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In verse 2, states the Upanishad, "this brahman is the Whole. Brahman is this self (ātman); that [brahman] is this self (ātman), consisting of four corners."
Aum as all states of consciousness
In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep and the state of (being one with Self, the oneness of Self). These four are A + U + M + "without an element" respectively.
Aum as all of etymological knowledge
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1931_7
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In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable "Aum". It states that the first element of "Aum" is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first). The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness). The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation). The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is the Atman (the self) indeed.
Four states of consciousness
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1931_8
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The Mandukya Upanishad describes four states of consciousness, namely waking (jågrat), dreaming (svapna), and deep sleep (suṣupti),<ref group=web name=Om>[http://www.advaita.org.uk/discourses/downloads/om.pdf advaita.org.uk, Om' – three states and one reality (An interpretation of the Mandukya Upanishad)]</ref> which correspond to the Three Bodies Doctrine:
The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world. "It is described as outward-knowing (bahish-prajnya), gross (sthula) and universal (vaishvanara)". This is the gross body.
The second state is the dreaming mind. "It is described as inward-knowing (antah-prajnya), subtle (pravivikta) and burning (taijasa)". This is the subtle body.
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1931_9
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The third state is the state of deep sleep. In this state the underlying ground of consciousness is undistracted, "the Lord of all (sarv'-eshvara), the knower of all (sarva-jnya), the inner controller (antar-yami), the source of all (yonih sarvasya), the origin and dissolution of created things (prabhav'-apyayau hi bhutanam)". This is the causal body.
The fourth factor is Turiya, pure consciousness. It is the background that underlies and transcends the three common states of consciousness. In this consciousness both absolute and relative, saguna brahman and Nirguna Brahman, are transcended. It is the true state of experience of the infinite (ananta) and non-different (advaita/abheda), free from the dualistic experience which results from the attempts to conceptualise ( vikalpa) reality. It is the state in which ajativada, non-origination, is apprehended.
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1931_10
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Theory and nature of Atman
The verses 3 through 7 discuss four states of Atman (Self).
Verse 3 of the Upanishad describes the first state of Self as outwardly cognitive with seven limbs, nineteen mouths, enjoying the gross, a state of Self common in all of human beings.
The Mandukya Upanishad, in verse 4, asserts the second state of Self as inwardly cognitive with seven limbs, nineteen mouths, enjoying the exquisite, a state of brilliant Self.
The Upanishad's verse 5 states the third state of Self as one without desire or anticipations, where pure conscience is his only mouth, where he is in unified cognition, enjoying the delight, a state of blissful Self.
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1931_11
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The verses 6 and 7 of the Upanishad states the fourth state of Self as one beyond all the three, beyond extrospective state, beyond introspective state, beyond cognitive state, the state of ekatmya pratyaya sara (one with the Self), tranquil, benign, advaita (without second). He then is the Self, just Atman, the one which should be discerned.
Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.
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1931_12
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Similarities and differences with Buddhist teachings
Scholars contest whether Mandukya Upanishad was influenced by Buddhist theories along with the similarities and differences between Buddhism and Hinduism in light of the text. According to Hajime Nakamura, the Mandukya Upanishad was influenced by Mahayana Buddhism and its concept of śūnyatā. Nakamura states, "many particular Buddhist terms or uniquely Buddhist modes of expression may be found in it", such as adrsta, avyavaharya, agrahya, , acintya, prapancopasama. According to Randall Collins the Mandukya Upanishad "includes phrases found in the Prajnaparamitrasutras of Mahayana Buddhism."
According to Michael Comans, Vidushekhara also notes that the term prapañcopaśama does not appear in pre-Buddhist Brahmanic works, but in contrast to Nakamura he does not conclude that the term was taken over from Mahayana Buddhism. According to Comans, eventual Mahayana origins of this term are no more than a possibility, and not a certainty.
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1931_13
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Comans also disagrees with Nakamura's thesis that "the fourth realm (caturtha) was perhaps influenced by the Sunyata of Mahayana Buddhism." According to Comans,
Comans further refers to Nakamura himself, who notes that later Mahayana sutras such as the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the concept of Buddha-nature, were influenced by Vedantic thought. Comans concludes that
Jacobs lists adrsta and other terms in more ancient, pre-Buddhist literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
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1931_14
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Isaeva states that there are differences in the teachings in the texts of Buddhism and the Mandukya Upanishad of Hinduism, because the latter asserts that citta "consciousness" is identical with the eternal and immutable atman "Self" of the Upanishads. In other words, Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapada affirm the Self exists, while Buddhist schools affirm that there is no soul or self.KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, , pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, , page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";Edward Roer (Translator), , pages 2-4Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine
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1931_15
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Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now
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1931_16
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Reception
Muktika Upanishad
Rama and Hanuman of the Hindu Epic Ramayana, in Muktika Upanishad, discuss moksha (freedom, liberation, deliverance). Rama, therein, recommends Mandukya as first among 108 Upanishads, as follows,
Classical commentators
Gaudapada
One of the first known extant metrical commentary on this Upanishad was written by Gaudapada, This commentary, called the Māndūkya-kārikā, is the earliest known systematic exposition of Advaita Vedanta.
Raju states that Gaudapada took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra), and "the four-cornered negation" (चतुष्कोटि विनिर्मुक्तः). Raju further states that Gaudapada "weaved [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara". Other scholars such as Murti state, that while there is shared terminology, the doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally different.
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1931_17
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Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara, a disciple of Govinda Bhagavatpada who himself was either a direct or a distant disciple of Gaudapada, further made commentaries on Gaudapada Mandukya karika, Mandukya Upanishad forms one of the basis of Advaita Vedanta as expounded by Adi Shankara.
Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya, the propounder of Dvaita Vedanta, has written commentaries on Mandukya Upanishad and offers an emotional and theistic perspective of the scripture, and attributes them to Śruti, his commentary based on bhakti yoga and uses Vishnu and his attributes as a similes for deciphering the shlokas of the Mandukya Upanishad
Modern commentators
According to Aurobindo, Brahman, which has the potentiality of becoming, has created out an existence which has a relation between itself. This existence with its experience of becoming and having relation with the absolute is called as Self or purusha, the principle or power of becoming is called as nature or prakriti.
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1931_18
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Swami Rama has provided an interpretation of this Upanishad from the experiential standpoint in his commentary Enlightenment without God.
Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade calls the aphoristic style of Mandukya Upanishad as highly influential on the Sutras of Indian philosophies that followed it, and that the Upanishad has served as a foundational text of the major Vedanta school of Hinduism. He states,
Ranade's views on the importance of Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapada's commentary on Vedanta school, particularly Advaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is shared by modern era scholars such as Hacker, Vetter and others.
Johnston states that Mandukya Upanishad must be read in two layers, consciousness and vehicles of consciousness, Self and nature of Self, the empirical and the eternal. The text aphoristically condenses these layers of message, both in literal and metaphorical sense.
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William Butler Yeats, the Irish poet, was inspired by the Upanishads and Mandukya Upanishad was among the texts he commented on.Bruce Wilson (1982), "From Mirror after Mirror: Yeats and Eastern Thought," Comparative Literature, Vol. 34, No. 1, pages 28-46
David Stoll's 1987 Piano Quartet is inspired by three Upanishads, one being Mandukya Upanishad, other two being Katha and Isha Upanishads.
See also
Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya
Adi Shri Shankaracharya
Advaita
Shri Gaudapadacharya Mutt
Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya
Notes
References
Sources
Published sources
Web-sources
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1931_20
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Further reading
Eight Upanishads. Vol.2. With the commentary of Sankaracharya, Tr. By Swami Gambhirananda. Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1990.
V. Krishnamurthy. Essentials of Hinduism. Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi. 1989
Swami Rama. Enlightenment Without God [commentary on Mandukya Upanishad]. Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy, 1982.
Sri Aurobindo, The Upanishads . Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry. 1972.
External links
https://archive.org/details/MandukyaUpanihadBook Tamil
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1931_21
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The Mandukya Upanishad/Karika, Shankara’s Commentary and Anandagiri’s Tika Translated by Swami Nikhilananda, online ebook
Mandukya Upanishad Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press
Multiple translations (Johnston, Nikhilānanda, Dvivedi, Panoli)
The Mandukya Upanishad English Translation by Jayaram V
Mandukya Upanishad with Gaudapada Karika
Part 1 of a Vedanta class by Swami Sarvapriyananda on the Mandukya Upanishad
Part 2 of a Vedanta class by Swami Sarvapriyananda on the Mandukya Upanishad
Recitation
Mandukya Upanishad recitation by Pt. Ganesh Vidyalankar
Downloadable Audio of 44 Classes on Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapada Karika by Swami TattwamayanandaResources'''
Video/Audio classes, Reference texts, Discussions and other Study material on Mandukya Upanishad at Vedanta Hub
Upanishads
Advaita Vedanta
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1932_0
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A dump truck, known also as a dumping truck, dump trailer, dumper trailer, dump lorry or dumper lorry or a dumper for short, is used for transporting materials (such as dirt, gravel, or demolition waste) for construction as well as coal. A typical dump truck is equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic rams to lift the front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery. In the UK, Australia, South Africa and India the term applies to off-road construction plants only and the road vehicle is known as a tip lorry, tipper lorry (UK, India), tipper truck, tip truck, tip trailer or tipper trailer or simply a tipper (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa).
History
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1932_1
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The dump truck is thought to have been first conceived in the farms of late 19th century western Europe. Thornycroft developed a steam dust-cart in 1896 with a tipper mechanism. The first motorized dump trucks in the United States were developed by small equipment companies such as The Fruehauf Trailer Corporation, Galion Buggy Co. and Lauth-Juergens among many others around 1910. Hydraulic dump beds were introduced by Wood Hoist Co. shortly after. Such companies flourished during World War I due to massive wartime demand. August Fruehauf had obtained military contracts for his semi-trailer, invented in 1914 and later created the partner vehicle, the semi-truck for use in World War I. After the war, Fruehauf introduced hydraulics in his trailers. They offered hydraulic lift gates, hydraulic winches and a dump trailer for sales in the early 1920s. Fruehauf became the premier supplier of dump trailers and their famed "bathtub dump" was considered to be the best by heavy haulers, road
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1932_2
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and mining construction firms.
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Companies like Galion Buggy Co. continued to grow after the war by manufacturing a number of express bodies and some smaller dump bodies that could be easily installed on either stock or converted (heavy-duty suspension and drivetrain) Model T chassis prior to 1920. Galion and Wood Mfg. Co. built all of the dump bodies offered by Ford on their heavy-duty AA and BB chassis during the 1930s. Galion (now Galion Godwin Truck Body Co.) is the oldest known truck body manufacturer still in operation today.
The first known Canadian dump truck was developed in Saint John, New Brunswick, when Robert T. Mawhinney attached a dump box to a flatbed truck in 1920. The lifting device was a winch attached to a cable that fed over sheave (pulley) mounted on a mast behind the cab. The cable was connected to the lower front end of the wooden dump box which was attached by a pivot at the back of the truck frame. The operator turned a crank to raise and lower the box.
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1932_4
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From the 1930s Euclid, International-Harvester and Mack contributed to ongoing development. Mack modified its existing trucks with varying success. In 1934 Euclid became the first manufacturer in the world to successfully produce a dedicated off-highway truck.
Types
Today, virtually all dump trucks operate by hydraulics and they come in a variety of configurations each designed to accomplish a specific task in the construction material supply chain.
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1932_5
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Standard dump truck
A standard dump truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. The bed is raised by a vertical hydraulic ram mounted under the front of the body (known as a front post hoist configuration), or a horizontal hydraulic ram and lever arrangement between the frame rails (known as an underbody hoist configuration), and the back of the bed is hinged at the back of the truck. The tailgate (sometimes referred to as an end gate) can be configured to swing up on top hinges (and sometimes also to fold down on lower hinges) or it can be configured in the "High Lift Tailgate" format wherein pneumatic or hydraulic rams lift the gate open and up above the dump body. Some bodies, typically for hauling grain, have swing-out doors for entering the box and a metering gate/chute in the center for a more controlled dumping.
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1932_6
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In the United States most standard dump trucks have one front steering axle and one (4x2 4-wheeler)) or two (6x4 6-wheeler) rear axles which typically have dual wheels on each side. Tandem rear axles are almost always powered, front steering axles are also sometimes powered (4x4, 6x6). Unpowered axles are sometimes used to support extra weight. Most unpowered rear axles can be raised off the ground to minimize wear when the truck is empty or lightly loaded, and are commonly called "lift axles".
European Union heavy trucks often have two steering axles. Dump truck configurations are two, three, and four axles. The four-axle eight wheeler has two steering axles at the front and two powered axles at the rear and is limited to gross weight in most EU countries. The largest of the standard European dump trucks is commonly called a "centipede" and has seven axles. The front axle is the steering axle, the rear two axles are powered, and the remaining four are lift axles.
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1932_7
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The shorter wheelbase of a standard dump truck often makes it more maneuverable than the higher capacity semi-trailer dump trucks.
Semi trailer end dump truck
A semi end dump is a tractor-trailer combination wherein the trailer itself contains the hydraulic hoist. In the US a typical semi end dump has a 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle trailer with dual tires, in the EU trailers often have 3 axles and single tires. The key advantage of a semi end dump is a large payload. A key disadvantage is that they are very unstable when raised in the dumping position limiting their use in many applications where the dumping location is uneven or off level. Some end dumps make use of an articulated arm (known as a stabilizer) below the box, between the chassis rails, to stabilize the load in the raised position.
Transfer dump truck
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1932_8
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A transfer dump truck is a standard dump truck pulling a separate trailer with a movable cargo container, which can also be loaded with construction aggregate, gravel, sand, asphalt, klinkers, snow, wood chips, triple mix, etc.
The second aggregate container on the trailer ("B" box), is powered by an electric motor, a pneumatic motor or a hydraulic line. It rolls on small wheels, riding on rails from the trailer's frame into the empty main dump container ("A" box). This maximizes payload capacity without sacrificing the maneuverability of the standard dump truck. Transfer dump trucks are typically seen in the western United States due to the peculiar weight restrictions on highways there.
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1932_9
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Another configuration is called a triple transfer train, consisting of a "B" and "C" box. These are common on Nevada and Utah Highways, but not in California. Depending on the axle arrangement, a triple transfer can haul up to with a special permit in certain American states. , a triple transfer costs a contractor about $105 an hour, while a A/B configuration costs about $85 per hour.
Transfer dump trucks typically haul between of aggregate per load, each truck is capable of 3–5 loads per day, generally speaking.
Truck and pup
A truck and pup is very similar to a transfer dump. It consists of a standard dump truck pulling a dump trailer. The pup trailer, unlike the transfer, has its own hydraulic ram and is capable of self-unloading.
Superdump truck
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1932_10
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A super dump is a straight dump truck equipped with a trailing axle, a liftable, load-bearing axle rated as high as . Trailing behind the rear tandem, the trailing axle stretches the outer "bridge" measurement—the distance between the first and last axles—to the maximum overall length allowed. This increases the gross weight allowed under the federal bridge formula, which sets standards for truck size and weight. Depending on the vehicle length and axle configuration, Superdumps can be rated as high as GVW and carry of payload or more. When the truck is empty or ready to offload, the trailing axle toggles up off the road surface on two hydraulic arms to clear the rear of the vehicle. Truck owners call their trailing axle-equipped trucks Superdumps because they far exceed the payload, productivity, and return on investment of a conventional dump truck. The Superdump and trailing axle concept were developed by Strong Industries of Houston, Texas.
Semi trailer bottom dump truck
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1932_11
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A semi bottom dump, bottom hopper, or belly dump is a (commonly) 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle trailer with a clam shell type dump gate in the belly of the trailer. The key advantage of a semi bottom dump is its ability to lay material in a windrow, a linear heap. In addition, a semi bottom dump is maneuverable in reverse, unlike the double and triple trailer configurations described below. These trailers may be found either of the windrow type shown in the photo or may be of the cross spread type, with the gate opening front to rear instead of left and right. The cross spread type gate will actually spread the cereal grains fairly and evenly from the width of the trailer. By comparison, the windrow-type gate leaves a pile in the middle. The cross spread type gate, on the other hand, tends to jam and may not work very well with coarse materials.
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1932_12
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Double and triple trailer bottom dump truck
Double and triple bottom dumps consist of a 2-axle tractor pulling one single-axle semi-trailer and an additional full trailer (or two full trailers in the case of triples). These dump trucks allow the driver to lay material in windrows without leaving the cab or stopping the truck. The main disadvantage is the difficulty in backing double and triple units.
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1932_13
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The specific type of dump truck used in any specific country is likely to be closely keyed to the weight and axle limitations of that jurisdiction. Rock, dirt, and other types of materials commonly hauled in trucks of this type are quite heavy, and almost any style of truck can be easily overloaded. Because of that, this type of truck is frequently configured to take advantage of local weight limitations to maximize the cargo. For example, within the United States, the maximum weight limit is throughout the country, except for specific bridges with lower limits. Individual states, in some instances, are allowed to authorize trucks up to . Most states that do so require that the trucks be very long, to spread the weight over more distance. It is in this context that double and triple bottoms are found within the United States.
Side dump truck
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1932_14
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A side dump truck (SDT) consists of a 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle semi-trailer. It has hydraulic rams that tilt the dump body onto its side, spilling the material to either the left or right side of the trailer. The key advantages of the side dump are that it allows rapid unloading and can carry more weight in the western United States. In addition, it is almost immune to upset (tipping over) while dumping, unlike the semi end dumps which are very prone to tipping over. It is, however, highly likely that a side dump trailer will tip over if dumping is stopped prematurely. Also, when dumping loose materials or cobble sized stone, the side dump can become stuck if the pile becomes wide enough to cover too much of the trailer's wheels. Trailers that dump at the appropriate angle (50° for example) avoid the problem of the dumped load fouling the path of the trailer wheels by dumping their loads further to the side of the truck, in some cases leaving sufficient clearance to walk
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1932_15
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between the dumped load and the trailer.
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1932_16
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Winter service vehicles
Many winter service vehicles are based on dump trucks, to allow the placement of ballast to weigh the truck down or to hold sodium or calcium chloride salts for spreading on snow and ice-covered surfaces. Plowing is severe service and needs heavy-duty trucks.
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1932_17
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Roll-off trucks
A Roll-off has a hoist and subframe, but no body, it carries removable containers. The container is loaded on the ground, then pulled onto the back of the truck with a winch and cable. The truck goes to the dumpsite, after it has been dumped the empty container is taken and placed to be loaded or stored. The hoist is raised and the container slides down the subframe so the rear is on the ground. The container has rollers on the rear and can be moved forward or back until the front of it is lowered onto the ground. The containers are usually open-topped boxes used for rubble and building debris, but rubbish compactor containers are also carried. A newer hook-lift system ("roller container" in the UK) does the same job, but lifts, lowers, and dumps the container with a boom arrangement instead of a cable and hoist.
Off-highway dump trucks
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1932_18
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Off-highway dump trucks are heavy construction equipment and share little resemblance to highway dump trucks. Bigger off-highway dump trucks are used strictly off-road for mining and heavy dirt hauling jobs. There are two primary forms: rigid frame and articulating frame.
The term "dump" truck is not generally used by the mining industry, or by the manufacturers that build these machines. The more appropriate U.S. term for this strictly off-road vehicle is "haul truck" and the equivalent European term is "dumper".
Haul truck
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1932_19
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Haul trucks are used in large surface mines and quarries. They have a rigid frame and conventional steering with drive at the rear wheel. As of late 2013, the largest ever production haul truck is the 450 metric ton BelAZ 75710, followed by the Liebherr T 282B, the Bucyrus MT6300AC and the Caterpillar 797F, which each have payload capacities of up to . Most large-size haul trucks employ Diesel-electric powertrains, using the Diesel engine to drive an AC alternator or DC generator that sends electric power to electric motors at each rear wheel. The Caterpillar 797 is unique for its size, as it employs a Diesel engine to power a mechanical powertrain, typical of most road-going vehicles and intermediary size haul trucks.
Other major manufacturers of haul trucks include SANY, XCMG, Hitachi, Komatsu, DAC, Terex, and BelAZ.
Articulated hauler
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1932_20
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An articulated dumper is an all-wheel-drive, off-road dump truck. It has a hinge between the cab and the dump box but is distinct from a semi-trailer truck in that the power unit is a permanent fixture, not a separable vehicle. Steering is accomplished via hydraulic cylinders that pivot the entire tractor in relation to the trailer, rather than rack and pinion steering on the front axle as in a conventional dump truck. By this way of steering, the trailer's wheels follow the same path as the front wheels. Together with all-wheel drive and low center of gravity, it is highly adaptable to rough terrain. Major manufacturers include Volvo CE, Terex, John Deere, and Caterpillar.
U-shaped dump truck
U-shaped dump trucks, also known as tub-body trucks, is used to transport construction waste, it is made of high-strength super wear-resistant special steel plate directly bent, and has the characteristics of impact resistance, alternating stress resistance, corrosion resistance and so on.
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1932_21
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1. Cleaner unloading
U-shaped dump truck, there is no dead angle at the corners of the cargo box, it is not easy to stick to the box when unloading, and the unloading is cleaner.
2. Lightweight
The U-shaped cargo box reduces its own weight through structural optimization. Now the most common U-shaped dump is to use high-strength plates. Under the premise of ensuring the strength of the car body, the thickness of the plate is reduced by about 20%, and the self-weight of the car is reduced by about 1 ton, which effectively improves the utilization factor of the load mass.
3. Strong carrying capacity.Using high-strength steel plate, high yield strength, better impact resistance and fatigue resistance. For users of ore transportation, it can reduce the damage of ore to the container.
4. Low center of gravity The U-shaped structure has a lower center of gravity, which makes the ride more stable, especially when cornering, and avoids spilling cargo.
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1932_22
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5. Save tires The U-shaped cargo box can keep the cargo in the center, and the tires on both sides are more evenly stressed, which is beneficial to improve the life of the tires.
Dangers
Collisions
Dump trucks are normally built for some amount of off-road or construction site driving; as the driver is protected by the chassis and height of the driver's seat, bumpers are either placed high or omitted for added ground clearance. The disadvantage is that in a collision with a standard car, the entire motor section or luggage compartment goes under the truck. Thus, the passengers in the car could be more severely injured than would be common in a collision with another car. Several countries have made rules that new trucks should have bumpers approximately above ground in order to protect other drivers. There are also rules about how long the load or construction of the truck can go beyond the rear bumper to prevent cars that rear-end the truck from going under it.
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1932_23
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Tipping
Another safety consideration is the leveling of the truck before unloading. If the truck is not parked on relatively horizontal ground, the sudden change of weight and balance due to lifting of the body and dumping of the material can cause the truck to slide, or even to tip over. The live bottom trailer is an approach to eliminate this danger.
Back-up accidents
Because of their size and the difficulty of maintaining visual contact with on-foot workers, dump trucks can be a threat, especially when backing up. Mirrors and back-up alarms provide some level of protection, and having a spotter working with the driver also decreases back-up injuries and fatalities.
Manufacturers
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1932_24
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Ashok Leyland
Asia MotorWorks
Astra
AUSA
BelAZ
BEML
Beau-Roc
Cancade CBI Ltd
Case CE
Caterpillar Inc.
DAC
Daewoo
Dart (commercial vehicle)
Eicher Motors
Euclid Trucks
FAP
Galion Godwin Truck Body Co.
General East
Godwin Manufacturing Company Inc.
HEPCO
Hitachi Construction Machinery
Hitachi Construction Machinery (Europe)
Iveco
John Deere
Kamaz
Kenworth
Kioleides
Komatsu
KrAZ
Leader Trucks
Liebherr Group
Mack Trucks
Mahindra Trucks & Buses Ltd.
MAN SE
Mercedes-Benz
Navistar International
New Holland
Peterbilt
SANY
R/S Godwin Truck Body Company
Scania AB
ST Kinetics
Tata
Tatra (company)
Terex Corporation
Volvo Construction Equipment
Volvo Trucks
XCMG
Warren, Inc.
Williamsen Godwin Truck Body Company
See also
Dumper
Garbage truck
Live bottom trailer
Rear-eject haul truck bodies
Notes
References
External links
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1932_25
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A YouTube video of a dump truck raising and lowering its load tray
Caterpillar 730 Articulated Dump Truck on a loading cycle
Bell B40D Articulated Dump Truck loading and unloading
Articulated Dump Truck
Volvo A40D Articulated Dump Truck at work moving over burden
All about Trucks
Sany Trucks
Canadian inventions
Engineering vehicles
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1933_0
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Advertising media selection is the process of choosing the most efficient media for an advertising campaign. To evaluate media efficiency, planners consider a range of factors including: the required coverage and number of exposures in a target audience; the relative cost of the media advertising and the media environment. Media planning may also involve buying media space. Media planners require an intricate understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each of the main media options. The media industry is dynamic - new advertising media options are constantly emerging. Digital and social media are changing the way that consumers use media and are also influencing how consumers acquire product information.
Types of advertising media
The selection of advertising media for a given campaign requires a deep and rich understanding of the media options available.
Television advertising
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1933_1
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Television advertising offers the benefit of reaching large numbers in a single exposure. The reason for having large numbers is that this advertising method can reach the household-level customers. Yet because it is a mass medium capable of being seen by nearly anyone, television lacks the ability to deliver an advertisement to highly targeted customers compared to other media outlets. Television networks are attempting to improve their targeting efforts. In particular, networks operating in the pay-to-access arena, such as those with channels on cable and satellite television, are introducing more narrowly themed programming (i.e., TV shows geared to specific interest groups) designed to appeal to selective audiences. However, television remains an option that is best for products that targeted to a broad market. The geographic scope of television advertising may vary, from local or regional advertising through to national coverage, depending on whether public broadcasting or
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1933_2
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subscriber-based cable services are used.
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1933_3
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Television advertising, once seen as the mainstay of media advertising, is facing numerous challenges from alternative media, especially interactive and social media. Technological innovations, especially the advent of ad blocking and zapping, has eroded TV's immediacy and relevance for some audiences.
Radio advertising
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1933_4
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Promotion through radio has been a viable advertising option for over 80 years. Radio advertising is mostly local to the broadcast range of a radio station, however, at least three options exist that offer national and potentially international coverage. First, in many countries there are radio networks that use many geographically distinct stations to broadcast simultaneously. In the United States such networks as Disney (children's programming) and ESPN (sports programming) broadcast nationally either through a group of company-owned stations or through a syndication arrangement (i.e., business agreement) with partner stations. Second, within the last few years the emergence of radio programming delivered via satellite has become an option for national advertising. Finally, the potential for national and international advertising may become more attractive as radio stations allow their signals to be broadcast over the Internet.
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1933_5
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In many ways radio suffers the same problems as television, namely, a mass medium that is not highly targeted and offers little opportunity to track responses. But unlike television, radio presents the additional disadvantage of limiting advertisers to audio-only advertising. For some products advertising without visual support is not effective.
Print publications advertising
Print publications such as magazines, books, newspapers and Special Issue publications (such as annuals) offer a variety of advertising opportunities:
Magazines, especially those that target specific niche or specialized interest areas, are more tightly targeted compared to broadcast media. Additionally, magazines offer the option of allowing marketers to present their message using high quality imagery (e.g., full color) and can also offer advertisers the ability to integrate interactive, tactile experiences through the use of scratch-it papers impregnated with scents (e.g., perfume).
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1933_6
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Newspapers have also incorporated color advertisements, though their main advantage rests with their ability to target local markets. For advertisers, the ability to insert catalogs or special promotional material into the newspaper is an advantage.
Special Issue publications can offer very selective targeting since these often focus on an extremely narrow topics (e.g., auto buying guide, tour guides, college and university ratings, etc.).
Internet advertising
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1933_7
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The fastest growing media outlet for advertising is the Internet. Compared to spending in other media, the rate of spending for Internet advertising is experiencing tremendous growth and in the U.S. trails only newspaper and television advertising in terms of total spending. Internet advertising's influence continues to expand and each year more major marketers shift a larger portion of their promotional budget to this medium. Two key reasons for this shift rest with the Internet's ability to: (1) narrowly target an advertising message and, (2) track user response to the advertiser's message.
The Internet offers many advertising options with messages delivered through websites or by email:
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1933_8
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Standard online advertising formats (e.g. Banner ads, interstitials.) - A banner ad is a rectangular advertisement appearing at the top or bottom of a web-page. Banner ads are typically 468 X 60 pixels. An interstitial is an advertisement that interrupts the user. It may be a full page or a pop up window.
Rich media advertisements - ads that incorporate a variety of technology components such as video and audio. Rich media ads are thought to deliver higher impact messages.
Paid search advertising - A method of placing online advertisements on web pages that show results from search engine queries. Through the same search-engine advertising services, ads can also be placed on Web pages with other published content.
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1933_9
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Search engine marketing - A form of Internet marketing that involves the promotion of websites by increasing their visibility in search engine results pages (SERPs) primarily through paid advertising. SEM may incorporate search engine optimization (SEO), which adjusts or rewrites website content and site architecture to achieve a higher ranking in search engine results pages to enhance pay per click (PPC) listings.
Online video gaming - An online game is a video game that is either partially or primarily played through the Internet or another computer network. Advertisers can pay to have their messages or products incorporated into the sets of online games.
Paid inclusion - Paid inclusion is a search engine marketing product where the search engine company charges fees related to inclusion of websites in their search index. The use of paid inclusion is controversial and paid inclusion's popularity has decreased over time among search engines.
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1933_10
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Email advertising - also known as internet direct marketing. Using email to deliver an advertisement affords marketers the advantage of low distribution cost and potentially high reach. In situations where the marketer possesses a highly targeted list, response rates to email advertisements may be quite high. This is especially true if those on the list have agreed to receive email, a process known as “opt-in” marketing. Email advertisement can take the form of a regular email message or be presented within the context of more detailed content, such as an electronic newsletter. Delivery to a user's email address can be viewed as either plain text or can look more like a website using web coding (i.e., HTML). However, as most people are aware, there is significant downside to email advertising due to highly publicized issues related to abuse (i.e., spam).
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1933_11
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Social media advertising - forms of online advertising that focus on social networking services such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
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1933_12
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Online advertising has spawned a range of new segmentation and targeting approaches including Affinity targeting, Behavioral targeting, Contextual targeting and Geographic targeting and Purchase-based category targeting.
Out-of-home media
The use of signs to communicate a marketer's message places advertising in geographically identified areas in order to capture customer attention. The most obvious method of using signs is through billboards, which are generally located in high traffic areas. Outdoor billboards come in many sizes, though the most well-known are large structures located near transportation points intending to attract the interest of people traveling on roads or public transportation. Indoor billboards are often smaller than outdoor billboards and are designed to attract the attention of foot traffic (i.e., those moving past the sign). For example, smaller signage in airports, train terminals and large commercial office space fit this category.
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1933_13
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While billboards are the most obvious example of signage advertising, there are many other forms of signage advertising include:
Sky writing where airplanes use special chemicals to form words
Messages placed on hot air balloons or banners carried by small aircraft
Mobile billboards where signs are placed on vehicles, such as buses and cars, taxis or even clapper-boards carried by paid agents
Plastic bags used to protect newspapers delivered to homes
Advertisements attached to grocery carts
Holographic images projected into public spaces
Laser projections onto city buildings
Mobile device advertising
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1933_14
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Handheld devices, such as cellphones, smartphones, portable computers and other wireless devices, make up the growing mobile device market. Such devices allow customers to stay informed, gather information and communicate with others without being tied to a physical location. While the mobile device market is only beginning to become a viable advertising medium, it may soon offer significant opportunity for marketers to reach customers at any time and anywhere.
Also, with geographic positioning features included in newer mobile devices, the medium has the potential to provide marketers with the ability to target customers based on their geographic location. Currently, the most popular advertising delivery method to mobile devices is through plain text messaging, however, over the next few years multimedia advertisements are expected to become the dominant message format.
Word of Mouth
Promotion of products can also happen through verbal communication between people.
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1933_15
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Audience research
Selecting the optimal media vehicles for a given campaign requires detailed research and analysis. Media planners need to match their target market with media audiences. Identifying the audience for a magazine or newspaper, or determining who watches television at a given time, is a specialized form of market research, often conducted on behalf of media owners.
Measures of media audience that are of especial interest to advertisers include:
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1933_16
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Print Media
Circulation: the number of copies of an issue sold (independently assessed via a circulation audit)
Readership: the total number of people who have seen or looked into a current edition of the a publication (independently measured via survey)
Readership profiles: Demographic/ psychographic and behavioural analysis of readership (sourced from Readership surveys)
Broadcast Media
Average audience: The average number of people who tuned into the given time or given program, expressed in thousands or as a percentage. Also known as a Rating or T.A.R.P (Total Audience Rating Point).
Audience share: The number of listeners (or viewers) for a given channel over a given time period, expressed as a percentage of the total audience potential for the total market. (The audience share is normally calculated by dividing a given channel's average audience by the average audience of all channels).
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1933_17
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Audience potential: The total number of people in a given geographical area who conform to a specific definition, such as the number of people with a television (or radio) set or the total number of people aged 6–12 years. Population potentials are normally derived from the census figures and are used to estimate the potential market reach.
Audience movement by session: The number of listeners (or viewers) who switch channels during a given time period.
Audience profile: Analysis of audience by selected demographic, psychographic or behavioural variables.
Cumulative audience (CUME): The number of different listeners (or viewers) in a given time period; also known as reach.
People Using Television (PUT): The number of people (or households) tuned to any channel during a given time period.
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1933_18
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Out-of-home media
Opportunities to see (OTS) - a crude measure of the number of people who were exposed to the medium, For example, the number of cars that drive past an outdoor billboard in a given time period
Internet and digital media
Site traffic: The number of visitors to a website within a given time period (e.g. a month)
Unique visitors: The number of different visitors to a website within a given time period
Site stickiness: The average length of time a person remains on a page (a measure of audience engagement)
Average page views per visit: The number of different pages generated by a visitor to a site (a measure of engagement)
Click through rate (CTR): The number of people who clicked on an advertisement or advertising link
Cost per click (CPS): The average cost of generating one click through
Rate of return visitors: The number of unique visitors who return to a site
Bounce rate: Number of site visitors who leave the site within a predetermined time (seconds)
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1933_19
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Although much of the audience research data is normally only available to subscribers and prospective advertisers, basic information is published for the general public, often as topline survey findings. The type and depth of freely available information varies across geographic markets. Audience research for broadcast media is provided to prospective advertisers via the networks or via a media buying group. A limited amount of basic audience data is available to the general public through statutory authorities or media organisations.
Notes: Also see Nielsen Media, for Trends in Canadian TV Viewing
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1933_20
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Advertising media scheduling
Scheduling refers to the pattern of advertising timing, represented as plots on a calendar-type flowchart (as shown in the figure), typically for one year, but may be for a specific campaign of shorter duration. A media schedule typically contains specific detail including the media channels used, ... specifies insertion or broadcast dates, positions, and duration of the messages." These plots indicate the pattern of scheduled times advertising must appear to coincide with favorable selling periods. The classic scheduling models are: Blitzing; Continuity, Flighting and Pulsing.
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1933_21
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A major consideration in constructing media schedules is timing. The advertiser's main aim should be to place the advertisement as close as practical to the point where consumers make their purchase decision. For example, an advertiser who knows that a grocery buyer does a main shop on Saturday afternoons and a top-up shop on Wednesday nights, may consider using radio spots to reach the shopper while he or she is driving to the supermarket.
The broad approaches to scheduling are:
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1933_22
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Blitzing
Blitzing consists of one concentrated burst of advertising normally during the initial period of the planning horizon. Blitzing is more likely to be used by new products attempting to penetrate the market or by dominant brands in competitive markets.
Continuity
Continuity is a pattern of relatively constant levels throughout a given time period or campaign. This approach is primarily for staple, perishable products (i.e. non-seasonal products). Advertising runs steadily with little variation over the campaign period. There may be short gaps at regular intervals and also long gaps—for instance, one ad every week for 52 weeks, and then a pause. This pattern of advertising is prevalent in service and packaged goods that require continuous reinforcement on the audience for top of mind recollection at point of purchase.
Advantages:
Works as a reminder
Covers the entire purchase cycle
Cost efficiencies in the form of large media discounts
Positioning advantages within media
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1933_23
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Program or plan that identifies the media channels used in an advertising campaign, and specifies insertion or broadcast dates, positions, and duration of the messages.
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1933_24
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Flighting (or "bursting")
In media scheduling for seasonal product categories, flighting involves intermittent and irregular periods of advertising (flights), alternating with shorter periods (hiatuses) of no advertising at all. The main advantage of the flighting technique is that it allows an advertiser who does not have funds for running spots continuously to conserve money and maximize the effect of the commercials by airing them at key strategic times. Advertisers may employ less costly media such as radio or newspaper during a television flighting hiatus. This method of media planning allows the messages and themes of the advertising campaign to continue to reach consumers while conserving advertising funds.
Advantages:
Advertisers buy heavier weight than competitors for a relatively shorter period of time
Little waste, since advertising concentrates on the best purchasing cycle period
Series of commercials appear as a unified campaign on different media vehicles
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1933_25
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Pulsing
Pulsing combines flighting and continuous scheduling by using a low levels advertising of continuous advertising, followed by intermittent bursts of more intense advertising at predetermined times such as holidays, peak seasons. Product categories that are sold year round but experience a surge in sales at intermittent periods are good candidates for pulsing. For instance, under-arm deodorants, sell all year, but more in summer months. Pulsing is also used by market challengers who want to create an impression of a larger advertising budget.
Empirical support for the effectiveness of pulsing is relatively weak. However, research suggests that continuous schedules and flighted schedules generally result in strong levels of consumer recall.
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1933_26
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Advantages:
Useful for use with seasonal products e.g. travel or products sold intermittently e.g.heating and cooling systems
Can be used by market challengers to give the impression of a higher share of voice
Combined the advantages of both continuity and flighting possible
Is a less expensive option than a continuous schedule
Media buying
Also see Media buying
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1933_27
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While some advertisers prefer to purchase advertising spots by dealing directly with media owners (e.g. newspapers, magazines or broadcast networks), in practice most media buying is purchased as part of broader negotiations via a media buying agency or media buying group. Well-known centralised buying groups include Zenith or Optimedia. These large media agencies are able to exert market power through volume purchasing by buying up space for an entire year. Media agencies benefit advertisers by providing advertising units at lower rates and also through the provision of added value services such as media planning services.
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1933_28
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Most media outlets use dynamic pricing, a form of yield management which means that there are no fixed rates. Prices depend on a number of factors including - the advertiser's prior relationship with the network, the volume of inventory being purchased, the timing of the booking and whether the advertiser is using cross-media promotions such as product placements. Advertising spots purchased closer to air-time tend to be more expensive.
Buying advertising spots on national TV is very expensive. Given that most media outlets use dynamic pricing, rates vary from day to day, creating difficulties locating indicative rates. However, from time to time, trade magazines publish adrates which may be used as a general guide. The following table provides indicative advertising rates for selected popular programs on American national television networks, broadcast during prime time viewing hours.
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1933_29
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Notes:
* Rates for programs such as American Idol increase as the program moves closer to finals
** Rates for Mon-Fri programs such as Jay Leno vary depending on the day of the week and the expected audience size
See also
References
Further reading
David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising, Pan Books, 1983
D. Mercer, ‘Marketing’ (Blackwell, 1996)
Sissors, Jack Zanville, and Roger B. Baron, Advertising Media Planning, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Advertising
Advertising techniques
Promotion and marketing communications
Marketing techniques
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1934_0
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George Lyman Kittredge (February 28, 1860 – July 23, 1941) was a professor of English literature at Harvard University. His scholarly edition of the works of William Shakespeare was influential in the early 20th century. He was also involved in American folklore studies and was instrumental in the formation and management of the Harvard University Press. One of his better-known books concerned witchcraft in England.
Early life and education
Kittredge was born in Boston in 1860. His father, Edward "Kit" Lyman Kittredge, had participated in the California Gold Rush of 1849, been shipwrecked, and had walked 700 miles across the desert before returning to Boston to marry a widow, Mrs. Deborah Lewis Benson, and start a family. Their precocious and bookish son George attended The Roxbury Latin School, which then had about a hundred pupils. George consistently led his class in marks and won a scholarship to Harvard, which he entered in 1878.
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As a freshman, George lived at home in Boston and walked to Harvard every day to save money. Kittredge garnered highest honors and joined several clubs, wrote light verse, and won Bowdoin prizes for his essays and translations, including one from English into Attic Greek. He also became a member of the editorial board of the Harvard Advocate, the college literary magazine. In 1881 Kittredge was the prompter and pronunciation coach in a celebrated undergraduate theatrical performance of Sophocles's Oedipus Rex in the original Greek, attended by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Julia Ward Howe, William Dean Howells, Charles Eliot Norton, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and classicist B. L. Gildersleeve of Johns Hopkins University. In 1882, Kittredge was elected Ivy Orator (chosen to deliver a humorous speech) of his graduating class. (Graduating with Kittredge that year was Philadelphian Owen Wister, author of the first Western novel, The Virginian).
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1934_2
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Lack of money prevented Kittredge from immediately pursuing graduate studies. From 1883 to 1887 he taught Latin at Phillips Exeter Academy. About six feet tall and, at 140 pounds, slightly built, Kittredge impressed his prep-school students with his exacting standards, sense of humor, and apparent ability to converse fluently in Latin.
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1934_3
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In 1886 Kittredge married Frances Eveline Gordon, the daughter of Nathaniel Gordon and Alcina Eveline Sanborn. Her father was a lawyer and philanthropist who had served as president of the New Hampshire Senate and was a deacon in the Second Church (Congregational) of Exeter. The couple honeymooned in Europe, remaining for a year in Germany, which at that time was a mecca of graduate studies and the mother of distinguished philologists and folklorists. Kittredge had already studied German and, although not formally matriculated, attended courses at the universities of Leipzig and Tübingen, in, among other things Old Icelandic. In 1887 he contributed an article for "a learned German periodical" on "A Point In Beowulf." Their children were Francis Gordon (1887–1973), Henry Crocker (1890–1967), and Dora (1893–1974).
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1934_4
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Teaching at Harvard
Kittredge joined the faculty at Harvard as an instructor in the autumn of 1888. He was soon promoted and in 1896 succeeded Professor Francis James Child as Professor of the Division of Modern Languages (i.e., languages other than Latin or Greek). He and Child had shared the teaching of English 2 (Shakespeare), which Kittredge took over in 1896 on Child's death. Because Child had died without quite finishing his work of ballad scholarship, Child's publishers asked Kittredge to see the project through the press and to supply a short introduction to the five-volume opus. Later, Kittredge helped expand ballad and folklore studies to include American folklore, serving in 1904 as president of the American Folklore Society. Kittredge also took over Child's graduate course in the English and Scottish popular ballad.
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1934_5
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English 2, a Shakespeare class for which Kittredge became well known at the university, was a lecture course of about 275 Harvard students. Other courses and subjects which Kittredge taught or co-taught were English 28, a survey course covering Chaucer, the epic, and the ballad; Historical English Grammar, and Anglo-Saxon, a prerequisite for his course in Beowulf. In the German department, Kittredge taught Icelandic, Old Norse, and, for many years, a course in German mythology. His graduate courses included Germanic and Celtic Religions (which he co-taught with F. N. Robinson, a Celticist); English Metrical Romances (including Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Sir Orfeo); as well as Child's ballad course.
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1934_6
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Kittredge's students included Franklin Delano Roosevelt; John A. Lomax, whose lectures and collection of cowboy ballads Kittredge later supported; and the folklorists Robert Winslow Gordon, James Madison Carpenter, William S. Burroughs and Stith Thompson. Among the most popular of Harvard's teachers throughout his career, Kittredge's students affectionately nicknamed him "Kitty". Kittredge was named Gurney Professor of English at Harvard in 1917. He retired from teaching in 1936 and continued to work on his edition of Shakespeare until his death in 1941, in Barnstable.
Teaching at Radcliffe
Women were not admitted to Harvard University proper until several decades after Kittredge's lifetime, but Kittredge made trips to Radcliffe College to teach a Shakespeare course for women that was similar to Harvard's English 2.
Scholarship
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Kittredge's edition of Shakespeare was the standard well beyond his death and continues to be cited occasionally. He was also arguably the leading critic of Geoffrey Chaucer of his time and is considered largely responsible for introducing Chaucer into the canon of college English. His essay on "Chaucer's Discussion of Marriage" (1912) has traditionally been credited with introducing the idea of the "marriage group" in the Canterbury Tales, though he was not the originator of this phrase. Through his historical researches Kittredge also identified Thomas Malory, author of Le Morte d'Arthur (1485), and hitherto an obscure figure, with a knight and member of Parliament who served with the Earl of Warwick, a discovery that paved the way for further researches into Malory by Edward Hicks, to whose 1928 book on Malory's turbulent career Kittredge supplied the introduction. Kittredge's work on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was influential as well.
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Kittredge also collected folk tales and songs, writing extensively on the folk lore of New England and on the New England witch trials. He also wrote and co-wrote introductory Latin and English grammar text books. While still teaching at Phillips Exeter he undertook the general editorship of popular English masterpieces for the general public published by the Atheneum Press. At Harvard he collaborated with E. S. Sheldon in editing eleven volumes of the Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature, which appeared in 1907, and was a founding member and supervisor of the Harvard University Press. His popular book, written in collaboration with J. B. Greenough, Words and their Ways in English Speech (1901) met with great success and served as a storehouse for teachers. Kittredge was also responsible for the revision of the English used in a translation of the Psalms for the Jewish Publication Society, issued in 1903.
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1934_9
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According to his biographer, "Neither Child nor Kittredge, trained classicists and able linguists, had themselves bothered to undergo the limitations of a Ph. D. degree". There is a widely circulated story that when asked why he did not have one, Kittredge was supposed to have replied, "But who would examine me?" However, according to Clifton Fadiman, "Kittredge always maintained that the question was never asked, and if it had been he would never have dreamed of answering in such a manner." On May 17, 1932, during a lecture tour of England, Oxford University conferred on him a D. Litt. honoris causa.
Burdened with no illusions about his erudition, or the lack of it in others, he famously remarked, "There are three persons who know what the word 'Victorian' means, and the other two are dead."
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1934_10
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Influence on literary studies
Kittredge and Child belonged to the philological school of scholarship pioneered in nineteenth-century German universities. Philology, especially in its early years, had been conceived as a "total science of civilization, an ideal originally formulated for the study of classical antiquity and then transferred by the German Romanticists to the modern languages.
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1934_11
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When the various modern language departments were introduced into American universities in the 1880s, speakers at the first meeting of the Modern Language Association in 1883 had been concerned to counter the popular perception that "English literature is a subject for the desultory reader in his leisure hours rather than an intellectual study for serious workers", a mere "accomplishment", whereas when "a boy studies Greek you know he has worked hard". Philology "met the desire for facts, for accuracy, and for the imitation of the scientific method which had acquired such an overwhelming prestige" in the United States. It had yielded the discoveries of the Grimms and others, tracing the step-by-step relationships of classical and modern European to ancient Indian languages and their evolutionary development. A former Harvard graduate student, James H. Hanford, reminisced how under Kittredge,
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1934_12
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Undergraduate Shakespeare students were required to read six plays extremely slowly and to virtually memorize the texts. "It is the purpose of this course", Kittredge used to remark, "to find out what Shakespeare said and what he meant when he said it." Where Professor Child had often been imposed on in the classroom by students who took advantage of his extremely sweet nature, Kittredge's dramatic classroom manner kept his students on the edge of their seats – lateness, wearing of hats, yawning, and coughing (one student was permanently expelled from the class for this offense) were strictly forbidden. His manner with his graduate students was entirely different. With them he was extremely collegial and invited them to his home for weekly fireside gatherings. There, in dim light, the students read papers which, with his encouragement, would often form the nucleus of subsequent dissertations.
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1934_13
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As chairman of the Division of the Modern Languages Division of Harvard, a position he inherited from Child, Kittredge was in a position to set graduate degree requirements and he insisted that graduate literature candidates master several foreign languages, as he himself had done. Neither he nor Child wished the modern languages to replace the study of Greek and Latin, and Kittredge would oppose Harvard president Charles W. Eliot's efforts to abolish Greek as a requirement for graduation.
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1934_14
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Kittredge's administrative power, vast erudition, prestige, and the histrionic attitude he assumed with undergraduates provoked resentment. A notable critic was his colleague, Irving Babbitt (a professor of French) and Babbitt's former student, Stuart Sherman, who together founded so-called "New Humanist" school of literary appreciation. In a famous article in The Nation of 1913, Sherman accused Kittredge of pedantry and of squeezing the life out of his subject. Deep ideological disagreements lay at the bottom of these attacks. The New Humanists were social and cultural conservatives who conceived of literary studies as leading to moral improvement by providing a guide to conduct and "humane insight" through an appreciation of and reflection on the timeless beauties of prescribed "great works." Babbitt bitterly opposed the introduction of elective courses for undergraduates. Deeply suspicious of democracy, he envisioned the goal of a university education as the formation of a
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1934_15
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superior individual in whom the "will to restraint" would counter what he saw as the degenerate modernism he traced back to pernicious ideas of social progress initiated by Rousseau and his followers. Kittredge and his students, on the other hand, situated the study of languages and literatures in their historical contexts, seeking to capture "the spirit of an age" and often ranging far afield of the traditional Western canon. For Kittredge, reading Chaucer illuminated the world of the Middle Ages, which Kittredge often stated had points in common with our own age and thus helped students understand the world in which we live. Often he guided his students into newly opening fields that he had not had time to investigate, such as Finnish and Celtic studies. According to David Bynum:
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1934_16
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In an age of literary ethnocentricity, Kittredge was as readily and as genuinely interested in Russian ballads or American Indian folktales as in the plays of Shakespeare ... Kittredge's intellectual hospitality toward "foreign" traditions and his equanimity toward "vulgar" ones appear in retrospect as the most important sources of his influence.
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1934_17
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For Babbitt, a self-proclaimed classicist, on the other hand, such disciplines as anthropology, folklore, and the medieval scholarship so dear to Kittredge, represented a dilution of the real goal of literary studies and a waste of time. Kittredge's students and colleagues defended him vigorously, however. One former student, Elizabeth Jackson, writes of Kittredge's sheer enthusiasm: "Kittredge taught Shakespeare as though every single human being could go on reading Shakespeare through time and eternity, going from strength to strength and rejoicing as a strong man to join a race."
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1934_18
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As the decade of the 1920s unfolded, the New Humanists began to seem increasingly irrelevant, and as the Depression of the 1930s hit, the intellectual climate turned decidedly leftward and other forms of criticism emerged, initially from writers outside the academy, some of which, in the coming decades would be incorporated as aspects of the New Criticism. Meanwhile, although there was continued chafing against the supposed antiquarianism of the philological school in some quarters, Kittredge's prestige and influence continued unabated, and the extensive list of language requirements for a Harvard graduate degree in English literature, including Old and Middle English, Old French, and Gothic, stayed in effect until his retirement in 1936, after which these requirements, viewed as onerous, were dropped. With the coming of the Cold War in the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s disagreements between the historical and "literary appreciation" schools in English literature studies were
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1934_19
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subsumed by the ascendancy of the New Criticism which favored, like Kittredge, rigorous study of literary text, but sidestepped potential controversies over ideology by ruling out mention of historical context or social questions. In consequence, the concept of philology itself fell into disrepute and never recovered, even after social engagement once again became respectable and the New Criticism gave way to Structuralism, Gender Studies, postmodernism, and the New Historicism. Thus, the context of Kittredge's prestige and his place in the history of English literature studies became obscured and forgotten, a situation which in recent years some scholars are attempting to rectify. As Jill Terry Rudy writes:
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1934_20
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In the process of overthrowing Kittredge's perceived pedantry in order to enshrine New Critical methods of rigorous research and institutional control over graduate training and doctoral degrees (without offering the concomitant grounding in cultural history and linguistic concerns that Kittredge promoted), New Critical literary scholars assured that the term philology itself would be denigrated and then ignored as their newly trained graduate students conquered the vocabulary and intricacies of critical scholarship (Wellek 1953). As suggested previously, the philosophical methods and ideologies that informed the early history of English department organization deserve continued conversation and critique rather than simply being erased or ignored.
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Major works
Observations on the Language of Chaucer's Troilus, 1894.
Professor Child, 1897.
Chaucer and Some of his Friends, 1903.
Arthur and Gorlagon, 1903.
The Mother Tongue, 1902, with Sarah Louise Arnold.
Notes on Witchcraft, 1907.
Chaucer's Discussion of Marriage, 1912.
An Advanced English Grammar, with Exercises, 1913.
Chaucer and his Poetry, 1915.
A Study of Gawain and the Green Knight, 1916.
The Old Farmer and His Almanack, 1920.
Witchcraft in Old and New England, 1929.
The Complete Works of Shakespeare, 1936.
The Old Teutonic Idea of the Future Life (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1937)
Legacy and Honors
Elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1901.
Notes
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1934_22
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References
Birdsall, Esther K. "Some Notes on the Role of George Lyman Kittredge" in American Folklore Studies: Journal of the Folklore Institute, Vol. 10: No. 1/2, Special Issue: American Folklore Historiography (Jun. - Aug., 1973): 57–66.
Hyder, Clyde Kenneth. George Lyman Kittredge: Teacher and Scholar. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1962.
Jackson, Elizabeth. "The Kittredge Way." College English 4: 8. (May, 1943): 483–487.
Rudy, Jill Terry, "The Humanities, Folklore Studies, and George Lyman Kittredge: Defending Kittredge's Reputation and the Ideology of Philology" in The Folklore Historian, 16 (1999): 1–18
External links
George Lyman Kittredge, "Chaucer's Discussion of Marriage." E-text from Harvard University.
Kittredge, "Chaucer's Pardoner." E-text from Harvard University.
text of Kenneth Clyde Hyder's George Lyman Kittredge: Teacher and Scholar (1962)
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1934_23
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American literary critics
1860 births
1941 deaths
American folklorists
American folk-song collectors
Shakespearean scholars
Chaucer scholars
Phillips Exeter Academy faculty
Harvard University faculty
Harvard University alumni
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Harvard Advocate alumni
Roxbury Latin School alumni
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Presidents of the American Folklore Society
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1935_0
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Caythorpe Court is a Grade II* listed former hunting lodge situated about one mile to the east of Caythorpe, Lincolnshire, England. It was originally built in 1901 for Edgar Lubbock, a brewer and banker, to the designs of Sir Reginald Blomfield. In 1946 it became the Kesteven Agricultural College, which was renamed the Lincolnshire College of Agriculture and Horticulture from September 1980. The college became the De Montfort School of Agriculture, but the site was closed in 2002. After being sold to property developers, who proposed to use it to house asylum seekers, it was acquired by PGL who now operate it as a centre for adventure based holidays for adults and children.
History
Edgar Lubbock
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1935_1
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The site was originally occupied by a farm which was owned by the local church, farmed by the parson. The farm was acquired in the 1890s by Edgar Lubbock, who was a director of the Bank of England and of Whitbread Brewery. In 1899 Lubbock instructed Sir Reginald Blomfield to design a hunting lodge in the grounds of the farm; the lodge was built in 1901–1903. During the construction a stable for fifty horses was built: Lubbock was appointed Master of the Blankney Hunt in 1904. Originally known as "Mansion House", by 1904 it had acquired the name "Caythorpe Court". The original gardens were also designed by Blomfield.
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1935_2
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Elma Yerburgh
Lubbock died in September 1907 and following his death the house was acquired by Mrs. Elma Yerburgh who had assumed control of the Blackburn-based Thwaites Brewery on the death of her father in 1888. Mrs. Yerburgh owned several properties of which Caythorpe Court was the smallest, being referred to by her as "The Cottage". During Mrs. Yerburgh's ownership, the gardens were re-designed by Percy Cane.
During the First World War the property was used as an Auxiliary Military Hospital; in the Second World War it became the headquarters for the 1st Airborne Division Signals. Mrs. Yerburgh died in December 1946; her will requested that the estate should be sold to become an agricultural education establishment. She also requested that the main buildings (the court itself, together with the lodge and Arnhem Court) should be maintained as near as possible in their original condition.
The house stands in grounds of .
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1935_3
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Rumours persist of a network of underground tunnels around the site that connected Caythorpe Court to the local village.
Kesteven Agricultural College
Lincolnshire County Council purchased the estate in 1948 together with additional agricultural land and Kesteven Farm Institute was opened. In the mid-1960s the Institute became the Kesteven Agricultural College. In 1980 this amalgamated with two other agricultural colleges, Holbeach and Riseholme, to become the Lincolnshire College of Agriculture and Horticulture, LCAH, which in 1994 became part of the Leicester-based De Montfort University.
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