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Hysterangium is a genus of truffle-like fungi in the family Hysterangiaceae. The genus is widespread, especially in temperate regions, and contains more than 60 species. Hysterangium was circumscribed by Italian mycologist Carlo Vittadini in 1831.
Species
As of June 2015, Index Fungorum lists 64 valid species of Hysterangium:
Another list can be found in Catalogue of Life, which also lists Hysterangium atratum Rodway 1920 , Hysterangium burburianum Rodway 1918, and others.
A further species, Hysterangium bonobo, has been reported by Elliott et al. in September 2020.
Gallery
== References ==
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Hysterangium"
]
}
|
The 1965 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the 17th F.I.M. Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix season. The season consisted of thirteen Grand Prix races in six classes: 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc, 50cc and Sidecars 500cc. It began on 21 March, with United States Grand Prix and ended with Japanese Grand Prix on October, 24.
Season summary
Mike Hailwood easily claimed his fourth successive 500 class crown for MV Agusta, although he was beginning to show his disenchantment with the autocratic Count Agusta by accepting a 250 class ride from Honda. Newcomer Giacomo Agostini riding for MV Agusta would battle Honda's reigning champion Jim Redman for the 350 title. The outcome wouldn't be decided until the final race of the year in Japan, when Agostini's MV Agusta suffered a mechanical failure, handing the championship to Redman.The Yamaha duo of Phil Read and Michelle Duff finished first and second in the 250 class, as Honda's Redman battled early season injuries. Hugh Anderson won six races to claim his second 125 championship for Suzuki while Honda's Ralph Bryans took the 50cc crown ahead of his Honda teammate Luigi Taveri.
1965 Grand Prix season calendar
Standings
Scoring system
Points were awarded to the top six finishers in each race. Only the best of six races were counted in 50cc, 350cc and 500cc championships, best of seven in 125cc and 250cc championships, while in the Sidecars, only the best of four races were counted.
500cc final standings
350cc Standings
250cc Standings
125cc Standings
50cc Standings
References
Notes
Büla, Maurice & Schertenleib, Jean-Claude (2001). Continental Circus 1949-2000. Chronosports S.A. ISBN 2-940125-32-5
"The Official MotoGP website". Retrieved 2010-07-06.
|
edition number
|
{
"answer_start": [
53
],
"text": [
"17"
]
}
|
The 1965 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the 17th F.I.M. Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix season. The season consisted of thirteen Grand Prix races in six classes: 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc, 50cc and Sidecars 500cc. It began on 21 March, with United States Grand Prix and ended with Japanese Grand Prix on October, 24.
Season summary
Mike Hailwood easily claimed his fourth successive 500 class crown for MV Agusta, although he was beginning to show his disenchantment with the autocratic Count Agusta by accepting a 250 class ride from Honda. Newcomer Giacomo Agostini riding for MV Agusta would battle Honda's reigning champion Jim Redman for the 350 title. The outcome wouldn't be decided until the final race of the year in Japan, when Agostini's MV Agusta suffered a mechanical failure, handing the championship to Redman.The Yamaha duo of Phil Read and Michelle Duff finished first and second in the 250 class, as Honda's Redman battled early season injuries. Hugh Anderson won six races to claim his second 125 championship for Suzuki while Honda's Ralph Bryans took the 50cc crown ahead of his Honda teammate Luigi Taveri.
1965 Grand Prix season calendar
Standings
Scoring system
Points were awarded to the top six finishers in each race. Only the best of six races were counted in 50cc, 350cc and 500cc championships, best of seven in 125cc and 250cc championships, while in the Sidecars, only the best of four races were counted.
500cc final standings
350cc Standings
250cc Standings
125cc Standings
50cc Standings
References
Notes
Büla, Maurice & Schertenleib, Jean-Claude (2001). Continental Circus 1949-2000. Chronosports S.A. ISBN 2-940125-32-5
"The Official MotoGP website". Retrieved 2010-07-06.
|
sports season of league or competition
|
{
"answer_start": [
9
],
"text": [
"Grand Prix motorcycle racing"
]
}
|
== First-team squad ==
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Transfers
Esteghlal
Matches
Final standings
AFC Champions League
Group stage
Win
Draw
Loss
Round of 16
Goalscorers
Last updated Friday, May 14, 2010
Goalassistants
Last updated Friday, November 21, 2010
References
External links
Iran Premier League Statistics
Persian League
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
389
],
"text": [
"Iran"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
different from
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
native label
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
107
],
"text": [
"Italy"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
capital of
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Arborio may refer to:
Arborio, Piedmont, a small town and commune in the province of Vercelli, north-west Italy
Arborio rice, a variety which is named after the town
Arborio (surname)
|
capital
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arborio"
]
}
|
Erich Ziegel (26 August 1876 – 30 November 1950) was a German theatre director and actor. He appeared in more than forty films from 1920 to 1950. He was the founder of the Hamburg Kammerspiele.
Selected filmography
References
External links
Erich Ziegel at IMDb
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Erich"
]
}
|
Erich Ziegel (26 August 1876 – 30 November 1950) was a German theatre director and actor. He appeared in more than forty films from 1920 to 1950. He was the founder of the Hamburg Kammerspiele.
Selected filmography
References
External links
Erich Ziegel at IMDb
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
55
],
"text": [
"German"
]
}
|
Joseph William Colby (October 31, 1854 – July 15, 1916) was an American maritime pilot. He guided steamships into the Boston Harbor for 36 years. He was captain of the celebrated pilot boat Sylph for 23 years.
Early life
Captain Joseph W. Colby or "Joe" Colby was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on October 31, 1854. His father, grandfather and great grandfather were pilots on the Merrimack River. His father was Benjamin Edward Colby and his mother was Eleanor F. Williams. He was married to Mary Laura Colby and had six children.
Career
Colby guided steamships into the Port of Boston for 36 years. In 1867, at age thirteen, Colby went to sea. In 1873, he became chief officer on the ship John N. Cushing. He joined the Boston Pilots' Association in 1876 and received his commission to pilot vessels in Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay in 1880. He also had a license to operate steam vessels.Colby was captain and principal owner of the 66-ton pilot boat Sylph, No. 8., when she was launched in 1878. He was with her as a boatkeeper or pilot for 23 years. On May 23, 1896, Captain J. W. Colby was on the Sylph, when it towed the fishing sloop Main Girl, into Provincetown Harbor. The sloop was ten miles east of Highland Light, her rigging had fallen to pieces, and she was without a sail. On October 29, 1886, Colby assisted in rescuing the crew that were on the Cunard Line steamship Pavonia when it was wrecked. He received a medal for an act of heroism.On May 28, 1897, Colby and Franklin B. Wellock brought in the battleship Massachusetts and cruiser New York. Colby was in charge of bringing up the New York and Wellock was in charge of the Massachusetts.In November 1899, Colby placed Sylph out of commission and moved her to East Boston. During this time, many transatlantic liners were being used as supply ships during the South African wars.On August 22, 1901, pilot Colby of the pilot boat America, No. 1, brought into Long Wharf the fruit steamer Admiral Schley through a thick fog 140 miles from the South Shoal lightship.Colby was a member of the Boston Pilots' Relief Society and was its treasurer from 1902 to his death. He was also a member of the Boston Pilots' Association, the Volunteer Harbor No. 4; American Association of Master Mates and Pilots; and St. John's Lodge, A.F. & A.M, of Newburyport. He was also a trustee of the M. E. Bethel Church of East Boston.
Death
Colby died in East Boston on July 15, 1916. His funeral was at his family residence. His interment was at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
See also
List of Northeastern U. S. Pilot Boats
== References ==
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
273
],
"text": [
"Newburyport"
]
}
|
Joseph William Colby (October 31, 1854 – July 15, 1916) was an American maritime pilot. He guided steamships into the Boston Harbor for 36 years. He was captain of the celebrated pilot boat Sylph for 23 years.
Early life
Captain Joseph W. Colby or "Joe" Colby was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on October 31, 1854. His father, grandfather and great grandfather were pilots on the Merrimack River. His father was Benjamin Edward Colby and his mother was Eleanor F. Williams. He was married to Mary Laura Colby and had six children.
Career
Colby guided steamships into the Port of Boston for 36 years. In 1867, at age thirteen, Colby went to sea. In 1873, he became chief officer on the ship John N. Cushing. He joined the Boston Pilots' Association in 1876 and received his commission to pilot vessels in Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay in 1880. He also had a license to operate steam vessels.Colby was captain and principal owner of the 66-ton pilot boat Sylph, No. 8., when she was launched in 1878. He was with her as a boatkeeper or pilot for 23 years. On May 23, 1896, Captain J. W. Colby was on the Sylph, when it towed the fishing sloop Main Girl, into Provincetown Harbor. The sloop was ten miles east of Highland Light, her rigging had fallen to pieces, and she was without a sail. On October 29, 1886, Colby assisted in rescuing the crew that were on the Cunard Line steamship Pavonia when it was wrecked. He received a medal for an act of heroism.On May 28, 1897, Colby and Franklin B. Wellock brought in the battleship Massachusetts and cruiser New York. Colby was in charge of bringing up the New York and Wellock was in charge of the Massachusetts.In November 1899, Colby placed Sylph out of commission and moved her to East Boston. During this time, many transatlantic liners were being used as supply ships during the South African wars.On August 22, 1901, pilot Colby of the pilot boat America, No. 1, brought into Long Wharf the fruit steamer Admiral Schley through a thick fog 140 miles from the South Shoal lightship.Colby was a member of the Boston Pilots' Relief Society and was its treasurer from 1902 to his death. He was also a member of the Boston Pilots' Association, the Volunteer Harbor No. 4; American Association of Master Mates and Pilots; and St. John's Lodge, A.F. & A.M, of Newburyport. He was also a trustee of the M. E. Bethel Church of East Boston.
Death
Colby died in East Boston on July 15, 1916. His funeral was at his family residence. His interment was at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
See also
List of Northeastern U. S. Pilot Boats
== References ==
|
place of death
|
{
"answer_start": [
1744
],
"text": [
"East Boston"
]
}
|
Joseph William Colby (October 31, 1854 – July 15, 1916) was an American maritime pilot. He guided steamships into the Boston Harbor for 36 years. He was captain of the celebrated pilot boat Sylph for 23 years.
Early life
Captain Joseph W. Colby or "Joe" Colby was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on October 31, 1854. His father, grandfather and great grandfather were pilots on the Merrimack River. His father was Benjamin Edward Colby and his mother was Eleanor F. Williams. He was married to Mary Laura Colby and had six children.
Career
Colby guided steamships into the Port of Boston for 36 years. In 1867, at age thirteen, Colby went to sea. In 1873, he became chief officer on the ship John N. Cushing. He joined the Boston Pilots' Association in 1876 and received his commission to pilot vessels in Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay in 1880. He also had a license to operate steam vessels.Colby was captain and principal owner of the 66-ton pilot boat Sylph, No. 8., when she was launched in 1878. He was with her as a boatkeeper or pilot for 23 years. On May 23, 1896, Captain J. W. Colby was on the Sylph, when it towed the fishing sloop Main Girl, into Provincetown Harbor. The sloop was ten miles east of Highland Light, her rigging had fallen to pieces, and she was without a sail. On October 29, 1886, Colby assisted in rescuing the crew that were on the Cunard Line steamship Pavonia when it was wrecked. He received a medal for an act of heroism.On May 28, 1897, Colby and Franklin B. Wellock brought in the battleship Massachusetts and cruiser New York. Colby was in charge of bringing up the New York and Wellock was in charge of the Massachusetts.In November 1899, Colby placed Sylph out of commission and moved her to East Boston. During this time, many transatlantic liners were being used as supply ships during the South African wars.On August 22, 1901, pilot Colby of the pilot boat America, No. 1, brought into Long Wharf the fruit steamer Admiral Schley through a thick fog 140 miles from the South Shoal lightship.Colby was a member of the Boston Pilots' Relief Society and was its treasurer from 1902 to his death. He was also a member of the Boston Pilots' Association, the Volunteer Harbor No. 4; American Association of Master Mates and Pilots; and St. John's Lodge, A.F. & A.M, of Newburyport. He was also a trustee of the M. E. Bethel Church of East Boston.
Death
Colby died in East Boston on July 15, 1916. His funeral was at his family residence. His interment was at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
See also
List of Northeastern U. S. Pilot Boats
== References ==
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
72
],
"text": [
"maritime pilot"
]
}
|
Joseph William Colby (October 31, 1854 – July 15, 1916) was an American maritime pilot. He guided steamships into the Boston Harbor for 36 years. He was captain of the celebrated pilot boat Sylph for 23 years.
Early life
Captain Joseph W. Colby or "Joe" Colby was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on October 31, 1854. His father, grandfather and great grandfather were pilots on the Merrimack River. His father was Benjamin Edward Colby and his mother was Eleanor F. Williams. He was married to Mary Laura Colby and had six children.
Career
Colby guided steamships into the Port of Boston for 36 years. In 1867, at age thirteen, Colby went to sea. In 1873, he became chief officer on the ship John N. Cushing. He joined the Boston Pilots' Association in 1876 and received his commission to pilot vessels in Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay in 1880. He also had a license to operate steam vessels.Colby was captain and principal owner of the 66-ton pilot boat Sylph, No. 8., when she was launched in 1878. He was with her as a boatkeeper or pilot for 23 years. On May 23, 1896, Captain J. W. Colby was on the Sylph, when it towed the fishing sloop Main Girl, into Provincetown Harbor. The sloop was ten miles east of Highland Light, her rigging had fallen to pieces, and she was without a sail. On October 29, 1886, Colby assisted in rescuing the crew that were on the Cunard Line steamship Pavonia when it was wrecked. He received a medal for an act of heroism.On May 28, 1897, Colby and Franklin B. Wellock brought in the battleship Massachusetts and cruiser New York. Colby was in charge of bringing up the New York and Wellock was in charge of the Massachusetts.In November 1899, Colby placed Sylph out of commission and moved her to East Boston. During this time, many transatlantic liners were being used as supply ships during the South African wars.On August 22, 1901, pilot Colby of the pilot boat America, No. 1, brought into Long Wharf the fruit steamer Admiral Schley through a thick fog 140 miles from the South Shoal lightship.Colby was a member of the Boston Pilots' Relief Society and was its treasurer from 1902 to his death. He was also a member of the Boston Pilots' Association, the Volunteer Harbor No. 4; American Association of Master Mates and Pilots; and St. John's Lodge, A.F. & A.M, of Newburyport. He was also a trustee of the M. E. Bethel Church of East Boston.
Death
Colby died in East Boston on July 15, 1916. His funeral was at his family residence. His interment was at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
See also
List of Northeastern U. S. Pilot Boats
== References ==
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
230
],
"text": [
"Joseph W. Colby"
]
}
|
Joseph William Colby (October 31, 1854 – July 15, 1916) was an American maritime pilot. He guided steamships into the Boston Harbor for 36 years. He was captain of the celebrated pilot boat Sylph for 23 years.
Early life
Captain Joseph W. Colby or "Joe" Colby was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts on October 31, 1854. His father, grandfather and great grandfather were pilots on the Merrimack River. His father was Benjamin Edward Colby and his mother was Eleanor F. Williams. He was married to Mary Laura Colby and had six children.
Career
Colby guided steamships into the Port of Boston for 36 years. In 1867, at age thirteen, Colby went to sea. In 1873, he became chief officer on the ship John N. Cushing. He joined the Boston Pilots' Association in 1876 and received his commission to pilot vessels in Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay in 1880. He also had a license to operate steam vessels.Colby was captain and principal owner of the 66-ton pilot boat Sylph, No. 8., when she was launched in 1878. He was with her as a boatkeeper or pilot for 23 years. On May 23, 1896, Captain J. W. Colby was on the Sylph, when it towed the fishing sloop Main Girl, into Provincetown Harbor. The sloop was ten miles east of Highland Light, her rigging had fallen to pieces, and she was without a sail. On October 29, 1886, Colby assisted in rescuing the crew that were on the Cunard Line steamship Pavonia when it was wrecked. He received a medal for an act of heroism.On May 28, 1897, Colby and Franklin B. Wellock brought in the battleship Massachusetts and cruiser New York. Colby was in charge of bringing up the New York and Wellock was in charge of the Massachusetts.In November 1899, Colby placed Sylph out of commission and moved her to East Boston. During this time, many transatlantic liners were being used as supply ships during the South African wars.On August 22, 1901, pilot Colby of the pilot boat America, No. 1, brought into Long Wharf the fruit steamer Admiral Schley through a thick fog 140 miles from the South Shoal lightship.Colby was a member of the Boston Pilots' Relief Society and was its treasurer from 1902 to his death. He was also a member of the Boston Pilots' Association, the Volunteer Harbor No. 4; American Association of Master Mates and Pilots; and St. John's Lodge, A.F. & A.M, of Newburyport. He was also a trustee of the M. E. Bethel Church of East Boston.
Death
Colby died in East Boston on July 15, 1916. His funeral was at his family residence. His interment was at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
See also
List of Northeastern U. S. Pilot Boats
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Joseph"
]
}
|
The Limonese Authentic Party (Spanish: Partido Auténtico Limonense) is a political party in Limón, Costa Rica. PAL was founded on 17 August 1976 by Marvin Wright Lindo, a radical trade union leader with links to groups such as Socialist Workers Organization and the Workers' Party. It became a notable force amongst the banana plantation workers at the Atlantic coast.Wright is the president of the party. Delroy Carl Senior Grant is the General Secretary and Fredrick Patterson Bent is the treasurer. PAL works for economic autonomy for Limón.
In the 2016 local elections the party obtains the mayoralty of the municipality of Limón and 5 aldermen in the Limón Municipal Council.It is currently contesting the 2018 general election for a seat in Limon's representation in the Legislative Assembly.
References
External links
Page about PAL by TSE
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
99
],
"text": [
"Costa Rica"
]
}
|
The Limonese Authentic Party (Spanish: Partido Auténtico Limonense) is a political party in Limón, Costa Rica. PAL was founded on 17 August 1976 by Marvin Wright Lindo, a radical trade union leader with links to groups such as Socialist Workers Organization and the Workers' Party. It became a notable force amongst the banana plantation workers at the Atlantic coast.Wright is the president of the party. Delroy Carl Senior Grant is the General Secretary and Fredrick Patterson Bent is the treasurer. PAL works for economic autonomy for Limón.
In the 2016 local elections the party obtains the mayoralty of the municipality of Limón and 5 aldermen in the Limón Municipal Council.It is currently contesting the 2018 general election for a seat in Limon's representation in the Legislative Assembly.
References
External links
Page about PAL by TSE
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
73
],
"text": [
"political party"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
1272
],
"text": [
"Donetsk"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
122
],
"text": [
"Ukraine"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
103
],
"text": [
"tennis player"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
residence
|
{
"answer_start": [
1272
],
"text": [
"Donetsk"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
103
],
"text": [
"tennis"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
ranking
|
{
"answer_start": [
530
],
"text": [
"56"
]
}
|
Yuliya Markovna Beygelzimer (Ukrainian: Юлія Марківна Бейгельзимер; born 20 October 1983) is a retired tennis player from Ukraine.
Career
She is perhaps best known for nearly defeating Jennifer Capriati at the 2004 French Open where she was down three games to love in the second set but then swept nine of ten games. She lost the match, having led three games to love in the final set after winning the second 6–4.[1]On 25 September 2006, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 83. On 3 April 2006, she peaked at No. 56 in the doubles rankings. In her career, she won 12 singles and 35 doubles titles on the ITF Circuit.
She also won three doubles titles on the WTA Tour: the Tashkent Open in 2003 with Tatiana Poutchek, the 2005 Internazionali di Modena with Mervana Jugić-Salkić, and the 2014 Katowice Open with Olga Savchuk.
She was also the runner-up in doubles finals at the Warsaw Open with Anastasia Rodionova 2001, Sunfeast Open with Yuliana Fedak 2006, Pattaya Open with Vitalia Diatchenko 2009, Malaysian Open with Olga Savchuk 2015.
Beygelzimer has competed for Ukraine both at the Olympics and in Fed Cup.
Playing for Ukraine Fed Cup team, Beygelzimer has a win–loss record of 18–13.
Personal
Yuliya Beygelzimer currently resides in her hometown Donetsk. Coached by father, Emmanuil. Mother is Victoria (engineer). Introduced to tennis at the age of seven when father took her to a local club. Most memorable experience was how patriotic she felt when Ukrainian national anthem was played after she won European Junior Championships in 2000; other great memories were playing Jennifer Capriati on Suzanne Lenglen at Roland Garros, representing Ukraine in Fed Cup and winning WTA doubles title in Katowice. While she was out injured wrote a book in Russian about travelling on the tour, aimed as a guide for young players; currently writes articles for Ukrainian Tennis Magazine.
WTA career finals
Doubles: 7 (3 titles, 4 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 20 (12–8)
Doubles: 58 (35–23)
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
External links
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Women's Tennis Association
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the International Tennis Federation
Yuliya Beygelzimer at the Billie Jean King Cup
"Amid jeers, Capriati advances at French". The Associated Press. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
|
country for sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
122
],
"text": [
"Ukraine"
]
}
|
Gahnia sinuosa is a tussock-forming perennial in the family Cyperaceae, that is native to New Caledonia.
== References ==
|
parent taxon
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Gahnia"
]
}
|
Gahnia sinuosa is a tussock-forming perennial in the family Cyperaceae, that is native to New Caledonia.
== References ==
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Gahnia sinuosa"
]
}
|
Yezekiyevo (Russian: Езекиево) is a rural locality (a village) in Yudinskoye Rural Settlement, Velikoustyugsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 1 as of 2002.
Geography
Yezekiyevo is located 19 km northwest of Veliky Ustyug (the district's administrative centre) by road. Kuznetsovo is the nearest rural locality.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
12
],
"text": [
"Russia"
]
}
|
Kevin Voornhout (born 20 November 1995) is a former professional Dutch darts player who plays in Professional Darts Corporation events.
He won the WDF Europe Youth Cup in both the Boys and Team event in 2012, and won a PDC Tour Card in 2014.
References
External links
Profile and stats on Darts Database
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"darts player"
]
}
|
Kevin Voornhout (born 20 November 1995) is a former professional Dutch darts player who plays in Professional Darts Corporation events.
He won the WDF Europe Youth Cup in both the Boys and Team event in 2012, and won a PDC Tour Card in 2014.
References
External links
Profile and stats on Darts Database
|
sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"darts"
]
}
|
Kevin Voornhout (born 20 November 1995) is a former professional Dutch darts player who plays in Professional Darts Corporation events.
He won the WDF Europe Youth Cup in both the Boys and Team event in 2012, and won a PDC Tour Card in 2014.
References
External links
Profile and stats on Darts Database
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Kevin"
]
}
|
Chicago Christian High School or CCHS is a private Christian school in Palos Heights, Illinois.
External links
www.ihsa.org/data/school/schools/1606.htm
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
71
],
"text": [
"Palos Heights"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
89
],
"text": [
"Spring Grove"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
educated at
|
{
"answer_start": [
653
],
"text": [
"University of Massachusetts Amherst"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
68
],
"text": [
"poet"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
employer
|
{
"answer_start": [
653
],
"text": [
"University of Massachusetts Amherst"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
7
],
"text": [
"Langland"
]
}
|
Joseph Langland (February 16, 1917 – April 9, 2007) was an American poet.
Life
Born in Spring Grove, Minnesota, Langland was raised in Northeastern Iowa on the family farm. Langland received both a bachelor's degree (1940) and a master's degree (1941) from the University of Iowa. He served in the U.S. Army as an infantryman during World War II. His first collection of poems For Harold (1945) was written for his younger brother who was killed in action in the Philippines.After the war, Langland taught part-time at the University of Iowa and then joined the faculty of University of Wyoming, teaching there from 1948 to 1959. He then moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he founded the MFA Program for Poets & Writers. He was a faculty member at UMass from 1959 to 1979 and a professor emeritus from 1979 until his death in 2007.
His work appeared in Massachusetts Review, Paris Review, The Nation, The New Yorker.He married Judith Gail Wood on June 26, 1943. They had three children: Joseph Thomas Jr., (1946?); Elizabeth, (1948); and Paul (1951).
He died April 9, 2007, at his home in New Rochelle, New York, at the age of 90. His papers are held at Luther College in Iowa.
Works
The Green Town (1956)
The Wheel of Summer (1963)
An Interview and Fourteen Poems (1973)
The Sacrifice Poems. North American Review University of Northern Iowa. 1975. ISBN 978-0-915996-01-8.
Any Body’s Song, Doubleday, 1980 (National Poetry Series)
A Dream of Love (A poem with etchings), Pleiades Press (1986)
Twelve Preludes and Postludes (1988)
Selected Poems. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-87023-800-0.
Editor
Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos, eds. (1973). Poetry from the Russian underground: a bilingual anthology. Translated by Joseph Langland; Tamás Aczél; Laszlo Tikos. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-012501-1.
References
External links
Collection of Langland's papers at Luther College
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Joseph"
]
}
|
Tereos is a cooperative conglomerate, primarily active in the processed agricultural raw materials, in particular sugar, alcohol and starch markets. It has 44 factories in 9 countries, including Brazil, India, Indonesia, Kenia, Tanzania, Belgium and France and employs about 20.000 people.
The company is headquartered in Moussy-le-Vieux, France.
History
In 1932, the Origny-Sainte-Benoite cooperative distillery was founded in the Aisne department of northern France by a number of farmers under the leadership of Paul Cavenne. The factory processed 400 tonnes of sugar beet per day. About twenty years later, Jean Duval, managing director of the cooperative, converted the distillery into a sugar factory, which was able to process 900 tonnes of sugar per day.
In the 1990s, the Origny cooperative merged with that of Vic-sur-Aisne, which operate a sugar plant that handled 5,500 tonnes of sugar beet per day. The new entity was named SDA (Sucreries et Distilleries de l’Aisne). A year later, it acquired the Berneuil sugar factory in south-western France.
The acquisition of the leading French sugar producer, Béghin-Say from the Italian company Edison, in 2002, marked a turning-point. The combination of the two companies made the new cooperative group a French market leader with 9,500 cooperative growers. Tereos was born.
In 2006, Tereos merged with the cooperative group SDHF (Sucreries et Distilleries des Hauts de France). This extended the Group's business and strengthened its leadership on the French market.
In 2008, Tereos acquires, via subsidiary Syral, 5 starch and glucose factories in West-Europe from Talfiie (Tate & Lyle Food & Industrial Ingredients Europe), subsidiary of the company Tate & Lyle.In 2016, the Connantre sugar beet cooperative (Tereos Group) joined forces with the cooperative, APM Déshy, allowing Tereos to expand its business into alfalfa processing, with four dehydration plants in north-eastern France (in Anglure, Aulnay-aux-Planches, Montépreux and Pleurs).
Tereos SCA was created in 2018. The 12,000 cooperative grows now all belong to a single cooperative.In 2021, Tereos was ranked fifth overall on FoodTalks' Top 50 Global Sweetener Companies list.In January 2022, Tereos announced the sale of its 11% stake in its joint venture with Axereal dedicated to malt as well as the closure of its sugar activities in Romania. In February, Tereos also announced the closure of its activities in Mozambique.In February 2023, Tereos announced the sale of its activities in Romania to two local players.
Activities
The Tereos product portfolio covers the markets of food, animal feed, green chemistry, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, paper and cardboard, and energies.
Controversies
In recent years Tereos has been mired in controversy after several news reports highlighted the company's involvement in a number of dubious events. In 2019, a complaint was filed against the firm for allegedly supplying an artificial sweetener to Syria, where it is being used to make weapons. In 2020, the region of Wallonia accused the company of a leak in its sugar beet refinery, causing 50-70 tonnes of fish to die in the Belgian territory.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
250
],
"text": [
"France"
]
}
|
Tereos is a cooperative conglomerate, primarily active in the processed agricultural raw materials, in particular sugar, alcohol and starch markets. It has 44 factories in 9 countries, including Brazil, India, Indonesia, Kenia, Tanzania, Belgium and France and employs about 20.000 people.
The company is headquartered in Moussy-le-Vieux, France.
History
In 1932, the Origny-Sainte-Benoite cooperative distillery was founded in the Aisne department of northern France by a number of farmers under the leadership of Paul Cavenne. The factory processed 400 tonnes of sugar beet per day. About twenty years later, Jean Duval, managing director of the cooperative, converted the distillery into a sugar factory, which was able to process 900 tonnes of sugar per day.
In the 1990s, the Origny cooperative merged with that of Vic-sur-Aisne, which operate a sugar plant that handled 5,500 tonnes of sugar beet per day. The new entity was named SDA (Sucreries et Distilleries de l’Aisne). A year later, it acquired the Berneuil sugar factory in south-western France.
The acquisition of the leading French sugar producer, Béghin-Say from the Italian company Edison, in 2002, marked a turning-point. The combination of the two companies made the new cooperative group a French market leader with 9,500 cooperative growers. Tereos was born.
In 2006, Tereos merged with the cooperative group SDHF (Sucreries et Distilleries des Hauts de France). This extended the Group's business and strengthened its leadership on the French market.
In 2008, Tereos acquires, via subsidiary Syral, 5 starch and glucose factories in West-Europe from Talfiie (Tate & Lyle Food & Industrial Ingredients Europe), subsidiary of the company Tate & Lyle.In 2016, the Connantre sugar beet cooperative (Tereos Group) joined forces with the cooperative, APM Déshy, allowing Tereos to expand its business into alfalfa processing, with four dehydration plants in north-eastern France (in Anglure, Aulnay-aux-Planches, Montépreux and Pleurs).
Tereos SCA was created in 2018. The 12,000 cooperative grows now all belong to a single cooperative.In 2021, Tereos was ranked fifth overall on FoodTalks' Top 50 Global Sweetener Companies list.In January 2022, Tereos announced the sale of its 11% stake in its joint venture with Axereal dedicated to malt as well as the closure of its sugar activities in Romania. In February, Tereos also announced the closure of its activities in Mozambique.In February 2023, Tereos announced the sale of its activities in Romania to two local players.
Activities
The Tereos product portfolio covers the markets of food, animal feed, green chemistry, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, paper and cardboard, and energies.
Controversies
In recent years Tereos has been mired in controversy after several news reports highlighted the company's involvement in a number of dubious events. In 2019, a complaint was filed against the firm for allegedly supplying an artificial sweetener to Syria, where it is being used to make weapons. In 2020, the region of Wallonia accused the company of a leak in its sugar beet refinery, causing 50-70 tonnes of fish to die in the Belgian territory.
== References ==
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
1461
],
"text": [
"business"
]
}
|
Tereos is a cooperative conglomerate, primarily active in the processed agricultural raw materials, in particular sugar, alcohol and starch markets. It has 44 factories in 9 countries, including Brazil, India, Indonesia, Kenia, Tanzania, Belgium and France and employs about 20.000 people.
The company is headquartered in Moussy-le-Vieux, France.
History
In 1932, the Origny-Sainte-Benoite cooperative distillery was founded in the Aisne department of northern France by a number of farmers under the leadership of Paul Cavenne. The factory processed 400 tonnes of sugar beet per day. About twenty years later, Jean Duval, managing director of the cooperative, converted the distillery into a sugar factory, which was able to process 900 tonnes of sugar per day.
In the 1990s, the Origny cooperative merged with that of Vic-sur-Aisne, which operate a sugar plant that handled 5,500 tonnes of sugar beet per day. The new entity was named SDA (Sucreries et Distilleries de l’Aisne). A year later, it acquired the Berneuil sugar factory in south-western France.
The acquisition of the leading French sugar producer, Béghin-Say from the Italian company Edison, in 2002, marked a turning-point. The combination of the two companies made the new cooperative group a French market leader with 9,500 cooperative growers. Tereos was born.
In 2006, Tereos merged with the cooperative group SDHF (Sucreries et Distilleries des Hauts de France). This extended the Group's business and strengthened its leadership on the French market.
In 2008, Tereos acquires, via subsidiary Syral, 5 starch and glucose factories in West-Europe from Talfiie (Tate & Lyle Food & Industrial Ingredients Europe), subsidiary of the company Tate & Lyle.In 2016, the Connantre sugar beet cooperative (Tereos Group) joined forces with the cooperative, APM Déshy, allowing Tereos to expand its business into alfalfa processing, with four dehydration plants in north-eastern France (in Anglure, Aulnay-aux-Planches, Montépreux and Pleurs).
Tereos SCA was created in 2018. The 12,000 cooperative grows now all belong to a single cooperative.In 2021, Tereos was ranked fifth overall on FoodTalks' Top 50 Global Sweetener Companies list.In January 2022, Tereos announced the sale of its 11% stake in its joint venture with Axereal dedicated to malt as well as the closure of its sugar activities in Romania. In February, Tereos also announced the closure of its activities in Mozambique.In February 2023, Tereos announced the sale of its activities in Romania to two local players.
Activities
The Tereos product portfolio covers the markets of food, animal feed, green chemistry, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, paper and cardboard, and energies.
Controversies
In recent years Tereos has been mired in controversy after several news reports highlighted the company's involvement in a number of dubious events. In 2019, a complaint was filed against the firm for allegedly supplying an artificial sweetener to Syria, where it is being used to make weapons. In 2020, the region of Wallonia accused the company of a leak in its sugar beet refinery, causing 50-70 tonnes of fish to die in the Belgian territory.
== References ==
|
headquarters location
|
{
"answer_start": [
369
],
"text": [
"Origny-Sainte-Benoite"
]
}
|
Tereos is a cooperative conglomerate, primarily active in the processed agricultural raw materials, in particular sugar, alcohol and starch markets. It has 44 factories in 9 countries, including Brazil, India, Indonesia, Kenia, Tanzania, Belgium and France and employs about 20.000 people.
The company is headquartered in Moussy-le-Vieux, France.
History
In 1932, the Origny-Sainte-Benoite cooperative distillery was founded in the Aisne department of northern France by a number of farmers under the leadership of Paul Cavenne. The factory processed 400 tonnes of sugar beet per day. About twenty years later, Jean Duval, managing director of the cooperative, converted the distillery into a sugar factory, which was able to process 900 tonnes of sugar per day.
In the 1990s, the Origny cooperative merged with that of Vic-sur-Aisne, which operate a sugar plant that handled 5,500 tonnes of sugar beet per day. The new entity was named SDA (Sucreries et Distilleries de l’Aisne). A year later, it acquired the Berneuil sugar factory in south-western France.
The acquisition of the leading French sugar producer, Béghin-Say from the Italian company Edison, in 2002, marked a turning-point. The combination of the two companies made the new cooperative group a French market leader with 9,500 cooperative growers. Tereos was born.
In 2006, Tereos merged with the cooperative group SDHF (Sucreries et Distilleries des Hauts de France). This extended the Group's business and strengthened its leadership on the French market.
In 2008, Tereos acquires, via subsidiary Syral, 5 starch and glucose factories in West-Europe from Talfiie (Tate & Lyle Food & Industrial Ingredients Europe), subsidiary of the company Tate & Lyle.In 2016, the Connantre sugar beet cooperative (Tereos Group) joined forces with the cooperative, APM Déshy, allowing Tereos to expand its business into alfalfa processing, with four dehydration plants in north-eastern France (in Anglure, Aulnay-aux-Planches, Montépreux and Pleurs).
Tereos SCA was created in 2018. The 12,000 cooperative grows now all belong to a single cooperative.In 2021, Tereos was ranked fifth overall on FoodTalks' Top 50 Global Sweetener Companies list.In January 2022, Tereos announced the sale of its 11% stake in its joint venture with Axereal dedicated to malt as well as the closure of its sugar activities in Romania. In February, Tereos also announced the closure of its activities in Mozambique.In February 2023, Tereos announced the sale of its activities in Romania to two local players.
Activities
The Tereos product portfolio covers the markets of food, animal feed, green chemistry, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, paper and cardboard, and energies.
Controversies
In recent years Tereos has been mired in controversy after several news reports highlighted the company's involvement in a number of dubious events. In 2019, a complaint was filed against the firm for allegedly supplying an artificial sweetener to Syria, where it is being used to make weapons. In 2020, the region of Wallonia accused the company of a leak in its sugar beet refinery, causing 50-70 tonnes of fish to die in the Belgian territory.
== References ==
|
product or material produced
|
{
"answer_start": [
114
],
"text": [
"sugar"
]
}
|
Matthew Bell Gordy (December 26, 1909 – August 18, 1989) was an American pole vaulter. In 1933 Gordy shared first place at both the NCAA championships and the national championships and helped Louisiana State University win the NCAA team title.
Early life
Gordy grew up in the small city of Abbeville, Louisiana. As Abbeville was home to a bamboo grove, local athletes had easy access to bamboo poles that would otherwise have been expensive, and pole vaulting became popular as a result. In high school, Gordy also competed in high jump, long jump and triple jump, but LSU head coach Bernie Moore felt the pole vault would be his best event.
Career
Entering the 1933 NCAA championships, neither the LSU Tigers or Gordy individually were considered favorites. However, LSU's stars Glenn "Slats" Hardin and Jack Torrance scored a combined three wins and a third place, and with only the pole vault left, LSU had a slim lead over coach Dean Cromwell's University of Southern California. In the pole vault, USC fielded Bill Graber, who was a 1932 Olympian and held the outdoor world record of 14 ft 4+3⁄8 in (4.37 m), while Gordy came in with a personal best of only 13 ft 4+1⁄4 in (4.07 m). If Graber won, Gordy had to score six points (the score for third place, or a three-way tie for second) for LSU to tie with USC, and more than six points for LSU to win outright.Four jumpers, including both Graber and Gordy, cleared 13 ft 6 in (4.11 m); for Gordy, this was already a personal best. Graber then cleared 14 ft (4.26 m) to break the tie; Gordy was left in a three-way tie for second, which would have tied the score between LSU and USC at 55 points each. On his last attempt Gordy cleared 14 ft, tying Graber for first, and LSU won the meet outright; after a remeasurement, the height cleared by Graber and Gordy was ratified as 13 ft 11+1⁄16 in (4.24 m), which was a new meeting record.At the national (AAU) championships two weeks later Gordy again tied for first, this time with indoor world record holder Keith Brown of Yale. The winning height, 14 ft (4.26 m), was Gordy's personal best; he was the tenth amateur in the world to jump 14 ft or more. The 1933 national championships were Gordy's last major meet, as he graduated from LSU and went to work on the oil rigs of Louisiana and later Texas; he eventually became an Amoco drilling superintendent in Houston.
Legacy
Gordy was inducted in the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and in the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1985.
== References ==
|
educated at
|
{
"answer_start": [
193
],
"text": [
"Louisiana State University"
]
}
|
Matthew Bell Gordy (December 26, 1909 – August 18, 1989) was an American pole vaulter. In 1933 Gordy shared first place at both the NCAA championships and the national championships and helped Louisiana State University win the NCAA team title.
Early life
Gordy grew up in the small city of Abbeville, Louisiana. As Abbeville was home to a bamboo grove, local athletes had easy access to bamboo poles that would otherwise have been expensive, and pole vaulting became popular as a result. In high school, Gordy also competed in high jump, long jump and triple jump, but LSU head coach Bernie Moore felt the pole vault would be his best event.
Career
Entering the 1933 NCAA championships, neither the LSU Tigers or Gordy individually were considered favorites. However, LSU's stars Glenn "Slats" Hardin and Jack Torrance scored a combined three wins and a third place, and with only the pole vault left, LSU had a slim lead over coach Dean Cromwell's University of Southern California. In the pole vault, USC fielded Bill Graber, who was a 1932 Olympian and held the outdoor world record of 14 ft 4+3⁄8 in (4.37 m), while Gordy came in with a personal best of only 13 ft 4+1⁄4 in (4.07 m). If Graber won, Gordy had to score six points (the score for third place, or a three-way tie for second) for LSU to tie with USC, and more than six points for LSU to win outright.Four jumpers, including both Graber and Gordy, cleared 13 ft 6 in (4.11 m); for Gordy, this was already a personal best. Graber then cleared 14 ft (4.26 m) to break the tie; Gordy was left in a three-way tie for second, which would have tied the score between LSU and USC at 55 points each. On his last attempt Gordy cleared 14 ft, tying Graber for first, and LSU won the meet outright; after a remeasurement, the height cleared by Graber and Gordy was ratified as 13 ft 11+1⁄16 in (4.24 m), which was a new meeting record.At the national (AAU) championships two weeks later Gordy again tied for first, this time with indoor world record holder Keith Brown of Yale. The winning height, 14 ft (4.26 m), was Gordy's personal best; he was the tenth amateur in the world to jump 14 ft or more. The 1933 national championships were Gordy's last major meet, as he graduated from LSU and went to work on the oil rigs of Louisiana and later Texas; he eventually became an Amoco drilling superintendent in Houston.
Legacy
Gordy was inducted in the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and in the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1985.
== References ==
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
13
],
"text": [
"Gordy"
]
}
|
Matthew Bell Gordy (December 26, 1909 – August 18, 1989) was an American pole vaulter. In 1933 Gordy shared first place at both the NCAA championships and the national championships and helped Louisiana State University win the NCAA team title.
Early life
Gordy grew up in the small city of Abbeville, Louisiana. As Abbeville was home to a bamboo grove, local athletes had easy access to bamboo poles that would otherwise have been expensive, and pole vaulting became popular as a result. In high school, Gordy also competed in high jump, long jump and triple jump, but LSU head coach Bernie Moore felt the pole vault would be his best event.
Career
Entering the 1933 NCAA championships, neither the LSU Tigers or Gordy individually were considered favorites. However, LSU's stars Glenn "Slats" Hardin and Jack Torrance scored a combined three wins and a third place, and with only the pole vault left, LSU had a slim lead over coach Dean Cromwell's University of Southern California. In the pole vault, USC fielded Bill Graber, who was a 1932 Olympian and held the outdoor world record of 14 ft 4+3⁄8 in (4.37 m), while Gordy came in with a personal best of only 13 ft 4+1⁄4 in (4.07 m). If Graber won, Gordy had to score six points (the score for third place, or a three-way tie for second) for LSU to tie with USC, and more than six points for LSU to win outright.Four jumpers, including both Graber and Gordy, cleared 13 ft 6 in (4.11 m); for Gordy, this was already a personal best. Graber then cleared 14 ft (4.26 m) to break the tie; Gordy was left in a three-way tie for second, which would have tied the score between LSU and USC at 55 points each. On his last attempt Gordy cleared 14 ft, tying Graber for first, and LSU won the meet outright; after a remeasurement, the height cleared by Graber and Gordy was ratified as 13 ft 11+1⁄16 in (4.24 m), which was a new meeting record.At the national (AAU) championships two weeks later Gordy again tied for first, this time with indoor world record holder Keith Brown of Yale. The winning height, 14 ft (4.26 m), was Gordy's personal best; he was the tenth amateur in the world to jump 14 ft or more. The 1933 national championships were Gordy's last major meet, as he graduated from LSU and went to work on the oil rigs of Louisiana and later Texas; he eventually became an Amoco drilling superintendent in Houston.
Legacy
Gordy was inducted in the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and in the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1985.
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Matt"
]
}
|
Matthew Bell Gordy (December 26, 1909 – August 18, 1989) was an American pole vaulter. In 1933 Gordy shared first place at both the NCAA championships and the national championships and helped Louisiana State University win the NCAA team title.
Early life
Gordy grew up in the small city of Abbeville, Louisiana. As Abbeville was home to a bamboo grove, local athletes had easy access to bamboo poles that would otherwise have been expensive, and pole vaulting became popular as a result. In high school, Gordy also competed in high jump, long jump and triple jump, but LSU head coach Bernie Moore felt the pole vault would be his best event.
Career
Entering the 1933 NCAA championships, neither the LSU Tigers or Gordy individually were considered favorites. However, LSU's stars Glenn "Slats" Hardin and Jack Torrance scored a combined three wins and a third place, and with only the pole vault left, LSU had a slim lead over coach Dean Cromwell's University of Southern California. In the pole vault, USC fielded Bill Graber, who was a 1932 Olympian and held the outdoor world record of 14 ft 4+3⁄8 in (4.37 m), while Gordy came in with a personal best of only 13 ft 4+1⁄4 in (4.07 m). If Graber won, Gordy had to score six points (the score for third place, or a three-way tie for second) for LSU to tie with USC, and more than six points for LSU to win outright.Four jumpers, including both Graber and Gordy, cleared 13 ft 6 in (4.11 m); for Gordy, this was already a personal best. Graber then cleared 14 ft (4.26 m) to break the tie; Gordy was left in a three-way tie for second, which would have tied the score between LSU and USC at 55 points each. On his last attempt Gordy cleared 14 ft, tying Graber for first, and LSU won the meet outright; after a remeasurement, the height cleared by Graber and Gordy was ratified as 13 ft 11+1⁄16 in (4.24 m), which was a new meeting record.At the national (AAU) championships two weeks later Gordy again tied for first, this time with indoor world record holder Keith Brown of Yale. The winning height, 14 ft (4.26 m), was Gordy's personal best; he was the tenth amateur in the world to jump 14 ft or more. The 1933 national championships were Gordy's last major meet, as he graduated from LSU and went to work on the oil rigs of Louisiana and later Texas; he eventually became an Amoco drilling superintendent in Houston.
Legacy
Gordy was inducted in the Louisiana State University Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and in the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1985.
== References ==
|
sports discipline competed in
|
{
"answer_start": [
73
],
"text": [
"pole vault"
]
}
|
Gmina Dywity is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Olsztyn County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Dywity, which lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the regional capital Olsztyn.
The gmina covers an area of 160.68 square kilometres (62.0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 9,148.
Villages
Gmina Dywity contains the villages and settlements of Barkweda, Brąswałd, Bukwałd, Dąbrówka Wielka, Dywity, Frączki, Gady, Gradki, Kieźliny, Ługwałd, Myki, Nowe Włóki, Plutki, Redykajny, Rozgity, Różnowo, Sętal, Słupy, Spręcowo, Tuławki, Wadąg and Zalbki.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Dywity is bordered by the city of Olsztyn and by the gminas of Barczewo, Dobre Miasto, Jeziorany, Jonkowo and Świątki.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
117
],
"text": [
"Poland"
]
}
|
Gmina Dywity is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Olsztyn County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Dywity, which lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the regional capital Olsztyn.
The gmina covers an area of 160.68 square kilometres (62.0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 9,148.
Villages
Gmina Dywity contains the villages and settlements of Barkweda, Brąswałd, Bukwałd, Dąbrówka Wielka, Dywity, Frączki, Gady, Gradki, Kieźliny, Ługwałd, Myki, Nowe Włóki, Plutki, Redykajny, Rozgity, Różnowo, Sętal, Słupy, Spręcowo, Tuławki, Wadąg and Zalbki.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Dywity is bordered by the city of Olsztyn and by the gminas of Barczewo, Dobre Miasto, Jeziorany, Jonkowo and Świątki.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
|
shares border with
|
{
"answer_start": [
59
],
"text": [
"Olsztyn"
]
}
|
Gmina Dywity is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Olsztyn County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Dywity, which lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the regional capital Olsztyn.
The gmina covers an area of 160.68 square kilometres (62.0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 9,148.
Villages
Gmina Dywity contains the villages and settlements of Barkweda, Brąswałd, Bukwałd, Dąbrówka Wielka, Dywity, Frączki, Gady, Gradki, Kieźliny, Ługwałd, Myki, Nowe Włóki, Plutki, Redykajny, Rozgity, Różnowo, Sętal, Słupy, Spręcowo, Tuławki, Wadąg and Zalbki.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Dywity is bordered by the city of Olsztyn and by the gminas of Barczewo, Dobre Miasto, Jeziorany, Jonkowo and Świątki.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Gmina Dywity"
]
}
|
Gmina Dywity is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Olsztyn County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Dywity, which lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the regional capital Olsztyn.
The gmina covers an area of 160.68 square kilometres (62.0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 9,148.
Villages
Gmina Dywity contains the villages and settlements of Barkweda, Brąswałd, Bukwałd, Dąbrówka Wielka, Dywity, Frączki, Gady, Gradki, Kieźliny, Ługwałd, Myki, Nowe Włóki, Plutki, Redykajny, Rozgity, Różnowo, Sętal, Słupy, Spręcowo, Tuławki, Wadąg and Zalbki.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Dywity is bordered by the city of Olsztyn and by the gminas of Barczewo, Dobre Miasto, Jeziorany, Jonkowo and Świątki.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
|
different from
|
{
"answer_start": [
6
],
"text": [
"Dywity"
]
}
|
Gmina Dywity is a rural gmina (administrative district) in Olsztyn County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. Its seat is the village of Dywity, which lies approximately 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of the regional capital Olsztyn.
The gmina covers an area of 160.68 square kilometres (62.0 sq mi), and as of 2006 its total population is 9,148.
Villages
Gmina Dywity contains the villages and settlements of Barkweda, Brąswałd, Bukwałd, Dąbrówka Wielka, Dywity, Frączki, Gady, Gradki, Kieźliny, Ługwałd, Myki, Nowe Włóki, Plutki, Redykajny, Rozgity, Różnowo, Sętal, Słupy, Spręcowo, Tuławki, Wadąg and Zalbki.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Dywity is bordered by the city of Olsztyn and by the gminas of Barczewo, Dobre Miasto, Jeziorany, Jonkowo and Świątki.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
|
area
|
{
"answer_start": [
272
],
"text": [
"160.68"
]
}
|
Mountain City is the name of several places, mainly in the United States:
Mountain City, Georgia
Mountain City, Nevada
Mountain City, Tennessee
Mountain City, Texas
Chongqing, China, nicknamed "Mountain City"Also:
Mountain City (novel), a 1930 novel by Upton Sinclair
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
98
],
"text": [
"Mountain City, Nevada"
]
}
|
Mountain City is the name of several places, mainly in the United States:
Mountain City, Georgia
Mountain City, Nevada
Mountain City, Tennessee
Mountain City, Texas
Chongqing, China, nicknamed "Mountain City"Also:
Mountain City (novel), a 1930 novel by Upton Sinclair
|
number of households
|
{
"answer_start": [
244
],
"text": [
"0"
]
}
|
Mountain City is the name of several places, mainly in the United States:
Mountain City, Georgia
Mountain City, Nevada
Mountain City, Tennessee
Mountain City, Texas
Chongqing, China, nicknamed "Mountain City"Also:
Mountain City (novel), a 1930 novel by Upton Sinclair
|
water as percent of area
|
{
"answer_start": [
244
],
"text": [
"0"
]
}
|
The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World is a 2009 book written by psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist that deals with the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing. In part, McGilchrist's book, which is the product of twenty years of research, reviews the evidence of previous related research and theories, and based on this and cultural evidence, the author arrives at his own conclusions.
The Master and His Emissary received mixed reviews upon its publication. Some critics praised the book as being a landmark publication that could alter readers' perspective of how they viewed the world. Other critics claimed neurological understanding of hemispheric differences falls short of supporting the sweeping conclusions the book draws about Western culture.
The Master and His Emissary was shortlisted for the 2010 Bristol Festival of Ideas Book Prize, and was longlisted for the Royal Society 2010 Prize for Science Books.
Background and influences
In an interview with Frontier Psychiatrist, McGilchrist cites two main influences on his work: the psychiatrist John Cutting, and the Chicago psychologist David McNeill. McGilchrist states: "What I began to see – and it was John Cutting's work on the right hemisphere that set me thinking – was that the difference lay not in what they [the two hemispheres] do, but how they do it." In the same interview, the author explains: "Some very subtle research by David McNeill, amongst others, confirms that thought originates in the right hemisphere, is processed for expression in speech by the left hemisphere, and the meaning integrated again by the right (which alone understands the overall meaning of a complex utterance, taking everything into account)."
Synopsis
The 608-page book is about the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing.The book is divided into an introduction, two parts and a conclusion. In the introduction, McGilchrist states that "there is, literally, a world of difference between the [brain] hemispheres. Understanding quite what that is has involved a journey through many apparently unrelated areas: not just neurology and psychology, but philosophy, literature and the arts, and even, to some extent, archaeology and anthropology."
Part One: The Divided Brain
In "The Divided Brain", McGilchrist digests study after study, replacing the popular and superficial notion of the hemispheres as respectively logical and creative in nature with the idea that they pay attention in fundamentally different ways, the left being detail-oriented, the right being whole-oriented. These two modes of perception cascade into wildly different hemispheric personalities, and in fact reflect yet a further asymmetry in their status, that of the right's more immediate relationship with physical bodies (our own as well as others) and external reality as represented by the senses, a relationship that makes it the mediator, the first and last stop, of all experience.
Part Two: How the Brain Has Shaped Our World
In the second part, "How the Brain Has Shaped Our World", the author describes the evolution of Western culture, as influenced by hemispheric brain functioning, from the ancient world, through the Renaissance and Reformation; the Enlightenment; Romanticism and Industrial Revolution; to the modern and postmodern worlds which, to our detriment, are becoming increasingly dominated by the left brain.
Reception
The book received mixed reviews in various newspapers and journals.
Reviewing The Master and His Emissary in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Jacob Freedman wrote the book “valiantly addresses the effect hemispheric asymmetry has had on Western civilization" and that it chronicled "how the left brain's determined reductionism and the right brain's insightful and holistic approach have shaped music, language, politics, and art." A review by Bryan Appleyard in Times Online described the book as suggesting "we are thinking more and more like machines, and risk losing what makes us human", while David Cox in the Evening Standard wrote that the author "shows convincingly that the degeneracy of the West springs from our failure to manage the binary division of our brains."
In a positive review in The Guardian, philosopher Mary Midgley wrote that the book "points out the complexity, the divided nature of thought itself and asks about its connection with the structure of the brain", and that "though neurologists may well not welcome it because it asks them new questions, the rest of us will surely find it splendidly thought-provoking". In another positive review in Standpoint magazine, Professor Adam Zeman wrote that McGilchrist "extends [the] received wisdom with a hugely ambitious, absorbing and questionable thesis: the two hemispheres have radically contrasting personalities; that they live in a state of creative tension, sometimes declining into open war; and that their struggle for supremacy provides the key to understanding the major cultural movements of human history. In The Times Literary Supplement, W. F. Bynum wrote: "McGilchrist's careful analysis of how brains work is a veritable tour de force, gradually and skilfully revealed. I know of no better exposition of the current state of functional brain neuroscience."In a mixed review in Literary Review, A. C. Grayling wrote that the book was "beautifully written, erudite, fascinating and adventurous", but added that "the findings of brain science are nowhere near fine-grained enough yet to support the large psychological and cultural conclusions Iain McGilchrist draws". A negative review in The Economist stated that the book resorted to "generalisations of breathtaking sweep" and that the second part of the book "has plainly become untethered from its moorings in brain science". Likewise, Michael Corbalis said of the work, that "Although widely acclaimed, this book goes far beyond the neurological facts."Owen Flanagan alleged many shortcomings of the book and delivered a dismissive statement: "The fact is, hemispheric differences are not well understood. Neither are patterns over 2,500 years of western history. Trying to explain the ill-understood latter with a caricature of the former does little to illuminate either". McGilchrist wrote scathingly of this review, saying: "But anyone who has read my book and reads that review will realise what a shameful piece of writing it is", picking on what he alleges to be evidence of superficiality and misrepresentation.The book has inspired a documentary, The Divided Brain, authorised by McGilchrist.
Bibliography
McGilchrist, Iain (2009). The Master and His Emissary. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14878-7.
See also
Lateralization of brain function
Modernism
Philosophy of mind
Sociocultural evolution
Bicameral Mind: A related theory by Julian Jaynes based in communication between the brain hemispheres
The Matter with Things: A follow-on book by Iain McGilchrist (2021)
Notes
External links
Brain Matters: The divided mind. Has our civilisation suffered from a failure to manage the binary division of our brains? Talk given by McGilchrist at the Wellcome Collection in April 2012
Author's profile at All Souls College, University of Oxford
The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. RSA Keynote by Iain McGilchrist
Further study
Essays
McGilchrist, Iain (2 January 2010). "The Battle of the Brain: The mind's great conflict spills over onto the world stage". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-01-03.
Interviews
Vedantam, Shankar (4 Feb 2019). "One Head, Two Brains: How The Brain's Hemispheres Shape The World We See" (Audio podcast). NPR Hidden Brain. Retrieved 2019-02-08. A transcript is also available.
Mitchell, Natasha (19 June 2010). "The Master and his Emissary: the divided brain and the reshaping of Western civilisation" (Audio podcast). ABC Radio National All in the Mind. Retrieved 2010-06-23. A transcript is also available.
Staff (4 February 2010). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Frontier Psychiatrist. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
Crispin, Jessa (3 February 2010). "An Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Bookslut. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
Staff (14 November 2009). "Two worlds of the left and right brain" (Audio podcast). BBC Radio 4 Today. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Lectures
McGilchrist, Iain (17 Nov 2010). "The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World" (Video). The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (RSA). Retrieved 2011-01-26.Parts of this lecture were republished by the RSA in October 2011 as one of a series of "RSA Animates" with cartoonist Andrew Park's illustrations. The twelve-minute animation accompanying McGilchrist's talk took Park two months to complete.
McGilchrist, Iain (May 2011). "Things Are Not What They Seem" (Video). Schumacher College. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
McGilchrist, Iain (4 May 2012). "Big Ideas: Dr. Iain McGilchrist on The Divided Brain: Our Mind at War" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
McGilchrist, Iain (26 October 2012). "Iain McGilchrist on the divided brain's impact on our world" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
Documentaries
The Divided Brain documentary (2019)
Other reviews
Crispin, Jessa (21 December 2009). "Half and Half". The Smart Set. The Pennoni Honors College, Drexel University. Retrieved 2010-01-04.
Flanagan, Owen (21 December 2009). "The vast left-brain conspiracy". New Scientist CultureLab blog. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
Iana, Cristina (27 November 2009). "Studiu: Emisferele cerebrale dreaptă şi stângă au personalităţi opuse" (in Romanian). adevarul.ro international. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Vernon, Mark (22 January 2010). "What the other half doesn't know". Philosophy and Life Blog. Retrieved 2010-01-28. Vernon, a writer, journalist and columnist with The Guardian, writes: "At last! A book on neuroscience that is a thrilling read, philosophically astute and with wonderful science."
Williams, Ray. B. (22 February 2010). "Why we need to use both sides of our brain". National Post (blog). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
Kingerlee, Roger; Testa, Rita (2011). "Review of The Master and his Emissary". Neuropsychoanalysis. Karnac Books for the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society. 12 (2): 222–226.
Ellis, Robert M. (10 January 2012). "'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist: An Extended Review". Middle Way Society. Retrieved 2015-08-12.
Gare, Arran (2012). "Review of 'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist". Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy, Vol 8, No 1 (2012).
Further reading
Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. (Paperback) First published 1976.
Ornstein, Robert (1998). The Right Mind: Making Sense of the Hemispheres. Harcourt Brace International. ISBN 978-0-15-600627-9.
Dreher, Rod (16 January 2023). "Maybe Our Culture Is Literally Crazy". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
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The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World is a 2009 book written by psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist that deals with the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing. In part, McGilchrist's book, which is the product of twenty years of research, reviews the evidence of previous related research and theories, and based on this and cultural evidence, the author arrives at his own conclusions.
The Master and His Emissary received mixed reviews upon its publication. Some critics praised the book as being a landmark publication that could alter readers' perspective of how they viewed the world. Other critics claimed neurological understanding of hemispheric differences falls short of supporting the sweeping conclusions the book draws about Western culture.
The Master and His Emissary was shortlisted for the 2010 Bristol Festival of Ideas Book Prize, and was longlisted for the Royal Society 2010 Prize for Science Books.
Background and influences
In an interview with Frontier Psychiatrist, McGilchrist cites two main influences on his work: the psychiatrist John Cutting, and the Chicago psychologist David McNeill. McGilchrist states: "What I began to see – and it was John Cutting's work on the right hemisphere that set me thinking – was that the difference lay not in what they [the two hemispheres] do, but how they do it." In the same interview, the author explains: "Some very subtle research by David McNeill, amongst others, confirms that thought originates in the right hemisphere, is processed for expression in speech by the left hemisphere, and the meaning integrated again by the right (which alone understands the overall meaning of a complex utterance, taking everything into account)."
Synopsis
The 608-page book is about the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing.The book is divided into an introduction, two parts and a conclusion. In the introduction, McGilchrist states that "there is, literally, a world of difference between the [brain] hemispheres. Understanding quite what that is has involved a journey through many apparently unrelated areas: not just neurology and psychology, but philosophy, literature and the arts, and even, to some extent, archaeology and anthropology."
Part One: The Divided Brain
In "The Divided Brain", McGilchrist digests study after study, replacing the popular and superficial notion of the hemispheres as respectively logical and creative in nature with the idea that they pay attention in fundamentally different ways, the left being detail-oriented, the right being whole-oriented. These two modes of perception cascade into wildly different hemispheric personalities, and in fact reflect yet a further asymmetry in their status, that of the right's more immediate relationship with physical bodies (our own as well as others) and external reality as represented by the senses, a relationship that makes it the mediator, the first and last stop, of all experience.
Part Two: How the Brain Has Shaped Our World
In the second part, "How the Brain Has Shaped Our World", the author describes the evolution of Western culture, as influenced by hemispheric brain functioning, from the ancient world, through the Renaissance and Reformation; the Enlightenment; Romanticism and Industrial Revolution; to the modern and postmodern worlds which, to our detriment, are becoming increasingly dominated by the left brain.
Reception
The book received mixed reviews in various newspapers and journals.
Reviewing The Master and His Emissary in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Jacob Freedman wrote the book “valiantly addresses the effect hemispheric asymmetry has had on Western civilization" and that it chronicled "how the left brain's determined reductionism and the right brain's insightful and holistic approach have shaped music, language, politics, and art." A review by Bryan Appleyard in Times Online described the book as suggesting "we are thinking more and more like machines, and risk losing what makes us human", while David Cox in the Evening Standard wrote that the author "shows convincingly that the degeneracy of the West springs from our failure to manage the binary division of our brains."
In a positive review in The Guardian, philosopher Mary Midgley wrote that the book "points out the complexity, the divided nature of thought itself and asks about its connection with the structure of the brain", and that "though neurologists may well not welcome it because it asks them new questions, the rest of us will surely find it splendidly thought-provoking". In another positive review in Standpoint magazine, Professor Adam Zeman wrote that McGilchrist "extends [the] received wisdom with a hugely ambitious, absorbing and questionable thesis: the two hemispheres have radically contrasting personalities; that they live in a state of creative tension, sometimes declining into open war; and that their struggle for supremacy provides the key to understanding the major cultural movements of human history. In The Times Literary Supplement, W. F. Bynum wrote: "McGilchrist's careful analysis of how brains work is a veritable tour de force, gradually and skilfully revealed. I know of no better exposition of the current state of functional brain neuroscience."In a mixed review in Literary Review, A. C. Grayling wrote that the book was "beautifully written, erudite, fascinating and adventurous", but added that "the findings of brain science are nowhere near fine-grained enough yet to support the large psychological and cultural conclusions Iain McGilchrist draws". A negative review in The Economist stated that the book resorted to "generalisations of breathtaking sweep" and that the second part of the book "has plainly become untethered from its moorings in brain science". Likewise, Michael Corbalis said of the work, that "Although widely acclaimed, this book goes far beyond the neurological facts."Owen Flanagan alleged many shortcomings of the book and delivered a dismissive statement: "The fact is, hemispheric differences are not well understood. Neither are patterns over 2,500 years of western history. Trying to explain the ill-understood latter with a caricature of the former does little to illuminate either". McGilchrist wrote scathingly of this review, saying: "But anyone who has read my book and reads that review will realise what a shameful piece of writing it is", picking on what he alleges to be evidence of superficiality and misrepresentation.The book has inspired a documentary, The Divided Brain, authorised by McGilchrist.
Bibliography
McGilchrist, Iain (2009). The Master and His Emissary. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14878-7.
See also
Lateralization of brain function
Modernism
Philosophy of mind
Sociocultural evolution
Bicameral Mind: A related theory by Julian Jaynes based in communication between the brain hemispheres
The Matter with Things: A follow-on book by Iain McGilchrist (2021)
Notes
External links
Brain Matters: The divided mind. Has our civilisation suffered from a failure to manage the binary division of our brains? Talk given by McGilchrist at the Wellcome Collection in April 2012
Author's profile at All Souls College, University of Oxford
The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. RSA Keynote by Iain McGilchrist
Further study
Essays
McGilchrist, Iain (2 January 2010). "The Battle of the Brain: The mind's great conflict spills over onto the world stage". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-01-03.
Interviews
Vedantam, Shankar (4 Feb 2019). "One Head, Two Brains: How The Brain's Hemispheres Shape The World We See" (Audio podcast). NPR Hidden Brain. Retrieved 2019-02-08. A transcript is also available.
Mitchell, Natasha (19 June 2010). "The Master and his Emissary: the divided brain and the reshaping of Western civilisation" (Audio podcast). ABC Radio National All in the Mind. Retrieved 2010-06-23. A transcript is also available.
Staff (4 February 2010). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Frontier Psychiatrist. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
Crispin, Jessa (3 February 2010). "An Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Bookslut. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
Staff (14 November 2009). "Two worlds of the left and right brain" (Audio podcast). BBC Radio 4 Today. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Lectures
McGilchrist, Iain (17 Nov 2010). "The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World" (Video). The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (RSA). Retrieved 2011-01-26.Parts of this lecture were republished by the RSA in October 2011 as one of a series of "RSA Animates" with cartoonist Andrew Park's illustrations. The twelve-minute animation accompanying McGilchrist's talk took Park two months to complete.
McGilchrist, Iain (May 2011). "Things Are Not What They Seem" (Video). Schumacher College. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
McGilchrist, Iain (4 May 2012). "Big Ideas: Dr. Iain McGilchrist on The Divided Brain: Our Mind at War" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
McGilchrist, Iain (26 October 2012). "Iain McGilchrist on the divided brain's impact on our world" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
Documentaries
The Divided Brain documentary (2019)
Other reviews
Crispin, Jessa (21 December 2009). "Half and Half". The Smart Set. The Pennoni Honors College, Drexel University. Retrieved 2010-01-04.
Flanagan, Owen (21 December 2009). "The vast left-brain conspiracy". New Scientist CultureLab blog. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
Iana, Cristina (27 November 2009). "Studiu: Emisferele cerebrale dreaptă şi stângă au personalităţi opuse" (in Romanian). adevarul.ro international. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Vernon, Mark (22 January 2010). "What the other half doesn't know". Philosophy and Life Blog. Retrieved 2010-01-28. Vernon, a writer, journalist and columnist with The Guardian, writes: "At last! A book on neuroscience that is a thrilling read, philosophically astute and with wonderful science."
Williams, Ray. B. (22 February 2010). "Why we need to use both sides of our brain". National Post (blog). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
Kingerlee, Roger; Testa, Rita (2011). "Review of The Master and his Emissary". Neuropsychoanalysis. Karnac Books for the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society. 12 (2): 222–226.
Ellis, Robert M. (10 January 2012). "'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist: An Extended Review". Middle Way Society. Retrieved 2015-08-12.
Gare, Arran (2012). "Review of 'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist". Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy, Vol 8, No 1 (2012).
Further reading
Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. (Paperback) First published 1976.
Ornstein, Robert (1998). The Right Mind: Making Sense of the Hemispheres. Harcourt Brace International. ISBN 978-0-15-600627-9.
Dreher, Rod (16 January 2023). "Maybe Our Culture Is Literally Crazy". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
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The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World is a 2009 book written by psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist that deals with the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing. In part, McGilchrist's book, which is the product of twenty years of research, reviews the evidence of previous related research and theories, and based on this and cultural evidence, the author arrives at his own conclusions.
The Master and His Emissary received mixed reviews upon its publication. Some critics praised the book as being a landmark publication that could alter readers' perspective of how they viewed the world. Other critics claimed neurological understanding of hemispheric differences falls short of supporting the sweeping conclusions the book draws about Western culture.
The Master and His Emissary was shortlisted for the 2010 Bristol Festival of Ideas Book Prize, and was longlisted for the Royal Society 2010 Prize for Science Books.
Background and influences
In an interview with Frontier Psychiatrist, McGilchrist cites two main influences on his work: the psychiatrist John Cutting, and the Chicago psychologist David McNeill. McGilchrist states: "What I began to see – and it was John Cutting's work on the right hemisphere that set me thinking – was that the difference lay not in what they [the two hemispheres] do, but how they do it." In the same interview, the author explains: "Some very subtle research by David McNeill, amongst others, confirms that thought originates in the right hemisphere, is processed for expression in speech by the left hemisphere, and the meaning integrated again by the right (which alone understands the overall meaning of a complex utterance, taking everything into account)."
Synopsis
The 608-page book is about the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing.The book is divided into an introduction, two parts and a conclusion. In the introduction, McGilchrist states that "there is, literally, a world of difference between the [brain] hemispheres. Understanding quite what that is has involved a journey through many apparently unrelated areas: not just neurology and psychology, but philosophy, literature and the arts, and even, to some extent, archaeology and anthropology."
Part One: The Divided Brain
In "The Divided Brain", McGilchrist digests study after study, replacing the popular and superficial notion of the hemispheres as respectively logical and creative in nature with the idea that they pay attention in fundamentally different ways, the left being detail-oriented, the right being whole-oriented. These two modes of perception cascade into wildly different hemispheric personalities, and in fact reflect yet a further asymmetry in their status, that of the right's more immediate relationship with physical bodies (our own as well as others) and external reality as represented by the senses, a relationship that makes it the mediator, the first and last stop, of all experience.
Part Two: How the Brain Has Shaped Our World
In the second part, "How the Brain Has Shaped Our World", the author describes the evolution of Western culture, as influenced by hemispheric brain functioning, from the ancient world, through the Renaissance and Reformation; the Enlightenment; Romanticism and Industrial Revolution; to the modern and postmodern worlds which, to our detriment, are becoming increasingly dominated by the left brain.
Reception
The book received mixed reviews in various newspapers and journals.
Reviewing The Master and His Emissary in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Jacob Freedman wrote the book “valiantly addresses the effect hemispheric asymmetry has had on Western civilization" and that it chronicled "how the left brain's determined reductionism and the right brain's insightful and holistic approach have shaped music, language, politics, and art." A review by Bryan Appleyard in Times Online described the book as suggesting "we are thinking more and more like machines, and risk losing what makes us human", while David Cox in the Evening Standard wrote that the author "shows convincingly that the degeneracy of the West springs from our failure to manage the binary division of our brains."
In a positive review in The Guardian, philosopher Mary Midgley wrote that the book "points out the complexity, the divided nature of thought itself and asks about its connection with the structure of the brain", and that "though neurologists may well not welcome it because it asks them new questions, the rest of us will surely find it splendidly thought-provoking". In another positive review in Standpoint magazine, Professor Adam Zeman wrote that McGilchrist "extends [the] received wisdom with a hugely ambitious, absorbing and questionable thesis: the two hemispheres have radically contrasting personalities; that they live in a state of creative tension, sometimes declining into open war; and that their struggle for supremacy provides the key to understanding the major cultural movements of human history. In The Times Literary Supplement, W. F. Bynum wrote: "McGilchrist's careful analysis of how brains work is a veritable tour de force, gradually and skilfully revealed. I know of no better exposition of the current state of functional brain neuroscience."In a mixed review in Literary Review, A. C. Grayling wrote that the book was "beautifully written, erudite, fascinating and adventurous", but added that "the findings of brain science are nowhere near fine-grained enough yet to support the large psychological and cultural conclusions Iain McGilchrist draws". A negative review in The Economist stated that the book resorted to "generalisations of breathtaking sweep" and that the second part of the book "has plainly become untethered from its moorings in brain science". Likewise, Michael Corbalis said of the work, that "Although widely acclaimed, this book goes far beyond the neurological facts."Owen Flanagan alleged many shortcomings of the book and delivered a dismissive statement: "The fact is, hemispheric differences are not well understood. Neither are patterns over 2,500 years of western history. Trying to explain the ill-understood latter with a caricature of the former does little to illuminate either". McGilchrist wrote scathingly of this review, saying: "But anyone who has read my book and reads that review will realise what a shameful piece of writing it is", picking on what he alleges to be evidence of superficiality and misrepresentation.The book has inspired a documentary, The Divided Brain, authorised by McGilchrist.
Bibliography
McGilchrist, Iain (2009). The Master and His Emissary. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14878-7.
See also
Lateralization of brain function
Modernism
Philosophy of mind
Sociocultural evolution
Bicameral Mind: A related theory by Julian Jaynes based in communication between the brain hemispheres
The Matter with Things: A follow-on book by Iain McGilchrist (2021)
Notes
External links
Brain Matters: The divided mind. Has our civilisation suffered from a failure to manage the binary division of our brains? Talk given by McGilchrist at the Wellcome Collection in April 2012
Author's profile at All Souls College, University of Oxford
The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. RSA Keynote by Iain McGilchrist
Further study
Essays
McGilchrist, Iain (2 January 2010). "The Battle of the Brain: The mind's great conflict spills over onto the world stage". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2010-01-03.
Interviews
Vedantam, Shankar (4 Feb 2019). "One Head, Two Brains: How The Brain's Hemispheres Shape The World We See" (Audio podcast). NPR Hidden Brain. Retrieved 2019-02-08. A transcript is also available.
Mitchell, Natasha (19 June 2010). "The Master and his Emissary: the divided brain and the reshaping of Western civilisation" (Audio podcast). ABC Radio National All in the Mind. Retrieved 2010-06-23. A transcript is also available.
Staff (4 February 2010). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Frontier Psychiatrist. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
Crispin, Jessa (3 February 2010). "An Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Bookslut. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
Staff (14 November 2009). "Two worlds of the left and right brain" (Audio podcast). BBC Radio 4 Today. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Lectures
McGilchrist, Iain (17 Nov 2010). "The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World" (Video). The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (RSA). Retrieved 2011-01-26.Parts of this lecture were republished by the RSA in October 2011 as one of a series of "RSA Animates" with cartoonist Andrew Park's illustrations. The twelve-minute animation accompanying McGilchrist's talk took Park two months to complete.
McGilchrist, Iain (May 2011). "Things Are Not What They Seem" (Video). Schumacher College. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
McGilchrist, Iain (4 May 2012). "Big Ideas: Dr. Iain McGilchrist on The Divided Brain: Our Mind at War" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
McGilchrist, Iain (26 October 2012). "Iain McGilchrist on the divided brain's impact on our world" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
Documentaries
The Divided Brain documentary (2019)
Other reviews
Crispin, Jessa (21 December 2009). "Half and Half". The Smart Set. The Pennoni Honors College, Drexel University. Retrieved 2010-01-04.
Flanagan, Owen (21 December 2009). "The vast left-brain conspiracy". New Scientist CultureLab blog. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
Iana, Cristina (27 November 2009). "Studiu: Emisferele cerebrale dreaptă şi stângă au personalităţi opuse" (in Romanian). adevarul.ro international. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
Vernon, Mark (22 January 2010). "What the other half doesn't know". Philosophy and Life Blog. Retrieved 2010-01-28. Vernon, a writer, journalist and columnist with The Guardian, writes: "At last! A book on neuroscience that is a thrilling read, philosophically astute and with wonderful science."
Williams, Ray. B. (22 February 2010). "Why we need to use both sides of our brain". National Post (blog). Retrieved 2010-02-22.
Kingerlee, Roger; Testa, Rita (2011). "Review of The Master and his Emissary". Neuropsychoanalysis. Karnac Books for the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society. 12 (2): 222–226.
Ellis, Robert M. (10 January 2012). "'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist: An Extended Review". Middle Way Society. Retrieved 2015-08-12.
Gare, Arran (2012). "Review of 'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist". Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy, Vol 8, No 1 (2012).
Further reading
Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. (Paperback) First published 1976.
Ornstein, Robert (1998). The Right Mind: Making Sense of the Hemispheres. Harcourt Brace International. ISBN 978-0-15-600627-9.
Dreher, Rod (16 January 2023). "Maybe Our Culture Is Literally Crazy". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
place of birth
|
{
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143
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"Naples"
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
place of death
|
{
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1297
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"Rome"
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
1257
],
"text": [
"France"
]
}
|
Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
position held
|
{
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66
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"text": [
"cardinal"
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
family name
|
{
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12
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
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"Federico"
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Federico di Sanseverino (died 1516) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of the 16th century.
Biography
Federico di Sanseverino was born in Naples in 1475 or 1477. He was the son of Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona, a general of the papal army, and his second wife Elisabetta da Montefeltro.Early in his career, he was a cleric in Milan before becoming a protonotary apostolic. On 5 November 1481 he became the apostolic administrator of the see of Maillezais and occupied that post until 1508. Around 1492, he became provost of the church of Santa Maria in Crescenzago. He was the apostolic administrator of the see of Novara from 30 May 1505 until 24 October 1511.In the consistory of 9 March 1489, Pope Innocent VIII made him a cardinal deacon in pectore. Because of his youth, his creation was not published during the lifetime of Innocent VIII. During the sede vacante following the death of Innocent VIII, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza convinced the College of Cardinals to publish Sanseverino's creation on 26 July 1492, and he received the deaconry of San Teodoro. He was therefore able to participate in the papal conclave of 1492 that elected Pope Alexander VI.In November 1494, the new pope sent Cardinal Sanseverino as papal legate to Charles VIII of France in Siena. He returned quickly to Rome, where his loyalty was suspected by the pope. In order to frighten the rebels of Ostia, Cardinal Sanseverino and Cardinal Bernardino Lunati were arrested following the consistory of 10 December 1494, and held in the Apostolic Palace until 19 December 1494. He was then sent again as legate to Charles VIII; he subsequently accompanied the French king on his entrance to Rome on 31 December 1494. He traveled with the pope to Orvieto on 27 May 1495 and returned to Rome with the pontiff on 27 June.On 8 February 1496 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Thérouanne, occupying this post until 12 November 1498. On 1 July 1497 he became apostolic administrator of the see of Vienne and held this office until 26 January 1515. On 3 August 1499 he left, with the pope's permission, for Milan to join Cardinal Ascanio Sforza.He participated in the papal conclave of September 1503 that elected Pope Pius III. He also participated in the papal conclave of October 1503 that elected Pope Julius II.On 24 May 1504 Pope Julius II named him papal legate to the Patrimonium Sancti Petri. He became apostolic administrator of the see of Novara on 30 May 1505. On 1 May 1510 he opted for the deaconry of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria, while continuing to hold the deaconry of San Teodoro in commendam.After the pope threatened to imprison Cardinal Sanseverino in the Castel Sant'Angelo in June 1510, the cardinal joined the pope's enemies. In October 1510, he sought refuge, with another four cardinals, in the camp of the French army and went to Milan. There, on 16 May 1511, he was one of the signatories of a document calling a council in Pisa for 1 September 1511. He did not attend this council after the pope threatened him with excommunication. He was present with the French forces at the Battle of Ravenna (1512); Louis XII of France planned to make Cardinal Sanseverino governor of the Papal States after deposing the pope, but this never came to pass.Following the death of Pope Julius II, Cardinal Sanseverino did not participate in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. Shortly thereafter the cardinal was arrested in Florence on the pope's orders, with a promise he would be released if he repented. On 17 June 1513 he denounced the schismatical council of Pisa and submitted to the pope's authority in a letter later read at a session of the Fifth Council of the Lateran. He and Cardinal Bernardino López de Carvajal arrived in Rome on 27 June 1513 and personally repented in a secret consistory held in Rome. He was absolved by the pope, ordered to fast for a month, and restored to the College of Cardinals.From June 1513, he was the cardinal protodeacon. Shortly later, he was named cardinal protector of the Kingdom of France. On 25 June 1515 he was arrested on the pope's orders because it looked like one of his servants had killed a papal guard, but he proved his innocence the next day. In November 1515, he was sent as a papal legate to Francis I of France, who met him outside the gates of Bologna.He died in Rome on 7 August 1516. He is buried in Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
== References ==
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
1641
],
"text": [
"French"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
9
],
"text": [
"railway station"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
56
],
"text": [
"Angus"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
operator
|
{
"answer_start": [
623
],
"text": [
"Arbroath and Forfar Railway"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
named after
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arbroath"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Arbroath railway station"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
connecting service
|
{
"answer_start": [
470
],
"text": [
"Caledonian Sleeper"
]
}
|
Arbroath railway station serves the town of Arbroath in Angus, Scotland. The station is 17 miles (27 km) east of Dundee on the line between Dundee and Aberdeen, between Carnoustie and Montrose. There are two crossovers at the north end of the station, which can be used to facilitate trains turning back if the line south to Carnoustie is blocked. ScotRail, who manage the station, provide most of the services, along with CrossCountry, London North Eastern Railway and Caledonian Sleeper.
History
There have been three stations called "Arbroath", two of which closed in 1848. One - Arbroath Catherine Street - served the Arbroath and Forfar Railway; the other - Arbroath Lady Loan or Arbroath West - was on the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. The current station was originally opened by the Dundee and Arbroath Railway on 1 February 1848 (albeit temporarily - it was permanently opened on 14 December 1858) as a link station to connect the Arbroath and Forfar Railway with the Dundee and Arbroath Railway. On 1 October 1880 the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway opened north towards Montrose.
Until 1990, the station had 3 active platforms and was the terminus of a regular local service from Perth and Dundee that called at all of the intermediate local stations between the latter station and here.
Facilities
The station building is built above the railway line and platforms, and contains the ticket office, lifts to platforms and toilets. Outside is a taxi rank drop-off point. Each of the platforms has a waiting room, a help point and a bench, whilst platform 1 also has a ticket machine, which is adjacent to the car park.
Passenger volume
The statistics cover twelve month periods that start in April.
Services
There are generally two or three trains per hour westbound to Dundee and eastbound to Aberdeen, with hourly services onwards from Dundee towards Edinburgh and Glasgow Queen Street. London North Eastern Railway services to London King's Cross and CrossCountry routes towards England also stop at Arbroath. On Sundays there is generally an hourly service in each direction.
References
Bibliography
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Brailsford, Martyn, ed. (December 2017) [1987]. Railway Track Diagrams 1: Scotland & Isle of Man (6th ed.). Frome: Trackmaps. ISBN 978-0-9549866-9-8.
Butt, R. V. J. (October 1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199. OL 11956311M.
Jowett, Alan (March 1989). Jowett's Railway Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland: From Pre-Grouping to the Present Day (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-086-0. OCLC 22311137.
Quick, Michael (2022). Railway Passenger Stations in Great Britain: A Chronology (PDF) (5th ed.). London: Railway and Canal Historical Society.
External links
Station on navigable O.S. map.
History of StationTrain times and station information for Arbroath railway station from National Rail
|
historic county
|
{
"answer_start": [
56
],
"text": [
"Angus"
]
}
|
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi (born 14 October 2001) is an Indonesian badminton player affiliated with Mutiara Cardinal Bandung club. She was part of the national junior team that won the first Suhandinata Cup for Indonesia in 2019 BWF World Junior Championships. She also featured in the Indonesian women's winning team at the 2022 Asia Team Championships.
Career
2023
In January, Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi with her partner Febriana Dwipuji Kusuma lost in the second round of Malaysia Open from first seed Chinese pair Chen Qingchen and Jia Yifan. They competed at the home tournament, Indonesia Masters, but had to lose in the first round from Chinese pair Li Wenmei and Liu Xuanxuan in a dramatic match. In the next tournament, they lost in the second round of the Thailand Masters from youngster Chinese pair Li Yijing and Luo Xumin who started from qualification.In March, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed in the Swiss Open but had to lose in the second round from Japanese pair Rena Miyaura and Ayako Sakuramoto. In the next tour, they competed in the Spain Masters, but had to lose in the second round from Chinese younster pair Liu Shengshu and Tan Ning.In April, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed at the Orléans Masters in France as top seeds, but had to lose in the quarter-finals from fellow Indonesian pair Lanny Tria Mayasari and Ribka Sugiarto.In May, Pratiwi made her debut at the SEA Games, and took the silver medal in the women's team, and later clinched the women's doubles gold medal with her partner Kusuma.
Achievements
Southeast Asian Games
Women's doubles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' doubles
BWF World Tour (1 runner-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.Women's doubles
BWF Junior International (2 titles)
Girls' doubles
BWF Junior International Grand Prix tournament
BWF Junior International Challenge tournament
BWF Junior International Series tournament
BWF Junior Future Series tournament
Performance timeline
Key
National team
Junior levelSenior level
Individual competitions
Junior level
Girls' doubles
Senior level
Women's doubles
References
External links
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
country of citizenship
|
{
"answer_start": [
51
],
"text": [
"Indonesia"
]
}
|
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi (born 14 October 2001) is an Indonesian badminton player affiliated with Mutiara Cardinal Bandung club. She was part of the national junior team that won the first Suhandinata Cup for Indonesia in 2019 BWF World Junior Championships. She also featured in the Indonesian women's winning team at the 2022 Asia Team Championships.
Career
2023
In January, Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi with her partner Febriana Dwipuji Kusuma lost in the second round of Malaysia Open from first seed Chinese pair Chen Qingchen and Jia Yifan. They competed at the home tournament, Indonesia Masters, but had to lose in the first round from Chinese pair Li Wenmei and Liu Xuanxuan in a dramatic match. In the next tournament, they lost in the second round of the Thailand Masters from youngster Chinese pair Li Yijing and Luo Xumin who started from qualification.In March, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed in the Swiss Open but had to lose in the second round from Japanese pair Rena Miyaura and Ayako Sakuramoto. In the next tour, they competed in the Spain Masters, but had to lose in the second round from Chinese younster pair Liu Shengshu and Tan Ning.In April, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed at the Orléans Masters in France as top seeds, but had to lose in the quarter-finals from fellow Indonesian pair Lanny Tria Mayasari and Ribka Sugiarto.In May, Pratiwi made her debut at the SEA Games, and took the silver medal in the women's team, and later clinched the women's doubles gold medal with her partner Kusuma.
Achievements
Southeast Asian Games
Women's doubles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' doubles
BWF World Tour (1 runner-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.Women's doubles
BWF Junior International (2 titles)
Girls' doubles
BWF Junior International Grand Prix tournament
BWF Junior International Challenge tournament
BWF Junior International Series tournament
BWF Junior Future Series tournament
Performance timeline
Key
National team
Junior levelSenior level
Individual competitions
Junior level
Girls' doubles
Senior level
Women's doubles
References
External links
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
62
],
"text": [
"badminton player"
]
}
|
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi (born 14 October 2001) is an Indonesian badminton player affiliated with Mutiara Cardinal Bandung club. She was part of the national junior team that won the first Suhandinata Cup for Indonesia in 2019 BWF World Junior Championships. She also featured in the Indonesian women's winning team at the 2022 Asia Team Championships.
Career
2023
In January, Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi with her partner Febriana Dwipuji Kusuma lost in the second round of Malaysia Open from first seed Chinese pair Chen Qingchen and Jia Yifan. They competed at the home tournament, Indonesia Masters, but had to lose in the first round from Chinese pair Li Wenmei and Liu Xuanxuan in a dramatic match. In the next tournament, they lost in the second round of the Thailand Masters from youngster Chinese pair Li Yijing and Luo Xumin who started from qualification.In March, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed in the Swiss Open but had to lose in the second round from Japanese pair Rena Miyaura and Ayako Sakuramoto. In the next tour, they competed in the Spain Masters, but had to lose in the second round from Chinese younster pair Liu Shengshu and Tan Ning.In April, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed at the Orléans Masters in France as top seeds, but had to lose in the quarter-finals from fellow Indonesian pair Lanny Tria Mayasari and Ribka Sugiarto.In May, Pratiwi made her debut at the SEA Games, and took the silver medal in the women's team, and later clinched the women's doubles gold medal with her partner Kusuma.
Achievements
Southeast Asian Games
Women's doubles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' doubles
BWF World Tour (1 runner-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.Women's doubles
BWF Junior International (2 titles)
Girls' doubles
BWF Junior International Grand Prix tournament
BWF Junior International Challenge tournament
BWF Junior International Series tournament
BWF Junior Future Series tournament
Performance timeline
Key
National team
Junior levelSenior level
Individual competitions
Junior level
Girls' doubles
Senior level
Women's doubles
References
External links
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
62
],
"text": [
"badminton"
]
}
|
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi (born 14 October 2001) is an Indonesian badminton player affiliated with Mutiara Cardinal Bandung club. She was part of the national junior team that won the first Suhandinata Cup for Indonesia in 2019 BWF World Junior Championships. She also featured in the Indonesian women's winning team at the 2022 Asia Team Championships.
Career
2023
In January, Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi with her partner Febriana Dwipuji Kusuma lost in the second round of Malaysia Open from first seed Chinese pair Chen Qingchen and Jia Yifan. They competed at the home tournament, Indonesia Masters, but had to lose in the first round from Chinese pair Li Wenmei and Liu Xuanxuan in a dramatic match. In the next tournament, they lost in the second round of the Thailand Masters from youngster Chinese pair Li Yijing and Luo Xumin who started from qualification.In March, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed in the Swiss Open but had to lose in the second round from Japanese pair Rena Miyaura and Ayako Sakuramoto. In the next tour, they competed in the Spain Masters, but had to lose in the second round from Chinese younster pair Liu Shengshu and Tan Ning.In April, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed at the Orléans Masters in France as top seeds, but had to lose in the quarter-finals from fellow Indonesian pair Lanny Tria Mayasari and Ribka Sugiarto.In May, Pratiwi made her debut at the SEA Games, and took the silver medal in the women's team, and later clinched the women's doubles gold medal with her partner Kusuma.
Achievements
Southeast Asian Games
Women's doubles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' doubles
BWF World Tour (1 runner-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.Women's doubles
BWF Junior International (2 titles)
Girls' doubles
BWF Junior International Grand Prix tournament
BWF Junior International Challenge tournament
BWF Junior International Series tournament
BWF Junior Future Series tournament
Performance timeline
Key
National team
Junior levelSenior level
Individual competitions
Junior level
Girls' doubles
Senior level
Women's doubles
References
External links
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
country for sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
51
],
"text": [
"Indonesia"
]
}
|
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi (born 14 October 2001) is an Indonesian badminton player affiliated with Mutiara Cardinal Bandung club. She was part of the national junior team that won the first Suhandinata Cup for Indonesia in 2019 BWF World Junior Championships. She also featured in the Indonesian women's winning team at the 2022 Asia Team Championships.
Career
2023
In January, Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi with her partner Febriana Dwipuji Kusuma lost in the second round of Malaysia Open from first seed Chinese pair Chen Qingchen and Jia Yifan. They competed at the home tournament, Indonesia Masters, but had to lose in the first round from Chinese pair Li Wenmei and Liu Xuanxuan in a dramatic match. In the next tournament, they lost in the second round of the Thailand Masters from youngster Chinese pair Li Yijing and Luo Xumin who started from qualification.In March, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed in the Swiss Open but had to lose in the second round from Japanese pair Rena Miyaura and Ayako Sakuramoto. In the next tour, they competed in the Spain Masters, but had to lose in the second round from Chinese younster pair Liu Shengshu and Tan Ning.In April, Pratiwi and Kusuma competed at the Orléans Masters in France as top seeds, but had to lose in the quarter-finals from fellow Indonesian pair Lanny Tria Mayasari and Ribka Sugiarto.In May, Pratiwi made her debut at the SEA Games, and took the silver medal in the women's team, and later clinched the women's doubles gold medal with her partner Kusuma.
Achievements
Southeast Asian Games
Women's doubles
BWF World Junior Championships
Girls' doubles
BWF World Tour (1 runner-up)
The BWF World Tour, which was announced on 19 March 2017 and implemented in 2018, is a series of elite badminton tournaments sanctioned by the Badminton World Federation (BWF). The BWF World Tour is divided into levels of World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, Super 300 (part of the HSBC World Tour), and the BWF Tour Super 100.Women's doubles
BWF Junior International (2 titles)
Girls' doubles
BWF Junior International Grand Prix tournament
BWF Junior International Challenge tournament
BWF Junior International Series tournament
BWF Junior Future Series tournament
Performance timeline
Key
National team
Junior levelSenior level
Individual competitions
Junior level
Girls' doubles
Senior level
Women's doubles
References
External links
Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com
|
name in native language
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Amalia Cahaya Pratiwi"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
educated at
|
{
"answer_start": [
473
],
"text": [
"University of Oslo"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
1100
],
"text": [
"screenwriter"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
7
],
"text": [
"Thomassen"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Reidar"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
pseudonym
|
{
"answer_start": [
28
],
"text": [
"Richard Macker"
]
}
|
Reidar Thomassen, pseudonym Richard Macker (born 18 June 1936) is a Norwegian writer.
Biography
He was born in Harstad as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Haakon Ivar Thomassen (1895–1982) and nurse Edith Mack (1905–94). The family also lived in Tromsø and Narvik in Thomassen's youth. From 1964 to 1979 he was married to teacher Inger Sofie Lund. He resides in Bærum.
He finished his secondary education in Narvik in 1956, took military training in Harstad and studied at the University of Oslo. He graduated with the cand.real. degree in geography in 1964. He worked as a teacher from 1965 to 1972 and editor from 1972 to 1985, among others for the magazine Teknisk Presse. In 1985 he took up writing full-time.His debut novel was Konfrontasjonen (1969). Other memorable novels include Den tredje utvei (1970), Seminaret (1976) and Nina Ewert (2000). As a crime writer he uses the pseudonym Richard Macker; his crime debut was Mange om liket (1974). He has also written hundreds of crime short stories, and in 2003 he became the first Norwegian contributor to Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. He was the screenwriter for the three television series Farlig yrke (1976), Solospill (1977) and Saken Ruth Vang (1981). He wrote one children's book and two textbooks on leadership.He is also an active javelin thrower. His club is IL Tyrving, and his personal best throw as a young athlete was 63.31 metres in 1959.
== References ==
|
sports discipline competed in
|
{
"answer_start": [
1292
],
"text": [
"javelin throw"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
220
],
"text": [
"Mineola"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
educated at
|
{
"answer_start": [
287
],
"text": [
"University of Oklahoma"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
1019
],
"text": [
"social scientist"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
employer
|
{
"answer_start": [
87
],
"text": [
"University of Michigan"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
5
],
"text": [
"Krause"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Neal"
]
}
|
Neal Krause (born 1948) is Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health at University of Michigan School of Public Health, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Biography & awards
Krause was born on December 15, 1948, in Mineola, New York.
Krause obtained a baccalaureate degree from the University of Oklahoma (BBA in marketing and management, 1971), a master's degree in sociology and psychology from Sam Houston State University (MA, 1974), and a doctorate in sociology (University of Akron and Kent State University, 1978).
From 1982 to 1986, Krause worked at the University of Texas Medical Branch as Research Associate, Research Instructor, and Assistant Professor.
In 1986 he joined the Department of Health Behavior and Health Education in the University of Michigan School of Public Health as Associate Professor, and in 2009 he became the Marshall H. Becker Collegiate Professor of Public Health.In 2002 Krause was identified by the Institute for Scientific Information as one of the 250 most frequently cited social scientists in the 1981-1999 ISI Social Sciences Citation Index data base.In 2010 Krause won the Richard Kalish Innovative Publication Award for his 2008 book, "Aging in the Church: How Social Relationships Affect Health".
References
External links
Faculty page for Neal Krause (University of Michigan School of Public Health)
|
name in native language
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Neal Krause"
]
}
|
Taylor Gang Entertainment is an American entertainment company. Co-founded by rapper Wiz Khalifa in 2008, it operates as an independent record label, music management, music production and film company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The record label is home to artists such as Wiz Khalifa, Berner, and Juicy J who serves as A&R for the label. TM88 is a producer for the label. The company is currently headquartered at ID Labs in Pittsburgh.
History
The Taylor Gang was originally coined in 2006 to refer to "Taylors" who are supporters of Wiz Khalifa. Taylor Gang Ent. was co-founded in 2008 by Khalifa. The record label was named after Khalifa's alma mater, Taylor Allderdice High School, and his affinity for Converse Chuck Taylor All-Star sneakers. Taylor Gang Ent. began as Khalifa's fan base network, street team and home to his crew. The entity later became a full entertainment company encompassing record label, management services, production and film companies. Chevy Woods, Berner, and Tuki Carter all signed to the record label in 2011. In December 2012, Juicy J joined the entertainment company. In 2013, Ty Dolla $ign joined the company as well. In 2014, J.R. Donato signed to the label. That year, Taylor Gang Records selected INgrooves to manage their global distribution and marketing.The record label also doubles as a super group and announced plans to release an album as a group in 2016.Taylor Gang Ent. partnered with brands to create licensing deals, most notably, Grenco Science in 2014 for a series of vaporizer products and Neff to produce a special 26-piece apparel collection composed of T-shirts, jerseys and hats. The creative collaboration among the label's artists and Neff.
Roster
Current artists
Former artists
TGOD Mafia
TGOD (Taylor Gang or Die) Mafia is an American supergroup composed of Taylor Gang Entertainment signees. Their debut project, TGOD Mafia: Rude Awakening (2016), peaked at number 26 on the Billboard 200 and was produced entirely by in-house producer TM88.
References
External links
Official website
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
136
],
"text": [
"record label"
]
}
|
Taylor Gang Entertainment is an American entertainment company. Co-founded by rapper Wiz Khalifa in 2008, it operates as an independent record label, music management, music production and film company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The record label is home to artists such as Wiz Khalifa, Berner, and Juicy J who serves as A&R for the label. TM88 is a producer for the label. The company is currently headquartered at ID Labs in Pittsburgh.
History
The Taylor Gang was originally coined in 2006 to refer to "Taylors" who are supporters of Wiz Khalifa. Taylor Gang Ent. was co-founded in 2008 by Khalifa. The record label was named after Khalifa's alma mater, Taylor Allderdice High School, and his affinity for Converse Chuck Taylor All-Star sneakers. Taylor Gang Ent. began as Khalifa's fan base network, street team and home to his crew. The entity later became a full entertainment company encompassing record label, management services, production and film companies. Chevy Woods, Berner, and Tuki Carter all signed to the record label in 2011. In December 2012, Juicy J joined the entertainment company. In 2013, Ty Dolla $ign joined the company as well. In 2014, J.R. Donato signed to the label. That year, Taylor Gang Records selected INgrooves to manage their global distribution and marketing.The record label also doubles as a super group and announced plans to release an album as a group in 2016.Taylor Gang Ent. partnered with brands to create licensing deals, most notably, Grenco Science in 2014 for a series of vaporizer products and Neff to produce a special 26-piece apparel collection composed of T-shirts, jerseys and hats. The creative collaboration among the label's artists and Neff.
Roster
Current artists
Former artists
TGOD Mafia
TGOD (Taylor Gang or Die) Mafia is an American supergroup composed of Taylor Gang Entertainment signees. Their debut project, TGOD Mafia: Rude Awakening (2016), peaked at number 26 on the Billboard 200 and was produced entirely by in-house producer TM88.
References
External links
Official website
|
founded by
|
{
"answer_start": [
85
],
"text": [
"Wiz Khalifa"
]
}
|
Taylor Gang Entertainment is an American entertainment company. Co-founded by rapper Wiz Khalifa in 2008, it operates as an independent record label, music management, music production and film company based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The record label is home to artists such as Wiz Khalifa, Berner, and Juicy J who serves as A&R for the label. TM88 is a producer for the label. The company is currently headquartered at ID Labs in Pittsburgh.
History
The Taylor Gang was originally coined in 2006 to refer to "Taylors" who are supporters of Wiz Khalifa. Taylor Gang Ent. was co-founded in 2008 by Khalifa. The record label was named after Khalifa's alma mater, Taylor Allderdice High School, and his affinity for Converse Chuck Taylor All-Star sneakers. Taylor Gang Ent. began as Khalifa's fan base network, street team and home to his crew. The entity later became a full entertainment company encompassing record label, management services, production and film companies. Chevy Woods, Berner, and Tuki Carter all signed to the record label in 2011. In December 2012, Juicy J joined the entertainment company. In 2013, Ty Dolla $ign joined the company as well. In 2014, J.R. Donato signed to the label. That year, Taylor Gang Records selected INgrooves to manage their global distribution and marketing.The record label also doubles as a super group and announced plans to release an album as a group in 2016.Taylor Gang Ent. partnered with brands to create licensing deals, most notably, Grenco Science in 2014 for a series of vaporizer products and Neff to produce a special 26-piece apparel collection composed of T-shirts, jerseys and hats. The creative collaboration among the label's artists and Neff.
Roster
Current artists
Former artists
TGOD Mafia
TGOD (Taylor Gang or Die) Mafia is an American supergroup composed of Taylor Gang Entertainment signees. Their debut project, TGOD Mafia: Rude Awakening (2016), peaked at number 26 on the Billboard 200 and was produced entirely by in-house producer TM88.
References
External links
Official website
|
headquarters location
|
{
"answer_start": [
211
],
"text": [
"Pittsburgh"
]
}
|
Wernerius inyoensis is a species of scorpion in the taxomic family Vaejovidae. W. inyoensis is the third species described in the genus Wernerius. Wernerius inyoensis lives throughout the Inyo Mountains of Death Valley National Park in the southwestern North America, eastern California just like many scorpion species discovered around the year 2009.The species is small compared to most North American species of scorpions being 16.4 to 17 millimeters in length. W. inyoensis had a strong subaculear spine similar to other species of Wernerius (W. mumai and W. spicatus). Wernerius inyoensis had a base pigmentation of a yellow-orange (with some red pigmentation) with a darker carinae on the pedipalp appendage and the metasoma. Wernerius inyoensis is distinguished from the species Wernerius mumai by Wernerius inyoensis smaller adult body size, robust femur and the pedipalp appendage being thinner.A single male specimen of Wernerius inoyensis had been discovered at 37.2299°N, 117.9568°W. However what makes this specimen special is that W. inoyensis was discovered 400 kilometers from other Wernerius species which are in the lower Colorado river and Joshua Tree National Park.
== References ==
|
taxon rank
|
{
"answer_start": [
25
],
"text": [
"species"
]
}
|
Wernerius inyoensis is a species of scorpion in the taxomic family Vaejovidae. W. inyoensis is the third species described in the genus Wernerius. Wernerius inyoensis lives throughout the Inyo Mountains of Death Valley National Park in the southwestern North America, eastern California just like many scorpion species discovered around the year 2009.The species is small compared to most North American species of scorpions being 16.4 to 17 millimeters in length. W. inyoensis had a strong subaculear spine similar to other species of Wernerius (W. mumai and W. spicatus). Wernerius inyoensis had a base pigmentation of a yellow-orange (with some red pigmentation) with a darker carinae on the pedipalp appendage and the metasoma. Wernerius inyoensis is distinguished from the species Wernerius mumai by Wernerius inyoensis smaller adult body size, robust femur and the pedipalp appendage being thinner.A single male specimen of Wernerius inoyensis had been discovered at 37.2299°N, 117.9568°W. However what makes this specimen special is that W. inoyensis was discovered 400 kilometers from other Wernerius species which are in the lower Colorado river and Joshua Tree National Park.
== References ==
|
endemic to
|
{
"answer_start": [
276
],
"text": [
"California"
]
}
|
Wernerius inyoensis is a species of scorpion in the taxomic family Vaejovidae. W. inyoensis is the third species described in the genus Wernerius. Wernerius inyoensis lives throughout the Inyo Mountains of Death Valley National Park in the southwestern North America, eastern California just like many scorpion species discovered around the year 2009.The species is small compared to most North American species of scorpions being 16.4 to 17 millimeters in length. W. inyoensis had a strong subaculear spine similar to other species of Wernerius (W. mumai and W. spicatus). Wernerius inyoensis had a base pigmentation of a yellow-orange (with some red pigmentation) with a darker carinae on the pedipalp appendage and the metasoma. Wernerius inyoensis is distinguished from the species Wernerius mumai by Wernerius inyoensis smaller adult body size, robust femur and the pedipalp appendage being thinner.A single male specimen of Wernerius inoyensis had been discovered at 37.2299°N, 117.9568°W. However what makes this specimen special is that W. inoyensis was discovered 400 kilometers from other Wernerius species which are in the lower Colorado river and Joshua Tree National Park.
== References ==
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Wernerius inyoensis"
]
}
|
Wernerius inyoensis is a species of scorpion in the taxomic family Vaejovidae. W. inyoensis is the third species described in the genus Wernerius. Wernerius inyoensis lives throughout the Inyo Mountains of Death Valley National Park in the southwestern North America, eastern California just like many scorpion species discovered around the year 2009.The species is small compared to most North American species of scorpions being 16.4 to 17 millimeters in length. W. inyoensis had a strong subaculear spine similar to other species of Wernerius (W. mumai and W. spicatus). Wernerius inyoensis had a base pigmentation of a yellow-orange (with some red pigmentation) with a darker carinae on the pedipalp appendage and the metasoma. Wernerius inyoensis is distinguished from the species Wernerius mumai by Wernerius inyoensis smaller adult body size, robust femur and the pedipalp appendage being thinner.A single male specimen of Wernerius inoyensis had been discovered at 37.2299°N, 117.9568°W. However what makes this specimen special is that W. inoyensis was discovered 400 kilometers from other Wernerius species which are in the lower Colorado river and Joshua Tree National Park.
== References ==
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The Apache () are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño and Janero), Salinero, Plains (Kataka or Semat or "Kiowa-Apache") and Western Apache (Aravaipa, Pinaleño, Coyotero, Tonto). Distant cousins of the Apache are the Navajo, with whom they share the Southern Athabaskan languages. There are Apache communities in Oklahoma and Texas, and reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Apache people have moved throughout the United States and elsewhere, including urban centers. The Apache Nations are politically autonomous, speak several different languages, and have distinct cultures.
Historically, the Apache homelands have consisted of high mountains, sheltered and watered valleys, deep canyons, deserts, and the southern Great Plains, including areas in what is now Eastern Arizona, Northern Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua) and New Mexico, West Texas, and Southern Colorado. These areas are collectively known as Apacheria.
The Apache tribes fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. The first Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during the late 17th century. In 19th-century confrontations during the American-Indian wars, the U.S. Army found the Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists.
Contemporary tribes
The following Apache tribes are federally recognized:
Apache of Oklahoma
Fort Sill Apache, Oklahoma
Jicarilla Apache, New Mexico
Mescalero, New Mexico
San Carlos Apache, Arizona
Tonto Apache, Arizona
White Mountain Apache of the Fort Apache Reservation, Arizona
Yavapai-Apache, of the Camp Verde Reservation, ArizonaThe Jicarilla are headquartered in Dulce, New Mexico, while the Mescalero are headquartered in Mescalero, New Mexico. The Western Apache, located in Arizona, is divided into several reservations, which crosscut cultural divisions. The Western Apache reservations include the Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation and Tonto-Apache Reservation.
The Chiricahua were divided into two groups after they were released from being prisoners of war. The majority moved to the Mescalero Reservation and form, with the larger Mescalero political group, the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, along with the Lipan Apache. The other Chiricahua are enrolled in the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, headquartered in Apache, Oklahoma.The Plains Apache are located in Oklahoma, headquartered around Anadarko, and are federally recognized as the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma.
Name
The people who are known today as Apache were first encountered by the conquistadors of the Spanish crown, and thus the term Apache has its roots in the Spanish language. The Spanish first used the term Apachu de Nabajo (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the 1640s, they applied the term to southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The ultimate origin is uncertain and lost to Spanish history.Modern Apache people use the Spanish term to refer to themselves and tribal functions, and so does the US government. However, Apache language speakers also refer to themselves and their people in the Apache term Indé meaning 'person' or 'people'. Distant cousins and Apache subgroup the Navajo, in their language, refer to themselves as the Diné.The first known written record in Spanish is by Juan de Oñate in 1598. The most widely accepted origin theory suggests Apache was borrowed and transliterated from the Zuni word ʔa·paču meaning "Navajos" (the plural of paču "Navajo").Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai ʔpačə meaning "enemy". The Zuni and Yavapai sources are less certain because Oñate used the term before he had encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. A less likely origin may be from Spanish mapache, meaning "raccoon".The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills, probably bolstered by dime novels, was widely known among Europeans. In early 20th century Parisian society, the word Apache was adopted into French, essentially meaning an outlaw.The term Apachean includes the related Navajo people.
Difficulties in naming
Many of the historical names of Apache groups that were recorded by non-Apache are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their subgroups. Over the centuries, many Spanish, French and English-speaking authors did not differentiate between Apache and other semi-nomadic non-Apache peoples who might pass through the same area. Most commonly, Europeans learned to identify the tribes by translating their exonym, what another group whom the Europeans encountered first called the Apache peoples. Europeans often did not learn what the peoples called themselves, their autonyms.
While anthropologists agree on some traditional major subgrouping of Apaches, they have often used different criteria to name finer divisions, and these do not always match modern Apache groupings. Some scholars do not consider groups residing in what is now Mexico to be Apache. In addition, an Apache individual has different ways of identification with a group, such as a band or clan, as well as the larger tribe or language grouping, which can add to the difficulties in an outsider comprehending the distinctions.
In 1900, the US government classified the members of the Apache tribe in the United States as Pinal Coyotero, Jicarilla, Mescalero, San Carlos, Tonto, and White Mountain Apache. The different groups were located in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.
In the 1930s, the anthropologist Greenville Goodwin classified the Western Apache into five groups (based on his informants' views of dialect and cultural differences): White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos, North Tonto, and South Tonto. Since then, other anthropologists (e.g. Albert Schroeder) consider Goodwin's classification inconsistent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. Willem de Reuse finds linguistic evidence supporting only three major groupings: White Mountain, San Carlos, and Dilzhe'e (Tonto). He believes San Carlos is the most divergent dialect, and that Dilzhe'e is a remnant, intermediate member of a dialect continuum that previously spanned from the Western Apache language to the Navajo.
John Upton Terrell classifies the Apache into western and eastern groups. In the western group, he includes Toboso, Cholome, Jocome, Sibolo or Cibola, Pelone, Manso, and Kiva or Kofa. He includes Chicame (the earlier term for Hispanized Chicano or New Mexicans of Spanish/Hispanic and Apache descent) among them as having definite Apache connections or names which the Spanish associated with the Apache.
In a detailed study of New Mexico Catholic Church records, David M. Brugge identifies 15 tribal names which the Spanish used to refer to the Apache. These were drawn from records of about 1000 baptisms from 1704 to 1862.
List of names
The list below is based on Foster and McCollough (2001), Opler (1983b, 1983c, 2001), and de Reuse (1983).
The term Apache refers to six major Apache-speaking groups: Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains Apache, and Western Apache. Historically, the term was also used for Comanches, Mojaves, Hualapais, and Yavapais, none of whom speak Apache languages.
Chiricahua – Mimbreño – Ndendahe
Chiricahua historically lived in Southeastern Arizona. Chíshí (also Tchishi) is a Navajo word meaning "Chiricahua, southern Apaches in general".Ch'úúkʾanén, true Chiricahua (Tsokanende, also Č'ók'ánéń, Č'ó·k'anén, Chokonni, Cho-kon-nen, Cho Kŭnĕ́, Chokonen) is the Eastern Chiricahua band identified by Morris Opler. The name is an autonym from the Chiricahua language.
Gileño (also Apaches de Gila, Apaches de Xila, Apaches de la Sierra de Gila, Xileños, Gilenas, Gilans, Gilanians, Gila Apache, Gilleños) referred to several different Apache and non-Apache groups at different times. Gila refers to either the Gila River or the Gila Mountains. Some of the Gila Apaches were probably later known as the Mogollon Apaches, a Central Apache sub-band, while others probably coalesced into the Chiricahua proper. But, since the term was used indiscriminately for all Apachean groups west of the Rio Grande (i.e. in southeast Arizona and western New Mexico), the reference in historical documents is often unclear. After 1722, Spanish documents start to distinguish between these different groups, in which case Apaches de Gila refers to the Western Apache living along the Gila River (synonymous with Coyotero). American writers first used the term to refer to the Mimbres (another Central Apache subdivision).
Mimbreño are the Tchihende, not a Chiricahua band but a central Apache division sharing the same language with the Chiricahua and the Mescalero divisions, the name being referred to a central Apache division improperly considered as a section of Opler's "Eastern Chiricahua band", and to Albert Schroeder's Mimbres, or Warm Springs and Copper Mines "Chiricahua" bands in southwestern New Mexico.
Copper Mines Mimbreño (also Coppermine) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Pinos Altos area. (See also Gileño and Mimbreño.)
Warm Springs Mimbreño (also Warmspring) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Ojo Caliente area. (See also Gileño and Mimbreño.)
Ndendahe were a division comprising the Bedonkohe (Mogollon) group and the Nedhni (Carrizaleño and Janero) group, incorrectly called, sometimes, Southern Chirichua.
Mogollon was considered by Schroeder to be a separate pre-reservation Chiricahua band, while Opler considered the Mogollon to be part of his Eastern Chiricahua band in New Mexico.
Nedhni were the southernest group of the Central Apache, having their center in the Carrizal (Carrizaleño) and Janos (Janero) areas, in the Mexican state of Chihuahua.
Jicarilla
Jicarilla primarily live in Northern New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and the Texas Panhandle. The term jicarilla comes from the Spanish word for "little gourd."
Carlana (also Carlanes, Sierra Blanca) is Raton Mesa in Southeastern Colorado. In 1726, they joined the Cuartelejo and Paloma, and by the 1730s, they lived with the Jicarilla. The Llanero band of the Jicarilla or the Dáchizh-ó-zhn Jicarilla (defined by James Mooney) might descendants of the Carlana, Cuartelejo, and Paloma. Parts of the group were called Lipiyanes or Llaneros. In 1812, the term Carlana was used to mean Jicarilla. The Flechas de Palo might have been a part of or absorbed by the Carlana (or Cuartelejo).
Lipan
Lipan (also Ypandis, Ypandes, Ipandes, Ipandi, Lipanes, Lipanos, Lipaines, Lapane, Lipanis, etc.) live in Western Texas today. They traveled from the Pecos River in Eastern New Mexico to the upper Colorado River, San Saba River and Llano River of central Texas across the Edwards Plateau southeast to the Gulf of Mexico. They were close allies of the Natagés. They were also called Plains Lipan (Golgahį́į́, Kó'l kukä'ⁿ, "Prairie Men"), not to be confused with Lipiyánes or Le Panis (French for the Pawnee). They were first mentioned in 1718 records as being near the newly established town of San Antonio, Texas.
Pelones ("Bald Ones") lived far from San Antonio and far to the northeast of the Ypandes near the Red River of the South of North-Central Texas, although able to field 800 warriors, more than the Ypandes and Natagés together, they were described as less warlike because they had fewer horses than the Plains Lipan, their population were estimated between 1,600 and 2,400 persons, were the Forest Lipan division (Chishį́į́hį́į́, Tcici, Tcicihi – "People of the Forest", after 1760 the name Pelones was never used by the Spanish for any Texas Apache group, the Pelones had fled for the Comanche south and southwest, but never mixed up with the Plains Lipan division – retaining their distinct identity, so that Morris Opler was told by his Lipan informants in 1935 that their tribal name was "People of the Forest")
Mescalero
Mescaleros primarily live in Eastern New Mexico.
Faraones (also Apaches Faraone, Paraonez, Pharaones, Taraones, or Taracones) is derived from Spanish Faraón meaning "Pharaoh." Before 1700, the name was vague. Between 1720 and 1726, it referred to Apache between the Rio Grande, the Pecos River, the area around Santa Fe, and the Conchos River. After 1726, Faraones only referred to the groups of the north and central parts of this region. The Faraones like were part of the modern-day Mescalero or merged with them. After 1814, the term Faraones disappeared and was replaced by Mescalero.
Sierra Blanca Mescaleros were a northern Mescalero group from the Sierra Blanca Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Sacramento Mescaleros were a northern Mescalero group from the Sacramento and Organ Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Guadalupe Mescaleros. were a northern Mescalero group from the Guadalupe Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Limpia Mescaleros were a southern Mescalero group from the Limpia Mountains (later named as Davis Mountains) and roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Natagés (also Natagees, Apaches del Natafé, Natagêes, Yabipais Natagé, Natageses, Natajes) is a term used from 1726 to 1820 to refer to the Faraón, Sierra Blanca, and Siete Ríos Apaches of southeastern New Mexico. In 1745, the Natagé are reported to have consisted of the Mescalero (around El Paso and the Organ Mountains) and the Salinero (around Rio Salado), but these were probably the same group, were oft called by the Spanish and Apaches themselves true Apaches, had had a considerable influence on the decision making of some bands of the Western Lipan in the 18th century. After 1749, the term became synonymous with Mescalero, which eventually replaced it.
Ethnobotany
A full list of documented plant uses by the Mescalero tribe can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/ (which also includes the Chiricahua; 198 documented plant uses) and http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/12/ (83 documented uses).
Plains Apache
Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache, Naisha, Naʼishandine) are headquartered in Southwest Oklahoma. Historically, they followed the Kiowa. Other names for them include Ná'įįsha, Ná'ęsha, Na'isha, Na'ishandine, Na-i-shan-dina, Na-ishi, Na-e-ca, Ną'ishą́, Nadeicha, Nardichia, Nadíisha-déna, Na'dí'į́shą́ʼ, Nądí'įįshąą, and Naisha.
Querechos referred to by Coronado in 1541, possibly Plains Apaches, at times maybe Navajo. Other early Spanish might have also called them Vaquereo or Llanero.
Western Apache
Western Apache include Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, White Mountain and San Carlos groups. While these subgroups spoke the same language and had kinship ties, Western Apaches considered themselves as separate from each other, according to Goodwin. Other writers have used this term to refer to all non-Navajo Apachean peoples living west of the Rio Grande (thus failing to distinguish the Chiricahua from the other Apacheans). Goodwin's formulation: "all those Apache peoples who have lived within the present boundaries of the state of Arizona during historic times with the exception of the Chiricahua, Warm Springs, and allied Apache, and a small band of Apaches known as the Apache Mansos, who lived in the vicinity of Tucson."
Cibecue is a Western Apache group, according to Goodwin, from north of the Salt River between the Tonto and White Mountain Apache, consisting of Ceder Creek, Carrizo, and Cibecue (proper) bands.
San Carlos. A Western Apache group that ranged closest to Tucson according to Goodwin. This group consisted of the Apache Peaks, Arivaipa, Pinal, San Carlos (proper) bands.
Arivaipa (also Aravaipa) is a band of the San Carlos Apache. Schroeder believes the Arivaipa were a separate people in pre-reservation times. Arivaipa is a Hispanized word from the O'odham language. The Arivaipa are known as Tsézhiné ("Black Rock") in the Western Apache language.
Pinal (also Pinaleño). One of the bands of the San Carlos group of Western Apache, described by Goodwin. Also used along with Coyotero to refer more generally to one of two major Western Apache divisions. Some Pinaleño were referred to as the Gila Apache.
Tonto. Goodwin divided into Northern Tonto and Southern Tonto groups, living in the north and west areas of the Western Apache groups according to Goodwin. This is north of Phoenix, north of the Verde River. Schroeder has suggested that the Tonto are originally Yavapais who assimilated Western Apache culture. Tonto is one of the major dialects of the Western Apache language. Tonto Apache speakers are traditionally bilingual in Western Apache and Yavapai. Goodwin's Northern Tonto consisted of Bald Mountain, Fossil Creek, Mormon Lake, and Oak Creek bands; Southern Tonto consisted of the Mazatzal band and unidentified "semi-bands".
White Mountain are the easternmost group of the Western Apache, according to Goodwin, who included the Eastern White Mountain and Western White Mountain Apache.
Coyotero refers to a southern pre-reservation White Mountain group of the Western Apache, but has also been used more widely to refer to the Apache in general, Western Apache, or an Apache band in the high plains of Southern Colorado to Kansas.
Ethnobotany
A full list of 134 ethnobotany plant uses for Western Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/14/.
A full list of 165 ethnobotany plant uses for White Mountain Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/15/.
A full list of 14 ethnobotany plant uses for the San Carlos Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/13/.
Other terms
Llanero is a Spanish-language borrowing meaning "plains dweller". The name referred to several different groups who hunted buffalo on the Great Plains. (See also Carlanas.)
Lipiyánes (also Lipiyán, Lipillanes). A coalition of splinter groups of Nadahéndé (Natagés), Guhlkahéndé, and Lipan of the 18th century under the leadership of Picax-Ande-Ins-Tinsle ("Strong Arm"), who fought the Comanche on the Plains. This term is not to be confused with Lipan.
History
Entry into the Southwest
The Apache and Navajo tribal groups of the North American Southwest speak related languages of the Athabaskan language family. Other Athabaskan-speaking people in North America continue to reside in Alaska, western Canada, and the Northwest Pacific Coast. Anthropological evidence suggests that the Apache and Navajo peoples lived in these same northern locales before migrating to the Southwest sometime between AD 1200 and 1500.The Apaches' nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. Since the early 21st century, substantial progress has been made in dating and distinguishing their dwellings and other forms of material culture. They left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods than other Southwestern cultures.The Athabaskan-speaking group probably moved into areas that were concurrently occupied or recently abandoned by other cultures. Other Athabaskan speakers, perhaps including the Southern Athabaskan, adapted many of their neighbors' technology and practices in their own cultures. Thus sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. Recent advances have been made in the regard in the far southern portion of the American Southwest.There are several hypotheses about Apache migrations. One posits that they moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In the mid-16th century, these mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. Substantial numbers of the people and a wide range were recorded by the Spanish in the 16th century.In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado referred to the people as "dog nomads." He wrote:
After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a 'rancheria' of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings.
The Spanish described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and "not much larger than water spaniels." Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern Inuit and northern First Nations people in Canada. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles per hour (3 to 5 km/h). The Plains migration theory associates the Apache peoples with the Dismal River culture, an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains, dated 1675–1725, which has been excavated in Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and western Kansas.Although the first documentary sources mention the Apache, and historians have suggested some passages indicate a 16th-century entry from the north, archaeological data indicate they were present on the plains long before this first reported contact.A competing theory posits their migration south, through the Rocky Mountains, ultimately reaching the American Southwest by the 14th century or perhaps earlier. An archaeological material culture assemblage identified in this mountainous zone as ancestral Apache has been referred to as the "Cerro Rojo complex". This theory does not preclude arrival via a plains route as well, perhaps concurrently, but to date the earliest evidence has been found in the mountainous Southwest. The Plains Apache have a significant Southern Plains cultural influence.
When the Spanish arrived in the area, trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskan was well established. They reported the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, and hides and materials for stone tools. Coronado observed the Plains people wintering near the Pueblo in established camps. Later Spanish sovereignty over the area disrupted trade between the Pueblo and the diverging Apache and Navajo groups. The Apache quickly acquired horses, improving their mobility for quick raids on settlements. In addition, the Pueblo were forced to work Spanish mission lands and care for mission flocks; they had fewer surplus goods to trade with their neighbors.In 1540, Coronado reported that the modern Western Apache area was uninhabited, although some scholars have argued that he simply did not see the American Indians. Other Spanish explorers first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. To some historians, this implies the Apaches moved into their current Southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Other historians note that Coronado reported that Pueblo women and children had often been evacuated by the time his party attacked their dwellings, and that he saw some dwellings had been recently abandoned as he moved up the Rio Grande. This might indicate the semi-nomadic Southern Athabaskan had advance warning about his hostile approach and evaded encounter with the Spanish. Archaeologists are finding ample evidence of an early proto-Apache presence in the Southwestern mountain zone in the 15th century and perhaps earlier. The Apache presence on both the Plains and in the mountainous Southwest indicate that the people took multiple early migration routes.
Conflict with Mexico and the United States
In general, the recently arrived Spanish colonists, who settled in villages, and Apache bands developed a pattern of interaction over a few centuries. Both raided and traded with each other. Records of the period seem to indicate that relationships depended on the specific villages and bands: a band might be friends with one village and raid another. When war occurred, the Spanish would send troops; after a battle both sides would "sign a treaty" and go home.
The traditional and sometimes treacherous relationships continued after the independence of Mexico in 1821. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps (see scalping), but certain villages still traded with some bands. When Juan José Compà, the leader of the Copper Mines Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837, Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves) or Dasoda-hae (He just sits there) became the principal chief and war leader; also in 1837 Soldado Fiero (a.k.a. Fuerte), leader of the Warm Springs Mimbreño Apaches, was killed by Mexican soldiers near Janos, and his son Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) became the principal chief and war leader. They (being now Mangas Coloradas the first chief and Cuchillo Negro the second chief of the whole Tchihende or Mimbreño people) conducted a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans. By 1856, authorities in horse-rich Durango would claim that Indian raids (mostly Comanche and Apache) in their state had taken nearly 6,000 lives, abducted 748 people, and forced the abandonment of 358 settlements over the previous 20 years.When the United States went to war against Mexico in 1846, many Apache bands promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through their lands. When the U.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty with the nation, respecting them as conquerors of the Mexicans' land. An uneasy peace with U.S. citizens held until the 1850s. An influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict with the Apache. This period is sometimes called the Apache Wars.
United States' concept of a reservation had not been used by the Spanish, Mexicans or other Apache neighbors before. Reservations were often badly managed, and bands that had no kinship relationships were forced to live together. No fences existed to keep people in or out. It was common for a band to be allowed to leave for a short period of time. Other times a band would leave without permission, to raid, return to their homeland to forage, or to simply get away. The U.S. military usually had forts nearby to keep the bands on the reservations by finding and returning those who left. The reservation policies of the U.S. caused conflict and war with the various Apache bands who left the reservations for almost another quarter century.
War between the Apache peoples and Euro-Americans has led to a stereotypical focus on certain aspects of Apache cultures. These have often been distorted through misunderstanding of their cultures, as noted by anthropologist Keith Basso:
Of the hundreds of peoples that lived and flourished in native North America, few have been so consistently misrepresented as the Apacheans of Arizona and New Mexico. Glorified by novelists, sensationalized by historians, and distorted beyond credulity by commercial film makers, the popular image of 'the Apache' — a brutish, terrifying semi-human bent upon wanton death and destruction — is almost entirely a product of irresponsible caricature and exaggeration. Indeed, there can be little doubt that the Apache has been transformed from a native American into an American legend, the fanciful and fallacious creation of a non-Indian citizenry whose inability to recognize the massive treachery of ethnic and cultural stereotypes has been matched only by its willingness to sustain and inflate them.
Forced removal
In 1875, United States military forced the removal of an estimated 1500 Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache (better known as Tonto Apache) from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve and its several thousand acres of treaty lands promised to them by the United States government. At the orders of Indian Commissioner L.E. Dudley, U.S. Army troops made the people, young and old, walk through winter-flooded rivers, mountain passes and narrow canyon trails to get to the Indian Agency at San Carlos, 180 miles (290 km) away. The trek killed several hundred people. The people were interned there for 25 years while white settlers took over their land. Only a few hundred ever returned to their lands. At the San Carlos reservation, the Buffalo soldiers of the 9th Cavalry Regiment—replacing the 8th Cavalry who were being stationed to Texas—guarded the Apaches from 1875 to 1881.Beginning in 1879, an Apache uprising against the reservation system led to Victorio's War between Chief Victorio's band of Apaches and the 9th Cavalry.
Defeat
Most United States' histories of this era report that the final defeat of an Apache band took place when 5,000 US troops forced Geronimo's group of 30 to 50 men, women and children to surrender on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. The Army sent this band and the Chiricahua scouts who had tracked them to military confinement in Florida at Fort Pickens and, subsequently, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma.
Many books were written on the stories of hunting and trapping during the late 19th century. Many of these stories involve Apache raids and the failure of agreements with Americans and Mexicans. In the post-war era, the US government arranged for Apache children to be taken from their families for adoption by white Americans in assimilation programs.
Pre-reservation culture
Social organization
All Apache peoples lived in extended family units (or family clusters); they usually lived close together, with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, their married daughters, their married daughters' husbands, and their married daughters' children. Thus, the extended family is connected through a lineage of women who live together (that is, matrilocal residence), into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family).
When a daughter married, a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. Among the Navajo, residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence, sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage. All tribes practiced sororate and levirate marriages.
Apache men practiced varying degrees of "avoidance" of his wife's close relatives, a practice often most strictly observed by distance between mother-in-law and son-in-law. The degree of avoidance differed by Apache group. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua, where men had to use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of the wife's female relatives, whom he had to avoid. His female Chiricahua relatives through marriage also avoided him.
Several extended families worked together as a "local group", which carried out certain ceremonies, and economic and military activities. Political control was mostly present at the local group level. Local groups were headed by a chief, a male who had much influence due to his effectiveness and reputation. The position was not hereditary, and was often filled by members of different extended families. The chief's influence was as strong as he was evaluated to be—no group member was obliged to follow the chief. Western Apache criteria for a good chief included: industriousness, generosity, impartiality, forbearance, conscientiousness, and eloquence in language.
Many Apache peoples joined several local groups into "bands". Banding was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache, and weak among the Lipan and Mescalero. The Navajo did not organize into bands, perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. However, the Navajo did have "the outfit", a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family, but smaller than a local group community or a band.
On a larger level, Western Apache bands organized into what Grenville Goodwin called "groups". He reported five groups for the Western Apache: Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, San Carlos, and White Mountain. The Jicarilla grouped their bands into "moieties", perhaps influenced by the northeastern Pueblo. The Western Apache and Navajo also had a system of matrilineal "clans" organized further into phratries (perhaps influenced by the western Pueblo).
The notion of "tribe" in Apache cultures is very weakly developed; essentially it was only a recognition "that one owed a modicum of hospitality to those of the same speech, dress, and customs." The six Apache tribes had political independence from each other and even fought against each other. For example, the Lipan once fought against the Mescalero.
Kinship systems
The Apache tribes have two distinctly different kinship term systems: a Chiricahua type and a Jicarilla type. The Chiricahua-type system is used by the Chiricahua, Mescalero, and Western Apache. The Western Apache system differs slightly from the other two systems, and has some similarities to the Navajo system.
The Jicarilla type, which is similar to the Dakota–Iroquois kinship systems, is used by the Jicarilla, Navajo, Lipan, and Plains Apache. The Navajo system is more divergent among the four, having similarities with the Chiricahua-type system. The Lipan and Plains Apache systems are very similar.
Chiricahua
The Chiricahua language has four words for grandparent: -chú "maternal grandmother", -tsúyé "maternal grandfather", -chʼiné "paternal grandmother", -nálé "paternal grandfather". Additionally, a grandparent's siblings are identified by the same word; thus, one's maternal grandmother, one's maternal grandmother's sisters, and one's maternal grandmother's brothers are all called -chú. Furthermore, the grandchild terms are reciprocal, that is, one uses the same term to refer to their grandchild. For example, a person's maternal grandmother is called -chú and that grandmother also calls that granddaughter -chú (i.e. -chú can mean the child of either your own daughter or your sibling's daughter.)
Chiricahua cousins are not distinguished from siblings through kinship terms. Thus, the same word refers to either a sibling or a cousin (there are not separate terms for parallel-cousin and cross-cousin). The terms depend on the sex of the speaker (unlike the English terms brother and sister): -kʼis "same-sex sibling or same-sex cousin", -´-ląh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite-sex cousin". This means if one is a male, then one's brother is called -kʼis and one's sister is called -´-ląh. If one is a female, then one's brother is called -´-ląh and one's sister is called -kʼis. Chiricahuas in a -´-ląh relationship observed great restraint and respect toward that relative; cousins (but not siblings) in a -´-ląh relationship may practice total avoidance.
Two different words are used for each parent according to sex: -mááʼ "mother", -taa "father". Likewise, there are two words for a parent's child according to sex: -yáchʼeʼ "daughter", -gheʼ "son".
A parent's siblings are classified together regardless of sex: -ghúyé "maternal aunt or uncle (mother's brother or sister)", -deedééʼ "paternal aunt or uncle (father's brother or sister)". These two terms are reciprocal like the grandparent/grandchild terms. Thus, -ghúyé also refers to one's opposite-sex sibling's son or daughter (that is, a person will call their maternal aunt -ghúyé and that aunt will call them -ghúyé in return).
Jicarilla
Unlike the Chiricahua system, the Jicarilla have only two terms for grandparents according to sex: -chóó "grandmother", -tsóyéé "grandfather". They do not have separate terms for maternal or paternal grandparents. The terms are also used of a grandparent's siblings according to sex. Thus, -chóó refers to one's grandmother or one's grand-aunt (either maternal or paternal); -tsóyéé refers to one's grandfather or one's grand-uncle. These terms are not reciprocal. There is a single word for grandchild (regardless of sex): -tsóyí̱í̱.
There are two terms for each parent. These terms also refer to that parent's same-sex sibling: -ʼnííh "mother or maternal aunt (mother's sister)", -kaʼéé "father or paternal uncle (father's brother)". Additionally, there are two terms for a parent's opposite-sex sibling depending on sex: -daʼá̱á̱ "maternal uncle (mother's brother)", -béjéé "paternal aunt (father's sister).
Two terms are used for same-sex and opposite-sex siblings. These terms are also used for parallel-cousins: -kʼisé "same-sex sibling or same-sex parallel cousin (i.e. same-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)", -´-láh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite parallel cousin (i.e. opposite-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)". These two terms can also be used for cross-cousins. There are also three sibling terms based on the age relative to the speaker: -ndádéé "older sister", -´-naʼá̱á̱ "older brother", -shdá̱zha "younger sibling (i.e. younger sister or brother)". Additionally, there are separate words for cross-cousins: -zeedń "cross-cousin (either same-sex or opposite-sex of speaker)", -iłnaaʼaash "male cross-cousin" (only used by male speakers).
A parent's child is classified with their same-sex sibling's or same-sex cousin's child: -zhácheʼe "daughter, same-sex sibling's daughter, same-sex cousin's daughter", -gheʼ "son, same-sex sibling's son, same-sex cousin's son". There are different words for an opposite-sex sibling's child: -daʼá̱á̱ "opposite-sex sibling's daughter", -daʼ "opposite-sex sibling's son".
Housing
Apache lived in three types of houses. Teepees were common in the plains. Wickiups were common in the highlands; these were 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) framed of wood held together with yucca fibers and covered in brush. If a family member died, the wickiup would be burned. Apache of the desert of northern Mexico lived in hogans, an earthen structure for keeping cool.
Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler:
The home in which the family lives is made by the women and is ordinarily a circular, dome-shaped brush dwelling, with the floor at ground level. It is seven feet high at the center and approximately eight feet in diameter. To build it, long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. These poles, which form the framework, are arranged at one-foot intervals and are bound together at the top with yucca-leaf strands. Over them a thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied, shingle style, with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace. A hide, suspended at the entrance, is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. The doorway may face in any direction. For waterproofing, pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching, and in rainy weather, if a fire is not needed, even the smoke hole is covered. In warm, dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. These houses are 'warm and comfortable, even though there is a big snow.' The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread ...
The woman not only makes the furnishings of the home but is responsible for the construction, maintenance, and repair of the dwelling itself and for the arrangement of everything in it. She provides the grass and brush beds and replaces them when they become too old and dry ... However, formerly 'they had no permanent homes, so they didn't bother with cleaning.' The dome-shaped dwelling or wickiup, the usual home type for all the Chiricahua bands, has already been described ... Said a Central Chiricahua informant.
Both the teepee and the oval-shaped house were used when I was a boy. The oval hut was covered with hide and was the best house. The more well-to-do had this kind. The tepee type was just made of brush. It had a place for a fire in the center. It was just thrown together. Both types were common even before my time ...
A house form that departs from the more common dome-shaped variety is recorded for the Southern Chiricahua as well:
... When we settled down, we used the wickiup; when we were moving around a great deal, we used this other kind ...
Recent research has documented the archaeological remains of Chiricahua Apache wickiups as found on protohistoric and at historical sites, such as Canon de los Embudos where C.S. Fly photographed Geronimo, his people, and dwellings during surrender negotiations in 1886, demonstrating their unobtrusive and improvised nature."
Food
Apache people obtained food from four main sources:
hunting wild animals,
gathering wild plants,
growing domesticated plants
trading with or raiding neighboring tribes for livestock and agricultural products.Particular types of foods eaten by a group depending upon their respective environment.
Hunting
Hunting was done primarily by men, although there were sometimes exceptions depending on animal and culture (e.g. Lipan women could help in hunting rabbits and Chiricahua boys were also allowed to hunt rabbits).
Hunting often had elaborate preparations, such as fasting and religious rituals performed by medicine men before and after the hunt. In Lipan culture, since deer were protected by Mountain Spirits, great care was taken in Mountain Spirit rituals to ensure smooth hunting. Slaughter follows religious guidelines (many of which are recorded in religious stories) prescribing cutting, prayers, and bone disposal. Southern Athabascan hunters often distributed successfully slaughtered game. For example, among the Mescalero a hunter was expected to share as much as half of his kill with a fellow hunter and needy people at the camp. Feelings of individuals about this practice spoke of social obligation and spontaneous generosity.
The most common hunting weapon before the introduction of European guns was the bow and arrow. Various hunting techniques were used. Some involved wearing animal head masks as a disguise. Whistles were sometimes used to lure animals closer. Another technique was the relay method where hunters positioned at various points would chase the prey in turns in order to tire the animal. A similar method involved chasing the prey down a steep cliff.
Eating certain animals was taboo. Although different cultures had different taboos, common examples included bears, peccaries, turkeys, fish, snakes, insects, owls, and coyotes. An example of taboo differences: the black bear was a part of the Lipan diet (although less common as buffalo, deer, or antelope), but the Jicarilla never ate bear because it was considered an evil animal. Some taboos were a regional phenomenon, such as fish, which was taboo throughout the southwest (e.g. in certain Pueblo cultures like the Hopi and Zuni) and considered to resemble a snake (an evil animal) in physical appearance.Western Apache hunted deer and pronghorns mostly in the ideal late fall. After the meat was smoked into jerky around November, they migrated from the farm sites in the mountains along stream banks to winter camps in the Salt, Black, Gila river and even the Colorado River valleys.
The Chiricahua mostly hunted deer followed by pronghorn. Lesser game included cottontail rabbits (but not jack rabbits), opossums, squirrels, surplus horses, surplus mules, wapiti (elk), wild cattle and wood rats.
The Mescalero primarily hunted deer. Other game includes: bighorn sheep, buffalo (for those living closer to the plains), cottontail rabbits, elk, horses, mules, opossums, pronghorn, wild steers and wood rats. Beavers, minks, muskrats, and weasels were hunted for their hides but body parts but were not eaten.
The Jicarilla primarily hunted bighorn sheep, buffalo, deer, elk and pronghorn. Other game included beaver, bighorn sheep, chief hares, chipmunks, doves, ground hogs, grouse, peccaries, porcupines, prairie dogs, quail, rabbits, skunks, snow birds, squirrels, turkeys and wood rats. Burros and horses were only eaten in emergencies. Minks, weasels, wildcats and wolves were not eaten but hunted for their body parts.
The Lipan ate mostly buffalo with a three-week hunt during the fall and smaller hunts until the spring. The second most utilized animal was deer. Fresh deer blood was drunk for health. Other animals included beavers, bighorns, black bears, burros, ducks, elk, fish, horses, mountain lions, mourning doves, mules, prairie dogs, pronghorns, quail, rabbits, squirrels, turkeys, turtles and wood rats. Skunks were eaten only in emergencies.
Plains Apache hunters hunted primarily buffalo and deer. Other game were badgers, bears, beavers, fowls, geese, opossums, otters, rabbits and turtles.
Clothing
Influenced by the Plains Indians, Western Apaches wore animal hide decorated with seed beads for clothing. These beaded designs historically resembled that of the Great Basin Paiute and is characterized by linear patterning. Apache beaded clothing was bordered with narrow bands of glass seed beads in diagonal stripes of alternating colors. They made buckskin shirts, ponchos, skirts and moccasins and decorated them with colorful beadwork.
Undomesticated plants and other food sources
The gathering of plants and other food was primarily done by women. The men's job was usually to hunt animals such as deer, buffalo, and small game. However, men helped in certain gathering activities, such as of heavy agave crowns. Numerous plants were used as both food and medicine and in religious ceremonies. Other plants were used for only their religious or medicinal value.
In May, the Western Apache baked and dried agave crowns pounded into pulp and formed into rectangular cakes. At the end of June and beginning of July, saguaro, prickly pear, and cholla fruits were gathered. In July and August, mesquite beans, Spanish bayonet fruit, and Emory oak acorns were gathered. In late September, gathering was stopped as attention moved to harvesting cultivated crops. In late fall, juniper berries and pinyon nuts were gathered.
The most important plant food for the Chiricahua was the Century plant (also known as mescal or agave). The crowns (the tuberous base portion) were baked in large underground ovens and sun-dried. The shoots were also eaten. Other plants used by the Chiricahua include: agarita (or algerita) berries, alligator juniper berries, anglepod seeds, banana yucca (or datil, broadleaf yucca) fruit, chili peppers, chokecherries, cota (used for tea), currants, dropseed grass seeds, Gambel oak acorns, Gambel oak bark (used for tea), grass seeds (of various varieties), greens (of various varieties), hawthorne fruit, Lamb's-quarters leaves, lip ferns (used for tea), live oak acorns, locust blossoms, locust pods, maize kernels (used for tiswin), and mesquite beans.
Also eaten were mulberries, narrowleaf yucca blossoms, narrowleaf yucca stalks, nipple cactus fruit, one-seed juniper berries, onions, pigweed seeds, pinyon nuts, pitahaya fruit, prickly pear fruit, prickly pear juice, raspberries, screwbean (or tornillo) fruit, saguaro fruit, spurge seeds, strawberries, sumac (Rhus trilobata) berries, sunflower seeds, tule rootstocks, tule shoots, pigweed tumbleweed seeds, unicorn plant seeds, walnuts, western yellow pine inner bark (used as a sweetener), western yellow pine nuts, whitestar potatoes (Ipomoea lacunosa), wild grapes, wild potatoes (Solanum jamesii), wood sorrel leaves, and yucca buds (unknown species). Other items include: honey from ground hives and hives found within agave, sotol, and narrowleaf yucca plants.
The abundant agave (mescal) was also important to the Mescalero, who gathered the crowns in late spring after reddish flower stalks appeared. The smaller sotol crowns were also important. The crowns of both plants were baked and dried. Other plants include: acorns, agarita berries, amole stalks (roasted and peeled), aspen inner bark (used as a sweetener), bear grass stalks (roasted and peeled), box elder inner bark (used as a sweetener), banana yucca fruit, banana yucca flowers, box elder sap (used as a sweetener), cactus fruits (of various varieties), cattail rootstocks, chokecherries, currants, dropseed grass seeds (used for flatbread), elderberries, gooseberries (Ribes leptanthum and R. pinetorum), grapes, hackberries, hawthorne fruit, and hops (used as condiment).
They also used horsemint (as a condiment), juniper berries, Lamb's-quarters leaves, locust flowers, locust pods, mesquite pods, mint (as a condiment), mulberries, pennyroyal (as a condiment), pigweed seeds (for flatbread), pine inner bark (as a sweetener), pinyon pine nuts, prickly pear fruit (dethorned and roasted), purslane leaves, raspberries, sage (as a condiment), screwbeans, sedge tubers, shepherd's purse leaves, strawberries, sunflower seeds, tumbleweed seeds (for flatbread), vetch pods, walnuts, western white pine nuts, western yellow pine nuts, white evening primrose fruit, wild celery (as a condiment), wild onion (as a condiment), wild pea pods, wild potatoes, and wood sorrel leaves.
The Jicarilla used acorns, chokecherries, juniper berries, mesquite beans, pinyon nuts, prickly pear fruit, yucca fruit, and many other kinds of fruits, acorns, greens, nuts, and seed grasses.
The Lipan heavily used agave (mescal) and sotol. Other plants include agarita, blackberries, cattails, devil's claw, elderberries, gooseberries, hackberries, hawthorn, juniper, Lamb's-quarters, locust, mesquite, mulberries, oak, palmetto, pecan, pinyon, prickly pears, raspberries, screwbeans, seed grasses, strawberries, sumac, sunflowers, Texas persimmons, walnuts, western yellow pine, wild cherries, wild grapes, wild onions, wild plums, wild potatoes, wild roses, yucca flowers, and yucca fruit. Other gathered food includes salt obtained from caves and honey.
The Plains Apache gathered chokecherries, blackberries, grapes, prairie turnips, wild onions, and wild plums, and many other fruits, vegetables, and tuberous roots.
Ethnobotany
A list of 198 ethnobotany plant uses for the Chiricahua can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/, which also includes the Mescalero.
A list of 54 ethnobotany plant uses for the uncategorized Apache can also be found here. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/10/.
Crop cultivation
The Navajo practiced the most crop cultivation, the Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan less. The one Chiricahua band (of Opler's) and the Mescalero practiced very little cultivation. The other two Chiricahua bands and the Plains Apache did not grow any crops.
Trade, raids, and war
Interchanges between the Apache and European-descended explorers and settlers included trading. The Apache found they could use European and American goods.
Unlike Europeans and Euro-Americans, Apaches distinguished raiding from war. Raiding was done in small parties with a specific economic purpose. War was waged in large parties (often clan members), usually to achieve retribution. Raiding was traditional for the Apache, but Mexican settlers objected to their stock being stolen. As tensions grew between the Apache and settlers, the Mexican government passed laws offering cash rewards for Apache scalps.
Religion
Apache religious stories relate to two culture heroes (one of the Sun/fire:"Killer-Of-Enemies/Monster Slayer", and one of Water/Moon/thunder: "Child-Of-The-Water/Born For Water") who destroy several creatures harmful to humankind.Another story is of a hidden ball game, where good and evil animals decide whether or not the world should be forever dark. Coyote, the trickster, is an important being that often has inappropriate behavior (such as marrying his own daughter, etc.) in which he overturns social convention. The Navajo, Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan have an emergence or Creation Story, while this is lacking in the Chiricahua and Mescalero.Most Southern Athabascan gods are personified natural forces that run through the universe. They may be used for human purposes through ritual ceremonies. The following is a formulation by the anthropologist Keith Basso of the Western Apache's concept of diyí':
The term diyí' refers to one or all of a set of abstract and invisible forces which are said to derive from certain classes of animals, plants, minerals, meteorological phenomena, and mythological figures within the Western Apache universe. Any of the various powers may be acquired by man and, if properly handled, used for a variety of purposes.
Medicine men learn the ceremonies, which can also be acquired by direct revelation to the individual. Different Apache cultures had different views of ceremonial practice. Most Chiricahua and Mescalero ceremonies were learned through the transmission of personal religious visions, while the Jicarilla and Western Apache used standardized rituals as the more central ceremonial practice. Important standardized ceremonies include the puberty ceremony (Sunrise Dance) of young women, Navajo chants, Jicarilla "long-life" ceremonies, and Plains Apache "sacred-bundle" ceremonies.
Certain animals - owls, snakes, bears, and coyotes - are considered spiritually evil and prone to cause sickness to humans. .
Many Apache ceremonies use masked representations of religious spirits. Sandpainting is an important ceremony in the Navajo, Western Apache, and Jicarilla traditions, in which healers create temporary, sacred art from colored sands. Anthropologists believe the use of masks and sandpainting are examples of cultural diffusion from neighboring Pueblo cultures.The Apaches participate in many religious dances, including the rain dance, dances for the crop and harvest, and a spirit dance. These dances were mostly for influencing the weather and enriching their food resources.
Languages
The five Apache languages are Apachean languages, which in turn belong to the Athabaskan branch of the Eyak-Athabaskan language family. All Apache languages are endangered. Lipan is reported extinct.
The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *k̯ and *c into *c (in addition to the widespread merger of *č and *čʷ into *č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages).
Hoijer (1938) divided the Apache sub-family into an eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k:
He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *k̯/*c merger to consider Plains Apache as a language equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache while the other languages start with ts.
Morris Opler (1975) has noted cultural similarities of Jicarilla and Lipan with Eastern Apache language speakers and differences from Western Apache speakers, supporting Hojier's initial classification. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear more complex.
Apache languages are tonal. Regarding tonal development, all Apache languages are low-marked, which means that stems with a "constricted" syllable rime in the proto-language developed low tone while all other rimes developed high tone. Other Northern Athabascan languages are high-marked: their tonal development is the reverse. In the example below, if low-marked Navajo and Chiricahua have a low tone, then the high-marked Northern Athabascan languages, Slavey and Chilcotin, have a high tone, and if Navajo and Chiricahua have a high tone, then Slavey and Chilcotin have a low tone.
Notable historic Apache
Contemporary Apache people are listed under their specific tribes.
Eleven Medal of Honor recipients: see List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients.
See also
Athabascan languages
Battle of Apache Pass
Battle of Cieneguilla
Camp Grant massacre
Chiricahua
Fort Apache, a movie in the genre of historical fiction about encounters between the US Army and Cochise's band
Jicarilla Apache
Lipan Apache people
Mescalero
Native American tribe
Native Americans in the United States
Navajo people
Neoapachella, a monotypic genus of North American mygalomorph spiders in the Euctenizidae named in their honor.
Plains Apache
Southern Athabascan languages
Western Apache
Citations
Explanatory notes
General bibliography
Further reading
Conrad, Paul (2021). The Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9954-0.
External links
Tribal websites
Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, archive of official website
Fort Sill Apache Tribe, official website
Jicarilla Apache Nation, official website
Mescalero Apache Tribe, official website
San Carlos Apache Tribe, official website
White Mountain Apache Tribe, official website
Yavapai-Apache Nation, official website
Other external links
Apache, Museum of Northern Arizona
Apache Indians, Texas State Historical Association
Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Historical Society
Apache, Fort Sill, Oklahoma Historical Society
Apache, Lipan, Oklahoma Historical Society
Tonto Apache Tribe, Inter Tribal Council of Arizona
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The Apache () are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño and Janero), Salinero, Plains (Kataka or Semat or "Kiowa-Apache") and Western Apache (Aravaipa, Pinaleño, Coyotero, Tonto). Distant cousins of the Apache are the Navajo, with whom they share the Southern Athabaskan languages. There are Apache communities in Oklahoma and Texas, and reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Apache people have moved throughout the United States and elsewhere, including urban centers. The Apache Nations are politically autonomous, speak several different languages, and have distinct cultures.
Historically, the Apache homelands have consisted of high mountains, sheltered and watered valleys, deep canyons, deserts, and the southern Great Plains, including areas in what is now Eastern Arizona, Northern Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua) and New Mexico, West Texas, and Southern Colorado. These areas are collectively known as Apacheria.
The Apache tribes fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. The first Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during the late 17th century. In 19th-century confrontations during the American-Indian wars, the U.S. Army found the Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists.
Contemporary tribes
The following Apache tribes are federally recognized:
Apache of Oklahoma
Fort Sill Apache, Oklahoma
Jicarilla Apache, New Mexico
Mescalero, New Mexico
San Carlos Apache, Arizona
Tonto Apache, Arizona
White Mountain Apache of the Fort Apache Reservation, Arizona
Yavapai-Apache, of the Camp Verde Reservation, ArizonaThe Jicarilla are headquartered in Dulce, New Mexico, while the Mescalero are headquartered in Mescalero, New Mexico. The Western Apache, located in Arizona, is divided into several reservations, which crosscut cultural divisions. The Western Apache reservations include the Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation and Tonto-Apache Reservation.
The Chiricahua were divided into two groups after they were released from being prisoners of war. The majority moved to the Mescalero Reservation and form, with the larger Mescalero political group, the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, along with the Lipan Apache. The other Chiricahua are enrolled in the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, headquartered in Apache, Oklahoma.The Plains Apache are located in Oklahoma, headquartered around Anadarko, and are federally recognized as the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma.
Name
The people who are known today as Apache were first encountered by the conquistadors of the Spanish crown, and thus the term Apache has its roots in the Spanish language. The Spanish first used the term Apachu de Nabajo (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the 1640s, they applied the term to southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The ultimate origin is uncertain and lost to Spanish history.Modern Apache people use the Spanish term to refer to themselves and tribal functions, and so does the US government. However, Apache language speakers also refer to themselves and their people in the Apache term Indé meaning 'person' or 'people'. Distant cousins and Apache subgroup the Navajo, in their language, refer to themselves as the Diné.The first known written record in Spanish is by Juan de Oñate in 1598. The most widely accepted origin theory suggests Apache was borrowed and transliterated from the Zuni word ʔa·paču meaning "Navajos" (the plural of paču "Navajo").Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai ʔpačə meaning "enemy". The Zuni and Yavapai sources are less certain because Oñate used the term before he had encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. A less likely origin may be from Spanish mapache, meaning "raccoon".The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills, probably bolstered by dime novels, was widely known among Europeans. In early 20th century Parisian society, the word Apache was adopted into French, essentially meaning an outlaw.The term Apachean includes the related Navajo people.
Difficulties in naming
Many of the historical names of Apache groups that were recorded by non-Apache are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their subgroups. Over the centuries, many Spanish, French and English-speaking authors did not differentiate between Apache and other semi-nomadic non-Apache peoples who might pass through the same area. Most commonly, Europeans learned to identify the tribes by translating their exonym, what another group whom the Europeans encountered first called the Apache peoples. Europeans often did not learn what the peoples called themselves, their autonyms.
While anthropologists agree on some traditional major subgrouping of Apaches, they have often used different criteria to name finer divisions, and these do not always match modern Apache groupings. Some scholars do not consider groups residing in what is now Mexico to be Apache. In addition, an Apache individual has different ways of identification with a group, such as a band or clan, as well as the larger tribe or language grouping, which can add to the difficulties in an outsider comprehending the distinctions.
In 1900, the US government classified the members of the Apache tribe in the United States as Pinal Coyotero, Jicarilla, Mescalero, San Carlos, Tonto, and White Mountain Apache. The different groups were located in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.
In the 1930s, the anthropologist Greenville Goodwin classified the Western Apache into five groups (based on his informants' views of dialect and cultural differences): White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos, North Tonto, and South Tonto. Since then, other anthropologists (e.g. Albert Schroeder) consider Goodwin's classification inconsistent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. Willem de Reuse finds linguistic evidence supporting only three major groupings: White Mountain, San Carlos, and Dilzhe'e (Tonto). He believes San Carlos is the most divergent dialect, and that Dilzhe'e is a remnant, intermediate member of a dialect continuum that previously spanned from the Western Apache language to the Navajo.
John Upton Terrell classifies the Apache into western and eastern groups. In the western group, he includes Toboso, Cholome, Jocome, Sibolo or Cibola, Pelone, Manso, and Kiva or Kofa. He includes Chicame (the earlier term for Hispanized Chicano or New Mexicans of Spanish/Hispanic and Apache descent) among them as having definite Apache connections or names which the Spanish associated with the Apache.
In a detailed study of New Mexico Catholic Church records, David M. Brugge identifies 15 tribal names which the Spanish used to refer to the Apache. These were drawn from records of about 1000 baptisms from 1704 to 1862.
List of names
The list below is based on Foster and McCollough (2001), Opler (1983b, 1983c, 2001), and de Reuse (1983).
The term Apache refers to six major Apache-speaking groups: Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains Apache, and Western Apache. Historically, the term was also used for Comanches, Mojaves, Hualapais, and Yavapais, none of whom speak Apache languages.
Chiricahua – Mimbreño – Ndendahe
Chiricahua historically lived in Southeastern Arizona. Chíshí (also Tchishi) is a Navajo word meaning "Chiricahua, southern Apaches in general".Ch'úúkʾanén, true Chiricahua (Tsokanende, also Č'ók'ánéń, Č'ó·k'anén, Chokonni, Cho-kon-nen, Cho Kŭnĕ́, Chokonen) is the Eastern Chiricahua band identified by Morris Opler. The name is an autonym from the Chiricahua language.
Gileño (also Apaches de Gila, Apaches de Xila, Apaches de la Sierra de Gila, Xileños, Gilenas, Gilans, Gilanians, Gila Apache, Gilleños) referred to several different Apache and non-Apache groups at different times. Gila refers to either the Gila River or the Gila Mountains. Some of the Gila Apaches were probably later known as the Mogollon Apaches, a Central Apache sub-band, while others probably coalesced into the Chiricahua proper. But, since the term was used indiscriminately for all Apachean groups west of the Rio Grande (i.e. in southeast Arizona and western New Mexico), the reference in historical documents is often unclear. After 1722, Spanish documents start to distinguish between these different groups, in which case Apaches de Gila refers to the Western Apache living along the Gila River (synonymous with Coyotero). American writers first used the term to refer to the Mimbres (another Central Apache subdivision).
Mimbreño are the Tchihende, not a Chiricahua band but a central Apache division sharing the same language with the Chiricahua and the Mescalero divisions, the name being referred to a central Apache division improperly considered as a section of Opler's "Eastern Chiricahua band", and to Albert Schroeder's Mimbres, or Warm Springs and Copper Mines "Chiricahua" bands in southwestern New Mexico.
Copper Mines Mimbreño (also Coppermine) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Pinos Altos area. (See also Gileño and Mimbreño.)
Warm Springs Mimbreño (also Warmspring) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Ojo Caliente area. (See also Gileño and Mimbreño.)
Ndendahe were a division comprising the Bedonkohe (Mogollon) group and the Nedhni (Carrizaleño and Janero) group, incorrectly called, sometimes, Southern Chirichua.
Mogollon was considered by Schroeder to be a separate pre-reservation Chiricahua band, while Opler considered the Mogollon to be part of his Eastern Chiricahua band in New Mexico.
Nedhni were the southernest group of the Central Apache, having their center in the Carrizal (Carrizaleño) and Janos (Janero) areas, in the Mexican state of Chihuahua.
Jicarilla
Jicarilla primarily live in Northern New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and the Texas Panhandle. The term jicarilla comes from the Spanish word for "little gourd."
Carlana (also Carlanes, Sierra Blanca) is Raton Mesa in Southeastern Colorado. In 1726, they joined the Cuartelejo and Paloma, and by the 1730s, they lived with the Jicarilla. The Llanero band of the Jicarilla or the Dáchizh-ó-zhn Jicarilla (defined by James Mooney) might descendants of the Carlana, Cuartelejo, and Paloma. Parts of the group were called Lipiyanes or Llaneros. In 1812, the term Carlana was used to mean Jicarilla. The Flechas de Palo might have been a part of or absorbed by the Carlana (or Cuartelejo).
Lipan
Lipan (also Ypandis, Ypandes, Ipandes, Ipandi, Lipanes, Lipanos, Lipaines, Lapane, Lipanis, etc.) live in Western Texas today. They traveled from the Pecos River in Eastern New Mexico to the upper Colorado River, San Saba River and Llano River of central Texas across the Edwards Plateau southeast to the Gulf of Mexico. They were close allies of the Natagés. They were also called Plains Lipan (Golgahį́į́, Kó'l kukä'ⁿ, "Prairie Men"), not to be confused with Lipiyánes or Le Panis (French for the Pawnee). They were first mentioned in 1718 records as being near the newly established town of San Antonio, Texas.
Pelones ("Bald Ones") lived far from San Antonio and far to the northeast of the Ypandes near the Red River of the South of North-Central Texas, although able to field 800 warriors, more than the Ypandes and Natagés together, they were described as less warlike because they had fewer horses than the Plains Lipan, their population were estimated between 1,600 and 2,400 persons, were the Forest Lipan division (Chishį́į́hį́į́, Tcici, Tcicihi – "People of the Forest", after 1760 the name Pelones was never used by the Spanish for any Texas Apache group, the Pelones had fled for the Comanche south and southwest, but never mixed up with the Plains Lipan division – retaining their distinct identity, so that Morris Opler was told by his Lipan informants in 1935 that their tribal name was "People of the Forest")
Mescalero
Mescaleros primarily live in Eastern New Mexico.
Faraones (also Apaches Faraone, Paraonez, Pharaones, Taraones, or Taracones) is derived from Spanish Faraón meaning "Pharaoh." Before 1700, the name was vague. Between 1720 and 1726, it referred to Apache between the Rio Grande, the Pecos River, the area around Santa Fe, and the Conchos River. After 1726, Faraones only referred to the groups of the north and central parts of this region. The Faraones like were part of the modern-day Mescalero or merged with them. After 1814, the term Faraones disappeared and was replaced by Mescalero.
Sierra Blanca Mescaleros were a northern Mescalero group from the Sierra Blanca Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Sacramento Mescaleros were a northern Mescalero group from the Sacramento and Organ Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Guadalupe Mescaleros. were a northern Mescalero group from the Guadalupe Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Limpia Mescaleros were a southern Mescalero group from the Limpia Mountains (later named as Davis Mountains) and roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas.
Natagés (also Natagees, Apaches del Natafé, Natagêes, Yabipais Natagé, Natageses, Natajes) is a term used from 1726 to 1820 to refer to the Faraón, Sierra Blanca, and Siete Ríos Apaches of southeastern New Mexico. In 1745, the Natagé are reported to have consisted of the Mescalero (around El Paso and the Organ Mountains) and the Salinero (around Rio Salado), but these were probably the same group, were oft called by the Spanish and Apaches themselves true Apaches, had had a considerable influence on the decision making of some bands of the Western Lipan in the 18th century. After 1749, the term became synonymous with Mescalero, which eventually replaced it.
Ethnobotany
A full list of documented plant uses by the Mescalero tribe can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/ (which also includes the Chiricahua; 198 documented plant uses) and http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/12/ (83 documented uses).
Plains Apache
Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache, Naisha, Naʼishandine) are headquartered in Southwest Oklahoma. Historically, they followed the Kiowa. Other names for them include Ná'įįsha, Ná'ęsha, Na'isha, Na'ishandine, Na-i-shan-dina, Na-ishi, Na-e-ca, Ną'ishą́, Nadeicha, Nardichia, Nadíisha-déna, Na'dí'į́shą́ʼ, Nądí'įįshąą, and Naisha.
Querechos referred to by Coronado in 1541, possibly Plains Apaches, at times maybe Navajo. Other early Spanish might have also called them Vaquereo or Llanero.
Western Apache
Western Apache include Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, White Mountain and San Carlos groups. While these subgroups spoke the same language and had kinship ties, Western Apaches considered themselves as separate from each other, according to Goodwin. Other writers have used this term to refer to all non-Navajo Apachean peoples living west of the Rio Grande (thus failing to distinguish the Chiricahua from the other Apacheans). Goodwin's formulation: "all those Apache peoples who have lived within the present boundaries of the state of Arizona during historic times with the exception of the Chiricahua, Warm Springs, and allied Apache, and a small band of Apaches known as the Apache Mansos, who lived in the vicinity of Tucson."
Cibecue is a Western Apache group, according to Goodwin, from north of the Salt River between the Tonto and White Mountain Apache, consisting of Ceder Creek, Carrizo, and Cibecue (proper) bands.
San Carlos. A Western Apache group that ranged closest to Tucson according to Goodwin. This group consisted of the Apache Peaks, Arivaipa, Pinal, San Carlos (proper) bands.
Arivaipa (also Aravaipa) is a band of the San Carlos Apache. Schroeder believes the Arivaipa were a separate people in pre-reservation times. Arivaipa is a Hispanized word from the O'odham language. The Arivaipa are known as Tsézhiné ("Black Rock") in the Western Apache language.
Pinal (also Pinaleño). One of the bands of the San Carlos group of Western Apache, described by Goodwin. Also used along with Coyotero to refer more generally to one of two major Western Apache divisions. Some Pinaleño were referred to as the Gila Apache.
Tonto. Goodwin divided into Northern Tonto and Southern Tonto groups, living in the north and west areas of the Western Apache groups according to Goodwin. This is north of Phoenix, north of the Verde River. Schroeder has suggested that the Tonto are originally Yavapais who assimilated Western Apache culture. Tonto is one of the major dialects of the Western Apache language. Tonto Apache speakers are traditionally bilingual in Western Apache and Yavapai. Goodwin's Northern Tonto consisted of Bald Mountain, Fossil Creek, Mormon Lake, and Oak Creek bands; Southern Tonto consisted of the Mazatzal band and unidentified "semi-bands".
White Mountain are the easternmost group of the Western Apache, according to Goodwin, who included the Eastern White Mountain and Western White Mountain Apache.
Coyotero refers to a southern pre-reservation White Mountain group of the Western Apache, but has also been used more widely to refer to the Apache in general, Western Apache, or an Apache band in the high plains of Southern Colorado to Kansas.
Ethnobotany
A full list of 134 ethnobotany plant uses for Western Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/14/.
A full list of 165 ethnobotany plant uses for White Mountain Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/15/.
A full list of 14 ethnobotany plant uses for the San Carlos Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/13/.
Other terms
Llanero is a Spanish-language borrowing meaning "plains dweller". The name referred to several different groups who hunted buffalo on the Great Plains. (See also Carlanas.)
Lipiyánes (also Lipiyán, Lipillanes). A coalition of splinter groups of Nadahéndé (Natagés), Guhlkahéndé, and Lipan of the 18th century under the leadership of Picax-Ande-Ins-Tinsle ("Strong Arm"), who fought the Comanche on the Plains. This term is not to be confused with Lipan.
History
Entry into the Southwest
The Apache and Navajo tribal groups of the North American Southwest speak related languages of the Athabaskan language family. Other Athabaskan-speaking people in North America continue to reside in Alaska, western Canada, and the Northwest Pacific Coast. Anthropological evidence suggests that the Apache and Navajo peoples lived in these same northern locales before migrating to the Southwest sometime between AD 1200 and 1500.The Apaches' nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. Since the early 21st century, substantial progress has been made in dating and distinguishing their dwellings and other forms of material culture. They left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods than other Southwestern cultures.The Athabaskan-speaking group probably moved into areas that were concurrently occupied or recently abandoned by other cultures. Other Athabaskan speakers, perhaps including the Southern Athabaskan, adapted many of their neighbors' technology and practices in their own cultures. Thus sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. Recent advances have been made in the regard in the far southern portion of the American Southwest.There are several hypotheses about Apache migrations. One posits that they moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In the mid-16th century, these mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. Substantial numbers of the people and a wide range were recorded by the Spanish in the 16th century.In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado referred to the people as "dog nomads." He wrote:
After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a 'rancheria' of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings.
The Spanish described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and "not much larger than water spaniels." Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern Inuit and northern First Nations people in Canada. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles per hour (3 to 5 km/h). The Plains migration theory associates the Apache peoples with the Dismal River culture, an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains, dated 1675–1725, which has been excavated in Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and western Kansas.Although the first documentary sources mention the Apache, and historians have suggested some passages indicate a 16th-century entry from the north, archaeological data indicate they were present on the plains long before this first reported contact.A competing theory posits their migration south, through the Rocky Mountains, ultimately reaching the American Southwest by the 14th century or perhaps earlier. An archaeological material culture assemblage identified in this mountainous zone as ancestral Apache has been referred to as the "Cerro Rojo complex". This theory does not preclude arrival via a plains route as well, perhaps concurrently, but to date the earliest evidence has been found in the mountainous Southwest. The Plains Apache have a significant Southern Plains cultural influence.
When the Spanish arrived in the area, trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskan was well established. They reported the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, and hides and materials for stone tools. Coronado observed the Plains people wintering near the Pueblo in established camps. Later Spanish sovereignty over the area disrupted trade between the Pueblo and the diverging Apache and Navajo groups. The Apache quickly acquired horses, improving their mobility for quick raids on settlements. In addition, the Pueblo were forced to work Spanish mission lands and care for mission flocks; they had fewer surplus goods to trade with their neighbors.In 1540, Coronado reported that the modern Western Apache area was uninhabited, although some scholars have argued that he simply did not see the American Indians. Other Spanish explorers first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. To some historians, this implies the Apaches moved into their current Southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Other historians note that Coronado reported that Pueblo women and children had often been evacuated by the time his party attacked their dwellings, and that he saw some dwellings had been recently abandoned as he moved up the Rio Grande. This might indicate the semi-nomadic Southern Athabaskan had advance warning about his hostile approach and evaded encounter with the Spanish. Archaeologists are finding ample evidence of an early proto-Apache presence in the Southwestern mountain zone in the 15th century and perhaps earlier. The Apache presence on both the Plains and in the mountainous Southwest indicate that the people took multiple early migration routes.
Conflict with Mexico and the United States
In general, the recently arrived Spanish colonists, who settled in villages, and Apache bands developed a pattern of interaction over a few centuries. Both raided and traded with each other. Records of the period seem to indicate that relationships depended on the specific villages and bands: a band might be friends with one village and raid another. When war occurred, the Spanish would send troops; after a battle both sides would "sign a treaty" and go home.
The traditional and sometimes treacherous relationships continued after the independence of Mexico in 1821. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps (see scalping), but certain villages still traded with some bands. When Juan José Compà, the leader of the Copper Mines Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837, Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves) or Dasoda-hae (He just sits there) became the principal chief and war leader; also in 1837 Soldado Fiero (a.k.a. Fuerte), leader of the Warm Springs Mimbreño Apaches, was killed by Mexican soldiers near Janos, and his son Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) became the principal chief and war leader. They (being now Mangas Coloradas the first chief and Cuchillo Negro the second chief of the whole Tchihende or Mimbreño people) conducted a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans. By 1856, authorities in horse-rich Durango would claim that Indian raids (mostly Comanche and Apache) in their state had taken nearly 6,000 lives, abducted 748 people, and forced the abandonment of 358 settlements over the previous 20 years.When the United States went to war against Mexico in 1846, many Apache bands promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through their lands. When the U.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty with the nation, respecting them as conquerors of the Mexicans' land. An uneasy peace with U.S. citizens held until the 1850s. An influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict with the Apache. This period is sometimes called the Apache Wars.
United States' concept of a reservation had not been used by the Spanish, Mexicans or other Apache neighbors before. Reservations were often badly managed, and bands that had no kinship relationships were forced to live together. No fences existed to keep people in or out. It was common for a band to be allowed to leave for a short period of time. Other times a band would leave without permission, to raid, return to their homeland to forage, or to simply get away. The U.S. military usually had forts nearby to keep the bands on the reservations by finding and returning those who left. The reservation policies of the U.S. caused conflict and war with the various Apache bands who left the reservations for almost another quarter century.
War between the Apache peoples and Euro-Americans has led to a stereotypical focus on certain aspects of Apache cultures. These have often been distorted through misunderstanding of their cultures, as noted by anthropologist Keith Basso:
Of the hundreds of peoples that lived and flourished in native North America, few have been so consistently misrepresented as the Apacheans of Arizona and New Mexico. Glorified by novelists, sensationalized by historians, and distorted beyond credulity by commercial film makers, the popular image of 'the Apache' — a brutish, terrifying semi-human bent upon wanton death and destruction — is almost entirely a product of irresponsible caricature and exaggeration. Indeed, there can be little doubt that the Apache has been transformed from a native American into an American legend, the fanciful and fallacious creation of a non-Indian citizenry whose inability to recognize the massive treachery of ethnic and cultural stereotypes has been matched only by its willingness to sustain and inflate them.
Forced removal
In 1875, United States military forced the removal of an estimated 1500 Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache (better known as Tonto Apache) from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve and its several thousand acres of treaty lands promised to them by the United States government. At the orders of Indian Commissioner L.E. Dudley, U.S. Army troops made the people, young and old, walk through winter-flooded rivers, mountain passes and narrow canyon trails to get to the Indian Agency at San Carlos, 180 miles (290 km) away. The trek killed several hundred people. The people were interned there for 25 years while white settlers took over their land. Only a few hundred ever returned to their lands. At the San Carlos reservation, the Buffalo soldiers of the 9th Cavalry Regiment—replacing the 8th Cavalry who were being stationed to Texas—guarded the Apaches from 1875 to 1881.Beginning in 1879, an Apache uprising against the reservation system led to Victorio's War between Chief Victorio's band of Apaches and the 9th Cavalry.
Defeat
Most United States' histories of this era report that the final defeat of an Apache band took place when 5,000 US troops forced Geronimo's group of 30 to 50 men, women and children to surrender on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. The Army sent this band and the Chiricahua scouts who had tracked them to military confinement in Florida at Fort Pickens and, subsequently, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma.
Many books were written on the stories of hunting and trapping during the late 19th century. Many of these stories involve Apache raids and the failure of agreements with Americans and Mexicans. In the post-war era, the US government arranged for Apache children to be taken from their families for adoption by white Americans in assimilation programs.
Pre-reservation culture
Social organization
All Apache peoples lived in extended family units (or family clusters); they usually lived close together, with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, their married daughters, their married daughters' husbands, and their married daughters' children. Thus, the extended family is connected through a lineage of women who live together (that is, matrilocal residence), into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family).
When a daughter married, a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. Among the Navajo, residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence, sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage. All tribes practiced sororate and levirate marriages.
Apache men practiced varying degrees of "avoidance" of his wife's close relatives, a practice often most strictly observed by distance between mother-in-law and son-in-law. The degree of avoidance differed by Apache group. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua, where men had to use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of the wife's female relatives, whom he had to avoid. His female Chiricahua relatives through marriage also avoided him.
Several extended families worked together as a "local group", which carried out certain ceremonies, and economic and military activities. Political control was mostly present at the local group level. Local groups were headed by a chief, a male who had much influence due to his effectiveness and reputation. The position was not hereditary, and was often filled by members of different extended families. The chief's influence was as strong as he was evaluated to be—no group member was obliged to follow the chief. Western Apache criteria for a good chief included: industriousness, generosity, impartiality, forbearance, conscientiousness, and eloquence in language.
Many Apache peoples joined several local groups into "bands". Banding was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache, and weak among the Lipan and Mescalero. The Navajo did not organize into bands, perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. However, the Navajo did have "the outfit", a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family, but smaller than a local group community or a band.
On a larger level, Western Apache bands organized into what Grenville Goodwin called "groups". He reported five groups for the Western Apache: Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, San Carlos, and White Mountain. The Jicarilla grouped their bands into "moieties", perhaps influenced by the northeastern Pueblo. The Western Apache and Navajo also had a system of matrilineal "clans" organized further into phratries (perhaps influenced by the western Pueblo).
The notion of "tribe" in Apache cultures is very weakly developed; essentially it was only a recognition "that one owed a modicum of hospitality to those of the same speech, dress, and customs." The six Apache tribes had political independence from each other and even fought against each other. For example, the Lipan once fought against the Mescalero.
Kinship systems
The Apache tribes have two distinctly different kinship term systems: a Chiricahua type and a Jicarilla type. The Chiricahua-type system is used by the Chiricahua, Mescalero, and Western Apache. The Western Apache system differs slightly from the other two systems, and has some similarities to the Navajo system.
The Jicarilla type, which is similar to the Dakota–Iroquois kinship systems, is used by the Jicarilla, Navajo, Lipan, and Plains Apache. The Navajo system is more divergent among the four, having similarities with the Chiricahua-type system. The Lipan and Plains Apache systems are very similar.
Chiricahua
The Chiricahua language has four words for grandparent: -chú "maternal grandmother", -tsúyé "maternal grandfather", -chʼiné "paternal grandmother", -nálé "paternal grandfather". Additionally, a grandparent's siblings are identified by the same word; thus, one's maternal grandmother, one's maternal grandmother's sisters, and one's maternal grandmother's brothers are all called -chú. Furthermore, the grandchild terms are reciprocal, that is, one uses the same term to refer to their grandchild. For example, a person's maternal grandmother is called -chú and that grandmother also calls that granddaughter -chú (i.e. -chú can mean the child of either your own daughter or your sibling's daughter.)
Chiricahua cousins are not distinguished from siblings through kinship terms. Thus, the same word refers to either a sibling or a cousin (there are not separate terms for parallel-cousin and cross-cousin). The terms depend on the sex of the speaker (unlike the English terms brother and sister): -kʼis "same-sex sibling or same-sex cousin", -´-ląh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite-sex cousin". This means if one is a male, then one's brother is called -kʼis and one's sister is called -´-ląh. If one is a female, then one's brother is called -´-ląh and one's sister is called -kʼis. Chiricahuas in a -´-ląh relationship observed great restraint and respect toward that relative; cousins (but not siblings) in a -´-ląh relationship may practice total avoidance.
Two different words are used for each parent according to sex: -mááʼ "mother", -taa "father". Likewise, there are two words for a parent's child according to sex: -yáchʼeʼ "daughter", -gheʼ "son".
A parent's siblings are classified together regardless of sex: -ghúyé "maternal aunt or uncle (mother's brother or sister)", -deedééʼ "paternal aunt or uncle (father's brother or sister)". These two terms are reciprocal like the grandparent/grandchild terms. Thus, -ghúyé also refers to one's opposite-sex sibling's son or daughter (that is, a person will call their maternal aunt -ghúyé and that aunt will call them -ghúyé in return).
Jicarilla
Unlike the Chiricahua system, the Jicarilla have only two terms for grandparents according to sex: -chóó "grandmother", -tsóyéé "grandfather". They do not have separate terms for maternal or paternal grandparents. The terms are also used of a grandparent's siblings according to sex. Thus, -chóó refers to one's grandmother or one's grand-aunt (either maternal or paternal); -tsóyéé refers to one's grandfather or one's grand-uncle. These terms are not reciprocal. There is a single word for grandchild (regardless of sex): -tsóyí̱í̱.
There are two terms for each parent. These terms also refer to that parent's same-sex sibling: -ʼnííh "mother or maternal aunt (mother's sister)", -kaʼéé "father or paternal uncle (father's brother)". Additionally, there are two terms for a parent's opposite-sex sibling depending on sex: -daʼá̱á̱ "maternal uncle (mother's brother)", -béjéé "paternal aunt (father's sister).
Two terms are used for same-sex and opposite-sex siblings. These terms are also used for parallel-cousins: -kʼisé "same-sex sibling or same-sex parallel cousin (i.e. same-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)", -´-láh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite parallel cousin (i.e. opposite-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)". These two terms can also be used for cross-cousins. There are also three sibling terms based on the age relative to the speaker: -ndádéé "older sister", -´-naʼá̱á̱ "older brother", -shdá̱zha "younger sibling (i.e. younger sister or brother)". Additionally, there are separate words for cross-cousins: -zeedń "cross-cousin (either same-sex or opposite-sex of speaker)", -iłnaaʼaash "male cross-cousin" (only used by male speakers).
A parent's child is classified with their same-sex sibling's or same-sex cousin's child: -zhácheʼe "daughter, same-sex sibling's daughter, same-sex cousin's daughter", -gheʼ "son, same-sex sibling's son, same-sex cousin's son". There are different words for an opposite-sex sibling's child: -daʼá̱á̱ "opposite-sex sibling's daughter", -daʼ "opposite-sex sibling's son".
Housing
Apache lived in three types of houses. Teepees were common in the plains. Wickiups were common in the highlands; these were 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) framed of wood held together with yucca fibers and covered in brush. If a family member died, the wickiup would be burned. Apache of the desert of northern Mexico lived in hogans, an earthen structure for keeping cool.
Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler:
The home in which the family lives is made by the women and is ordinarily a circular, dome-shaped brush dwelling, with the floor at ground level. It is seven feet high at the center and approximately eight feet in diameter. To build it, long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. These poles, which form the framework, are arranged at one-foot intervals and are bound together at the top with yucca-leaf strands. Over them a thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied, shingle style, with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace. A hide, suspended at the entrance, is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. The doorway may face in any direction. For waterproofing, pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching, and in rainy weather, if a fire is not needed, even the smoke hole is covered. In warm, dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. These houses are 'warm and comfortable, even though there is a big snow.' The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread ...
The woman not only makes the furnishings of the home but is responsible for the construction, maintenance, and repair of the dwelling itself and for the arrangement of everything in it. She provides the grass and brush beds and replaces them when they become too old and dry ... However, formerly 'they had no permanent homes, so they didn't bother with cleaning.' The dome-shaped dwelling or wickiup, the usual home type for all the Chiricahua bands, has already been described ... Said a Central Chiricahua informant.
Both the teepee and the oval-shaped house were used when I was a boy. The oval hut was covered with hide and was the best house. The more well-to-do had this kind. The tepee type was just made of brush. It had a place for a fire in the center. It was just thrown together. Both types were common even before my time ...
A house form that departs from the more common dome-shaped variety is recorded for the Southern Chiricahua as well:
... When we settled down, we used the wickiup; when we were moving around a great deal, we used this other kind ...
Recent research has documented the archaeological remains of Chiricahua Apache wickiups as found on protohistoric and at historical sites, such as Canon de los Embudos where C.S. Fly photographed Geronimo, his people, and dwellings during surrender negotiations in 1886, demonstrating their unobtrusive and improvised nature."
Food
Apache people obtained food from four main sources:
hunting wild animals,
gathering wild plants,
growing domesticated plants
trading with or raiding neighboring tribes for livestock and agricultural products.Particular types of foods eaten by a group depending upon their respective environment.
Hunting
Hunting was done primarily by men, although there were sometimes exceptions depending on animal and culture (e.g. Lipan women could help in hunting rabbits and Chiricahua boys were also allowed to hunt rabbits).
Hunting often had elaborate preparations, such as fasting and religious rituals performed by medicine men before and after the hunt. In Lipan culture, since deer were protected by Mountain Spirits, great care was taken in Mountain Spirit rituals to ensure smooth hunting. Slaughter follows religious guidelines (many of which are recorded in religious stories) prescribing cutting, prayers, and bone disposal. Southern Athabascan hunters often distributed successfully slaughtered game. For example, among the Mescalero a hunter was expected to share as much as half of his kill with a fellow hunter and needy people at the camp. Feelings of individuals about this practice spoke of social obligation and spontaneous generosity.
The most common hunting weapon before the introduction of European guns was the bow and arrow. Various hunting techniques were used. Some involved wearing animal head masks as a disguise. Whistles were sometimes used to lure animals closer. Another technique was the relay method where hunters positioned at various points would chase the prey in turns in order to tire the animal. A similar method involved chasing the prey down a steep cliff.
Eating certain animals was taboo. Although different cultures had different taboos, common examples included bears, peccaries, turkeys, fish, snakes, insects, owls, and coyotes. An example of taboo differences: the black bear was a part of the Lipan diet (although less common as buffalo, deer, or antelope), but the Jicarilla never ate bear because it was considered an evil animal. Some taboos were a regional phenomenon, such as fish, which was taboo throughout the southwest (e.g. in certain Pueblo cultures like the Hopi and Zuni) and considered to resemble a snake (an evil animal) in physical appearance.Western Apache hunted deer and pronghorns mostly in the ideal late fall. After the meat was smoked into jerky around November, they migrated from the farm sites in the mountains along stream banks to winter camps in the Salt, Black, Gila river and even the Colorado River valleys.
The Chiricahua mostly hunted deer followed by pronghorn. Lesser game included cottontail rabbits (but not jack rabbits), opossums, squirrels, surplus horses, surplus mules, wapiti (elk), wild cattle and wood rats.
The Mescalero primarily hunted deer. Other game includes: bighorn sheep, buffalo (for those living closer to the plains), cottontail rabbits, elk, horses, mules, opossums, pronghorn, wild steers and wood rats. Beavers, minks, muskrats, and weasels were hunted for their hides but body parts but were not eaten.
The Jicarilla primarily hunted bighorn sheep, buffalo, deer, elk and pronghorn. Other game included beaver, bighorn sheep, chief hares, chipmunks, doves, ground hogs, grouse, peccaries, porcupines, prairie dogs, quail, rabbits, skunks, snow birds, squirrels, turkeys and wood rats. Burros and horses were only eaten in emergencies. Minks, weasels, wildcats and wolves were not eaten but hunted for their body parts.
The Lipan ate mostly buffalo with a three-week hunt during the fall and smaller hunts until the spring. The second most utilized animal was deer. Fresh deer blood was drunk for health. Other animals included beavers, bighorns, black bears, burros, ducks, elk, fish, horses, mountain lions, mourning doves, mules, prairie dogs, pronghorns, quail, rabbits, squirrels, turkeys, turtles and wood rats. Skunks were eaten only in emergencies.
Plains Apache hunters hunted primarily buffalo and deer. Other game were badgers, bears, beavers, fowls, geese, opossums, otters, rabbits and turtles.
Clothing
Influenced by the Plains Indians, Western Apaches wore animal hide decorated with seed beads for clothing. These beaded designs historically resembled that of the Great Basin Paiute and is characterized by linear patterning. Apache beaded clothing was bordered with narrow bands of glass seed beads in diagonal stripes of alternating colors. They made buckskin shirts, ponchos, skirts and moccasins and decorated them with colorful beadwork.
Undomesticated plants and other food sources
The gathering of plants and other food was primarily done by women. The men's job was usually to hunt animals such as deer, buffalo, and small game. However, men helped in certain gathering activities, such as of heavy agave crowns. Numerous plants were used as both food and medicine and in religious ceremonies. Other plants were used for only their religious or medicinal value.
In May, the Western Apache baked and dried agave crowns pounded into pulp and formed into rectangular cakes. At the end of June and beginning of July, saguaro, prickly pear, and cholla fruits were gathered. In July and August, mesquite beans, Spanish bayonet fruit, and Emory oak acorns were gathered. In late September, gathering was stopped as attention moved to harvesting cultivated crops. In late fall, juniper berries and pinyon nuts were gathered.
The most important plant food for the Chiricahua was the Century plant (also known as mescal or agave). The crowns (the tuberous base portion) were baked in large underground ovens and sun-dried. The shoots were also eaten. Other plants used by the Chiricahua include: agarita (or algerita) berries, alligator juniper berries, anglepod seeds, banana yucca (or datil, broadleaf yucca) fruit, chili peppers, chokecherries, cota (used for tea), currants, dropseed grass seeds, Gambel oak acorns, Gambel oak bark (used for tea), grass seeds (of various varieties), greens (of various varieties), hawthorne fruit, Lamb's-quarters leaves, lip ferns (used for tea), live oak acorns, locust blossoms, locust pods, maize kernels (used for tiswin), and mesquite beans.
Also eaten were mulberries, narrowleaf yucca blossoms, narrowleaf yucca stalks, nipple cactus fruit, one-seed juniper berries, onions, pigweed seeds, pinyon nuts, pitahaya fruit, prickly pear fruit, prickly pear juice, raspberries, screwbean (or tornillo) fruit, saguaro fruit, spurge seeds, strawberries, sumac (Rhus trilobata) berries, sunflower seeds, tule rootstocks, tule shoots, pigweed tumbleweed seeds, unicorn plant seeds, walnuts, western yellow pine inner bark (used as a sweetener), western yellow pine nuts, whitestar potatoes (Ipomoea lacunosa), wild grapes, wild potatoes (Solanum jamesii), wood sorrel leaves, and yucca buds (unknown species). Other items include: honey from ground hives and hives found within agave, sotol, and narrowleaf yucca plants.
The abundant agave (mescal) was also important to the Mescalero, who gathered the crowns in late spring after reddish flower stalks appeared. The smaller sotol crowns were also important. The crowns of both plants were baked and dried. Other plants include: acorns, agarita berries, amole stalks (roasted and peeled), aspen inner bark (used as a sweetener), bear grass stalks (roasted and peeled), box elder inner bark (used as a sweetener), banana yucca fruit, banana yucca flowers, box elder sap (used as a sweetener), cactus fruits (of various varieties), cattail rootstocks, chokecherries, currants, dropseed grass seeds (used for flatbread), elderberries, gooseberries (Ribes leptanthum and R. pinetorum), grapes, hackberries, hawthorne fruit, and hops (used as condiment).
They also used horsemint (as a condiment), juniper berries, Lamb's-quarters leaves, locust flowers, locust pods, mesquite pods, mint (as a condiment), mulberries, pennyroyal (as a condiment), pigweed seeds (for flatbread), pine inner bark (as a sweetener), pinyon pine nuts, prickly pear fruit (dethorned and roasted), purslane leaves, raspberries, sage (as a condiment), screwbeans, sedge tubers, shepherd's purse leaves, strawberries, sunflower seeds, tumbleweed seeds (for flatbread), vetch pods, walnuts, western white pine nuts, western yellow pine nuts, white evening primrose fruit, wild celery (as a condiment), wild onion (as a condiment), wild pea pods, wild potatoes, and wood sorrel leaves.
The Jicarilla used acorns, chokecherries, juniper berries, mesquite beans, pinyon nuts, prickly pear fruit, yucca fruit, and many other kinds of fruits, acorns, greens, nuts, and seed grasses.
The Lipan heavily used agave (mescal) and sotol. Other plants include agarita, blackberries, cattails, devil's claw, elderberries, gooseberries, hackberries, hawthorn, juniper, Lamb's-quarters, locust, mesquite, mulberries, oak, palmetto, pecan, pinyon, prickly pears, raspberries, screwbeans, seed grasses, strawberries, sumac, sunflowers, Texas persimmons, walnuts, western yellow pine, wild cherries, wild grapes, wild onions, wild plums, wild potatoes, wild roses, yucca flowers, and yucca fruit. Other gathered food includes salt obtained from caves and honey.
The Plains Apache gathered chokecherries, blackberries, grapes, prairie turnips, wild onions, and wild plums, and many other fruits, vegetables, and tuberous roots.
Ethnobotany
A list of 198 ethnobotany plant uses for the Chiricahua can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/, which also includes the Mescalero.
A list of 54 ethnobotany plant uses for the uncategorized Apache can also be found here. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/10/.
Crop cultivation
The Navajo practiced the most crop cultivation, the Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan less. The one Chiricahua band (of Opler's) and the Mescalero practiced very little cultivation. The other two Chiricahua bands and the Plains Apache did not grow any crops.
Trade, raids, and war
Interchanges between the Apache and European-descended explorers and settlers included trading. The Apache found they could use European and American goods.
Unlike Europeans and Euro-Americans, Apaches distinguished raiding from war. Raiding was done in small parties with a specific economic purpose. War was waged in large parties (often clan members), usually to achieve retribution. Raiding was traditional for the Apache, but Mexican settlers objected to their stock being stolen. As tensions grew between the Apache and settlers, the Mexican government passed laws offering cash rewards for Apache scalps.
Religion
Apache religious stories relate to two culture heroes (one of the Sun/fire:"Killer-Of-Enemies/Monster Slayer", and one of Water/Moon/thunder: "Child-Of-The-Water/Born For Water") who destroy several creatures harmful to humankind.Another story is of a hidden ball game, where good and evil animals decide whether or not the world should be forever dark. Coyote, the trickster, is an important being that often has inappropriate behavior (such as marrying his own daughter, etc.) in which he overturns social convention. The Navajo, Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan have an emergence or Creation Story, while this is lacking in the Chiricahua and Mescalero.Most Southern Athabascan gods are personified natural forces that run through the universe. They may be used for human purposes through ritual ceremonies. The following is a formulation by the anthropologist Keith Basso of the Western Apache's concept of diyí':
The term diyí' refers to one or all of a set of abstract and invisible forces which are said to derive from certain classes of animals, plants, minerals, meteorological phenomena, and mythological figures within the Western Apache universe. Any of the various powers may be acquired by man and, if properly handled, used for a variety of purposes.
Medicine men learn the ceremonies, which can also be acquired by direct revelation to the individual. Different Apache cultures had different views of ceremonial practice. Most Chiricahua and Mescalero ceremonies were learned through the transmission of personal religious visions, while the Jicarilla and Western Apache used standardized rituals as the more central ceremonial practice. Important standardized ceremonies include the puberty ceremony (Sunrise Dance) of young women, Navajo chants, Jicarilla "long-life" ceremonies, and Plains Apache "sacred-bundle" ceremonies.
Certain animals - owls, snakes, bears, and coyotes - are considered spiritually evil and prone to cause sickness to humans. .
Many Apache ceremonies use masked representations of religious spirits. Sandpainting is an important ceremony in the Navajo, Western Apache, and Jicarilla traditions, in which healers create temporary, sacred art from colored sands. Anthropologists believe the use of masks and sandpainting are examples of cultural diffusion from neighboring Pueblo cultures.The Apaches participate in many religious dances, including the rain dance, dances for the crop and harvest, and a spirit dance. These dances were mostly for influencing the weather and enriching their food resources.
Languages
The five Apache languages are Apachean languages, which in turn belong to the Athabaskan branch of the Eyak-Athabaskan language family. All Apache languages are endangered. Lipan is reported extinct.
The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *k̯ and *c into *c (in addition to the widespread merger of *č and *čʷ into *č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages).
Hoijer (1938) divided the Apache sub-family into an eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k:
He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *k̯/*c merger to consider Plains Apache as a language equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache while the other languages start with ts.
Morris Opler (1975) has noted cultural similarities of Jicarilla and Lipan with Eastern Apache language speakers and differences from Western Apache speakers, supporting Hojier's initial classification. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear more complex.
Apache languages are tonal. Regarding tonal development, all Apache languages are low-marked, which means that stems with a "constricted" syllable rime in the proto-language developed low tone while all other rimes developed high tone. Other Northern Athabascan languages are high-marked: their tonal development is the reverse. In the example below, if low-marked Navajo and Chiricahua have a low tone, then the high-marked Northern Athabascan languages, Slavey and Chilcotin, have a high tone, and if Navajo and Chiricahua have a high tone, then Slavey and Chilcotin have a low tone.
Notable historic Apache
Contemporary Apache people are listed under their specific tribes.
Eleven Medal of Honor recipients: see List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients.
See also
Athabascan languages
Battle of Apache Pass
Battle of Cieneguilla
Camp Grant massacre
Chiricahua
Fort Apache, a movie in the genre of historical fiction about encounters between the US Army and Cochise's band
Jicarilla Apache
Lipan Apache people
Mescalero
Native American tribe
Native Americans in the United States
Navajo people
Neoapachella, a monotypic genus of North American mygalomorph spiders in the Euctenizidae named in their honor.
Plains Apache
Southern Athabascan languages
Western Apache
Citations
Explanatory notes
General bibliography
Further reading
Conrad, Paul (2021). The Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9954-0.
External links
Tribal websites
Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, archive of official website
Fort Sill Apache Tribe, official website
Jicarilla Apache Nation, official website
Mescalero Apache Tribe, official website
San Carlos Apache Tribe, official website
White Mountain Apache Tribe, official website
Yavapai-Apache Nation, official website
Other external links
Apache, Museum of Northern Arizona
Apache Indians, Texas State Historical Association
Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Historical Society
Apache, Fort Sill, Oklahoma Historical Society
Apache, Lipan, Oklahoma Historical Society
Tonto Apache Tribe, Inter Tribal Council of Arizona
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