capacitor Do? | HDS | Many homeowners don’t take the time to understand what each component of their ceiling fan does. While this is entirely normal, it can help you learn a bit more about why the capacitor is an essential part of your fan. As without it, your ceiling fan wouldn’t be able to spin continuously.
A ceiling fan capacitor is an electrical component located in the housing unit of your ceiling fan. It creates a rotating magnetic field that helps move and rotate the blades of the fan. It propels the blades in one direction and will adjust to speed settings.
Understanding a capacitor can be beneficial, as you’ll tell if there is an issue with one of the components. Capacitors are prone to fail over time, which can be frustrating if you rely on a ceiling fan for airflow.
Luckily, we’ve provided you a guide on everything you’ll need to know about your ceiling fan.
Table Of Contents
The main housing of the ceiling fan includes the capacitor. Without a capacitor, your fan would not be able to function. This is due to the capacitor creating a magnetic flux which pushes the fan blades in a rotary movement.
The capacitor, also known as a condenser, is an electromagnetic component that helps conduct electricity. When an electric signal is sent through the conductors, the dielectric will store energy and create an electric field. This field is what pushes the fan’s blades and allows the fan blades to rotate.
However , you could manually spin the fan blades, which causes the fan to rotate. Although, this will die down over time, and you’ll need to spin the fan again.
So, the answer is both yes and no. A ceiling fan can run without a capacitor, but it won’t be effective .
Every ceiling fan needs a capacitor to produce airflow and effectively cool a room. Without a capacitor installed, the fan won’t create magnetic flux for it to spin. In simple terms, yes, a ceiling fan needs a capacitor. Otherwise, it won’t keep spinning.
However, the main housing inside does have a rotary unit, which allows the fan to spin freely. If you were to give it a slight push, the fan would continue to rotate for a few minutes. After a time, the movement would die down due to not having any force propelling it forward.
Some indications of a bad ceiling fan capacitor are that the fan should power on and produce no noises. After the blades start to turn, you likely have a problem with your hands if there is noise. A loud humming noise often is a sign that there is an issue with the capacitor and is the most common.
Luckily, we’ll get more in-depth about what went wrong and how you can fix it:
Inside each ceiling fan are coils, which help conduct electricity. When these coils break down from consistent use, they become less effective and can stop working. However, some models tend to break down without any reason. The best you can do to prevent a capacitor from breaking down is yearly cleaning it by preventing debris from getting into the coils and capacitors.
A low voltage rating capacitor may not be able to run if it’s dealing with high voltage. This overtime will cause the capacitor to break down and eventually not turn on. We highly recommend that you make sure that the voltage can support the capacitor before purchasing.
Overcurrent happens when the unit is provided too low voltage at high powers. If there isn’t a voltage stabilizer installed, then a large heat dissipation can damage the capacitor. If this happens, the unit will need to be replaced.
With electricity, the electricity is conducted in a specific way to ensure that there are no risks. When either of these turn fault motors gets shorted, then the current can start burning the capacitor.
You may not notice this right away, but it will render your capacitor useless if this happens.
There are a few things that happen when the capacitor fails in your fan. If the capacitor is just damaged, your fan may still power on and move the fan blades. However, you may notice a slight delay in the speed at which it pushes them.
Another scenario is that the capacitor will fail, and it won’t work or turn on at all. In this case, you will need to contact a professional or replace the capacitor.
According to FIXR , the average cost of repairing a ceiling fan is between $90 to $200. However, these estimates are based on mid-ranged ceiling fans. If the interior is damaged, you could quickly look up at the higher end range of $450 for a complete replacement.
There are a few signs of a lousy ceiling capacitor. Knowing how to listen and keep an eye out for these signs can help you prevent the capacitor from failing.
Here is a typical list of the first signs of a bad capacitor:
- Fan speeds either don’t work or are slow
- Fan won’t start unless manually spun
- Specific settings do not work
- A slight humming sound but not spinning
As you can see, a ceiling fan capacitor is essential to any ceiling fan. Without a capacitor, the ceiling fan wouldn’t be able to circulate air around your home adequately – necessary, rendering it useless. So, that’s why it’s essential to keep a close on the capacitor and keep it well maintained.
Replacing a capacitor isn’t expensive, but minor repairs can add up over time as a homeowner. Hence, we believe regular maintenance should be done to avoid giving it out. Hopefully, we’ve helped you understand a bit more about what a ceiling fan capacitor does. | https://www.homedecorselection.com/what-does-a-ceiling-fan-capacitor-do/ | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | What is the Role of Capacitor in a Ceiling Fan? Electrical Technology | The most asked question among electrical engineering interview questions about the main function of a capacitor in a ceiling fan . During the class lectures and viva examination, they mostly asked about the role of capacitor in a ceiling fan. If you are one of them seeking the exact reason for why does a ceiling fan have capacitor? You are at the right forum, and we will answer the question in very simple words to eliminate the confusion about why do ceiling fans have capacitors?
Generally, the ceiling fan motors are split phase single phase AC motors. There are two windings inside the ceiling fan known as Starting Winding and Running Winding . Starting Winding is also known as Auxiliary Winding while Running Windings is known as Main Winding .
Below is the circuit diagram of split phase induction motor in a ceiling fan clearly showing a capacitor connected in series with the starting winding (Auxiliary winding). Before go in details about why a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding, let is know what will happen if there is no capacitor in a ceiling fan.
Suppose there is no capacitor connected in the ceiling fan motor circuit. This way both the starting and running windings are connected in parallel across the single phase AC supply voltage (120V in US & 230V in EU). In this case, when current flows through the winding inductors, it will will produce pulsating magnetic field (from 0 to 180°) instead of rotating magnetic field which is needed for torque and rotation.
Due to to the single phase supply, there is only one revolving flux which rotates in clockwise and then anti-clock wise direction simultaneously. In other words, the direction of motor rotation changes after each of the half cycle (AC sine wave) which leads the rotor to rotate in clock wise and anti-clock wise continuously. According to the double field revolving theory, both torque cancel out each other after a half cycle. The resulting (net) rotating magnetic filed would be zero i.e. zero starting torque. This is why a ceiling fan as well as single phase induction motors are not self starting.
We know that a ceiling fan can’t be started in single phase AC supply, but what magic a capacitor do in these motors to make it self starting.
According to double field revolving theory, an alternating flux can be divided into two fluxes which rotates initially in opposite direction. Lets describe the complex scenario in more simple words i.e. a single phase induction motor can be started by adding an auxiliary winding and a capacitor connected in series to it. Lets know how it works with the help of a capacitor.
To start a single phase AC induction motor, two phases are needed to produce the rotating magnetomotive force (MMF) but we have only one phase due to single phase AC supply in our homes. Therefore, we need an additional phase to start these kind of motors. We obtain the second phase by adding a capacitor in series with the starting wind of a ceiling fan motor.
We also know that current and voltage are in phase (same phase) in case of pure resistive circuit. But this is not the case in case of capacitive or inductive circuits. In other words in case of a pure inductive circuit, current is lagging 90° behind the voltage (or voltage is leading 90° from current) while in case of a pure capacitive circuit, current is leading 90° behind the voltage (or Voltage is lagging 90° from current). This way, to involve capacitor and inductor , we may product phase shift in a circuit.
To do so, we add a capacitor in series with the staring wind. The following happens when we switch on the circuit due to the inductors and capacitors in this circuit:
- Current leads by 45° from voltage (or voltage lags 45 degree behind the current ) in the starting winding due to inductance.
- Current lags 45° behind the voltage (or voltage leads by 45 degree from the current ) in the running winding due to capacitance.
Running winding has enough resistance which lead to make the circuit as resistive – inductive circuit and the resultant AC resistance as known as Inductive reactance (X L ) . The starting winding has high resistance and low inductive reactance and the resultant AC resistance equal to the capacitive reactance (X C ) .
This way, the resultant current flowing in the circuit is 90° out of phase. It means we got two different alternating phases which leads to generate a rotating magnetic fields and the produced torque start rotating the rotor.
When the motor achieves 70%+ speed, a centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the power supply to the starting winding (Auxiliary winding). These type of motors are called capacitor start motors.
Due to the high cost and proper maintenance of capacitor start motors, a fixed rated (generally 2.5μF to 3.5μF ) capacitor is used permanently in motor (which is known as capacitor start capacitor run motors) to overcome this problem.
As starting wind is small in size which only helps to produce the phase shift (low torque) to start the motor, therefore capacitor start motors are not available in large sizes.
Keep in mind that if you connect the capacitor in series with the main winding instead of starting wind, the fan blades will rotate in the opposite direction.
Now you know the exact reason why there is a capacitor used in a ceiling fan . If you still confused or want to provide feedback, let us know in the comment box below.
Related Posts: | https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/11/capacitor-ceiling-fan.html | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | Why Do A Fan Have Capacitor ? - Explained - ShipFever | Last Updated on May 26, 2020 by Amit Abhishek
One of the most important questions of all time. What is the role of the capacitor in a celling fan is the most repeated question in any competitive environment. It is being asked numerous times during company placement, interview, or during a class lecture.
Why do fans have capacitors or what’s the function of capacitors in single phase motor; question maybe manifested in various forms, but the intent is to know one simple answer most of us don’t know. But here, in “ shipfever.com” you’ll understand it once and for all.
In simple words a capacitor acts as a different phase for the single-phase motor including that in your fan. It split the current in different phases so there can be sufficient phase difference to generate magnetic torque.
It is required to have one capacitor installed on each single phase motor ( Example: Fan ); to generate net positive magnetic flux.
In the absence of a capacitor there is a complete shift in magnetic flux for each current cycle; that leads to net-zero magnetic fields. Now to keep things simple and easy to understand let’s start from scratch.
Before digging up, it’s vital to understand what is the function of capacitors? A capacitor is a device capable of storing energy in the form of electrical charge; which then discharges that energy when the supply of current is turned off.
Compared to the same size battery; a capacitor can store much smaller amount of energy, usually 10,000 times smaller but useful enough for so many circuit designs.
A capacitor consists of two terminals connected to the two metal plates separated by an insulating material called Dielectric; represented by the Yellow portion of the diagram .
These conductive metal plates are made up of aluminum or other metal alloys; while dielectric is the non-conductive part of capacitors.
A capacitor dielectric is made of insulating materials, such as paper, Mica, Teflon, Air, ceramic or anything that restrict the flow of current. The capacitance of a capacitor is given by:
C=εAdF
Where C is capacitance, and “ε” is absolute permittivity of the dielectric. A is overlapping surface area, F is Farad (unit) and d is the distance between the two plates. A capacitor with one-farad value can store a charge worth of one coulomb with 6.25 millions electrons.
Now, let us see how the capacitor works! We know a metal has an equal amount of positive and negatively charged particles; which means it is electrically neutral. Now if we connect the terminals of the capacitor with battery; these electrons on the plates will try to flow towards the negative terminal connected to the battery.
This results in a positive charge being accumulated on the capacitor plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery; while the negative charge on the opposite Plate connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
However because of the dielectric; the electron won’t be able to pass through the capacitor and will start accumulating on the plate.
After the plate is sufficiently energized by these electrons; the battery will be unable to make the flow of current (flow of electron).
This happed because the accumulated electron will repel the new electron coming in (Potential difference will be the same as capacitor and battery). At this point, capacitor is fully charged.
The first plate has developed a net negative charge and another plate has developed a net positive charge; creating an electric field with attractive force between them which holds the charge of the capacitor.
Dielectric contains the molecules that are polar; which means they can change their orientation based on the charge on the plate.
So molecules align themselves with the electric field such that; it enables the electron to be attracted toward the positive plate while repelling more electron out of the positive plate.
A capacitor with high dielectric constant ( The ratio of the permittivity of a substance to that of vacuum ) tends to show more charge stored then in vacuum by reducing the effective electric field.
This reduction in the effective electric field allowing for a reduction in the potential difference between the two plates. With a reduction in potential difference more charges can be added to the capacitor of the same value.
So a dielectric made of glass with relative permittivity of 7; can store seven times more charge that it would have stored under vacuum.
In practice Atom in the dielectric align themselves such that; positive side of the atom is facing negative plate and vice-versa. This lower the voltage, which increases the capacitance.
This can be further represented by:-
C=QV
Where Q is coulombs, V is voltage and Q/V= Farad (Unit)
So, once the capacitor is fully charged we remove the battery; it will hold the charge for a long time, acting as an energy reservoir.
Now if we short the two plate, the electron will flow until plate become electrically neutral.
This was the basic working of the capacitor, easy to understand but boring and impractical to test yourself. So let’s see a practical example of capacitor working; something you can do and see for yourself.
Take a 100-watt bulb, a capacitor of 2.25 mfd which is generally used in fans and some wire. If you wish you can replace it with a 9v bulb, a simple capacitor of 200 uF, 9v battery, and some wire.
Now connect the bulb, capacitor, and electricity source (battery/power); as per the below diagram. You will find that the bulb will grow bright at the start and start to go dimmer and dimmer as time goes by. The capacitor is at full charge when the bulb stops glowing.
Now as you remove the power source or battery depending on your model and connect the two terminals of capacitors to the bulb; you will find the bulb starts to glow again and go dimmer and dimmer as the capacitor discharge.
From this experiment you understand how a capacitor stores charge; and then release it when disconnected to the power source.
Now since you have understood the basics of a capacitor and how does it work; It won’t be hard for you to understand why we need it to run a motor ( As in Fan ).
Any single phase motor as used in fan consists of a stator and main winding with a rotor shaft. Now with alternating current supply to the stator winding; alternating flux is produced which then induce a current in the primary winding. Let’s learn about this through the bellow diagram.
The above diagram represents the circuital arrangement of the fan. According to the diagram it has one running and one starting winding; also known as “stator” connected to the power supply.
One capacitor is serially connected with the starting winding and one rotor. Here the starting winding has low inductive reactance but high resistance; while the main windings have high inductive reactance but low resistance.
Now let consider an electrical fan circuit without any capacitor as shown bellow:
Now with the switch closed the circuit is complete; A 230-volt alternating current flows through the starting and running winding.
This produces a non-rotating but pulsating magnetic field from 0 to 180-degree intensity.
When we have the same phase for two winding, no magnetic rotation will be created; hence the rotor will not be rotated for this type of arrangement of the fan without a capacitor.
To create magnetic rotation we have to create two different phases for two different winding.
Now since we have a single-phase connection at home we cannot make two phases to give. To overcome this problem capacitor is used.
Now let’s consider the circuital arrangement with the capacitor; which is serially connected to the starting winding. Now when the switch is closed; the same 230V AC is entering the running winding and capacitor.
The phase that gets enter into the capacitor will get shifted 90 degrees in phase inside capacitors and comes out, and now this shifted phase is entering into the starting winding while the applied phase is in the running winding.
Due to two different phases in each winding, the magnetic rotation will be created and thus cause the rotor to rotate.
When the motor speed reaches 70% of its synchronous speed; the capacitor along with stator winding is disconnected using a centrifugal switch. The capacity of the capacitor is chosen based on the initial load torque requirement and are generally 2.25 mfd.
Note: To learn More about Single phase Induction Motor You can Refer “A Textbook of Electrical Technology: Volume 2” by B.L Theraja; Click Here to check its Current Price On Amazon (India). ( For more information on our links to third party / Amazon Read our terms and condition and Disclaimer . ) | https://shipfever.com/why-do-fan-have-capacitor/ | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | Why Capacitor is used in a Fan? | Solution
Capacitor:
- A capacitor is a device for storing electrical energy that consists of two insulated conductors in close proximity.
- The parallel-plate capacitor is a simple example of such a storage device.
Use of capacitor in Fan:
- The electrical fan's circuitry consists of one switch, one beginning winding and one running winding and stator, one capacitor serially coupled with the starting winding and one rotor.
- Below is a circuital arrangement of a non-capacitor electrical fan.
- When the switch is closed,
230 VA.C. enters the circuit, and the same phase enters the starting and running windings.
- There is no magnetic rotation when two windings have the same phase.
- As a result, the rotor will not revolve in this fan configuration without a capacitor.
- To generate magnetic rotation, we must provide two separate phases for each winding; but, because most houses only have a single phase connection, we cannot provide two phases.
- As a result, a capacitor is employed to solve this problem. In the circuitry of an electrical fan, a capacitor is serially coupled with the beginning winding.
- When the switch is turned off,
230 VAC enters the circuit.
- The same phase enters the running winding and capacitor.
- However, because the capacitor adjusts the phase of the current, a shifted phase AC exits the capacitor and travels to the starting winding, while the applied phase AC remains in the starting winding.
- Magnetic rotation is generated by the two distinct phases in each winding, and therefore the rotor begins to rotate.
- As a result, a capacitor is employed in a fan to generate a phase difference in the current of the two windings, which produces a magnetic flux and causes the fan's rotor to move.
4 | https://byjus.com/question-answer/why-capacitor-is-used-in-fan/ | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | What is the Role of Capacitor in a Ceiling Fan? Electrical Technology | The most asked question among electrical engineering interview questions about the main function of a capacitor in a ceiling fan . During the class lectures and viva examination, they mostly asked about the role of capacitor in a ceiling fan. If you are one of them seeking the exact reason for why does a ceiling fan have capacitor? You are at the right forum, and we will answer the question in very simple words to eliminate the confusion about why do ceiling fans have capacitors?
Generally, the ceiling fan motors are split phase single phase AC motors. There are two windings inside the ceiling fan known as Starting Winding and Running Winding . Starting Winding is also known as Auxiliary Winding while Running Windings is known as Main Winding .
Below is the circuit diagram of split phase induction motor in a ceiling fan clearly showing a capacitor connected in series with the starting winding (Auxiliary winding). Before go in details about why a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding, let is know what will happen if there is no capacitor in a ceiling fan.
Suppose there is no capacitor connected in the ceiling fan motor circuit. This way both the starting and running windings are connected in parallel across the single phase AC supply voltage (120V in US & 230V in EU). In this case, when current flows through the winding inductors, it will will produce pulsating magnetic field (from 0 to 180°) instead of rotating magnetic field which is needed for torque and rotation.
Due to to the single phase supply, there is only one revolving flux which rotates in clockwise and then anti-clock wise direction simultaneously. In other words, the direction of motor rotation changes after each of the half cycle (AC sine wave) which leads the rotor to rotate in clock wise and anti-clock wise continuously. According to the double field revolving theory, both torque cancel out each other after a half cycle. The resulting (net) rotating magnetic filed would be zero i.e. zero starting torque. This is why a ceiling fan as well as single phase induction motors are not self starting.
We know that a ceiling fan can’t be started in single phase AC supply, but what magic a capacitor do in these motors to make it self starting.
According to double field revolving theory, an alternating flux can be divided into two fluxes which rotates initially in opposite direction. Lets describe the complex scenario in more simple words i.e. a single phase induction motor can be started by adding an auxiliary winding and a capacitor connected in series to it. Lets know how it works with the help of a capacitor.
To start a single phase AC induction motor, two phases are needed to produce the rotating magnetomotive force (MMF) but we have only one phase due to single phase AC supply in our homes. Therefore, we need an additional phase to start these kind of motors. We obtain the second phase by adding a capacitor in series with the starting wind of a ceiling fan motor.
We also know that current and voltage are in phase (same phase) in case of pure resistive circuit. But this is not the case in case of capacitive or inductive circuits. In other words in case of a pure inductive circuit, current is lagging 90° behind the voltage (or voltage is leading 90° from current) while in case of a pure capacitive circuit, current is leading 90° behind the voltage (or Voltage is lagging 90° from current). This way, to involve capacitor and inductor , we may product phase shift in a circuit.
To do so, we add a capacitor in series with the staring wind. The following happens when we switch on the circuit due to the inductors and capacitors in this circuit:
- Current leads by 45° from voltage (or voltage lags 45 degree behind the current ) in the starting winding due to inductance.
- Current lags 45° behind the voltage (or voltage leads by 45 degree from the current ) in the running winding due to capacitance.
Running winding has enough resistance which lead to make the circuit as resistive – inductive circuit and the resultant AC resistance as known as Inductive reactance (X L ) . The starting winding has high resistance and low inductive reactance and the resultant AC resistance equal to the capacitive reactance (X C ) .
This way, the resultant current flowing in the circuit is 90° out of phase. It means we got two different alternating phases which leads to generate a rotating magnetic fields and the produced torque start rotating the rotor.
When the motor achieves 70%+ speed, a centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the power supply to the starting winding (Auxiliary winding). These type of motors are called capacitor start motors.
Due to the high cost and proper maintenance of capacitor start motors, a fixed rated (generally 2.5μF to 3.5μF ) capacitor is used permanently in motor (which is known as capacitor start capacitor run motors) to overcome this problem.
As starting wind is small in size which only helps to produce the phase shift (low torque) to start the motor, therefore capacitor start motors are not available in large sizes.
Keep in mind that if you connect the capacitor in series with the main winding instead of starting wind, the fan blades will rotate in the opposite direction.
Now you know the exact reason why there is a capacitor used in a ceiling fan . If you still confused or want to provide feedback, let us know in the comment box below.
Related Posts: | https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/11/capacitor-ceiling-fan.html | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | 3 Easy Ways How To Tell If Ceiling Fan Capacitor Is Bad (Symptoms) | If a ceiling fan capacitor goes bad, you will know it. In more than 80% of cases we see the ceiling fan spinning slow (fan running slow), the culprit is a faulty capacitor. We are going to look into how to tell if a ceiling fan capacitor is bad ; you will be looking out for 3 specific symptoms .
In order to fully understand the telltale symptoms of a bad ceiling fan capacitor, we need to have an idea of what is the function of the capacitor in ceiling fans. If you know what the job of the capacitor is, we will quickly see why the symptoms of a bad capacitor arise.
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Now, every ceiling fan is powered by a split-phase single-phase AC motor that has two coils:
- Start winding coil. Also referred to as auxiliary winding coil.
- Run winding coil.
The job that the capacitor has to perform is a phase switch between these two coils . Example: When you start the ceiling fan, the start winding coil is turned on. In order for the run winding coil to come online, you need a working capacitor to make the switch.
Technical insight: If we have a bad ceiling fan capacitor, both winding coils (start and run) will be connected in parallel across a single-phase 120V AC supply voltage. When we turn on the ceiling fan, the rush of electric current through winding conductors will produce a pulsating magnetic field instead of a rotating magnetic field (0 to 360°). The pulsating field won’t run or will slowly run the fan; we want a rotating magnetic field to generate torque and propel the fan adequately.
The same goes for switching between fan speeds. If you want to switch fan from Speed 1 to Speed 2, you need a working ceiling fan capacitor.
That means that if you have a bad capacitor, it won’t be able to:
- Make the primary switch from start winding coil to run winding coils.
- Make a switch between Speed 1, Speed 2, Speed 3, Speed 4, and so on.
Based on this understanding, we can now better understand what the symptoms of bad ceiling fan capacitors are:
If there is something wrong with the capacitor, we will see telltale symptoms just by trying to operate our ceiling fan normally. Here is how to tell if the ceiling fan capacitor is bad:
- Ceiling fan doesn’t even run. When you try to turn it on, it’s basically dead; nothing happens. You usually hear a noise from the fan motor. You will still be able to rotate the fan using your hand. Culprit: Capacitor unable to switch between the start and run coil.
- Ceiling fan spins slowly. Let’s say your new 48-inch fan was spinning at 200 RPM (revolutions per minute) when you first got it. Now it rotates painfully slowly; less than 50 RPM, even if you switch it to the highest fan speed setting.
- Some fan speed settings don’t even run or run the ceiling fan much slower than before. Example: Speed 1 runs normally, Speed 2 doesn’t even move the blades, Speed 3 moves the blades but slower than Speed 1.
In short, if the ceiling fan doesn’t start, spins slowly, or some fan speed settings are rotating the fan slowly or not at all, you have a case of a bad ceiling fan capacitor.
Hopefully, this gives you enough insight to diagnose and detect if you have a bad ceiling fan capacitor. | https://learnmetrics.com/how-to-tell-if-ceiling-fan-capacitor-is-bad-symptoms/ | 147 |
what is the purpose of a capacitor in a ceiling fan | [Solved] What is the purpose of capacitor in fan? | - The motor used in the ceiling fan is a 1ϕ induction motor which is non-self starting in nature.
- Thus it needs an auxiliary means to start the ceiling fan which is provided by the use of a capacitor in a 1ϕ induction motor.
- The 1ϕ induction motor has two windings- the main winding and an auxiliary winding.
- The capacitor is connected in series with auxiliary or starting winding.
- The capacitor used in auxiliary winding provides a phase difference between the current in the main and auxiliary winding.
- This phase shift between the two windings develops a starting torque which causes the fan to rotate. | https://testbook.com/question-answer/what-is-the-purpose-of-capacitor-in-fan--6222f6c9bd89b4694c816b4f | 147 |
who was the book of first john written to | 1 John - Bible Book Chapters and Summary | While the first epistle of John does not identify an author, most scholars believe it was written by the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. Not only do its style, vocabulary, and themes strongly mirror the Gospel of John, but we also know 1 John is written by an eyewitness of Christ’s ministry ( 1 John 1:1-3 ). The apostle John was part of Jesus’ inner circle, one of the 12 disciples chosen by the Lord to walk and learn with Him during His time on earth. John, a fisherman, was the son of Zebedee and brother of James, another of the 12 disciples ( Matthew 1:21-22 ).
The slender book of 1 John might seem simplistic on the surface, but its emphases on love, faith, and standing in God’s promises of eternal salvation make it one of the more encouraging and helpful books of the New Testament.
Scholars think 1 John was written around A.D. 85-95 to believers in what is today Turkey. It is believed he wrote the letter while living in Ephesus. At the time of its writing, many Christians were experiencing a crisis of faith because of persecution and false teaching. Some had returned to Judaism, and others were floundering, confused by messages that Jesus was perhaps not fully human or the actual Son of God. Others wrestled with loving one another. Still, others struggled with cultural pressure to worship the Roman emperor.
“I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life,” the letter says ( 1 John 5:13 ).
Indeed, John writes to remind Christians that Jesus truly is God’s Son, those who believe are guaranteed eternal life, and if we believe, we must model His ways. That includes having authentic love for all people, just like Jesus.
1 John reads more like an encouraging speech or sermon rather than an instructional letter. It is filled with inspiration and reassurance about the core truths of the Gospel, offering simple yet morally critical parallelisms that underscore the message of the cross : love vs. hate, light vs. dark, Christ vs. antichrist, etc.
As John writes, “We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Here, the word “fellowship” is translated from the Greek word koinonia , meaning a deep communal, covenantal sharing. In essence, John is saying he wants readers to know the truth in their souls and fully be one with Jesus.
First John begins with an announcement: we have seen the Gospel firsthand, and offer it again to you so we can all share in this (1-4). Next, a key point: God is light, with no darkness in Him at all. We must live in the light. We cannot walk in the dark and simultaneously say we walk with Christ. “But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus, his Son, purifies us from all sin” (1:7).
The second chapter elaborates on this, noting when we obey God’s commandments instead of walking in sin, we are in Him—and the light. We cannot disobey God’s commands and be counted as one of His, for “We know that we have come to know Him if we keep His commands” (2:3). This includes loving each other. Further, he writes, as Christians, we are not to love the world and its evil ways (2:15-17), nor heed false teachings that Jesus is merely a God-inspired teacher or prophet. Remain in the truth, John urges, for those who deny Jesus is the antichrist (2:18-19). Our reward is eternal life (2:25).
Chapter 3 reminds us of the glorious privilege we have in being children of God (3:1). As such, we must be in relationship with Jesus and model ourselves after Him ((3:3-10). This means avoiding evil and deception. Don’t be like Cain, hating our brother (3:12-15). Instead, love each other so deeply as to sacrifice our very lives for each other—just as Jesus did. For, “This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down His life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers and sisters” (3:16).
Jesus is truly the Son of God come in the flesh, John writes in Chapter 4 (4:2-3). We can know if what we hear is from God or the antichrist. If someone says Jesus is Word become flesh, then they are Christian—from God. But if they don’t acknowledge Jesus, then they are not (4:3).
Be sure to love each other, for love is from God, and God is love (4:7-8). God showed his love by sending His Son as a sacrifice for our sins. God’s love is perfected in us when we love others the same way. The final chapter begins by reminding us the faithful defeat the world (5:1-5). God gave eternal life to us in His Son, Jesus. “Whoever has the Son has life; whoever does not have the Son of God does not have life” ( 1 John 5:12 ).
John reassures us that God listens to everything we ask, so have confidence in our prayers and pray for other believers struggling with sin. God will answer our prayers and set them on the right path (5:13-16). Finally, he concludes, remember our identity: We are from God, and we should forget the teachings of the world and guard ourselves against idols.
Embracing love over hate and focusing on the Gospel over worldly messages are critical themes for Christians today. Division and polarization are rampant in society, whether because of racial, cultural, political, or other differences. Keeping Christ at the center of our interactions is an important message for today’s believers. Instead of feeling hatred or casting angry judgment at people who look, vote, or act in a way we do not, we must put love first. For as John writes, “Anyone who claims to be in the light but hates a brother or sister is still in the darkness” ( 1 John 2:9 ).
Not only that but holding tight to the values of Jesus over those we see and hear in secular culture is paramount. Often, cultural messages are driven by self- or money-first ideals, upholding everything from lust and gluttony to pride. But 1 John urges us to cling to the message of the cross, instead.
“You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world,” John writes in 1 John 4:4 .
Those who believe walk in the light and obey the commands of God, not the ways of the world (1 John 2:15-17).
1 John is filled with encouraging verses that remind us of the truth of the gospel, the importance of faith, the promises we have in our salvation, and the importance of love. Besides those above, here are other favorites:
- “The world and its desires pass away, but whoever does the will of God lives forever.” - 1 John 2:17
- “See what great love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him.” - 1 John 3:1
- “Dear children, let us not love with words or speech but with actions and in truth.” - 1 John 3:18
- “We love because he first loved us.” - 1 John 4:19
- “This is the confidence we have in approaching God: that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us.” - 1 John 5:14
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, Copyright © 2016 by Zondervan.
NIV Biblical Theology Study Bible, Copyright © 2019 by Zondervan.
New International Encyclopedia of Bible Characters, Copyright 2001
NIV Study Bible, Copyright © 1985, 1995, 2002, 2008, 2011 by Zondervan.
Strong, James (1890), The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham.
Insight.org . Swindoll, Chuck, “ First John ”
Photo credit: © Sparrowstock
Jessica Brodie is an award-winning Christian novelist, journalist, editor, blogger, and writing coach and the recipient of the 2018 American Christian Fiction Writers Genesis Award for her novel, The Memory Garden. She is also the editor of the South Carolina United Methodist Advocate, the oldest newspaper in Methodism. Learn more about her fiction and read her faith blog at jessicabrodie.com . She has a weekly YouTube devotional, too. You can also connect with her on Facebook , Twitter , and more. She’s also produced a free eBook, A God-Centered Life: 10 Faith-Based Practices When You’re Feeling Anxious, Grumpy, or Stressed .
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who was the book of first john written to | Summary of the Book of 1 John | Author: 1, 2, and 3 John have from earliest times been attributed to the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. The content, style, and vocabulary seem to warrant the conclusion that these three epistles were addressed to the same readers as the Gospel of John.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him. | https://www.gotquestions.org/Book-of-1-John.html | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | 1 John - Bible Book Chapters and Summary | While the first epistle of John does not identify an author, most scholars believe it was written by the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. Not only do its style, vocabulary, and themes strongly mirror the Gospel of John, but we also know 1 John is written by an eyewitness of Christ’s ministry ( 1 John 1:1-3 ). The apostle John was part of Jesus’ inner circle, one of the 12 disciples chosen by the Lord to walk and learn with Him during His time on earth. John, a fisherman, was the son of Zebedee and brother of James, another of the 12 disciples ( Matthew 1:21-22 ).
The slender book of 1 John might seem simplistic on the surface, but its emphases on love, faith, and standing in God’s promises of eternal salvation make it one of the more encouraging and helpful books of the New Testament.
Scholars think 1 John was written around A.D. 85-95 to believers in what is today Turkey. It is believed he wrote the letter while living in Ephesus. At the time of its writing, many Christians were experiencing a crisis of faith because of persecution and false teaching. Some had returned to Judaism, and others were floundering, confused by messages that Jesus was perhaps not fully human or the actual Son of God. Others wrestled with loving one another. Still, others struggled with cultural pressure to worship the Roman emperor.
“I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life,” the letter says ( 1 John 5:13 ).
Indeed, John writes to remind Christians that Jesus truly is God’s Son, those who believe are guaranteed eternal life, and if we believe, we must model His ways. That includes having authentic love for all people, just like Jesus.
1 John reads more like an encouraging speech or sermon rather than an instructional letter. It is filled with inspiration and reassurance about the core truths of the Gospel, offering simple yet morally critical parallelisms that underscore the message of the cross : love vs. hate, light vs. dark, Christ vs. antichrist, etc.
As John writes, “We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Here, the word “fellowship” is translated from the Greek word koinonia , meaning a deep communal, covenantal sharing. In essence, John is saying he wants readers to know the truth in their souls and fully be one with Jesus.
First John begins with an announcement: we have seen the Gospel firsthand, and offer it again to you so we can all share in this (1-4). Next, a key point: God is light, with no darkness in Him at all. We must live in the light. We cannot walk in the dark and simultaneously say we walk with Christ. “But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus, his Son, purifies us from all sin” (1:7).
The second chapter elaborates on this, noting when we obey God’s commandments instead of walking in sin, we are in Him—and the light. We cannot disobey God’s commands and be counted as one of His, for “We know that we have come to know Him if we keep His commands” (2:3). This includes loving each other. Further, he writes, as Christians, we are not to love the world and its evil ways (2:15-17), nor heed false teachings that Jesus is merely a God-inspired teacher or prophet. Remain in the truth, John urges, for those who deny Jesus is the antichrist (2:18-19). Our reward is eternal life (2:25).
Chapter 3 reminds us of the glorious privilege we have in being children of God (3:1). As such, we must be in relationship with Jesus and model ourselves after Him ((3:3-10). This means avoiding evil and deception. Don’t be like Cain, hating our brother (3:12-15). Instead, love each other so deeply as to sacrifice our very lives for each other—just as Jesus did. For, “This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down His life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers and sisters” (3:16).
Jesus is truly the Son of God come in the flesh, John writes in Chapter 4 (4:2-3). We can know if what we hear is from God or the antichrist. If someone says Jesus is Word become flesh, then they are Christian—from God. But if they don’t acknowledge Jesus, then they are not (4:3).
Be sure to love each other, for love is from God, and God is love (4:7-8). God showed his love by sending His Son as a sacrifice for our sins. God’s love is perfected in us when we love others the same way. The final chapter begins by reminding us the faithful defeat the world (5:1-5). God gave eternal life to us in His Son, Jesus. “Whoever has the Son has life; whoever does not have the Son of God does not have life” ( 1 John 5:12 ).
John reassures us that God listens to everything we ask, so have confidence in our prayers and pray for other believers struggling with sin. God will answer our prayers and set them on the right path (5:13-16). Finally, he concludes, remember our identity: We are from God, and we should forget the teachings of the world and guard ourselves against idols.
Embracing love over hate and focusing on the Gospel over worldly messages are critical themes for Christians today. Division and polarization are rampant in society, whether because of racial, cultural, political, or other differences. Keeping Christ at the center of our interactions is an important message for today’s believers. Instead of feeling hatred or casting angry judgment at people who look, vote, or act in a way we do not, we must put love first. For as John writes, “Anyone who claims to be in the light but hates a brother or sister is still in the darkness” ( 1 John 2:9 ).
Not only that but holding tight to the values of Jesus over those we see and hear in secular culture is paramount. Often, cultural messages are driven by self- or money-first ideals, upholding everything from lust and gluttony to pride. But 1 John urges us to cling to the message of the cross, instead.
“You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world,” John writes in 1 John 4:4 .
Those who believe walk in the light and obey the commands of God, not the ways of the world (1 John 2:15-17).
1 John is filled with encouraging verses that remind us of the truth of the gospel, the importance of faith, the promises we have in our salvation, and the importance of love. Besides those above, here are other favorites:
- “The world and its desires pass away, but whoever does the will of God lives forever.” - 1 John 2:17
- “See what great love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him.” - 1 John 3:1
- “Dear children, let us not love with words or speech but with actions and in truth.” - 1 John 3:18
- “We love because he first loved us.” - 1 John 4:19
- “This is the confidence we have in approaching God: that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us.” - 1 John 5:14
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, Copyright © 2016 by Zondervan.
NIV Biblical Theology Study Bible, Copyright © 2019 by Zondervan.
New International Encyclopedia of Bible Characters, Copyright 2001
NIV Study Bible, Copyright © 1985, 1995, 2002, 2008, 2011 by Zondervan.
Strong, James (1890), The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham.
Insight.org . Swindoll, Chuck, “ First John ”
Photo credit: © Sparrowstock
Jessica Brodie is an award-winning Christian novelist, journalist, editor, blogger, and writing coach and the recipient of the 2018 American Christian Fiction Writers Genesis Award for her novel, The Memory Garden. She is also the editor of the South Carolina United Methodist Advocate, the oldest newspaper in Methodism. Learn more about her fiction and read her faith blog at jessicabrodie.com . She has a weekly YouTube devotional, too. You can also connect with her on Facebook , Twitter , and more. She’s also produced a free eBook, A God-Centered Life: 10 Faith-Based Practices When You’re Feeling Anxious, Grumpy, or Stressed .
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7 minutes a day gives you the readings on the Word, Worship and Wisdom | https://www.christianity.com/bible/niv/1-john/ | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Book of First John Overview | Listen to Chuck Swindoll’s overview of First John in his audio message from the Classic series God’s Masterwork .
Listen Now
The author of this epistle never identified himself by name, but Christians since the beginning of the church have considered this letter authoritative, believing it was written by John the apostle. That group of witnesses includes Polycarp, an early second-century bishop who as a young man knew John personally. In addition, the author clearly places himself as part of a group of apostolic eyewitnesses to the life and ministry of Jesus, noting that “what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also” ( 1 John 1:3 ).
John did not specify the recipients of this letter, but given his addresses in Revelation 2–3 to seven churches in the immediate vicinity of Ephesus—the city where John ministered late in his life—he likely had those same churches in mind for this letter. The letter offers little in the way of specifics, so pinpointing the date of its composition can be difficult. However, its similarity with the gospel composed by John means it was probably written near the same time. A date of about AD 90, with John writing from his exile on Patmos, ends up being the best proposition.
The parallelisms in 1 John are striking for their simplicity: Christ vs. antichrists, light vs. darkness, truth vs. falsehood, righteousness vs. sin, love of the Father vs. love of the world, and the Spirit of God vs. the spirit of the Antichrist. While this is not a complete list, it reveals a letter that presents the world in an uncomplicated way—there is right and there is wrong, period. This emphasis by John, while striking, is not without love. It’s quite the opposite, in fact. John recognized that love comes from God, and he encouraged the believers to love one another ( 1 John 4:7 ). John’s first epistle teaches that while it is important to recognize the lines between truth and error, it must always be done in a spirit of love.
As he did in his gospel, John stated with clarity the purpose of his first letter. He proclaimed the good news about Jesus to the recipients of this letter, saying “so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Later, John added “so that you may not sin” (2:1) and “so that you may know that you have eternal life” (5:13). John wanted his readers to experience true fellowship with God and with God’s people. But he knew that would not happen until the Christians set aside their own selfish desires in favor of the pursuits God had for them.
To help them attain that goal, John focused on three issues: the zeal of the believers, standing firm against false teachers, and reassuring the Christians that they have eternal life. John wrote to churches full of people who had struggled with discouragement—whether due to their own sinful failures or the presence of false teachers in their midst. The aging apostle hoped to ignite the zeal of these believers so that they might follow the Lord more closely and stand firm against those who meant to sow discord among the churches. In doing so, they would solidify their relationship with God and gain confidence in His work in their lives.
We all go through ups and downs in our Christian faith. Whatever the struggle—whether outside of us or inside—we often feel ourselves blown about by the winds of emotion or circumstances. Yet God calls us to lives of increasing consistency, with the evidence of our inner transformation becoming more and more apparent as the months and years pass by. How would you characterize your relationship with God—consistent and fruitful or sporadic and parched?
John knew that we would never find in ourselves the faithfulness God requires. Instead, we have to place complete trust in the work and grace of God, believing that He will certainly conform us to the image of His Son, Jesus. That sense of being grounded in God only comes when we set aside our sin in the pursuit of the one true God. Or, in the words of John, “if we love one another, God abides in us, and His love is perfected in us” ( 1 John 4:12 ). | https://www.insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/first-john | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | 1 John - Bible Book Chapters and Summary | While the first epistle of John does not identify an author, most scholars believe it was written by the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. Not only do its style, vocabulary, and themes strongly mirror the Gospel of John, but we also know 1 John is written by an eyewitness of Christ’s ministry ( 1 John 1:1-3 ). The apostle John was part of Jesus’ inner circle, one of the 12 disciples chosen by the Lord to walk and learn with Him during His time on earth. John, a fisherman, was the son of Zebedee and brother of James, another of the 12 disciples ( Matthew 1:21-22 ).
The slender book of 1 John might seem simplistic on the surface, but its emphases on love, faith, and standing in God’s promises of eternal salvation make it one of the more encouraging and helpful books of the New Testament.
Scholars think 1 John was written around A.D. 85-95 to believers in what is today Turkey. It is believed he wrote the letter while living in Ephesus. At the time of its writing, many Christians were experiencing a crisis of faith because of persecution and false teaching. Some had returned to Judaism, and others were floundering, confused by messages that Jesus was perhaps not fully human or the actual Son of God. Others wrestled with loving one another. Still, others struggled with cultural pressure to worship the Roman emperor.
“I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life,” the letter says ( 1 John 5:13 ).
Indeed, John writes to remind Christians that Jesus truly is God’s Son, those who believe are guaranteed eternal life, and if we believe, we must model His ways. That includes having authentic love for all people, just like Jesus.
1 John reads more like an encouraging speech or sermon rather than an instructional letter. It is filled with inspiration and reassurance about the core truths of the Gospel, offering simple yet morally critical parallelisms that underscore the message of the cross : love vs. hate, light vs. dark, Christ vs. antichrist, etc.
As John writes, “We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Here, the word “fellowship” is translated from the Greek word koinonia , meaning a deep communal, covenantal sharing. In essence, John is saying he wants readers to know the truth in their souls and fully be one with Jesus.
First John begins with an announcement: we have seen the Gospel firsthand, and offer it again to you so we can all share in this (1-4). Next, a key point: God is light, with no darkness in Him at all. We must live in the light. We cannot walk in the dark and simultaneously say we walk with Christ. “But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus, his Son, purifies us from all sin” (1:7).
The second chapter elaborates on this, noting when we obey God’s commandments instead of walking in sin, we are in Him—and the light. We cannot disobey God’s commands and be counted as one of His, for “We know that we have come to know Him if we keep His commands” (2:3). This includes loving each other. Further, he writes, as Christians, we are not to love the world and its evil ways (2:15-17), nor heed false teachings that Jesus is merely a God-inspired teacher or prophet. Remain in the truth, John urges, for those who deny Jesus is the antichrist (2:18-19). Our reward is eternal life (2:25).
Chapter 3 reminds us of the glorious privilege we have in being children of God (3:1). As such, we must be in relationship with Jesus and model ourselves after Him ((3:3-10). This means avoiding evil and deception. Don’t be like Cain, hating our brother (3:12-15). Instead, love each other so deeply as to sacrifice our very lives for each other—just as Jesus did. For, “This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down His life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers and sisters” (3:16).
Jesus is truly the Son of God come in the flesh, John writes in Chapter 4 (4:2-3). We can know if what we hear is from God or the antichrist. If someone says Jesus is Word become flesh, then they are Christian—from God. But if they don’t acknowledge Jesus, then they are not (4:3).
Be sure to love each other, for love is from God, and God is love (4:7-8). God showed his love by sending His Son as a sacrifice for our sins. God’s love is perfected in us when we love others the same way. The final chapter begins by reminding us the faithful defeat the world (5:1-5). God gave eternal life to us in His Son, Jesus. “Whoever has the Son has life; whoever does not have the Son of God does not have life” ( 1 John 5:12 ).
John reassures us that God listens to everything we ask, so have confidence in our prayers and pray for other believers struggling with sin. God will answer our prayers and set them on the right path (5:13-16). Finally, he concludes, remember our identity: We are from God, and we should forget the teachings of the world and guard ourselves against idols.
Embracing love over hate and focusing on the Gospel over worldly messages are critical themes for Christians today. Division and polarization are rampant in society, whether because of racial, cultural, political, or other differences. Keeping Christ at the center of our interactions is an important message for today’s believers. Instead of feeling hatred or casting angry judgment at people who look, vote, or act in a way we do not, we must put love first. For as John writes, “Anyone who claims to be in the light but hates a brother or sister is still in the darkness” ( 1 John 2:9 ).
Not only that but holding tight to the values of Jesus over those we see and hear in secular culture is paramount. Often, cultural messages are driven by self- or money-first ideals, upholding everything from lust and gluttony to pride. But 1 John urges us to cling to the message of the cross, instead.
“You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world,” John writes in 1 John 4:4 .
Those who believe walk in the light and obey the commands of God, not the ways of the world (1 John 2:15-17).
1 John is filled with encouraging verses that remind us of the truth of the gospel, the importance of faith, the promises we have in our salvation, and the importance of love. Besides those above, here are other favorites:
- “The world and its desires pass away, but whoever does the will of God lives forever.” - 1 John 2:17
- “See what great love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him.” - 1 John 3:1
- “Dear children, let us not love with words or speech but with actions and in truth.” - 1 John 3:18
- “We love because he first loved us.” - 1 John 4:19
- “This is the confidence we have in approaching God: that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us.” - 1 John 5:14
NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible, Copyright © 2016 by Zondervan.
NIV Biblical Theology Study Bible, Copyright © 2019 by Zondervan.
New International Encyclopedia of Bible Characters, Copyright 2001
NIV Study Bible, Copyright © 1985, 1995, 2002, 2008, 2011 by Zondervan.
Strong, James (1890), The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham.
Insight.org . Swindoll, Chuck, “ First John ”
Photo credit: © Sparrowstock
Jessica Brodie is an award-winning Christian novelist, journalist, editor, blogger, and writing coach and the recipient of the 2018 American Christian Fiction Writers Genesis Award for her novel, The Memory Garden. She is also the editor of the South Carolina United Methodist Advocate, the oldest newspaper in Methodism. Learn more about her fiction and read her faith blog at jessicabrodie.com . She has a weekly YouTube devotional, too. You can also connect with her on Facebook , Twitter , and more. She’s also produced a free eBook, A God-Centered Life: 10 Faith-Based Practices When You’re Feeling Anxious, Grumpy, or Stressed .
Receive This Newsletter Delivered to Your Inbox!
Get the daily Bible verse each day in your inbox!
7 minutes a day gives you the readings on the Word, Worship and Wisdom | https://www.christianity.com/bible/niv/1-john/ | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Summary of the Book of 1 John | Author: 1, 2, and 3 John have from earliest times been attributed to the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. The content, style, and vocabulary seem to warrant the conclusion that these three epistles were addressed to the same readers as the Gospel of John.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him. | https://www.gotquestions.org/Book-of-1-John.html | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Book of First John Overview | Listen to Chuck Swindoll’s overview of First John in his audio message from the Classic series God’s Masterwork .
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The author of this epistle never identified himself by name, but Christians since the beginning of the church have considered this letter authoritative, believing it was written by John the apostle. That group of witnesses includes Polycarp, an early second-century bishop who as a young man knew John personally. In addition, the author clearly places himself as part of a group of apostolic eyewitnesses to the life and ministry of Jesus, noting that “what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also” ( 1 John 1:3 ).
John did not specify the recipients of this letter, but given his addresses in Revelation 2–3 to seven churches in the immediate vicinity of Ephesus—the city where John ministered late in his life—he likely had those same churches in mind for this letter. The letter offers little in the way of specifics, so pinpointing the date of its composition can be difficult. However, its similarity with the gospel composed by John means it was probably written near the same time. A date of about AD 90, with John writing from his exile on Patmos, ends up being the best proposition.
The parallelisms in 1 John are striking for their simplicity: Christ vs. antichrists, light vs. darkness, truth vs. falsehood, righteousness vs. sin, love of the Father vs. love of the world, and the Spirit of God vs. the spirit of the Antichrist. While this is not a complete list, it reveals a letter that presents the world in an uncomplicated way—there is right and there is wrong, period. This emphasis by John, while striking, is not without love. It’s quite the opposite, in fact. John recognized that love comes from God, and he encouraged the believers to love one another ( 1 John 4:7 ). John’s first epistle teaches that while it is important to recognize the lines between truth and error, it must always be done in a spirit of love.
As he did in his gospel, John stated with clarity the purpose of his first letter. He proclaimed the good news about Jesus to the recipients of this letter, saying “so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Later, John added “so that you may not sin” (2:1) and “so that you may know that you have eternal life” (5:13). John wanted his readers to experience true fellowship with God and with God’s people. But he knew that would not happen until the Christians set aside their own selfish desires in favor of the pursuits God had for them.
To help them attain that goal, John focused on three issues: the zeal of the believers, standing firm against false teachers, and reassuring the Christians that they have eternal life. John wrote to churches full of people who had struggled with discouragement—whether due to their own sinful failures or the presence of false teachers in their midst. The aging apostle hoped to ignite the zeal of these believers so that they might follow the Lord more closely and stand firm against those who meant to sow discord among the churches. In doing so, they would solidify their relationship with God and gain confidence in His work in their lives.
We all go through ups and downs in our Christian faith. Whatever the struggle—whether outside of us or inside—we often feel ourselves blown about by the winds of emotion or circumstances. Yet God calls us to lives of increasing consistency, with the evidence of our inner transformation becoming more and more apparent as the months and years pass by. How would you characterize your relationship with God—consistent and fruitful or sporadic and parched?
John knew that we would never find in ourselves the faithfulness God requires. Instead, we have to place complete trust in the work and grace of God, believing that He will certainly conform us to the image of His Son, Jesus. That sense of being grounded in God only comes when we set aside our sin in the pursuit of the one true God. Or, in the words of John, “if we love one another, God abides in us, and His love is perfected in us” ( 1 John 4:12 ). | https://www.insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/first-john | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Who wrote 1, 2, & 3 John? | - ZA Blog
- October 3, 2019
Church tradition from the earliest days of Christianity has ascribed these letters to John, commonly believed to be the apostle John—one of Jesus’ chosen twelve, the son of Zebedee, and “the disciple whom Jesus loved” of John’s gospel.
But there’s a problem. Neither the text of the gospel nor that of the letters bears John’s name, or any name. Second and Third John are from the pen of “the elder,” who is not identified. The letters and gospel are anonymous to us, but the Christians who originally received them undoubtedly knew the identity of the author, and it is likely on the ancient testimony of those believers that the letters have been ascribed to John.
But John was a common name at the time, and early in Christian history some came to doubt if “the elder” was the same man as the author of 1 John and John’s gospel. Modern scholarship has complicated the issue even further with most New Testament scholars rejecting the identity of the beloved disciple as the apostle John and conjecturing as many as five different author or redactors for the gospel and letters.
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The earliest ascription of authorship to John comes from Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (d. AD 156), and from Papias, a contemporary of Polycarp, whose writings survive only as quotations in the later writings of Irenaeus and Eusebius.
Both Polycarp and Papias lived in the greater vicinity of Ephesus in western Asia Minor, the location to which the apostle John is said to have fled at about the time when the Romans destroyed the temple in Jerusalem (AD 70), taking Mary the mother of Jesus with him. There he presumably lived for the rest of his long life, on into the reign of Trajan, the Roman emperor who ruled the empire from AD 98 to 117.
Irenaeus (AD 175–195), bishop of Lyon, was born in Asia Minor and as a child personally knew Polycarp, who is said to have been appointed bishop of Smyrna by eyewitnesses of the Lord Jesus. Irenaeus says that John, the disciple of the Lord who was with Jesus in the upper room, wrote the gospel of John while living in Ephesus (Haer. 3.1.2).
Even though such sources are subject to the same historical scrutiny as other ancient documents, this is a remarkable chain of historical witnesses—from Irenaeus, to Polycarp, to John himself—enjoyed by no other New Testament book.
The witness of Papias is more complicated and has been the subject of more debate, for his writings are preserved only in those of Eusebius, whose interpretation of Papias’s words raised the possibility of two men named John, one authoring the gospel and another, the elder John, the letters and the book of Revelation.
Papias mentions John twice, once as a “disciple of the Lord” and again as an “elder.” But Eusebius overlooked the fact that even when Papias refers to Peter and James, he doesn’t at first call them “apostles” but “elders,” suggesting that the two titles were not mutually exclusive in Papias.
But ever since the fourth century when Eusebius wrote, there has been debate in the church about the authorship of the three letters attributed in the New Testament to John.
Although the issue of authorship will not likely ever be known with certainty, the author of these letters clearly claims to be a bearer of the apostolic teaching about Jesus that was based on eyewitness testimony about his public ministry, death , and resurrection.
The relationship between the three letters and between them and the gospel indicates that the same author likely wrote all three letters, and he was also either the author of the gospel or a close associate. These letters insist that this apostolic testimony trumps any reinterpretation of Jesus by those who were not commissioned by him and who were far removed from personal knowledge of him.
All books of the New Testament refer to events that happened in the first century, such as the life of Jesus, the spread of the gospel, and issues that arose in the infant churches. The New Testament books were themselves written in the second half of that century. The New Testament as a whole is focused on one person who lived in the early third of the first century, Jesus of Nazareth, and the significance of his life, death, and resurrection.
The Gospels telling that story were written some decades later and so are concerned, first, with the events of Jesus’ lifetime recorded but, second, with what was happening in the churches to which each gospel was addressed and which shaped their content. Thus, it is appropriate to consider what was happening in the churches that were the original recipients of John’s gospel, most likely the last gospel to be written.
The New Testament letters are different from these narrative accounts of the life of Jesus because each letter addressed pressing issues of the moment rather than recounting events from a previous time period. The authors of the letters are addressing real questions, issues, and circumstances that are pressing at that moment of time.
Consequently, they allow us to distinguish three periods of the first century and place the events and the origin of the books within each period:
- Jesus’ lifetime, during which no New Testament books were written;
- a period of great expansion of the gospel throughout the Roman empire (AD 33 – 60); and
- a period of doctrinal and ecclesial unification (c. AD 60 – 100).
The gospel and letters of John were written within this last period, when the church at large faced huge issues, such as organized persecution of Christians by the Roman government, heresy infiltrating the church (especially from the various Greek philosophies), and a crisis of church leadership, especially as the apostles died and the Lord had not returned.
John’s letters reflect the second and third issues: heresy and a crisis of leadership. False teachers had emerged from the elder’s own church(es), and their beliefs were challenging his apostolic leadership. If the elder was John son of Zebedee, he was likely elderly and the last living apostle. As the church stood on the brink of an uncertain future in the midst of a transition to church leaders who were not apostles, there was no more critical issue than where the truth about Jesus Christ was to be found. The elder argues that Christian leadership is essentially conservative, preserving and passing to the next generation the teaching of the apostles whom the Lord himself had chosen. Innovation in Christian belief and practice had to be bounded by apostolic orthodoxy. This is relevant in every generation of the church until the Lord returns.
This post has been adapted from Karen H. Jobes’ commentary on 1, 2, & 3 John in the Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament.
For an in-depth, verse-by-verse study of 1, 2, and 3 John, see Karen H. Jobes’ newly-released video lecture series. Order the DVD , watch the videos on Vimeo or Amazon Prime Video , or stream the lectures on MasterLectures right now with a 14-day FREE trial .
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who was the book of first john written to | Summary of the Book of 1 John | Author: 1, 2, and 3 John have from earliest times been attributed to the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. The content, style, and vocabulary seem to warrant the conclusion that these three epistles were addressed to the same readers as the Gospel of John.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him. | https://www.gotquestions.org/Book-of-1-John.html | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Book of 1 John – Read, Study Bible Verses Online | This summary of the book of 1 John provides information about the title, author(s), date of writing, chronology, theme, theology, outline, a brief overview, and the chapters of the Book of 1 John.
The author is John son of Zebedee (see Mk 1:19-20 ) -- the apostle and the author of the Gospel of John and Revelation (see Introductions to both books: Author). He was a fisherman, one of Jesus' inner circle (together with James and Peter), and "the disciple whom Jesus loved" ( Jn 13:23 ; see note there). He may have been a first cousin of Jesus (his mother may have been Salome, possibly a sister of Mary; cf. Mt 27:56 ; Mk 15:40 and note; 16:1 ; Jn 19:25 -- this view assumes that "his mother's sister" in Jn 19:25 refers to Salome; some further assume that "Mary the wife of Clopas" there stands in apposition to "his mother's sister," which would mean that this Mary and Salome were one and the same person).
Unlike most NT letters, 1 John does not tell us who its author is. The earliest identification of him comes from the church fathers: Irenaeus (c. a.d. 140-203), Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215), Tertullian (c. 155-222) and Origen (c. 185-253) all designated the writer as the apostle John. As far as we know, no one else was suggested by the early church.
This traditional identification is confirmed by evidence in the letter itself:
- The style of the Gospel of John is markedly similar to that of this letter. Both are written in simple Greek and use contrasting figures, such as light and darkness, life and death, truth and lies, love and hate.
- Similar phrases and expressions, such as those found in the following passages, are striking:
1 John
Gospel of John
- The mention of eyewitness testimony ( 1:1-4 ) harmonizes with the fact that John was a follower of Christ from the earliest days of his ministry.
- The authoritative manner that pervades the letter, seen in its commands ( 2:15,24,28 ; 4:1 ; 5:21 ), its firm assertions ( 2:6 ; 3:14 ; 4:12 ) and its pointed identification of error ( 1:6,8 ; 2:4,22 ) is what would be expected from an apostle.
- The suggestions of advanced age (addressing his readers as "children," 2:1,28 ; 3:7 ) agree with early church tradition concerning John's age when he wrote the books known to be his.
- The description of the heretics as antichrists ( 2:18 ), liars ( 2:22 ) and children of the devil ( 3:10 ) is consistent with Jesus' characterization of John as a son of thunder ( Mk 3:17 ).
- The indications of a close relationship with the Lord ( 1:1 ; 2:5-6,24,27-28 ) fit the descriptions of "the disciple whom Jesus loved" and the one who reclined "next to him" ( Jn 13:23 ).
The letter is difficult to date with precision, but factors such as (1) evidence from early Christian writers (Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria), (2) the early form of Gnosticism reflected in the denunciations of the letter and (3) indications of the advanced age of John suggest the end of the first century. Since the author of 1 John seems to build on concepts and themes found in the fourth Gospel ( 1Jn 2:7-11 ), it is reasonable to date the letter somewhere between a.d. 85 and 95, after the writing of the Gospel, which may have been written c. 85 (see Introduction to John: Date).
1Jn 2:12-14,19 ; 3:1 ; 5:13 make it clear that this letter was addressed to believers. But the letter itself does not indicate who they were or where they lived. The fact that it mentions no one by name suggests it was a circular letter sent to Christians in a number of places. Evidence from early Christian writers places the apostle John in Ephesus during most of his later years (c. a.d. 70-100). The earliest confirmed use of 1 John was in the Roman province of Asia (in modern Turkey), where Ephesus was located. Clement of Alexandria indicates that John ministered in the various churches scattered throughout that province. It may be assumed, therefore, that 1 John was sent to the churches of the province of Asia (see map No. 13 at the end of this study Bible).
One of the most dangerous heresies of the first two centuries of the church was Gnosticism. Its central teaching was that spirit is entirely good and matter is entirely evil. From this unbiblical dualism flowed five important errors:
- The human body, which is matter, is therefore evil. It is to be contrasted with God, who is wholly spirit and therefore good.
- Salvation is the escape from the body, achieved not by faith in Christ but by special knowledge (the Greek word for "knowledge" is gnosis, hence Gnosticism).
- Christ's true humanity was denied in two ways: (1) Some said that Christ only seemed to have a body, a view called Docetism, from the Greek dokeo ("to seem"), and (2) others said that the divine Christ joined the man Jesus at baptism and left him before he died, a view called Cerinthianism, after its most prominent spokesman, Cerinthus. This view is the background of much of 1 John ( 1:1 ; 2:22 ; 4:2-3 and notes.
- Since the body was considered evil, it was to be treated harshly. This ascetic form of Gnosticism is the background of part of the letter to the Colossians ( Col 2:21,23 and notes.
- Paradoxically, this dualism also led to licentiousness. The reasoning was that, since matter -- and not the breaking of God's law ( 1Jn 3:4 ) -- was considered evil, breaking his law was of no moral consequence.
The Gnosticism addressed in the NT was an early form of the heresy, not the intricately developed system of the second and third centuries. In addition to that seen in Colossians and in John's letters, acquaintance with early Gnosticism is reflected in 1,2 Timothy, Titus, and 2 Peter and perhaps 1 Corinthians.
John's readers were confronted with an early form of Gnostic teaching of the Cerinthian variety (see Gnosticism above). This heresy was also libertine, throwing off all moral restraints.
Consequently, John wrote this letter with two basic purposes in mind: (1) to expose false teachers ( 2:26 and note) and (2) to give believers assurance of salvation ( 5:13 and note). In keeping with his intention to combat Gnostic teachers, John specifically struck at their total lack of morality ( 3:8-10 ); and by giving eyewitness testimony to the incarnation, he sought to confirm his readers' belief in the incarnate Christ ( 1:3 ). Success in this would give the writer joy ( 1:4 ).
* Copyright © 1985, the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago.
From the NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, 1 John
Copyright 2002 © Zondervan. All rights reserved. Used with permission. | https://www.biblestudytools.com/1-john/ | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Book of First John Overview | Listen to Chuck Swindoll’s overview of First John in his audio message from the Classic series God’s Masterwork .
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The author of this epistle never identified himself by name, but Christians since the beginning of the church have considered this letter authoritative, believing it was written by John the apostle. That group of witnesses includes Polycarp, an early second-century bishop who as a young man knew John personally. In addition, the author clearly places himself as part of a group of apostolic eyewitnesses to the life and ministry of Jesus, noting that “what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also” ( 1 John 1:3 ).
John did not specify the recipients of this letter, but given his addresses in Revelation 2–3 to seven churches in the immediate vicinity of Ephesus—the city where John ministered late in his life—he likely had those same churches in mind for this letter. The letter offers little in the way of specifics, so pinpointing the date of its composition can be difficult. However, its similarity with the gospel composed by John means it was probably written near the same time. A date of about AD 90, with John writing from his exile on Patmos, ends up being the best proposition.
The parallelisms in 1 John are striking for their simplicity: Christ vs. antichrists, light vs. darkness, truth vs. falsehood, righteousness vs. sin, love of the Father vs. love of the world, and the Spirit of God vs. the spirit of the Antichrist. While this is not a complete list, it reveals a letter that presents the world in an uncomplicated way—there is right and there is wrong, period. This emphasis by John, while striking, is not without love. It’s quite the opposite, in fact. John recognized that love comes from God, and he encouraged the believers to love one another ( 1 John 4:7 ). John’s first epistle teaches that while it is important to recognize the lines between truth and error, it must always be done in a spirit of love.
As he did in his gospel, John stated with clarity the purpose of his first letter. He proclaimed the good news about Jesus to the recipients of this letter, saying “so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Later, John added “so that you may not sin” (2:1) and “so that you may know that you have eternal life” (5:13). John wanted his readers to experience true fellowship with God and with God’s people. But he knew that would not happen until the Christians set aside their own selfish desires in favor of the pursuits God had for them.
To help them attain that goal, John focused on three issues: the zeal of the believers, standing firm against false teachers, and reassuring the Christians that they have eternal life. John wrote to churches full of people who had struggled with discouragement—whether due to their own sinful failures or the presence of false teachers in their midst. The aging apostle hoped to ignite the zeal of these believers so that they might follow the Lord more closely and stand firm against those who meant to sow discord among the churches. In doing so, they would solidify their relationship with God and gain confidence in His work in their lives.
We all go through ups and downs in our Christian faith. Whatever the struggle—whether outside of us or inside—we often feel ourselves blown about by the winds of emotion or circumstances. Yet God calls us to lives of increasing consistency, with the evidence of our inner transformation becoming more and more apparent as the months and years pass by. How would you characterize your relationship with God—consistent and fruitful or sporadic and parched?
John knew that we would never find in ourselves the faithfulness God requires. Instead, we have to place complete trust in the work and grace of God, believing that He will certainly conform us to the image of His Son, Jesus. That sense of being grounded in God only comes when we set aside our sin in the pursuit of the one true God. Or, in the words of John, “if we love one another, God abides in us, and His love is perfected in us” ( 1 John 4:12 ). | https://insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/first-john | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | First Epistle of John - Wikipedia | New Testament
The First Epistle of John [a] is the first of the Johannine epistles of the New Testament , and the fourth of the catholic epistles . There is no scholarly consensus as to the authorship of the Johannine works . The author of the First Epistle is termed John the Evangelist , who most modern scholars believe is not the same as John the Apostle . Most scholars [ citation needed ] believe the three Johannine epistles have the same author, but there is no consensus if this was also the author of the Gospel of John .
This epistle was probably written in Ephesus between 95 and 110 AD. [3] The author advises Christians on how to discern true teachers: by their ethics , their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love . [3] The original text was written in Koine Greek . The epistle is divided into five chapters .
The main themes of the epistle are love and fellowship with God. [4] [5] The author describes various tests by which readers may ascertain whether or not their communion with God is genuine, and teaches that the proof of spiritual regeneration is a life of active righteousness. [6] It also distinguishes between the world (which is full of evil and under the dominion of Satan) and the children of God (who are set apart from the world). [7]
The epistle is not written in the same form as the other biblical epistles, as it lacks an epistolary opening or conclusion. [8] The epistle is written in a simple style, without syntactical flourishes, [8] and makes frequent use of asyndeton , where related thoughts are placed next to one another without conjunctions. [9] In contrast to the linear style used in the Pauline epistles , biblical scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton suggests that John's thought "moves in circles", forming a slowly advancing sequence of thought. [7] This is similar to the parallel structure of Hebrew poetry , in which the second verse of a couplet often carries the same meaning as the first, although in this epistle the frequent recapitulations of already expressed ideas serve also to add to what has previously been said. [10] In summary, the epistle may be said to exhibit a paraenetic style which is "marked by personal appeal, contrasts of right and wrong, true and false, and an occasional rhetorical question". [8]
Some scholars have proposed the idea that the epistle is really John's commentary on a selection of traditional parallel couplets. While this theory, first propounded by Ernst von Dobschütz and Rudolf Bultmann , is not universally accepted, Amos Wilder writes that, "It is at least clear that there are considerable and sometimes continuous elements in the epistle whose style distinguishes them from that of the author both with respect to poetic structure and syntactic usage." [11]
The epistle is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Evangelist , at Ephesus , [12] when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style are very similar to the Gospel of John , 2 John , and 3 John . [3] Thus, at the end of the 19th century scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton wrote that there could be "no reasonable doubt" that 1 John and the gospel were written by the same author. [13]
Beginning in the 20th century, however, critical scholars like Heinrich Julius Holtzmann and C. H. Dodd identified the Gospel of John and 1 John as works of different authors. Certain linguistic features of the two texts support this view. For instance, 1 John often uses a demonstrative pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, then a particle or conjunction, followed by an explanation or definition of the demonstrative at the end of the sentence—a stylistic technique which is not used in the gospel. [8] The author of the epistle also "uses the conditional sentence in a variety of rhetorical figures which are unknown to the gospel". This indicates, at the very least, the linguistic characteristics changed over time. [14] Today, following the work of J. Louis Martyn and Raymond Brown , the majority of scholars believe that John and 1 John were written by different members of the same community: the "Johannine Community". [15]
Most critical scholars conclude that John the Apostle wrote none of these works. [16] [17]
"The Fourth Gospel addresses itself to the challenges posed by Judaism and others outside Johannine circles who have rejected the community's vision of Jesus as preexistent Son, sent by the Father." The New Jerome Biblical Commentary suggests that the three Johannine epistles "describe the fracturing of the Johannine community itself". [18]
The author wrote the epistle so that the joy of his audience would "be full" (1:4); that they would "not practice sin" (2:1); that they would not be deceived by false teachers (2:26); and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God ... may continue to know that you have eternal life " (5:13). There are two main approaches to understanding the overall purpose of the letter, tests of life (popularized by Robert Law) and tests of fellowship (popularized by John Mitchell and Zane Hodges ). Whereas the Gospel of John was written for unbelievers ( John 20:31 ), this epistle was written to those who were already believers (5:13). [19] Ernest DeWitt Burton found it likely that its audience was largely gentile rather than Jewish, since it contains few Old Testament quotations or distinctly Jewish forms of expression. [12]
The epistle also partakes of the debate over Jesus's nature: the debate over "flesh" or the incarnation . In early Christianity , some advocated for docetism , a view that Christ had been a purely divine being. Most notably, the group that would eventually become the Gnostics were docetic. 1 John fiercely denounces this belief in favor of the view that Jesus had a real appearance "in the flesh" on Earth. Chapter 4 writes that "every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God" (NRSV), [20] and other passages say that Jesus shed blood, and if he could not shed blood then his death was meaningless. Chapter 2 also includes a passage that refers to a group of proto-Gnostics: a group that was once with the church but have since left it and deny that the human Jesus was also the spiritual Christ. The author denounces these secessionists as "antichrists". The introduction possibly also addresses the issue, especially if the identification of the author as John, or a pseudepigraphic claim to have been a disciple, is assumed: Chapter 1 writes of having evidence of the truth via eyes and touch. The author may thus be claiming to have known the physical Jesus personally and is emphasizing his physicality as a flesh-and-blood person rather than a spirit or phantasm. [21]
The earliest written versions of the epistle have been lost; some of the earliest surviving manuscripts include:
The Muratorian fragment , dated to AD 170, cites chapter 1, verses 1–3 within a discussion of the Gospel of John. [24] Papyrus 9 , dating from the 3rd century, has surviving parts of chapter 4, verses 11–12 and 14–17. [25]
Different versions of the Greek manuscript have different wording for some verses.
Verses 1-4 of the first chapter constitute a prologue or introduction concerning the Incarnate Word. [26] Like the Prologue to John's Gospel, this introduction tells us that what the author proposes to write about is the Word which is the Life. [27] Anglican commentator Alfred Plummer notes that "the similarity to the opening of the Gospel is manifest", but with a significant difference, in that the gospel refers to the existence of the Ancient Greek : λόγος , lógos , word, before the creation, whereas here the point is that the word existed before the incarnation . [27]
A Trinitarian gloss (marginal note) known as the Johannine Comma , added to Latin translations of the epistle in the 4th century, [28] was interpolated (added to the main text) within 1 John 5:7-8 over the course of the Middle Ages . [28] Although no Greek manuscripts before the 15th century include the passage, Erasmus added it to later editions of his edition of the New Testament, beginning in 1522. [29] Bibles translated from his edition integrate the passage, including the King James Version (1611), which renders it as follows ( in italics ):
7 For there are three that beare record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. 8 And there are three that beare witnesse in earth, the Spirit, and the Water, and the Blood, and these three agree in one. [30]
Translations made since the 18th century and based on a critical edition do not include this text, or include it as a footnote. Because the addition supports the doctrine of trinitarianism , it featured in Protestant and Catholic debates on this subject in the early modern period .
Plummer suggests that here, "as at the end of [John's] Gospel [32] and the Second Epistle , [33] ' Amen ' is the addition of a copyist". [27] The Textus Receptus version includes "Ἀμήν", Amen , at the end but critical editions do not. [34]
Around 415, Augustine of Hippo wrote a commentary in Latin On the Epistle of John to the Parthians (in Latin, ad Parthos ), in which he identifies the addressees of John's letter as Parthians . It has occasionally been suggested that this refers to a community of converts in the Jewish community of Babylonia . Around 730, Bede wrote that Athanasius of Alexandria had also believed in a Parthian destination for 1 John . This tradition, however, is known only from Latin sources. (Three late Greek manuscripts of 2 John label it "to the Parthians".) On balance, it is likely that John's first letter was written for the Ephesian church and that the Parthian label results from a misreading or misunderstanding. [35]
"1 John 4:16" is a song title in the album " The Life of the World to Come " inspired by this verse that was released by the American band The Mountain Goats in 2009. [36] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Epistle_of_John | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Summary of the Book of 1 John | Author: 1, 2, and 3 John have from earliest times been attributed to the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John. The content, style, and vocabulary seem to warrant the conclusion that these three epistles were addressed to the same readers as the Gospel of John.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him.
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 John was likely written between A.D. 85-95.
Purpose of Writing: The Book of 1 John seems to be a summary that assumes the readers' knowledge of the gospel as written by John and offers certainty for their faith in Christ. The first epistle indicates that the readers were confronted with the error of gnosticism, which became a more serious problem in the second century. As a philosophy of religion it held that matter is evil and spirit is good. The solution to the tension between these two was knowledge, or gnosis, through which man rose from the mundane to the spiritual. In the gospel message, this led to two false theories concerning the person of Christ, Docetism—regarding the human Jesus as a ghost—and Cerinthianism—making Jesus a dual personality, at times human and at times divine. The key purpose of 1 John is to set boundaries on the content of faith and to give believers assurance of their salvation.
Key Verses:
1 John 1:9 , "If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness."
1 John 3:6 , "No one who lives in him keeps on sinning. No one who continues to sin has either seen him or known him."
1 John 4:4 , "You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world."
1 John 5:13 , "I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God so that you may know that you have eternal life."
The key word is "knowledge," with its related words, occurring at least 13 times in the Book of 1 John.
Brief Summary: False spiritual teachers were a big problem in the early church. Because there was not a complete New Testament that believers could refer to, many churches fell prey to pretenders who taught their own ideas and advanced themselves as leaders. John wrote this letter to set the record straight on some important issues, particularly concerning the identity of Jesus Christ.
Because John’s letter was about the basics of faith in Christ, it helped his readers reflect honestly on their faith. It helped them answer the question, Are we true believers? John told them that they could tell by looking at their actions. If they loved one another, that was evidence of God’s presence in their lives. But if they bickered and fought all the time or were selfish and did not look out for one another, they were betraying that they, in fact, did not know God.
That did not mean they had to be perfect. In fact, John also recognized that believing involved admitting our sins and seeking God’s forgiveness. Depending on God for cleansing from guilt, along with admitting our wrongs against others and making amends, was another important part of getting to know God.
Connections: One of the most often-quoted passages regarding sin is found in 1 John 2:16 . In this passage, John describes the three aspects of sin that recall the first and most earth-shattering temptations in all of Scripture. The first sin—the disobedience of Eve—was the result of her yielding to the same three temptations as we find in Genesis 3:6 : the lust of the flesh (“good for food”); the lust of the eyes (“pleasing to the eye”); and the pride of life (“desirable for gaining wisdom”).
Practical Application: The Book of 1 John is a book of love and joy. It explains the fellowship we have with others and with Jesus Christ. It differentiates between happiness, which is temporary and fleeting, and true joy, which 1 John tells us how to achieve. If we take the words written by John and we apply them to our daily lives, the true love, commitment, fellowship, and joy we long for will be ours.
The apostle John knew Christ well. He is telling us that we can all have that close, intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. We have the witness of men who had direct and personal contact with Him. The Gospel writers present their solidly based testimony on a historical reality. Now, how does that apply to our lives? It explains to us that Jesus came here as the Son of God to create a union with us based on His grace, mercy, love, and acceptance. So many times people think Jesus is off in some faraway place and that He doesn’t really concern Himself with our daily struggles, issues, and concerns. But John is telling us that Jesus is right here with us in both the simple, mundane parts of our lives and in the complex, soul-wrenching parts as well. John testifies as a witness of his personal experiences that God became flesh and lived among men. That means Christ came here to live with us and He still lives with us. As He walked the earth alongside John, so does He walk through each and every day with us. We need to apply this truth to our lives and live as if Jesus were standing right next to us every second of the day. If we put this truth into practice, Christ will add holiness to our lives, making us more and more like Him. | https://www.gotquestions.org/Book-of-1-John.html | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Letters of John | Summary, Authorship, & Facts | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: Article History
Letters of John , abbreviation John , three New Testament writings, all composed sometime around 100 ce and traditionally attributed to St. John the Apostle , son of Zebedee and disciple of Jesus . The author of the first letter is not identified, but the writer of the second and third calls himself “presbyter” (elder). Though the question of authorship has been much discussed, the language and contents of the three letters suggest a common source.
The three Letters of John, together with the Letter of James , the two Letters of Peter , and the Letter of Jude , are part of the seven so-called Catholic Letters. As the history of the New Testament canon shows, the Catholic Letters were among the last of the literature to be settled on as canonical before the agreement of East and West in 367. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, only 1 John and 1 Peter were universally recognized. Although their order in the Bible has varied, the three Letters of John typically are the 23rd, 24th, and 25th books of the New Testament.
The First Letter of John was apparently addressed to a group of churches where “false prophets,” denounced as Antichrist , denied the Incarnation of Jesus and caused a secession so substantial that the orthodox remnant was sadly depleted. The faithful were deeply disturbed that the heresy found favour among pagans, and they apparently felt inferior because those who had left their midst claimed to have profound mystical experiences. The heretics asserted that they possessed perfection, were “born of God,” and were without sin. By placing themselves above the Commandments, they in fact sanctioned moral laxity. John’s letter thus urges the Christian community to hold fast to what they had been taught and to repudiate heretical teachings. Christians are exhorted to persevere in leading a moral life, which meant imitating Christ by keeping the Commandments, especially that of loving one another. The spirit of the letter closely parallels that of the Gospel According to John .
The second and third letters are closely akin to the first in language and ideas. The Second Letter of John exhorts a church , fancifully called “the elect lady and her children,” to boycott the docetic heretics (combated in 1 John), who deny the reality of the Incarnation . In 2 John, as in the Gospel According to John and 1 John, the light–darkness images are similar to those of the Dead Sea Scrolls . To “walk in the truth” is to reject heresy and follow the doctrine of Christ.
The Third Letter of John is addressed to a certain Gaius and complains that “Diotrephes, who lies to put himself first, does not acknowledge my authority”—a hint that gnostic teachings were severely disrupting the community. The writer is concerned about and has responsibility as presbyter for the missionaries of the church. It is somewhat of a short note concerned with church discipline, encouraging hospitality to true missionaries, and thus is not unconnected with true doctrine and the command of love.
Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Shiva and his family
scripture , also called sacred scripture , the revered texts, or Holy Writ, of the world’s religions . Scriptures comprise a large part of the literature of the world. They vary greatly in form, volume, age, and degree of sacredness, but their common attribute is that their words are regarded by the devout as sacred . Sacred words differ from ordinary words in that they are believed either to possess and convey spiritual and magical powers or to be the means through which a divine being or other sacred reality is revealed in phrases and sentences full of power and truth.
Most sacred scriptures were originally oral and were passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing. A few are still preserved orally, such as the hymns of Native Americans . Many bear the unmistakable marks of their oral origin and can best be understood when recited aloud; in fact, it is still held by many Hindus and Buddhists that their scriptures lack, when read silently, the meaning and significance they have when recited aloud, for the human voice is believed to add to the recited texts dimensions of truth and power not readily grasped by the solitary reader.
Not all scriptures, however, were originally oral, nor were they in all parts directly effectual in rituals that sought the granting of magical and spiritual powers. The greater part of recorded scripture has either a narrative or an expository character. The types of sacred and semisacred texts are, in fact, many and varied. Besides magical runes (ancient Germanic alphabet characters) and spells from primitive and ancient sources, they include hymns , prayers , chants, myths , stories about gods and heroes, epics , fables , sacred laws, directions for the conduct of rituals , the original teachings of major religious figures, expositions of these teachings, moral anecdotes , dialogues of seers and sages, and philosophical discussions. In fact, scriptures include every form of literature capable of expressing religious feeling or conviction .
Types of sacred literature vary in authority and degree of sacredness. The centrally important and most holy of the sacred texts have in many instances been gathered into canons (standard works of the faith), which, after being determined either by general agreement or by official religious bodies, become fixed—i.e., limited to certain works that are alone viewed as fully authoritative and truly beyond all further change or alteration. The works not admitted to the canons (those of a semisacred or semicanonical character) may still be quite valuable as supplementary texts.
A striking instance of making a distinction between canonical and semicanonical scriptures occurs in Hinduism . The Hindu sacred literature is voluminous and varied; it contains ancient elements and every type of religious literature that has been listed, except historical details on the lives of the seers and sages who produced it. Its earliest portions, namely the four ancient Vedas (hymns), seem to have been provided by Indo-European families in northwestern India in the 2nd millennium bce . These and the supplements to them composed after 1000 bce —the Brahmanas (commentaries and instruction in ritual), the Aranyakas (forest books of ascetics), and the Upanishads (philosophical treatises)—are considered more sacred than any later writings. They are collectively referred to as Shruti (“Heard”; i.e., communicated by revelation), whereas the later writings are labeled Smriti (“Remembered”; i.e., recollected and reinterpreted at some distance in time from the original revelations). The former are canonical and completed, not to be added to nor altered, but the latter are semicanonical and semisacred.
Buddhist sacred literature recollects Gautama Buddha ’s life and teaching in the 6th century bce and first appeared in the dialect called Pali , allied to the Magadhi that he spoke. As time passed and his movement spread beyond India, Buddhism adopted as its medium Sanskrit , the Indian classical language that was widely used in ancient Asia. A distinction arose between the Theravada (“Way of the Elders”), preserved in Pali and regarded as canonical, and the vast number of works written in Sanskrit within the more widely dispersed Buddhism called by its adherents Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”). The Mahayana works were later translated and further expanded in Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese.
Whether the basic texts of indigenous Chinese religion should be called sacred, in the sense of Holy Writ, is open to question. Neither classical Daoism nor Confucianism can be said to have been based on revelation; the texts of these faiths were originally viewed as human wisdom, books written by humans for humans. They acquired authority, actually a canonical status, however, that caused them to be regarded with profound reverence and thus, in effect, as sacred. This certainly was true of the revered Daoist book, the Daodejing (“Classic of the Way of Power”), and of the Wujing (“Five Classics”) and the Sishu (“Four Books”) of Confucianism.
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who was the book of first john written to | To whom was the letter 1 John written? | 4
I understand that 1 John was directed to Christians who were hit by the rise of Gnosticism. I also understand that the letter was believed to have been written in Ephesus.
Is there any research to suggest whether the letter was written to a particular church or location?
In the Introduction to 1 John in the NIV Study Bible, Donald W. Burdick writes:
Author:
Unlike most NT letters, 1 John does not tell us who the author is. The earliest identification of him comes from the church fathers: Irenaeus (A.D. 140-203), Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 155-215), Tertullian (A.D. 150-220) and Origen (A.D. 185-253) all designated the writer as the apostle John. As far as we know, no one else was suggested by the early church. 1
Purpose:
John's readers were confronted with an early, first century, form of Gnostic teaching of the Cerinthian variety...This heresy was also libertine throwing off all moral restraints. 2
Date:
Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria suggest the letter was written after John's Gospel (circa A.D. 85) and before A.D. 95. 3
Clement of Alexandria place the apostle John in Ephesus during most of his later years. As Burdick notes:
The earliest confirmed use of 1 John was in the Roman province of Asia (in modern Turkey) where Ephesus was located. Clement of Alexandria indicates that John ministered in the various churches scattered throughout that province. It may be assumed, therefore, that 1 John was sent to the churches of the province of Asia. 4
This letter may have been a circular letter sent to Christians in that area. The letter does not mention any individuals by name, nor is there any indication that it was written for one specific church, although Ephesus is in that province and John was there at some point.
Notes:
1. Donald W. Burdick, NIV Study Bible , 2002, p. 2573
2. Burdick, p. 2575
3. Burdick, p. 2574
4. Ibid
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I think the short answer to your question is that either it was written (a) to the greater Church in general and not any specific local Church; or (b) to Parthians (Persians), resident either in Asia Minor or in Parthia near Bagdad and Babylon.
The letters of James, John, Peter, and Jude are known as the "Catholic" - or universal - Epistles, and are not generally believed to have been written to any specific Church.
Bede (672-735), however, in his introduction to his commentaries on the Catholic Epistles, wrote:
[John] wrote to those who came to believe from the gentiles, since neither by race nor by belief had they been Jews. Accordingly, many church writers, among whom is Saint Athanasius, head of the church of Alexandria, assert that his first Letter was written to the Parthians.
Parthia was essentially Persia, encompassing parts of modern day Iraq and Iran.
The editor of an English translation of Bede's commentary , Benedictine monk Dom David Hurst, writes in a footnote:
The statement that 1 Jn was written to the Parthians I have not been able to find among the writings of Saint Athanasius. However, Saint Augustine ( In Ioh. ep.; PL 35: 1977-78) and Cassiodorus ( In ep. apost. ; PL 70: 1369-70D) both say that it was written to the Parthians. Ancient Parthia lay to the south of the Caspian Sea, and presumably was regarded as an entirely pagan area.
Augustine's primary witness seems to consist of simply how he subtitled his commentary on 1 John: Ad Parthos . The editors of of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers edition in which Augustine's commentary appears speculate that somewhere the original Greek subtitle may have been something like πρὸς παρθένους ( pros parthenous ), meaning "to the Virgins", and was somehow erroneously transcribed. No conclusion is offered, but the observations are interesting:
In this designation of St. John’s first Epistle, the manuscript copies of St. Augustin all agree, both here and in the incidental mention, Quæst. Evang. ii. 39, of St. John’s Epistola ad Parthos; and that there is no error of transcription is further proved by the fact, that the present work appears in the Indiculus of Posidius under the title, In Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos Tractatus decem. And yet St. Augustin neither in these Tractates nor in any other of his extant works explains or comments upon this peculiar address. In the Latin church, since Augustin, it frequently occurs in authors and in mss. of the Vulgate. According to Venerable Bede, “Many ecclesiastical authors, and among them St. Athanasius, Bishop of the Church of Alexandria, witness that the first Epistle of St. John was written ad Parthos.” (Cave, Hist. Lit. i. 614). But there is no indication elsewhere that St. Athanasius was acquainted with this superscription, and with the exception of a few very modern mss. which have πρὸς πάρθους in the subscription to the second Epistle, it seems to be unknown to the Greek Church. The tradition according to which St. John preached the Gospel in Parthia rests (so far as appears) on no ancient authority, and perhaps has no other foundation than the superscription itself: which may have originated either, as some critics have supposed, in an abbreviated form of πρὸς παρθένους, “To the Virgins,” or as Gieseler suggests, in τοῦ παρθένου, as the designation of St. John himself, “The Epistle of John the Virgin;” an epithet which has gone with his name from very early times. In favor of this explanation it may be remarked, that Griesbach’s Codex, 30, has for the superscription of the Apocalypse, τοῦ ἁγίου ἐνδοξοτάτου ἀποστόλου καὶ εὐαγγελιστοῦ παρθένου ἠγαπημένου ἐπιστηθίου ’Ιωάννου θεολόγου: “The Apocalypse of the holy, most glorious Apostle and Evangelist, ‘the Virgin,’ the Beloved, who lay in the bosom (of the Lord), John the Theologus.”
I can't find the work of Cassiodorus that Dom David alludes to online. Cassiodorus (485-585) was a Roman administrator and Christian writer that lived a century or so later than Augustine (354-430).
The Eastern Orthodox Synaxiaria document John's once having been "cast by the waves upon the shore at Seleucia where the people of the city accused him of witchcraft" * . This occurred prior to his coming to Ephesus and to his eventual exile on Patmos (where he wrote Revelation).
During John's time there were two cities named Seleucia: one major Parthian city located between Babylon and Bagdad on the Tigris, and another lying on the southern coast of Asia Minor, within the confines of the Roman Empire. The Asia Minor Seleucia would have been on the way between Palestine and Ephesus, which was John's next stop according to the Synaxarion . The Synaxarion refers to the latter Seleucia, but perhaps there was some connection between the two cities. So the Parthians that John may have written to could have been people of Parthian origin that he came to know in Asia Minor and not necessarily Parthians in Parthia itself. But this is all speculation on my part.
* Hieromonk Makarios of Simonos Petra, The Synaxarion , Vol. 1 (Ormylia, Greece: Holy Convent of the Annunciation), p.200.
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1 John 1,9 he states, Its an invitation to the sin denier/ unbeliever to admit his sins and get forgiven, now that is a false statement, No where in the NT does it say that a unbeliever must confess their sins, its a false statement, Peter replied, "Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. So no unbeliever has to confess their sins to be saved, Acts 10, 43 All the prophets testify about him that everyone who believes in him receives forgiveness of sins through his name."
Now this statement in 1 John, if you look at chapter 2, he talking to believers /I have not written unto you because ye know not the truth, but because ye know it, and that no lie is of the truth, So the writer of 1 John is writing to believers, and makes a statement in 1 John 1 5-10 IF we believers say we have fellowship with him and walk in darkness, we lie, and do not the truth/ the If we would mean believers. 9If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.
So why is 1John1 9 saying if we confess, it is not necessary for a believer to continually confess, and also NOT necessary for any unbeliever to confess, to gain the light/ receive the spirit. The only case I can make of it is, the writer who new the people of 1John and had meet Jesus or the Apostles, wrote them this letter, and had possibly meet John Baptist, telling them that they need to get Johns Baptism, 4John did baptize in the wilderness, and preach the baptism of repentance for the remission of sins. 5And there went out unto him all the land of Judaea, and they of Jerusalem, and were all baptized of him in the river of Jordan, confessing their sins The only place when confess your sins statement is made is under the Baptist rule, so the writer of 1 John was using this statement, and mixing it with the later rule of Jesus of being forgiven, but the confess and forgiven, in one statement, are from 2 different systems, first system repent confess from the Baptist, and believe the Gospel baptise and your forgiven of All sins, from a later Jesus teaching.
The pondering continues
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I have been pondering this as well. I was mystified as to why there was so much emphasis on sinning, law and commandments. Then in 1John 3:11-12 he mentions the message they heard from the beginning: We should love one another. Followed by reference to Cain and Abel. Only Jews would have known about Cain and Abel. So I reread the letter as written to new believers who were Jewish and it made a lot more sense. He seems to be challenging them to see the new way of God loving us first and only by being in Christ Jesus are we free from Sin and death, the consequence of the law. Much to ponder indeed.
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1 John 1:8 is often used as an excuse for the term originating from the majority of false religious systems called the "sinning christian" (Sin you will, sin you must) But we see and as I have often thought that 1 John was written to refute the Gnostic belief that if you have the knowledge (gnosis) you are free from sin. Gnosticism holds other foreign heretical ideas that various cosmic powers, which are themselves emanations of divinity, can assist people in their contact with God. This being so, believers need to supplement their reliance upon Christ by gaining an acquaintance with such powers. Gnosticism was the battle facing the early church. The "sinning christian" also known as the "broad way" is the battle that the Church of God is facing today. In Which 1 John so elegantly demolishes in 1 John 3:3-12 and 1 John 5:18
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I'm somewhat tentatively of the opinion that "1 John", like "To the Hebrews" was not written to "Christians" but rather to new covenant Jews. The only writings in the scriptures that are written specifically to Christians (which I'm distinguishing as the "body of Christ", Paul's "new creation") are the letters that Paul wrote (Romans to Philemon). Obviously "To the Hebrews" was written to the Hebrews. Peter and James both explicitly address their letters to "the 12 tribes" and "the diaspora". The believing Jews in 1 John had a different relationship and different salvation from those to whom Paul wrote. They were Jews living in the last days of the Israel-centered "kingdom program" of the previous dispensation (before the "church age" that Paul introduced). Please bear with me a few minutes...
First of all, 1 John appeals to John's first hand knowledge of the earthly Jesus:
1Jn 1:1 That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon, and our hands have handled, of the Word of life; 1Jn 1:2 (For the life was manifested, and we have seen it, and bear witness, and shew unto you that eternal life, which was with the Father, and was manifested unto us;) 1Jn 1:3 That which we have seen and heard declare we unto you, that ye also may have fellowship with us: and truly our fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ.
But Paul did was not a disciple of the earthly Christ:
2Co 5:16 Wherefore henceforth know we no man after the flesh: yea, though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no more.
The earthly Jesus was a Jew, made of the seed of David, born under the law:
Gal_4:4 But when the fulness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law,
The new covenant was not in effect while he was alive:
Heb_9:16 For where a testament is, there must also of necessity be the death of the testator. Heb_9:17 For a testament is of force after men are dead: otherwise it is of no strength at all while the testator liveth.
Jesus taught the law and a works salvation:
Luk_18:20 Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother.
So also does 1 John:
1Jn_2:3 And hereby we do know that we know him, if we keep his commandments. 1Jn_2:4 He that saith, I know him, and keepeth not his commandments, is a liar, and the truth is not in him.
1Jn_3:22 And whatsoever we ask, we receive of him, because we keep his commandments, and do those things that are pleasing in his sight.
1Jn_3:24 And he that keepeth his commandments dwelleth in him, and he in him. And hereby we know that he abideth in us, by the Spirit which he hath given us.
1Jn_5:2 By this we know that we love the children of God, when we love God, and keep his commandments. 1Jn_5:3 For this is the love of God, that we keep his commandments: and his commandments are not grievous.
Sin in 1 John is transgression of the law (and vice versa):
1Jn 3:4 Whosoever committeth sin transgresseth also the law: for sin is the transgression of the law.
Paul clearly distinguishes sinning under the law from sinning apart from the law:
Rom 5:12 Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned: Rom 5:13 ( For until the law sin was in the world: but sin is not imputed when there is no law. Rom 5:14 Nevertheless death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's transgression, who is the figure of him that was to come.
For the disciples of the earthly Jesus (Jews, as Jews, believing in Jesus' messiahship prior to 70AD) justification was not an accomplished work given freely by grace but one that involved being "rewashed" from every sin in dependence on a heavenly priest and advocate:
1Jn 1:7 But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship one with another, and the blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin. 1Jn 1:8 If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. 1Jn 1:9 If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.
The one who hopes to be saved must "overcome" by the maintenance of their lives in purity and righteous living:
1Jn 2:28 And now, little children, abide in him; that, when he shall appear, we may have confidence, and not be ashamed before him at his coming. 1Jn 2:29 If ye know that he is righteous, ye know that every one that doeth righteousness is born of him.
1Jn 3:3 And every man that hath this hope in him purifieth himself, even as he is pure. 1Jn 3:4 Whosoever committeth sin transgresseth also the law: for sin is the transgression of the law. 1Jn 3:5 And ye know that he was manifested to take away our sins; and in him is no sin. 1Jn 3:6 Whosoever abideth in him sinneth not: whosoever sinneth hath not seen him, neither known him. 1Jn 3:7 Little children, let no man deceive you: he that doeth righteousness is righteous, even as he is righteous. 1Jn 3:8 He that committeth sin is of the devil; for the devil sinneth from the beginning. For this purpose the Son of God was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil. 1Jn 3:9 Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin; for his seed remaineth in him: and he cannot sin, because he is born of God. 1Jn 3:10 In this the children of God are manifest, and the children of the devil: whosoever doeth not righteousness is not of God, neither he that loveth not his brother.
But in the dispensation of grace that God brought through Paul justification is a gift received based on the obedience of a single man, Jesus:
Rom_5:19 For as by one man's disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous.
So I don't count myself to be among the audience of 1 John as it was written specifically to the Jews who acknowledged Jesus as their messiah but lived prior to (or still outside of) Paul's "new man", the "body of Christ". Paul is my apostle because he was the apostle to the gentiles and to him was given the dispensation of the grace of God and it was he who was made the architect of the new man.
I said at the outset that I was tentative about his audience being Jews under the new covenant. I believe that to be the case but since he doesn't mention the new covenant (as "To the Hebrews" clearly does) I am cautious about it. However he does seem to so draw a line between sinners who are not born of God and do not have his character and those that are born and do have his character it appears that he is writing to those who have God's law written on their hearts and who experience the promise of the forgiveness of sins under that covenant:
1Jn 3:5 And ye know that he was manifested to take away our sins; and in him is no sin. 1Jn 3:6 Whosoever abideth in him sinneth not: whosoever sinneth hath not seen him, neither known him. 1Jn 3:7 Little children, let no man deceive you: he that doeth righteousness is righteous, even as he is righteous. 1Jn 3:8 He that committeth sin is of the devil; for the devil sinneth from the beginning. For this purpose the Son of God was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil. 1Jn 3:9 Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin; for his seed remaineth in him: and he cannot sin, because he is born of God. 1Jn 3:10 In this the children of God are manifest, and the children of the devil: whosoever doeth not righteousness is not of God, neither he that loveth not his brother.
KJV unless otherwise noted. | https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/questions/32987/to-whom-was-the-letter-1-john-written | 148 |
who was the book of first john written to | Book of First John Overview | Listen to Chuck Swindoll’s overview of First John in his audio message from the Classic series God’s Masterwork .
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The author of this epistle never identified himself by name, but Christians since the beginning of the church have considered this letter authoritative, believing it was written by John the apostle. That group of witnesses includes Polycarp, an early second-century bishop who as a young man knew John personally. In addition, the author clearly places himself as part of a group of apostolic eyewitnesses to the life and ministry of Jesus, noting that “what we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also” ( 1 John 1:3 ).
John did not specify the recipients of this letter, but given his addresses in Revelation 2–3 to seven churches in the immediate vicinity of Ephesus—the city where John ministered late in his life—he likely had those same churches in mind for this letter. The letter offers little in the way of specifics, so pinpointing the date of its composition can be difficult. However, its similarity with the gospel composed by John means it was probably written near the same time. A date of about AD 90, with John writing from his exile on Patmos, ends up being the best proposition.
The parallelisms in 1 John are striking for their simplicity: Christ vs. antichrists, light vs. darkness, truth vs. falsehood, righteousness vs. sin, love of the Father vs. love of the world, and the Spirit of God vs. the spirit of the Antichrist. While this is not a complete list, it reveals a letter that presents the world in an uncomplicated way—there is right and there is wrong, period. This emphasis by John, while striking, is not without love. It’s quite the opposite, in fact. John recognized that love comes from God, and he encouraged the believers to love one another ( 1 John 4:7 ). John’s first epistle teaches that while it is important to recognize the lines between truth and error, it must always be done in a spirit of love.
As he did in his gospel, John stated with clarity the purpose of his first letter. He proclaimed the good news about Jesus to the recipients of this letter, saying “so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ” ( 1 John 1:3 ). Later, John added “so that you may not sin” (2:1) and “so that you may know that you have eternal life” (5:13). John wanted his readers to experience true fellowship with God and with God’s people. But he knew that would not happen until the Christians set aside their own selfish desires in favor of the pursuits God had for them.
To help them attain that goal, John focused on three issues: the zeal of the believers, standing firm against false teachers, and reassuring the Christians that they have eternal life. John wrote to churches full of people who had struggled with discouragement—whether due to their own sinful failures or the presence of false teachers in their midst. The aging apostle hoped to ignite the zeal of these believers so that they might follow the Lord more closely and stand firm against those who meant to sow discord among the churches. In doing so, they would solidify their relationship with God and gain confidence in His work in their lives.
We all go through ups and downs in our Christian faith. Whatever the struggle—whether outside of us or inside—we often feel ourselves blown about by the winds of emotion or circumstances. Yet God calls us to lives of increasing consistency, with the evidence of our inner transformation becoming more and more apparent as the months and years pass by. How would you characterize your relationship with God—consistent and fruitful or sporadic and parched?
John knew that we would never find in ourselves the faithfulness God requires. Instead, we have to place complete trust in the work and grace of God, believing that He will certainly conform us to the image of His Son, Jesus. That sense of being grounded in God only comes when we set aside our sin in the pursuit of the one true God. Or, in the words of John, “if we love one another, God abides in us, and His love is perfected in us” ( 1 John 4:12 ). | https://insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/first-john | 148 |
where was friday the 13th crystal lake filmed | Friday The 13th: Every Filming Location In The Horror Movie Franchise | By
Friday the 13th has used a variety of locales for Camp Crystal Lake over the years. Here's where each movie in the franchise was shot.
The Friday the 13th series is one of the most iconic franchises in horror due to its instantly recognizable killer and iconic setting, which has been recreated in several different filming locations. Jason Voorhees owes a great deal of his notoriety to his wooded hunting grounds. Camp Crystal Lake became a name almost as iconic as its resident slasher, as the summer campgrounds established a new, trendy setting for slasher flicks.
Crystal Lake's heavy forest provides dense coverage for Jason to wait in ambush as he picks off his unsuspecting victims, while its cabins provide few hiding spaces for those unfortunate enough to get caught smoking, drinking, or engaging in other forms of youthful debauchery by the masked killer . There's also the lake itself, which is the place where Jason drowned due to his counselors' negligence; it was here that the vengeful horror legend was born.
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Camp Crystal Lake's mythical status is why shooting locations for the Friday the 13th films are so vital. Horror movie settings are almost always an important part of establishing the mood. Few other slashers have become as associated with their surroundings as Jason. The actual locations have changed from film-to-film almost every single time, though, meaning that each set is bound to have a unique quality. While some of these production sites are still quintessential horror settings, others have, sadly, fared as well as Jason's many victims. Here are all the Friday the 13th shooting locations, listed by the franchise's chronology.
The real-world setting of the first Friday the 13th film is by far the most famous. The grounds used for Camp Crystal Lake is a boy scout retreat called Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco located in Hardwick, New Jersey. The camp is still operating to this day, but unfortunately, that means that fans can't visit the site without getting in trouble for trespassing. However, No-Be-Bo-Sco occasionally holds elaborate Crystal Lake Tours on select days, usually the date of Friday the 13th, complete with props and memorabilia.
Nearby Blairstown, where Crystal Lake's own town was shot, also pays tribute to the film with an exhibit at the Blairstown Museum that, just last year, expanded to a full-on Friday the 13th museum. Locals express that the date of Friday the 13th has practically become a holiday for the community since the town holds a "Jason fest" to celebrate the film's legacy. The Roy's Hall concert venue in Blairstown holds the special honor of both screening Friday the 13th on these days as well as appearing in a shot of the film itself. Interior shots were also shot next door to Blairstown in Hope, making Jason and his mother true Jersey folk.
The sequel moved from New Jersey to Connecticut so the crew could shoot in the rural, heavily wooded county of Litchfield in the west of the state. The village of New Preston provided the backdrop for downtown scenes, including the casino where the counselors visited the bar. The cabins along Camp Kenmont's North Spectacle Pond, located just outside the town of Kent, was where Jason stalked his prey at Camp Crystal Lake. In addition, the city of Waterbury, located in the much more urbanized eastern part of Connecticut, was where audiences visited the house of the sole survivor of the first film, Alice Hardy.
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Unfortunately, the sets for this entry have not been nearly as well-preserved as those for the first film. Alice's house in Waterbury has been demolished, although interior scenes were shot in what is now a drug-treatment center in Torrington. The casino in New Preston was a popular nightlife spot for years before completely burning down. Camp Kenmont is still active, but the property was sold to another owner and the residences on North Spectacle Pond, called Bromica Lodge, were likewise destroyed.
Part III marks the first time that a Friday the 13th film was not shot on the East coast, as the crew needed a more controlled environment to regulate the movie's 3D effects. Instead, production took place in Veluzat Motion Picture Ranch in Santa Clarita, California with its own constructed barn, cabin, and lake. The ranch is still used as a production site, but the cabin that was used in the film burned down in 2012. In addition, the scene with the biker gang was shot at what is now the Green Valley Cafe in the Santa Clarita area.
In the first and almost only time that two movies technically shared a shooting location, the opening to The Final Chapter was also at Veluzat Ranch. Nevertheless, the rest of the film took place in different locations. The expendable teens went skinny-dipping in the waters of Zaca Lake, while they hiked along the trails that surround the area. The Zaca Lake Lodge, in fact, marks the third time so far that a Friday the 13th shooting location burned down, this time more recently in 2016. The place is a popular filming site, with its ties to Hollywood productions going all the way back to the silent era. Most notably, the lake was also where the Universal monster classic, Creature from the Black Lagoon , was shot. In addition, the residence of Tommy Jarvis and his family is a privately owned house in Topanga, CA.
Despite the title of the movie, production for the series continued to remain in California in various locations around the Los Angeles area. As opposed to the other entries in the franchise, a chunk of the action was shot in the middle of an urban area, albeit in the idyllic Franklin Canyon Park, which is tucked inside the Beverly Hills portion of the Santa Monica Mountains. The Pineway Halfway House where Tommy Jarvis is institutionalized is a privately-owned property called "Rancho Rosito", located in Camarillo, California. Corey Feldman was too busy shooting The Goonies to appear on set, so the crew traveled to his backyard for his cameo in the opening scene.
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For the sixth film, production moved down south to Georgia. The town scenes, including the sheriff's office where Tommy Jarvis fails to convince the law that Jason is back from the dead, were shot in Covington. The small city, located outside of Atlanta, shares slasher blood with Rob Zombie's Halloween II , which was also shot there. The camp scenes took place in Camp Daniel Morgan around Hard Labor Creek State Park's Lake Rutledge, a couple of miles east of Covington. Luckily, the camp still exists and holds occasional tours and screenings, perhaps because Jason Lives is so well-beloved by Friday the 13th fans.
A point of contention exists over which cemetery Jason emerged from at the beginning of the film. Fansites often state that it was Covington Cemetary, but screencap comparisons and recovered call sheet documents reveal that it was actually Old Madison Cemetary in Madison, GA. It's comforting to know that what is considered arguably the most entertaining entry in the series has its shooting locations comparatively well-preserved.
Production for The New Blood stayed in the south but moved over to neighboring Alabama, specifically within Baldwin County and around the city of Mobile. Byrnes Lake was chosen for the outdoor activities this time, although this time the cabins were all constructed for the film and then torn down. In an odd bit of Southern flair, there was even a gator wrangler hired in case the beasts attacked the cast and crew, but the gators weren't active during the time of the shooting. A number of interiors were built in Los Angeles for filming, and the crew also went back to Topanga Canyon, California for the interiors of the house used in The Final Chapter .
Jason's trip to New York City infamously doesn't even take place within The Big Apple for the majority of the movie. Despite the fact that Jason Takes Manhattan was the most expensive Friday the 13th film to date, $5 million budget still didn't cover the cost of shooting in New York. Instead, production took place mostly in Vancouver and surrounding areas within British Columbia, as well as with some interior shots in Los Angeles. The only scene that was legitimately shot in New York was in Times Square, which attracted a sizable crowd of Friday the 13th fans to watch Jason actor Kane Hodder don the hockey mask.
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The crew returned to southern California to shoot the ninth installment in Thousand Oaks. The town contained the Canyon Ranch Studio for outdoor production, as well as nearby urban locales such as Joey B.'s diner. The Voorhees residence where Jason does, indeed, go to hell was filmed at a private house in the suburban West Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, specifically on Eagle Mountain Street.
The fact that horror sci-fi crossover Jason X takes place entirely on a spaceship means that the film used a soundstage to construct sets in Toronto, Canada. There are no Camp Crystal Lake locales to be found here beyond a virtual simulation that's created for part of the movie. However, Jason X includes a fun cameo appearance where director David Cronenberg gets stabbed and showcases one of the franchise's most creative kills, with Jason offing someone in a vat of liquid nitrogen.
Finally, after years of teasing audiences and inter-studio meddling, the big crossover between two icons of the slasher sub-genre, Freddy vs. Jason , was shot in and around Vancouver, using an impressive amount of on-location settings compared to the past few previous films. Jason's shack was located along the shore of the picturesque Buntzen Lake, although the set was demolished after filming. However, there were also some interiors and street shots that were filmed on a Universal Studios lot in Hollywood.
The 2009 remake of Friday the 13th took the action to Central Texas around the Austin area. Neighboring Bastrop provided outdoor recreation areas for camp scenes in Friday the 13th , while Austin, Round Rock, and Wimberley contained on-location structures like houses and stores. The city of Austin itself conveniently holds film studios for a more controlled environment, as well. Additionally, the crew also traveled to Camp Fern in the East Texas town of Marshall to shoot more on-location outdoor scenes.
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where was friday the 13th crystal lake filmed | Where was Friday the 13th filmed? | Produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham, Friday the 13th was the film that was his big break in the horror film genre. Considered a genre-defining film that began a long-running franchise, Friday the 13th is what many consider to be a “classic” horror film that upped the ante for future horror films to come.
Spoiler Alert: We will be discussing several exciting and even scary plot points that occur throughout this movie as we talk about the various locations used in Friday the 13th’s production.
The year is 1957 and a young boy drowns in Crystal Lake. One year later, two people are murdered at the camp that was set up next to the lake, with the killer never found. Friday the 13th revolves around a group of young counselors who visit Camp Crystal Lake, hoping to refurbish the cabins and the surrounding facilities as they plan to reopen the camp to the public. As a thunderstorm nears the camp, the various counselors split up, and some attempt to finish up their tasks while others get comfortable with each other.
One by one, the various counselors are singled out and killed by this mysterious killer through all sorts of heinous methods. With the counselors getting suspicious as to their missing friends, they decide to band together to look for the missing people. The mysterious killer gets more creative to eliminate the remaining counselors and does this by cutting off the power, cutting the phone lines, and scaring the remaining counselors by throwing the bodies of their deceased friends through windows.
With the film nearing its end, it is revealed that the killer is Jason Voorhees’ mother, who blames her son’s death in 1957 on the counselors that weren’t watching him. Mrs. Voorhees attempts to kill Alice Hardy, the last counselor alive, but fails and dies as a result. As Alice is exhausted from all the events that transpired, she falls asleep inside a canoe that drifts out to Crystal Lake, when suddenly the decomposing corpse of Jason Voorhees attacks her. She wakes up in a hospital and when her claims are verified, she realizes that Jason is still in Crystal Lake.
The original Friday the 13th film showcased in 1980 was intended to be a standalone one and so, not a lot of the funds were put towards finding exotic locations. This led to a lot of the filming being done in New Jersey and the townships within the area. Most of the filming took place within Cunningham County, New Jersey, and as many would come to expect, Camp Crystal Lake is a fictional location. Although Camp Crystal Lake is a fictional creation, the original location for the filming of Friday the 13th took place at a camp in Hardwick called Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco.
Many of the Friday the 13th film scenes were shot in areas that weren’t too far from each other which means that if you happen to visit one, you could probably visit the rest of the locations where the shooting took place on the same day.
For how popular Friday the 13th was, the main antagonist Jason Voorhees has only a few quick scenes in the movie.
Blairstown, New Jersey
At the beginning of the movie, the audience is presented with one of the six counselors who are supposed to visit Camp Crystal Lake, Annie. She is seen walking up to two gas pumps and then talking to the dog who’s waiting by the pumps. She asks him, “You speak English? How far is it to Camp Crystal Lake?” What comes off as a bright and sunny introduction soon turns dark however with the beginning of the film not having the same energy as the ending.
The Friday the 13th film sets that were used in the introduction of the movie were set in Blairstown and although the gas pumps are no longer in their original location, various areas that were utilized before this scene can still be found today. In particular, the stone arches on Main Street that were featured in the 1980 film can still be visited today and to get there you can drive along the NJ-94 and then take a turn down Main Street. Along the street, you will be able to spot the stone arches used at the beginning of the film as well as several other locations used to show where Annie was walking at the beginning of the film.
Walnut Street, Hope, New Jersey
On the way to Camp Crystal Lake, Annie, along with the truck driver bump into the town’s local “crazy man”. Nicknamed Crazy Ralph, he asks Annie, “You’re going to Camp Blood, ain’t you?” This irritates the truck driver who replies in turn and says, “Dammit Ralph, get outta here! Go on, get it! Leave people alone!” This scene begins to paint an ominous picture of the camp and helps build anticipation for the additional scenes to come in the movie.
Some of the filming locations on Friday the 13th were used as a one-time set and this scene is a great example of that. The first appearance of Crazy Ralph was filmed along the intersection of Walnut Street and High Street in the township of Hope in New Jersey. To get there, drive along Delaware Road which leads to High Street, and you’ll be able to see the intersection where Crazy Ralph appeared as you drive by Walnut Street.
Moravian Cemetery, Hope, New Jersey
On the way to Camp Crystal Lake, Annie hitches a ride with the Truck Driver. While on the way to where he is going to drop her off, they discuss what Camp Crystal Lake will be like, to which Annie mentions that “I’ll be cooking for 50 kids and 10 staff.” He then mentions that the camp is jinxed and that trying to reopen the camp will just be bad luck. However, as he drops Annie off at the cemetery, which is a rather gloomy foreshadowing of where the counselors will end up, he tells her, “Take care of yourself kid!”
Moravian Cemetery was the location of the graveyard scene in Friday the 13th and is a surprisingly short distance away from the location where Crazy Ralph confronted Annie. To get to the graveyard. You can drive along Delaware Road and you’ll be able to see the iconic Moravian Cemetery sign.
Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco, Blairstown, New Jersey
As the rest of the characters begin to show up at Camp Crystal Lake, we get to see the future targets of the mysterious killer. With three of the counselors rolling up in their pickup truck, they get out and help the camp director uproot a tree stump. As we are introduced to the main characters of this film, the camp director Steve Christy says, “Welcome to Camp Crystal Lake.” With these words, the three counselors' fates are sealed as misfortune brews in the distance.
The location for Camp Crystal Lake is a real-life location named Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco which has been in operation since 1927, the oldest continually operating Scout camp in the state. While access to the camp is restricted, there are the occasional tours that occur on special dates, like Friday the 13th. This allows tourists and interested visitors to go on “Crystal Lake Tours” to visit the iconic set where many of Friday the 13th’s action scenes took place. To get to the camp, drive along Sand Pond Road before turning into Nobebosco Road which leads to the famous camp.
Diner in Blairstown, New Jersey
Steve left the camp earlier in the day to get the supplies required for the coming reopening of the site. Before he heads back to the camp, which at this point is late at night, he stops by the diner in Crystal Lake and talks to the waitress. He mentions to her, “I’ve got six new counselors at camp.” Unbeknownst to him, at this point, only 2 of the 6 counselors he hired to help are still alive at Camp Crystal Lake because of the unknown killer. He oddly refers to the counselors he hired as “babes in the woods” to which he remembers that he urgently needs to return to the camp to find out how they’re faring and quickly heads out of the diner.
The diner used for this scene in Friday the 13th is still standing today, over 40 years after the film was made! The diner is located in Blairstown, where most of the film shooting in the introductory portion of the movie takes place. To get to the Blairstown diner, drive along NJ-94, and you’ll be coming across the diner in no time.
Turkey Swamp Park, Freehold, New Jersey
Just when you think everything is over, with the main antagonist of the film dead, Alice falls asleep in a canoe that drifts out to the middle of Crystal Lake where Jason Voorhees died many years earlier. As the police call out to a freshly woken up Alice, she suddenly gets grabbed by the decomposing body of Jason Voorhees who tries to drag her into the water. She wakes up in a cold sweat at a hospital. The doctor present reassures her, “It’s all over. Everything’s over.” This makes Alice anxious as she mentions, “Then he’s still there.” She’s indicating that Jason still haunts the campground’s lake.
While most of the shooting took place at No-Be-Bo-Sco, the final sequence where Jason grabs Alice takes place at Turkey Swamp Park in Freehold. To get to the location where the final scene took place, you can drive along Georgia Road and then take a turn into Turkey Swamp Park Road.
With almost all the counselors gone in the first film of Friday the 13th, many wondered if any more counselors would befall the same fate. This led to many sequels with the Friday the 13th franchise amassing 13 films throughout the years and solidifying its status as a classic horror genre defining franchise. The following films not only explore the lore behind Camp Crystal Lake but also introduce new and exciting scenes for the new antagonist, Jason Voorhees, to appear.
This movie inspired a whole new genre of slash horror films and created the classic “final girl” trope which we still see in some movies today. So be sure that the next time you’re in and around the New Jersey area, make a stop and visit the famous Friday the 13th filming locations! | https://giggster.com/guide/movie-location/where-was-friday-the-13th-filmed | 149 |
where was friday the 13th crystal lake filmed | Friday The 13th: Every Filming Location In The Horror Movie Franchise | By
Friday the 13th has used a variety of locales for Camp Crystal Lake over the years. Here's where each movie in the franchise was shot.
The Friday the 13th series is one of the most iconic franchises in horror due to its instantly recognizable killer and iconic setting, which has been recreated in several different filming locations. Jason Voorhees owes a great deal of his notoriety to his wooded hunting grounds. Camp Crystal Lake became a name almost as iconic as its resident slasher, as the summer campgrounds established a new, trendy setting for slasher flicks.
Crystal Lake's heavy forest provides dense coverage for Jason to wait in ambush as he picks off his unsuspecting victims, while its cabins provide few hiding spaces for those unfortunate enough to get caught smoking, drinking, or engaging in other forms of youthful debauchery by the masked killer . There's also the lake itself, which is the place where Jason drowned due to his counselors' negligence; it was here that the vengeful horror legend was born.
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Camp Crystal Lake's mythical status is why shooting locations for the Friday the 13th films are so vital. Horror movie settings are almost always an important part of establishing the mood. Few other slashers have become as associated with their surroundings as Jason. The actual locations have changed from film-to-film almost every single time, though, meaning that each set is bound to have a unique quality. While some of these production sites are still quintessential horror settings, others have, sadly, fared as well as Jason's many victims. Here are all the Friday the 13th shooting locations, listed by the franchise's chronology.
The real-world setting of the first Friday the 13th film is by far the most famous. The grounds used for Camp Crystal Lake is a boy scout retreat called Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco located in Hardwick, New Jersey. The camp is still operating to this day, but unfortunately, that means that fans can't visit the site without getting in trouble for trespassing. However, No-Be-Bo-Sco occasionally holds elaborate Crystal Lake Tours on select days, usually the date of Friday the 13th, complete with props and memorabilia.
Nearby Blairstown, where Crystal Lake's own town was shot, also pays tribute to the film with an exhibit at the Blairstown Museum that, just last year, expanded to a full-on Friday the 13th museum. Locals express that the date of Friday the 13th has practically become a holiday for the community since the town holds a "Jason fest" to celebrate the film's legacy. The Roy's Hall concert venue in Blairstown holds the special honor of both screening Friday the 13th on these days as well as appearing in a shot of the film itself. Interior shots were also shot next door to Blairstown in Hope, making Jason and his mother true Jersey folk.
The sequel moved from New Jersey to Connecticut so the crew could shoot in the rural, heavily wooded county of Litchfield in the west of the state. The village of New Preston provided the backdrop for downtown scenes, including the casino where the counselors visited the bar. The cabins along Camp Kenmont's North Spectacle Pond, located just outside the town of Kent, was where Jason stalked his prey at Camp Crystal Lake. In addition, the city of Waterbury, located in the much more urbanized eastern part of Connecticut, was where audiences visited the house of the sole survivor of the first film, Alice Hardy.
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Unfortunately, the sets for this entry have not been nearly as well-preserved as those for the first film. Alice's house in Waterbury has been demolished, although interior scenes were shot in what is now a drug-treatment center in Torrington. The casino in New Preston was a popular nightlife spot for years before completely burning down. Camp Kenmont is still active, but the property was sold to another owner and the residences on North Spectacle Pond, called Bromica Lodge, were likewise destroyed.
Part III marks the first time that a Friday the 13th film was not shot on the East coast, as the crew needed a more controlled environment to regulate the movie's 3D effects. Instead, production took place in Veluzat Motion Picture Ranch in Santa Clarita, California with its own constructed barn, cabin, and lake. The ranch is still used as a production site, but the cabin that was used in the film burned down in 2012. In addition, the scene with the biker gang was shot at what is now the Green Valley Cafe in the Santa Clarita area.
In the first and almost only time that two movies technically shared a shooting location, the opening to The Final Chapter was also at Veluzat Ranch. Nevertheless, the rest of the film took place in different locations. The expendable teens went skinny-dipping in the waters of Zaca Lake, while they hiked along the trails that surround the area. The Zaca Lake Lodge, in fact, marks the third time so far that a Friday the 13th shooting location burned down, this time more recently in 2016. The place is a popular filming site, with its ties to Hollywood productions going all the way back to the silent era. Most notably, the lake was also where the Universal monster classic, Creature from the Black Lagoon , was shot. In addition, the residence of Tommy Jarvis and his family is a privately owned house in Topanga, CA.
Despite the title of the movie, production for the series continued to remain in California in various locations around the Los Angeles area. As opposed to the other entries in the franchise, a chunk of the action was shot in the middle of an urban area, albeit in the idyllic Franklin Canyon Park, which is tucked inside the Beverly Hills portion of the Santa Monica Mountains. The Pineway Halfway House where Tommy Jarvis is institutionalized is a privately-owned property called "Rancho Rosito", located in Camarillo, California. Corey Feldman was too busy shooting The Goonies to appear on set, so the crew traveled to his backyard for his cameo in the opening scene.
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For the sixth film, production moved down south to Georgia. The town scenes, including the sheriff's office where Tommy Jarvis fails to convince the law that Jason is back from the dead, were shot in Covington. The small city, located outside of Atlanta, shares slasher blood with Rob Zombie's Halloween II , which was also shot there. The camp scenes took place in Camp Daniel Morgan around Hard Labor Creek State Park's Lake Rutledge, a couple of miles east of Covington. Luckily, the camp still exists and holds occasional tours and screenings, perhaps because Jason Lives is so well-beloved by Friday the 13th fans.
A point of contention exists over which cemetery Jason emerged from at the beginning of the film. Fansites often state that it was Covington Cemetary, but screencap comparisons and recovered call sheet documents reveal that it was actually Old Madison Cemetary in Madison, GA. It's comforting to know that what is considered arguably the most entertaining entry in the series has its shooting locations comparatively well-preserved.
Production for The New Blood stayed in the south but moved over to neighboring Alabama, specifically within Baldwin County and around the city of Mobile. Byrnes Lake was chosen for the outdoor activities this time, although this time the cabins were all constructed for the film and then torn down. In an odd bit of Southern flair, there was even a gator wrangler hired in case the beasts attacked the cast and crew, but the gators weren't active during the time of the shooting. A number of interiors were built in Los Angeles for filming, and the crew also went back to Topanga Canyon, California for the interiors of the house used in The Final Chapter .
Jason's trip to New York City infamously doesn't even take place within The Big Apple for the majority of the movie. Despite the fact that Jason Takes Manhattan was the most expensive Friday the 13th film to date, $5 million budget still didn't cover the cost of shooting in New York. Instead, production took place mostly in Vancouver and surrounding areas within British Columbia, as well as with some interior shots in Los Angeles. The only scene that was legitimately shot in New York was in Times Square, which attracted a sizable crowd of Friday the 13th fans to watch Jason actor Kane Hodder don the hockey mask.
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The crew returned to southern California to shoot the ninth installment in Thousand Oaks. The town contained the Canyon Ranch Studio for outdoor production, as well as nearby urban locales such as Joey B.'s diner. The Voorhees residence where Jason does, indeed, go to hell was filmed at a private house in the suburban West Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, specifically on Eagle Mountain Street.
The fact that horror sci-fi crossover Jason X takes place entirely on a spaceship means that the film used a soundstage to construct sets in Toronto, Canada. There are no Camp Crystal Lake locales to be found here beyond a virtual simulation that's created for part of the movie. However, Jason X includes a fun cameo appearance where director David Cronenberg gets stabbed and showcases one of the franchise's most creative kills, with Jason offing someone in a vat of liquid nitrogen.
Finally, after years of teasing audiences and inter-studio meddling, the big crossover between two icons of the slasher sub-genre, Freddy vs. Jason , was shot in and around Vancouver, using an impressive amount of on-location settings compared to the past few previous films. Jason's shack was located along the shore of the picturesque Buntzen Lake, although the set was demolished after filming. However, there were also some interiors and street shots that were filmed on a Universal Studios lot in Hollywood.
The 2009 remake of Friday the 13th took the action to Central Texas around the Austin area. Neighboring Bastrop provided outdoor recreation areas for camp scenes in Friday the 13th , while Austin, Round Rock, and Wimberley contained on-location structures like houses and stores. The city of Austin itself conveniently holds film studios for a more controlled environment, as well. Additionally, the crew also traveled to Camp Fern in the East Texas town of Marshall to shoot more on-location outdoor scenes.
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