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id_2700 | Given the speed at which their workers are growing greyer, employers know surprisingly little about how productive they are. The general assumption is that the old are paid more in spite of, rather than because of, their extra productivity. That might partly explain why, when employers are under pressure to cut costs, they persuade the 55-year-olds to take early retirement. Earlier this year, Sun Life of Canada, an insurance company, announced that it was offering redundancy to all its British employees aged 50 or over to bring in new blood. In Japan, says Mariko Fujiwara, an industrial anthropologist who runs a think-tank for Hakuhodo, Japans second-largest advertising agency, most companies are bringing down the retirement age from the traditional 57 to 50 or thereabouts and in some cases, such as Nissan, to 45. More than perhaps anywhere else, pay in Japan is linked to seniority. Given that the percentage of workers who have spent more than 32 years with the same employer rose from 11% in 1980 to 42% by 1994, it is hardly surprising that seniority-based wage costs have become the most intractable item on corporate profit-and-loss accounts. In Germany, Patrick Pohl, spokesman for Hoechst, expresses a widely held view: The company is trying to lower the average age of the workforce. Perhaps the main reason for replacing older workers is that it makes it easier to defrost the corporate culture. Older workers are less willing to try a new way of thinking. Younger workers are cheaper and more flexible. Some German firms are hampered from getting rid of older workers as quickly as they would like. At SGL Carbon, a graphite producer, the average age of workers has been going up not down. The reason, says the companys Ivo Lingnau, is not that SGL values older workers more. It is collective bargaining: the union agreement puts strict limits on the proportion of workers that may retire early. Clearly, when older people do heavy physical work, their age may affect their productivity. But other skills may increase with age, including many that are crucial for goods management, such as an ability to handle people diplomatically, to run a meeting or to spot a problem before it blows up. Peter Hicks, who co-ordinates OECD work on the policy implications of ageing, says that plenty of research suggests older people are paid more because they are worth more. And the virtues of the young may be exaggerated. The few companies that have kept on older workers find they have good judgment and their productivity is good, , says Mr. Peterson. Besides, their education standards are much better than those of todays young high-school graduates. Companies may say that older workers are not worth training, because they are reaching the end of their working lives: in fact, young people tend to switch jobs so frequently that they offer the worst returns on training. The median age for employer-driven training is the late 40s and early 50s, , says Mr. Hicks. It goes mainly to managers. Take away those seniority-based pay scales, and older workers may become a much more attractive employment proposition. But most companies (and many workers) are uncomfortable with the idea of reducing someones pay in later life although workers on piece-rates often earn less over time. So retaining the services of older workers may mean employing them in new ways. One innovation, described in Mr. Walkers report on combating age barriers, was devised by IBM Belgium. Faced with the need to cut staff costs, and have decided to concentrate cuts on 55-60-year-olds, IBM set up a separate company called Skill Team, which re-employed any of the early retired who wanted to go on working up to the age of 60. An employee who joined Skill Team at the age of 55 on a five-year contract would work for 58% of his time, over the full period, for 88% of his last IBM salary. The company offered services to IBM, thus allowing it to retain access to some of the intellectual capital it would otherwise have lost. The best way to tempt the old to go on working may be to build on such bridge jobs: part-time or temporary employment that creates a more gradual transition from full-time work to retirement. Mr. Quinn, who has studied the phenomenon, finds that, in the United States, nearly half of all men and women who had been in full-time jobs in middle age moved into such bridge jobs at the end of their working lives. In general, it is the best-paid and worst-paid who carry on working: There are, he says, two very different types of bridge job-holders those who continue working because they have to and those who continue working because they want to, even though they could afford to retire. If the hob market grows more flexible, the old may find more jobs that suit them. Often, they will be self-employed. Sometimes, they may start their own businesses: a study by David Storey of Warwick University found that, in Britain, 70% of businesses started by people over 55 survived, compared with an average of only 19%. To coax the old back into the job market, work will not only have to pay. It will need to be more fun than touring the country in an Airstream trailer, or seeing the grandchildren, or playing golf. Only then will there be many more Joe Clarks. | Unlike other places, employees in Japan get paid according to the years they are employed | entailment |
id_2701 | Given the speed at which their workers are growing greyer, employers know surprisingly little about how productive they are. The general assumption is that the old are paid more in spite of, rather than because of, their extra productivity. That might partly explain why, when employers are under pressure to cut costs, they persuade the 55-year-olds to take early retirement. Earlier this year, Sun Life of Canada, an insurance company, announced that it was offering redundancy to all its British employees aged 50 or over to bring in new blood. In Japan, says Mariko Fujiwara, an industrial anthropologist who runs a think-tank for Hakuhodo, Japans second-largest advertising agency, most companies are bringing down the retirement age from the traditional 57 to 50 or thereabouts and in some cases, such as Nissan, to 45. More than perhaps anywhere else, pay in Japan is linked to seniority. Given that the percentage of workers who have spent more than 32 years with the same employer rose from 11% in 1980 to 42% by 1994, it is hardly surprising that seniority-based wage costs have become the most intractable item on corporate profit-and-loss accounts. In Germany, Patrick Pohl, spokesman for Hoechst, expresses a widely held view: The company is trying to lower the average age of the workforce. Perhaps the main reason for replacing older workers is that it makes it easier to defrost the corporate culture. Older workers are less willing to try a new way of thinking. Younger workers are cheaper and more flexible. Some German firms are hampered from getting rid of older workers as quickly as they would like. At SGL Carbon, a graphite producer, the average age of workers has been going up not down. The reason, says the companys Ivo Lingnau, is not that SGL values older workers more. It is collective bargaining: the union agreement puts strict limits on the proportion of workers that may retire early. Clearly, when older people do heavy physical work, their age may affect their productivity. But other skills may increase with age, including many that are crucial for goods management, such as an ability to handle people diplomatically, to run a meeting or to spot a problem before it blows up. Peter Hicks, who co-ordinates OECD work on the policy implications of ageing, says that plenty of research suggests older people are paid more because they are worth more. And the virtues of the young may be exaggerated. The few companies that have kept on older workers find they have good judgment and their productivity is good, , says Mr. Peterson. Besides, their education standards are much better than those of todays young high-school graduates. Companies may say that older workers are not worth training, because they are reaching the end of their working lives: in fact, young people tend to switch jobs so frequently that they offer the worst returns on training. The median age for employer-driven training is the late 40s and early 50s, , says Mr. Hicks. It goes mainly to managers. Take away those seniority-based pay scales, and older workers may become a much more attractive employment proposition. But most companies (and many workers) are uncomfortable with the idea of reducing someones pay in later life although workers on piece-rates often earn less over time. So retaining the services of older workers may mean employing them in new ways. One innovation, described in Mr. Walkers report on combating age barriers, was devised by IBM Belgium. Faced with the need to cut staff costs, and have decided to concentrate cuts on 55-60-year-olds, IBM set up a separate company called Skill Team, which re-employed any of the early retired who wanted to go on working up to the age of 60. An employee who joined Skill Team at the age of 55 on a five-year contract would work for 58% of his time, over the full period, for 88% of his last IBM salary. The company offered services to IBM, thus allowing it to retain access to some of the intellectual capital it would otherwise have lost. The best way to tempt the old to go on working may be to build on such bridge jobs: part-time or temporary employment that creates a more gradual transition from full-time work to retirement. Mr. Quinn, who has studied the phenomenon, finds that, in the United States, nearly half of all men and women who had been in full-time jobs in middle age moved into such bridge jobs at the end of their working lives. In general, it is the best-paid and worst-paid who carry on working: There are, he says, two very different types of bridge job-holders those who continue working because they have to and those who continue working because they want to, even though they could afford to retire. If the hob market grows more flexible, the old may find more jobs that suit them. Often, they will be self-employed. Sometimes, they may start their own businesses: a study by David Storey of Warwick University found that, in Britain, 70% of businesses started by people over 55 survived, compared with an average of only 19%. To coax the old back into the job market, work will not only have to pay. It will need to be more fun than touring the country in an Airstream trailer, or seeing the grandchildren, or playing golf. Only then will there be many more Joe Clarks. | Insurance company Sun Life of Canada made a decision that it would hire more Canadian employees rather than British ones in order to get a fresh staff. | neutral |
id_2702 | Glacie Besides the earth's oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth's glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earth's glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted firn and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Vosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowlshaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their' down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth's land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth's surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers exist only near the north and south poles. | contradiction |
id_2703 | Glacie Besides the earth's oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth's glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earth's glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted firn and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Vosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowlshaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their' down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth's land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth's surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers normally move at a rate of about 5 to 10 inches a day. | entailment |
id_2704 | Glacie Besides the earth's oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth's glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earth's glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted firn and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Vosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowlshaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their' down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth's land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth's surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers are formed by a combination of snow and other weather conditions. | entailment |
id_2705 | Glacie Besides the earth's oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth's glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earth's glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted firn and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Vosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowlshaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their' down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth's land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth's surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | All parts of the glacier move at the same speed. | contradiction |
id_2706 | Glacie Besides the earth's oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earth's glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earth's glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted firn and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Vosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowlshaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their' down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earth's land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earth's surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | During the last Ice Age, average temperatures were much lower than they are now. | neutral |
id_2707 | Glaciers Besides the earths oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earths glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earths glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earths land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earths surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers are formed by a combination of snow and other weather conditions. | entailment |
id_2708 | Glaciers Besides the earths oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earths glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earths glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earths land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earths surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | During the last Ice Age, average temperatures were much lower than they were during previous Ice Ages. | neutral |
id_2709 | Glaciers Besides the earths oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earths glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earths glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earths land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earths surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers exist only near the north and south poles. | contradiction |
id_2710 | Glaciers Besides the earths oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earths glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earths glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earths land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earths surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | All parts of the glacier move at the same speed. | contradiction |
id_2711 | Glaciers Besides the earths oceans, glacier ice is the largest source of water on earth. A glacier is a massive stream or sheet of ice that moves underneath itself under the influence of gravity. Some glaciers travel down mountains or valleys, while others spread across a large expanse of land. Heavily glaciated regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are called continental glaciers. These two ice sheets encompass more than 95 percent of the earths glacial ice. The Greenland ice sheet is almost 10,000 feet thick in some areas, and the weight of this glacier is so heavy that much of the region has been depressed below sea level. Smaller glaciers that occur at higher elevations are called alpine or valley glaciers. Another way of classifying glaciers is in terms of their internal temperature. In temperate glaciers, the ice within the glacier is near its melting point. Polar glaciers, in contrast, always maintain temperatures far below melting. The majority of the earths glaciers are located near the poles, though glaciers exist on all continents, including Africa and Oceania. The reason glaciers are generally formed in high alpine regions is that they require cold temperatures throughout the year. In these areas where there is little opportunity for summer ablation (loss of mass), snow changes to compacted fin and then crystallized ice. During periods in which melting and evaporation exceed the amount of snowfall, glaciers will retreat rather than progress. While glaciers rely heavily on snowfall, other climactic conditions including freezing rain, avalanches, and wind, contribute to their growth. One year of below average precipitation can stunt the growth of a glacier tremendously. With the rare exception of surging glaciers, a common glacier flows about 10 inches per day in the summer and 5 inches per day in the winter. The fastest glacial surge on record occurred in 1953, when the Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan grew more than 12 kilometers in three months. The weight and pressure of ice accumulation causes glacier movement. Glaciers move out from under themselves, via plastic deformation and basal slippage. First, the internal flow of ice crystals begins to spread outward and downward from the thickened snow pack also known as the zone of accumulation. Next, the ice along the ground surface begins to slip in the same direction. Seasonal thawing at the base of the glacier helps to facilitate this slippage. The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides and bottom because there is no rock to cause friction. The upper part of a glacier rides on the ice below. As a glacier moves it carves out a U-shaped valley similar to a riverbed, but with much steeper walls and a flatter bottom. Besides the extraordinary rivers of ice, glacial erosion creates other unique physical features in the landscape such as horns, fjords, hanging valleys, and cirques. Most of these landforms do not become visible until after a glacier has receded. Many are created by moraines, which occur at the sides and front of a glacier. Moraines are formed when material is picked up along the way and deposited in a new location. When many alpine glaciers occur on the same mountain, these moraines can create a horn. The Matterhorn, in the Swiss Alps, is one of the most famous horns. Fjords, which are very common in Norway, are coastal valleys that fill with ocean water during a glacial retreat. Hanging valleys occur when two or more glacial valleys intersect at varying elevations. It is common for waterfalls to connect the higher and lower hanging valleys, such as in Yosemite National Park. A cirque is a large bowl-shaped valley that forms at the front of a glacier. Cirques often have a lip on their down slope that is deep enough to hold small lakes when the ice melts away. Glacier movement and shape shifting typically occur over hundreds of years. While presently about 10 percent of the earths land is covered with glaciers, it is believed that during the last Ice Age glaciers covered approximately 32 percent of the earths surface. In the past century, most glaciers have been retreating rather than flowing forward. It is unknown whether this glacial activity is due to human impact or natural causes, but by studying glacier movement, and comparing climate and agricultural profiles over hundreds of years, glaciologists can begin to understand environmental issues such as global warming. | Glaciers normally move at a rate of about 5 to 10 inches a day. | entailment |
id_2712 | Glaciers begin to form where snow remains year-round and enough of it accumulates to transform into ice. New layers of snow compress the previous layers and this compression forces the icy snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to cane sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, meaning that the snow slowly becomes more dense. After about two winters, the snow turns into firn, an intermediate state between snow and ice. Over time the larger ice crystals become more compressed and even denser, this is known as glacial ice. Glacial ice, because of its density and ice crystals, often takes a bluish or even green hue. | Firn is less dense than snow but more dense than ice. | neutral |
id_2713 | Glaciers begin to form where snow remains year-round and enough of it accumulates to transform into ice. New layers of snow compress the previous layers and this compression forces the icy snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to cane sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, meaning that the snow slowly becomes more dense. After about two winters, the snow turns into firn, an intermediate state between snow and ice. Over time the larger ice crystals become more compressed and even denser, this is known as glacial ice. Glacial ice, because of its density and ice crystals, often takes a bluish or even green hue. | Glacial ice is always greenish or bluish in color. | contradiction |
id_2714 | Glaciers begin to form where snow remains year-round and enough of it accumulates to transform into ice. New layers of snow compress the previous layers and this compression forces the icy snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to cane sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, meaning that the snow slowly becomes more dense. After about two winters, the snow turns into firn, an intermediate state between snow and ice. Over time the larger ice crystals become more compressed and even denser, this is known as glacial ice. Glacial ice, because of its density and ice crystals, often takes a bluish or even green hue. | The increase in density is caused by the grains becoming smaller. | contradiction |
id_2715 | Glaciers begin to form where snow remains year-round and enough of it accumulates to transform into ice. New layers of snow compress the previous layers and this compression forces the icy snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to cane sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, meaning that the snow slowly becomes more dense. After about two winters, the snow turns into firn, an intermediate state between snow and ice. Over time the larger ice crystals become more compressed and even denser, this is known as glacial ice. Glacial ice, because of its density and ice crystals, often takes a bluish or even green hue. | Glaciers cannot form where snow does not remain all year round. | entailment |
id_2716 | Glaciers begin to form where snow remains year-round and enough of it accumulates to transform into ice. New layers of snow compress the previous layers and this compression forces the icy snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to cane sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, meaning that the snow slowly becomes more dense. After about two winters, the snow turns into firn, an intermediate state between snow and ice. Over time the larger ice crystals become more compressed and even denser, this is known as glacial ice. Glacial ice, because of its density and ice crystals, often takes a bluish or even green hue. | Snow falls every year in areas where glaciers form. | contradiction |
id_2717 | Global Warming In New Zealand For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting warmer. As the nearest country of the South Polar Region, New Zealand has maintained an upward trend in its average temperature in the past few years. However, the temperature in New Zealand will go up 4C in the next century while the polar region will go up more than 6C . The different pictures of temperature stem from its surrounding ocean which acts as the air conditioner. Thus New Zealand is comparatively fortunate. Scientifically speaking, this temperature phenomenon in New Zealand originated from what researchers call SAM (Southern Annular Mode), which refers to the wind belt that circles the Southern Oceans including New Zealand and Antarctica. Yet recent work has revealed that changes in SAM in New Zealand have resulted in a weakening of moisture during the summer, and more rainfall in other seasons. A bigger problem may turn out to be heavier droughts for agricultural activities because of more water loss from soil, resulting in the poorer harvest before winter when the rainfall arrives too late to rescue. Among all the calamities posed by drought, moisture deficit ranks the first. Moisture deficit is the gap between the water plants need during the growing season and the water the earth can offer. Measures of moisture deficit were at their highest since the 1970s in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the ecological analysis clearly shows moisture deficit is imposed at the different growth stages of crops. If moisture deficit occurs around a crucial growth stage, it will cause about a 22% reduction in grain yield as opposed to moisture deficit at the vegetative phase. Global warming is not only affecting agriculture production. When scientists say the countrys snowpack and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to global warming, the climate is putting another strain on the local places. For example, when the development of global warming is accompanied by the falling snow line, the local skiing industry comes into a crisis. The snow line may move up as the temperature goes up, and then the snow at the bottom will melt earlier. Fortunately, it is going to be favourable for the local skiing industry to tide over tough periods since the quantities of snowfall in some areas are more likely to increase. What is the reaction of the glacier region? Climate change can be reflected in the glacier region in southern New Zealand or land covered by ice and snow. The reaction of a glacier to a climatic change involves a complex chain of processes, Overtime periods of years to several decades, cumulative changes in mass balance cause volume and thickness changes, which will affect the flow of ice via altered internal deformation and basal sliding. This dynamic reaction finally leads to glacier length changes, the advance or retreat of glacier tongues. Undoubtedly, glacier mass balance is a more direct signal of annual atmospheric conditions. The latest research result of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research shows that the glaciers line keeps moving up because of the impacts of global warming. Further losses of ice can be reflected in the Mt. Cook Region. By 1996, a 14 km long sector of the glacier had melted down forming a melt lake (Hooker Lake) with a volume. Melting of the glacier front at a rate of 40 m/yr will cause the glacier to retreat at a rather uniform rate. Therefore, the lake will continue to grow until it reaches the glacier bed. A direct result of the melting glaciers is the change of high tides that serves the main factor for sea-level rise. The trend of sea-level rise will bring a threat to the groundwater system for its hypersaline groundwater and then pose a possibility to decrease agricultural production. Many experts believe that the best way to counter this trend is to give a longer-term view of sea-level change in New Zealand. Indeed, the coastal boundaries need to be upgraded and redefined. There is no doubt that global warming has affected New Zealand in many aspects. The emphasis on global warming should be based on the joints efforts of local people and experts who conquer the tough period. For instance, farmers are taking a long term, multi-generational approach to adjust the breeds and species according to the temperature. Agriculturists also find ways to tackle the problems that may bring to the soil. In broad terms, going forward, the systemic resilience thats been going on a long time in the ecosystem will continue. How about animals reactions? Experts have surprisingly realized that animals have an unconventional adaptation to global warming. A study has looked at sea turtles on a few northern beaches in New Zealand and it is very interesting to find that sea turtles can become male or female according to the temperature. Further researches will try to find out how rising temperatures would affect the ratio of sex reversal in their growth. Clearly, the temperature of the nest plays a vital role in the sexes of the baby turtles. Tackling the problems of global warming is never easy in New Zealand because records show the slow process of global warming may have a different impact on various regions. For New Zealand, the emission of carbon dioxide only accounts for 0.5% of the worlds total, which has met the governmental standard. However, New Zealands effort counts only on the tip of the iceberg. So far, global warming has been a world issue that still hangs in an ambiguous future. | New Zealand must cut carbon dioxide emissions if they want to solve the problem of global warming. | contradiction |
id_2718 | Global Warming In New Zealand For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting warmer. As the nearest country of the South Polar Region, New Zealand has maintained an upward trend in its average temperature in the past few years. However, the temperature in New Zealand will go up 4C in the next century while the polar region will go up more than 6C . The different pictures of temperature stem from its surrounding ocean which acts as the air conditioner. Thus New Zealand is comparatively fortunate. Scientifically speaking, this temperature phenomenon in New Zealand originated from what researchers call SAM (Southern Annular Mode), which refers to the wind belt that circles the Southern Oceans including New Zealand and Antarctica. Yet recent work has revealed that changes in SAM in New Zealand have resulted in a weakening of moisture during the summer, and more rainfall in other seasons. A bigger problem may turn out to be heavier droughts for agricultural activities because of more water loss from soil, resulting in the poorer harvest before winter when the rainfall arrives too late to rescue. Among all the calamities posed by drought, moisture deficit ranks the first. Moisture deficit is the gap between the water plants need during the growing season and the water the earth can offer. Measures of moisture deficit were at their highest since the 1970s in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the ecological analysis clearly shows moisture deficit is imposed at the different growth stages of crops. If moisture deficit occurs around a crucial growth stage, it will cause about a 22% reduction in grain yield as opposed to moisture deficit at the vegetative phase. Global warming is not only affecting agriculture production. When scientists say the countrys snowpack and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to global warming, the climate is putting another strain on the local places. For example, when the development of global warming is accompanied by the falling snow line, the local skiing industry comes into a crisis. The snow line may move up as the temperature goes up, and then the snow at the bottom will melt earlier. Fortunately, it is going to be favourable for the local skiing industry to tide over tough periods since the quantities of snowfall in some areas are more likely to increase. What is the reaction of the glacier region? Climate change can be reflected in the glacier region in southern New Zealand or land covered by ice and snow. The reaction of a glacier to a climatic change involves a complex chain of processes, Overtime periods of years to several decades, cumulative changes in mass balance cause volume and thickness changes, which will affect the flow of ice via altered internal deformation and basal sliding. This dynamic reaction finally leads to glacier length changes, the advance or retreat of glacier tongues. Undoubtedly, glacier mass balance is a more direct signal of annual atmospheric conditions. The latest research result of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research shows that the glaciers line keeps moving up because of the impacts of global warming. Further losses of ice can be reflected in the Mt. Cook Region. By 1996, a 14 km long sector of the glacier had melted down forming a melt lake (Hooker Lake) with a volume. Melting of the glacier front at a rate of 40 m/yr will cause the glacier to retreat at a rather uniform rate. Therefore, the lake will continue to grow until it reaches the glacier bed. A direct result of the melting glaciers is the change of high tides that serves the main factor for sea-level rise. The trend of sea-level rise will bring a threat to the groundwater system for its hypersaline groundwater and then pose a possibility to decrease agricultural production. Many experts believe that the best way to counter this trend is to give a longer-term view of sea-level change in New Zealand. Indeed, the coastal boundaries need to be upgraded and redefined. There is no doubt that global warming has affected New Zealand in many aspects. The emphasis on global warming should be based on the joints efforts of local people and experts who conquer the tough period. For instance, farmers are taking a long term, multi-generational approach to adjust the breeds and species according to the temperature. Agriculturists also find ways to tackle the problems that may bring to the soil. In broad terms, going forward, the systemic resilience thats been going on a long time in the ecosystem will continue. How about animals reactions? Experts have surprisingly realized that animals have an unconventional adaptation to global warming. A study has looked at sea turtles on a few northern beaches in New Zealand and it is very interesting to find that sea turtles can become male or female according to the temperature. Further researches will try to find out how rising temperatures would affect the ratio of sex reversal in their growth. Clearly, the temperature of the nest plays a vital role in the sexes of the baby turtles. Tackling the problems of global warming is never easy in New Zealand because records show the slow process of global warming may have a different impact on various regions. For New Zealand, the emission of carbon dioxide only accounts for 0.5% of the worlds total, which has met the governmental standard. However, New Zealands effort counts only on the tip of the iceberg. So far, global warming has been a world issue that still hangs in an ambiguous future. | Farmers are less responsive to climate change than agriculturists. | neutral |
id_2719 | Global Warming In New Zealand For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting warmer. As the nearest country of the South Polar Region, New Zealand has maintained an upward trend in its average temperature in the past few years. However, the temperature in New Zealand will go up 4C in the next century while the polar region will go up more than 6C . The different pictures of temperature stem from its surrounding ocean which acts as the air conditioner. Thus New Zealand is comparatively fortunate. Scientifically speaking, this temperature phenomenon in New Zealand originated from what researchers call SAM (Southern Annular Mode), which refers to the wind belt that circles the Southern Oceans including New Zealand and Antarctica. Yet recent work has revealed that changes in SAM in New Zealand have resulted in a weakening of moisture during the summer, and more rainfall in other seasons. A bigger problem may turn out to be heavier droughts for agricultural activities because of more water loss from soil, resulting in the poorer harvest before winter when the rainfall arrives too late to rescue. Among all the calamities posed by drought, moisture deficit ranks the first. Moisture deficit is the gap between the water plants need during the growing season and the water the earth can offer. Measures of moisture deficit were at their highest since the 1970s in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the ecological analysis clearly shows moisture deficit is imposed at the different growth stages of crops. If moisture deficit occurs around a crucial growth stage, it will cause about a 22% reduction in grain yield as opposed to moisture deficit at the vegetative phase. Global warming is not only affecting agriculture production. When scientists say the countrys snowpack and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to global warming, the climate is putting another strain on the local places. For example, when the development of global warming is accompanied by the falling snow line, the local skiing industry comes into a crisis. The snow line may move up as the temperature goes up, and then the snow at the bottom will melt earlier. Fortunately, it is going to be favourable for the local skiing industry to tide over tough periods since the quantities of snowfall in some areas are more likely to increase. What is the reaction of the glacier region? Climate change can be reflected in the glacier region in southern New Zealand or land covered by ice and snow. The reaction of a glacier to a climatic change involves a complex chain of processes, Overtime periods of years to several decades, cumulative changes in mass balance cause volume and thickness changes, which will affect the flow of ice via altered internal deformation and basal sliding. This dynamic reaction finally leads to glacier length changes, the advance or retreat of glacier tongues. Undoubtedly, glacier mass balance is a more direct signal of annual atmospheric conditions. The latest research result of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research shows that the glaciers line keeps moving up because of the impacts of global warming. Further losses of ice can be reflected in the Mt. Cook Region. By 1996, a 14 km long sector of the glacier had melted down forming a melt lake (Hooker Lake) with a volume. Melting of the glacier front at a rate of 40 m/yr will cause the glacier to retreat at a rather uniform rate. Therefore, the lake will continue to grow until it reaches the glacier bed. A direct result of the melting glaciers is the change of high tides that serves the main factor for sea-level rise. The trend of sea-level rise will bring a threat to the groundwater system for its hypersaline groundwater and then pose a possibility to decrease agricultural production. Many experts believe that the best way to counter this trend is to give a longer-term view of sea-level change in New Zealand. Indeed, the coastal boundaries need to be upgraded and redefined. There is no doubt that global warming has affected New Zealand in many aspects. The emphasis on global warming should be based on the joints efforts of local people and experts who conquer the tough period. For instance, farmers are taking a long term, multi-generational approach to adjust the breeds and species according to the temperature. Agriculturists also find ways to tackle the problems that may bring to the soil. In broad terms, going forward, the systemic resilience thats been going on a long time in the ecosystem will continue. How about animals reactions? Experts have surprisingly realized that animals have an unconventional adaptation to global warming. A study has looked at sea turtles on a few northern beaches in New Zealand and it is very interesting to find that sea turtles can become male or female according to the temperature. Further researches will try to find out how rising temperatures would affect the ratio of sex reversal in their growth. Clearly, the temperature of the nest plays a vital role in the sexes of the baby turtles. Tackling the problems of global warming is never easy in New Zealand because records show the slow process of global warming may have a different impact on various regions. For New Zealand, the emission of carbon dioxide only accounts for 0.5% of the worlds total, which has met the governmental standard. However, New Zealands effort counts only on the tip of the iceberg. So far, global warming has been a world issue that still hangs in an ambiguous future. | Global warming is going slowly, and it may have different effects on different areas in New Zealand | entailment |
id_2720 | Global Warming In New Zealand For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting warmer. As the nearest country of the South Polar Region, New Zealand has maintained an upward trend in its average temperature in the past few years. However, the temperature in New Zealand will go up 4C in the next century while the polar region will go up more than 6C . The different pictures of temperature stem from its surrounding ocean which acts as the air conditioner. Thus New Zealand is comparatively fortunate. Scientifically speaking, this temperature phenomenon in New Zealand originated from what researchers call SAM (Southern Annular Mode), which refers to the wind belt that circles the Southern Oceans including New Zealand and Antarctica. Yet recent work has revealed that changes in SAM in New Zealand have resulted in a weakening of moisture during the summer, and more rainfall in other seasons. A bigger problem may turn out to be heavier droughts for agricultural activities because of more water loss from soil, resulting in the poorer harvest before winter when the rainfall arrives too late to rescue. Among all the calamities posed by drought, moisture deficit ranks the first. Moisture deficit is the gap between the water plants need during the growing season and the water the earth can offer. Measures of moisture deficit were at their highest since the 1970s in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the ecological analysis clearly shows moisture deficit is imposed at the different growth stages of crops. If moisture deficit occurs around a crucial growth stage, it will cause about a 22% reduction in grain yield as opposed to moisture deficit at the vegetative phase. Global warming is not only affecting agriculture production. When scientists say the countrys snowpack and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to global warming, the climate is putting another strain on the local places. For example, when the development of global warming is accompanied by the falling snow line, the local skiing industry comes into a crisis. The snow line may move up as the temperature goes up, and then the snow at the bottom will melt earlier. Fortunately, it is going to be favourable for the local skiing industry to tide over tough periods since the quantities of snowfall in some areas are more likely to increase. What is the reaction of the glacier region? Climate change can be reflected in the glacier region in southern New Zealand or land covered by ice and snow. The reaction of a glacier to a climatic change involves a complex chain of processes, Overtime periods of years to several decades, cumulative changes in mass balance cause volume and thickness changes, which will affect the flow of ice via altered internal deformation and basal sliding. This dynamic reaction finally leads to glacier length changes, the advance or retreat of glacier tongues. Undoubtedly, glacier mass balance is a more direct signal of annual atmospheric conditions. The latest research result of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research shows that the glaciers line keeps moving up because of the impacts of global warming. Further losses of ice can be reflected in the Mt. Cook Region. By 1996, a 14 km long sector of the glacier had melted down forming a melt lake (Hooker Lake) with a volume. Melting of the glacier front at a rate of 40 m/yr will cause the glacier to retreat at a rather uniform rate. Therefore, the lake will continue to grow until it reaches the glacier bed. A direct result of the melting glaciers is the change of high tides that serves the main factor for sea-level rise. The trend of sea-level rise will bring a threat to the groundwater system for its hypersaline groundwater and then pose a possibility to decrease agricultural production. Many experts believe that the best way to counter this trend is to give a longer-term view of sea-level change in New Zealand. Indeed, the coastal boundaries need to be upgraded and redefined. There is no doubt that global warming has affected New Zealand in many aspects. The emphasis on global warming should be based on the joints efforts of local people and experts who conquer the tough period. For instance, farmers are taking a long term, multi-generational approach to adjust the breeds and species according to the temperature. Agriculturists also find ways to tackle the problems that may bring to the soil. In broad terms, going forward, the systemic resilience thats been going on a long time in the ecosystem will continue. How about animals reactions? Experts have surprisingly realized that animals have an unconventional adaptation to global warming. A study has looked at sea turtles on a few northern beaches in New Zealand and it is very interesting to find that sea turtles can become male or female according to the temperature. Further researches will try to find out how rising temperatures would affect the ratio of sex reversal in their growth. Clearly, the temperature of the nest plays a vital role in the sexes of the baby turtles. Tackling the problems of global warming is never easy in New Zealand because records show the slow process of global warming may have a different impact on various regions. For New Zealand, the emission of carbon dioxide only accounts for 0.5% of the worlds total, which has met the governmental standard. However, New Zealands effort counts only on the tip of the iceberg. So far, global warming has been a world issue that still hangs in an ambiguous future. | The agricultural sector is too conservative and deals with climate change. | neutral |
id_2721 | Global Warming In New Zealand For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting warmer. As the nearest country of the South Polar Region, New Zealand has maintained an upward trend in its average temperature in the past few years. However, the temperature in New Zealand will go up 4C in the next century while the polar region will go up more than 6C . The different pictures of temperature stem from its surrounding ocean which acts as the air conditioner. Thus New Zealand is comparatively fortunate. Scientifically speaking, this temperature phenomenon in New Zealand originated from what researchers call SAM (Southern Annular Mode), which refers to the wind belt that circles the Southern Oceans including New Zealand and Antarctica. Yet recent work has revealed that changes in SAM in New Zealand have resulted in a weakening of moisture during the summer, and more rainfall in other seasons. A bigger problem may turn out to be heavier droughts for agricultural activities because of more water loss from soil, resulting in the poorer harvest before winter when the rainfall arrives too late to rescue. Among all the calamities posed by drought, moisture deficit ranks the first. Moisture deficit is the gap between the water plants need during the growing season and the water the earth can offer. Measures of moisture deficit were at their highest since the 1970s in New Zealand. Meanwhile, the ecological analysis clearly shows moisture deficit is imposed at the different growth stages of crops. If moisture deficit occurs around a crucial growth stage, it will cause about a 22% reduction in grain yield as opposed to moisture deficit at the vegetative phase. Global warming is not only affecting agriculture production. When scientists say the countrys snowpack and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate due to global warming, the climate is putting another strain on the local places. For example, when the development of global warming is accompanied by the falling snow line, the local skiing industry comes into a crisis. The snow line may move up as the temperature goes up, and then the snow at the bottom will melt earlier. Fortunately, it is going to be favourable for the local skiing industry to tide over tough periods since the quantities of snowfall in some areas are more likely to increase. What is the reaction of the glacier region? Climate change can be reflected in the glacier region in southern New Zealand or land covered by ice and snow. The reaction of a glacier to a climatic change involves a complex chain of processes, Overtime periods of years to several decades, cumulative changes in mass balance cause volume and thickness changes, which will affect the flow of ice via altered internal deformation and basal sliding. This dynamic reaction finally leads to glacier length changes, the advance or retreat of glacier tongues. Undoubtedly, glacier mass balance is a more direct signal of annual atmospheric conditions. The latest research result of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research shows that the glaciers line keeps moving up because of the impacts of global warming. Further losses of ice can be reflected in the Mt. Cook Region. By 1996, a 14 km long sector of the glacier had melted down forming a melt lake (Hooker Lake) with a volume. Melting of the glacier front at a rate of 40 m/yr will cause the glacier to retreat at a rather uniform rate. Therefore, the lake will continue to grow until it reaches the glacier bed. A direct result of the melting glaciers is the change of high tides that serves the main factor for sea-level rise. The trend of sea-level rise will bring a threat to the groundwater system for its hypersaline groundwater and then pose a possibility to decrease agricultural production. Many experts believe that the best way to counter this trend is to give a longer-term view of sea-level change in New Zealand. Indeed, the coastal boundaries need to be upgraded and redefined. There is no doubt that global warming has affected New Zealand in many aspects. The emphasis on global warming should be based on the joints efforts of local people and experts who conquer the tough period. For instance, farmers are taking a long term, multi-generational approach to adjust the breeds and species according to the temperature. Agriculturists also find ways to tackle the problems that may bring to the soil. In broad terms, going forward, the systemic resilience thats been going on a long time in the ecosystem will continue. How about animals reactions? Experts have surprisingly realized that animals have an unconventional adaptation to global warming. A study has looked at sea turtles on a few northern beaches in New Zealand and it is very interesting to find that sea turtles can become male or female according to the temperature. Further researches will try to find out how rising temperatures would affect the ratio of sex reversal in their growth. Clearly, the temperature of the nest plays a vital role in the sexes of the baby turtles. Tackling the problems of global warming is never easy in New Zealand because records show the slow process of global warming may have a different impact on various regions. For New Zealand, the emission of carbon dioxide only accounts for 0.5% of the worlds total, which has met the governmental standard. However, New Zealands effort counts only on the tip of the iceberg. So far, global warming has been a world issue that still hangs in an ambiguous future. | Turtle is vulnerable to climate change. | contradiction |
id_2722 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-size firms, with huge companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels neglected by government. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-size firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength - being nimbler and more customer-focused than their large rivals. | Traditionally mid-sized firms are faster than large companies at adapting to market changes. | entailment |
id_2723 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-size firms, with huge companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels neglected by government. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-size firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength - being nimbler and more customer-focused than their large rivals. | Large companies have a greater effect on prices than mid-sized companies. | entailment |
id_2724 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-size firms, with huge companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels neglected by government. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-size firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength - being nimbler and more customer-focused than their large rivals. | The size of grant awarded to a company is not dependant on the companys size. | neutral |
id_2725 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-sized firms, with large companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels the pressure on all sides. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-sized firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength: being more nimble and more customer-focused than their larger rivals. | Large companies have a greater effect on prices than mid-sized companies. | entailment |
id_2726 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-sized firms, with large companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels the pressure on all sides. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-sized firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength: being more nimble and more customer-focused than their larger rivals. | The size of grant awarded to a company is indirectly proportional to the size of the company. | neutral |
id_2727 | Globalisation is putting fresh pressure on mid-sized firms, with large companies moving into their markets and dictating prices. This kind of company feels the pressure on all sides. They are too large to qualify for the grants and assistance that small enterprises can count on, but are too small to wield the kind of influence their larger competitors can bring to bear. But despite the squeeze, most mid-sized firms still believe that they can deliver steady growth, by playing to their traditional strength: being more nimble and more customer-focused than their larger rivals. | Traditionally mid-sized firms are faster than large companies at adapting to market changes. | entailment |
id_2728 | Going Bananas The worlds favourite fruit could disappear forever in 10 years time. The banana is among the worlds oldest crops. Agricultural scientists believe that the first edible banana was discovered around ten thousand years ago. It has been at an evolutionary standstill ever since it was first propagated in the jungles of South-East Asia at the end of the last ice age. Normally the wild banana, a giant jungle herb called Musa acuminata, contains a mass of hard seeds that make the fruit virtually inedible. But now and then, hunter-gatherers must have discovered rare mutant plants that produced seed-less, edible fruits. Geneticists now know that the vast majority of these soft-fruited plants resulted from genetic accidents that gave their cells three copies of each chromosome instead of the usual two. This imbalance prevents seeds and pollen from developing normally, rendering the mutant plants sterile. And that is why some scientists believe the worlds most popular fruit could be doomed. It lacks the genetic diversity to fight off pests and diseases that are invading the banana plantations of Central America and the small-holdings of Africa and Asia alike. In some ways, the banana today resembles the potato before blight brought famine to Ireland a century and a half ago. But it holds a lesson for other crops, too, says Emile Frison, who works at the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain in Montpellier, France. The state of the banana, Frison warns, can teach a broader lesson. The increasing standardization of food crops around the world is threatening their ability to adapt and survive. The first Stone Age plant breeders cultivated these sterile freaks by replanting cuttings from their stems. And the descendants of those original cuttings are the bananas we still eat today. Each is a virtual clone, almost devoid of genetic diversity. And that uniformity makes it ripe for a disease like no other crop on Earth. Traditional varieties of sexually reproducing crops have always had a much broader genetic base, and the genes will recombine in new arrangements in each generation. This gives them much greater flexibility in evolving responses to disease and far more genetic resources to draw on in the face of an attack. But that advantage is fading fast, as growers increasingly plant the same few, high-yielding varieties. Plant breeders work feverishly to maintain resistance in these standardized crops. Should these efforts falter, yields of even the most productive crop could swiftly crash. When some pest or disease comes along, severe epidemics can occur, says Geoff Hawtin, director of the Rome-based International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. The banana is an excellent case in point. Until the 1950s, one variety, the Gros Michel dominated the worlds commercial banana business. Found by French botanists in Asian the 1820s, the Gros Michel was by all accounts a fine banana, richer and sweeter than todays standard banana and without the latter/s bitter aftertaste when green. But it was vulnerable to a soil fungus that produced wilt known as Panama disease. Once the fungus gets into the soil it remains there for many years. There is nothing farmers can do. Even chemical spraying wont get rid of it says Rodomiro Ortiz, director of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. So plantation owners played a running game, abandoning infested fields and moving to clean land until they ran out of clean land in the 1950s and had to abandon the Gros Michel. Its successor, and still the reigning commercial king, is the Cavendish banana, a 19th-century British discovery from southern China. The Cavendish is resistant to Panama disease and, as a result, it literally saved the international banana industry. During the 1960s, it replaced the Gros Michel on supermarket shelves. If you buy a banana today, it is almost certainly a Cavendish. But even so, it is a minority in the worlds banana crop. Half a billion people in Asia and Africa depend on bananas. Bananas provide the largest source of calories and are eaten daily. Its name is synonymous with food. But the day of reckoning may be coming for the Cavendish and its indigenous kin. Another fungal disease, black Sigatoka, has become a global epidemic since its first appearance in Fiji in 1963. Left to itself, black Sigatoka which causes brown wounds on leaves and premature fruit ripening cuts fruit yields by 50 to 70 percent and reduces the productive lifetime of banana plants from 30 years to as little as 2 or 3. Commercial growers keep Sigatoka at bay by a massive chemical assault. Forty sprayings of fungicide a year is typical. But despite the fungicides, diseases such as black Sigatoka are getting more and more difficult to control. As soon as you bring in a new fungicide, they develop resistance says Frison. One thing we can be sure of is that the Sigatoka wont lose in this battle. Poor farmers, who cannot afford chemicals, have it even worse. They can do little more than watch their plants die. Most of the banana fields in Amazonia have already been destroyed by the disease, says Luadir Gasparotto, Brazils leading banana pathologist with the government research agency EMBRAPA. Production is likely to fall by 70 percent as the disease spreads, he predicts. The only option will be to find a new variety. But how? Almost all edible varieties are susceptible to diseases, so growers cannot simply change to a different banana. With most crops, such a threat would unleash an army of breeders, scouring the world for resistant relatives whose traits they can breed into commercial varieties. Not so with the banana. Because all edible varieties are sterile, bringing in new genetic traits to help cope with pests and diseases is nearly impossible. Nearly, but not totally. Very rarely, a sterile banana will experience a genetic accident that allows an almost normal seed to develop, giving breeders a tiny window for improvement. Breeders at the Honduran Foundation of Agricultural Research have tried to exploit this to create disease-resistant varieties. Further backcrossing with wild bananas yielded a new seedless banana resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease. Neither Western supermarket consumers nor peasant growers like the new hybrid. Some accuse it of tasting more like an apple than a banana. Not surprisingly, the majority of plant breeders have till now turned their backs on the banana and got to work on easier plants. And commercial banana companies are now washing their hands of the whole breeding effort, preferring to fund a search for new fungicides instead. We supported a breeding program for 40 years, but it wasnt able to develop an alternative to Cavendish. It was very expensive and we got nothing back, says Ronald Romero, head of research at Chiquita, one of the Big Three companies that dominate the international banana trade. Last year, a global consortium of scientists led by Frison announced plans to sequence the banana genome within five years. It would be the first edible fruit to be sequenced. Well, almost edible. The group will actually be sequencing inedible wild bananas from East Asia because many of these are resistant to black Sigatoka. If they can pinpoint the genes that help these wild varieties to resist black Sigatoka, the protective genes could be introduced into laboratory tissue cultures of cells from edible varieties. These could then be propagated into new, resistant plants and passed on to farmers. It sounds promising, but the big banana companies have, until now, refused to get involved in GM research for fear of alienating their customers. Biotechnology is extremely expensive and there are serious questions about consumer acceptance,11 says David McLaughlin, Chiquitas senior director for environmental affairs. With scant funding from the companies, the banana genome researchers are focusing on the other end of the spectrum. Even if they can identify the crucial genes, they will be a long way from developing new varieties that smallholders will find suitable and affordable. But whatever biotechnologys academic interest, it is the only hope for the banana. Without banana production, the world will head into a tailspin. We may even see the extinction of the banana as both a lifesaver for hungry and impoverished Africans and as the most popular product on the worlds supermarket shelves. | Gros Michel is still being used as a commercial product | contradiction |
id_2729 | Going Bananas The worlds favourite fruit could disappear forever in 10 years time. The banana is among the worlds oldest crops. Agricultural scientists believe that the first edible banana was discovered around ten thousand years ago. It has been at an evolutionary standstill ever since it was first propagated in the jungles of South-East Asia at the end of the last ice age. Normally the wild banana, a giant jungle herb called Musa acuminata, contains a mass of hard seeds that make the fruit virtually inedible. But now and then, hunter-gatherers must have discovered rare mutant plants that produced seed-less, edible fruits. Geneticists now know that the vast majority of these soft-fruited plants resulted from genetic accidents that gave their cells three copies of each chromosome instead of the usual two. This imbalance prevents seeds and pollen from developing normally, rendering the mutant plants sterile. And that is why some scientists believe the worlds most popular fruit could be doomed. It lacks the genetic diversity to fight off pests and diseases that are invading the banana plantations of Central America and the small-holdings of Africa and Asia alike. In some ways, the banana today resembles the potato before blight brought famine to Ireland a century and a half ago. But it holds a lesson for other crops, too, says Emile Frison, who works at the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain in Montpellier, France. The state of the banana, Frison warns, can teach a broader lesson. The increasing standardization of food crops around the world is threatening their ability to adapt and survive. The first Stone Age plant breeders cultivated these sterile freaks by replanting cuttings from their stems. And the descendants of those original cuttings are the bananas we still eat today. Each is a virtual clone, almost devoid of genetic diversity. And that uniformity makes it ripe for a disease like no other crop on Earth. Traditional varieties of sexually reproducing crops have always had a much broader genetic base, and the genes will recombine in new arrangements in each generation. This gives them much greater flexibility in evolving responses to disease and far more genetic resources to draw on in the face of an attack. But that advantage is fading fast, as growers increasingly plant the same few, high-yielding varieties. Plant breeders work feverishly to maintain resistance in these standardized crops. Should these efforts falter, yields of even the most productive crop could swiftly crash. When some pest or disease comes along, severe epidemics can occur, says Geoff Hawtin, director of the Rome-based International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. The banana is an excellent case in point. Until the 1950s, one variety, the Gros Michel dominated the worlds commercial banana business. Found by French botanists in Asian the 1820s, the Gros Michel was by all accounts a fine banana, richer and sweeter than todays standard banana and without the latter/s bitter aftertaste when green. But it was vulnerable to a soil fungus that produced wilt known as Panama disease. Once the fungus gets into the soil it remains there for many years. There is nothing farmers can do. Even chemical spraying wont get rid of it says Rodomiro Ortiz, director of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. So plantation owners played a running game, abandoning infested fields and moving to clean land until they ran out of clean land in the 1950s and had to abandon the Gros Michel. Its successor, and still the reigning commercial king, is the Cavendish banana, a 19th-century British discovery from southern China. The Cavendish is resistant to Panama disease and, as a result, it literally saved the international banana industry. During the 1960s, it replaced the Gros Michel on supermarket shelves. If you buy a banana today, it is almost certainly a Cavendish. But even so, it is a minority in the worlds banana crop. Half a billion people in Asia and Africa depend on bananas. Bananas provide the largest source of calories and are eaten daily. Its name is synonymous with food. But the day of reckoning may be coming for the Cavendish and its indigenous kin. Another fungal disease, black Sigatoka, has become a global epidemic since its first appearance in Fiji in 1963. Left to itself, black Sigatoka which causes brown wounds on leaves and premature fruit ripening cuts fruit yields by 50 to 70 percent and reduces the productive lifetime of banana plants from 30 years to as little as 2 or 3. Commercial growers keep Sigatoka at bay by a massive chemical assault. Forty sprayings of fungicide a year is typical. But despite the fungicides, diseases such as black Sigatoka are getting more and more difficult to control. As soon as you bring in a new fungicide, they develop resistance says Frison. One thing we can be sure of is that the Sigatoka wont lose in this battle. Poor farmers, who cannot afford chemicals, have it even worse. They can do little more than watch their plants die. Most of the banana fields in Amazonia have already been destroyed by the disease, says Luadir Gasparotto, Brazils leading banana pathologist with the government research agency EMBRAPA. Production is likely to fall by 70 percent as the disease spreads, he predicts. The only option will be to find a new variety. But how? Almost all edible varieties are susceptible to diseases, so growers cannot simply change to a different banana. With most crops, such a threat would unleash an army of breeders, scouring the world for resistant relatives whose traits they can breed into commercial varieties. Not so with the banana. Because all edible varieties are sterile, bringing in new genetic traits to help cope with pests and diseases is nearly impossible. Nearly, but not totally. Very rarely, a sterile banana will experience a genetic accident that allows an almost normal seed to develop, giving breeders a tiny window for improvement. Breeders at the Honduran Foundation of Agricultural Research have tried to exploit this to create disease-resistant varieties. Further backcrossing with wild bananas yielded a new seedless banana resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease. Neither Western supermarket consumers nor peasant growers like the new hybrid. Some accuse it of tasting more like an apple than a banana. Not surprisingly, the majority of plant breeders have till now turned their backs on the banana and got to work on easier plants. And commercial banana companies are now washing their hands of the whole breeding effort, preferring to fund a search for new fungicides instead. We supported a breeding program for 40 years, but it wasnt able to develop an alternative to Cavendish. It was very expensive and we got nothing back, says Ronald Romero, head of research at Chiquita, one of the Big Three companies that dominate the international banana trade. Last year, a global consortium of scientists led by Frison announced plans to sequence the banana genome within five years. It would be the first edible fruit to be sequenced. Well, almost edible. The group will actually be sequencing inedible wild bananas from East Asia because many of these are resistant to black Sigatoka. If they can pinpoint the genes that help these wild varieties to resist black Sigatoka, the protective genes could be introduced into laboratory tissue cultures of cells from edible varieties. These could then be propagated into new, resistant plants and passed on to farmers. It sounds promising, but the big banana companies have, until now, refused to get involved in GM research for fear of alienating their customers. Biotechnology is extremely expensive and there are serious questions about consumer acceptance,11 says David McLaughlin, Chiquitas senior director for environmental affairs. With scant funding from the companies, the banana genome researchers are focusing on the other end of the spectrum. Even if they can identify the crucial genes, they will be a long way from developing new varieties that smallholders will find suitable and affordable. But whatever biotechnologys academic interest, it is the only hope for the banana. Without banana production, the world will head into a tailspin. We may even see the extinction of the banana as both a lifesaver for hungry and impoverished Africans and as the most popular product on the worlds supermarket shelves. | Banana is the main food in some countries | entailment |
id_2730 | Going Bananas The worlds favourite fruit could disappear forever in 10 years time. The banana is among the worlds oldest crops. Agricultural scientists believe that the first edible banana was discovered around ten thousand years ago. It has been at an evolutionary standstill ever since it was first propagated in the jungles of South-East Asia at the end of the last ice age. Normally the wild banana, a giant jungle herb called Musa acuminata, contains a mass of hard seeds that make the fruit virtually inedible. But now and then, hunter-gatherers must have discovered rare mutant plants that produced seed-less, edible fruits. Geneticists now know that the vast majority of these soft-fruited plants resulted from genetic accidents that gave their cells three copies of each chromosome instead of the usual two. This imbalance prevents seeds and pollen from developing normally, rendering the mutant plants sterile. And that is why some scientists believe the worlds most popular fruit could be doomed. It lacks the genetic diversity to fight off pests and diseases that are invading the banana plantations of Central America and the small-holdings of Africa and Asia alike. In some ways, the banana today resembles the potato before blight brought famine to Ireland a century and a half ago. But it holds a lesson for other crops, too, says Emile Frison, who works at the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain in Montpellier, France. The state of the banana, Frison warns, can teach a broader lesson. The increasing standardization of food crops around the world is threatening their ability to adapt and survive. The first Stone Age plant breeders cultivated these sterile freaks by replanting cuttings from their stems. And the descendants of those original cuttings are the bananas we still eat today. Each is a virtual clone, almost devoid of genetic diversity. And that uniformity makes it ripe for a disease like no other crop on Earth. Traditional varieties of sexually reproducing crops have always had a much broader genetic base, and the genes will recombine in new arrangements in each generation. This gives them much greater flexibility in evolving responses to disease and far more genetic resources to draw on in the face of an attack. But that advantage is fading fast, as growers increasingly plant the same few, high-yielding varieties. Plant breeders work feverishly to maintain resistance in these standardized crops. Should these efforts falter, yields of even the most productive crop could swiftly crash. When some pest or disease comes along, severe epidemics can occur, says Geoff Hawtin, director of the Rome-based International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. The banana is an excellent case in point. Until the 1950s, one variety, the Gros Michel dominated the worlds commercial banana business. Found by French botanists in Asian the 1820s, the Gros Michel was by all accounts a fine banana, richer and sweeter than todays standard banana and without the latter/s bitter aftertaste when green. But it was vulnerable to a soil fungus that produced wilt known as Panama disease. Once the fungus gets into the soil it remains there for many years. There is nothing farmers can do. Even chemical spraying wont get rid of it says Rodomiro Ortiz, director of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. So plantation owners played a running game, abandoning infested fields and moving to clean land until they ran out of clean land in the 1950s and had to abandon the Gros Michel. Its successor, and still the reigning commercial king, is the Cavendish banana, a 19th-century British discovery from southern China. The Cavendish is resistant to Panama disease and, as a result, it literally saved the international banana industry. During the 1960s, it replaced the Gros Michel on supermarket shelves. If you buy a banana today, it is almost certainly a Cavendish. But even so, it is a minority in the worlds banana crop. Half a billion people in Asia and Africa depend on bananas. Bananas provide the largest source of calories and are eaten daily. Its name is synonymous with food. But the day of reckoning may be coming for the Cavendish and its indigenous kin. Another fungal disease, black Sigatoka, has become a global epidemic since its first appearance in Fiji in 1963. Left to itself, black Sigatoka which causes brown wounds on leaves and premature fruit ripening cuts fruit yields by 50 to 70 percent and reduces the productive lifetime of banana plants from 30 years to as little as 2 or 3. Commercial growers keep Sigatoka at bay by a massive chemical assault. Forty sprayings of fungicide a year is typical. But despite the fungicides, diseases such as black Sigatoka are getting more and more difficult to control. As soon as you bring in a new fungicide, they develop resistance says Frison. One thing we can be sure of is that the Sigatoka wont lose in this battle. Poor farmers, who cannot afford chemicals, have it even worse. They can do little more than watch their plants die. Most of the banana fields in Amazonia have already been destroyed by the disease, says Luadir Gasparotto, Brazils leading banana pathologist with the government research agency EMBRAPA. Production is likely to fall by 70 percent as the disease spreads, he predicts. The only option will be to find a new variety. But how? Almost all edible varieties are susceptible to diseases, so growers cannot simply change to a different banana. With most crops, such a threat would unleash an army of breeders, scouring the world for resistant relatives whose traits they can breed into commercial varieties. Not so with the banana. Because all edible varieties are sterile, bringing in new genetic traits to help cope with pests and diseases is nearly impossible. Nearly, but not totally. Very rarely, a sterile banana will experience a genetic accident that allows an almost normal seed to develop, giving breeders a tiny window for improvement. Breeders at the Honduran Foundation of Agricultural Research have tried to exploit this to create disease-resistant varieties. Further backcrossing with wild bananas yielded a new seedless banana resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease. Neither Western supermarket consumers nor peasant growers like the new hybrid. Some accuse it of tasting more like an apple than a banana. Not surprisingly, the majority of plant breeders have till now turned their backs on the banana and got to work on easier plants. And commercial banana companies are now washing their hands of the whole breeding effort, preferring to fund a search for new fungicides instead. We supported a breeding program for 40 years, but it wasnt able to develop an alternative to Cavendish. It was very expensive and we got nothing back, says Ronald Romero, head of research at Chiquita, one of the Big Three companies that dominate the international banana trade. Last year, a global consortium of scientists led by Frison announced plans to sequence the banana genome within five years. It would be the first edible fruit to be sequenced. Well, almost edible. The group will actually be sequencing inedible wild bananas from East Asia because many of these are resistant to black Sigatoka. If they can pinpoint the genes that help these wild varieties to resist black Sigatoka, the protective genes could be introduced into laboratory tissue cultures of cells from edible varieties. These could then be propagated into new, resistant plants and passed on to farmers. It sounds promising, but the big banana companies have, until now, refused to get involved in GM research for fear of alienating their customers. Biotechnology is extremely expensive and there are serious questions about consumer acceptance,11 says David McLaughlin, Chiquitas senior director for environmental affairs. With scant funding from the companies, the banana genome researchers are focusing on the other end of the spectrum. Even if they can identify the crucial genes, they will be a long way from developing new varieties that smallholders will find suitable and affordable. But whatever biotechnologys academic interest, it is the only hope for the banana. Without banana production, the world will head into a tailspin. We may even see the extinction of the banana as both a lifesaver for hungry and impoverished Africans and as the most popular product on the worlds supermarket shelves. | Banana is the oldest known fruit | neutral |
id_2731 | Google has received Indias permission to start testing Project Loon, under which the company will beam the internet from balloons in the sky, in an effort to provide affordable internet access. | The company will be able to save lots of money through this project. | contradiction |
id_2732 | Google has received Indias permission to start testing Project Loon, under which the company will beam the internet from balloons in the sky, in an effort to provide affordable internet access. | The privacy of the end user of Internet will be lost. | contradiction |
id_2733 | Google has received Indias permission to start testing Project Loon, under which the company will beam the internet from balloons in the sky, in an effort to provide affordable internet access. | Project Loon will boost up the internet activities in rural areas. | entailment |
id_2734 | Google has received Indias permission to start testing Project Loon, under which the company will beam the internet from balloons in the sky, in an effort to provide affordable internet access. | The project will give an opportunity to watch our country and capture sensitive information, making India more vulnerable. | contradiction |
id_2735 | Government has decided to relocate all the factories from the city with immediate effect to reduce pollution. | Pollution in the city is being caused only because of the factories existing there. | neutral |
id_2736 | Government has decided to relocate all the factories from the city with immediate effect to reduce pollution. | People may be able to manage travelling daily to the relocated factories. | entailment |
id_2737 | Government, politicians and the media perpetuate prejudice and inequality by repeating the lie that teenage mothers place irresponsible burdens on the state. Public service employers should question their approach to teenage women and accept that they have as much right to make choices about pregnancy and motherhood as everyone else. Society should confront the causes of teenage pregnancy, such as inadequate education and employment opportunities, not the women themselves. Teenage mothers need our support and at least equal treatment, and recognition that a young mother is not necessarily a bad mother. | The media-sanctioned view of young mothers includes the claim that they are incapable of being good parents. | neutral |
id_2738 | Government, politicians and the media perpetuate prejudice and inequality by repeating the lie that teenage mothers place irresponsible burdens on the state. Public service employers should question their approach to teenage women and accept that they have as much right to make choices about pregnancy and motherhood as everyone else. Society should confront the causes of teenage pregnancy, such as inadequate education and employment opportunities, not the women themselves. Teenage mothers need our support and at least equal treatment, and recognition that a young mother is not necessarily a bad mother. | The passage describes negative stereotypes of young mothers as prevalent. | contradiction |
id_2739 | Government, politicians and the media perpetuate prejudice and inequality by repeating the lie that teenage mothers place irresponsible burdens on the state. Public service employers should question their approach to teenage women and accept that they have as much right to make choices about pregnancy and motherhood as everyone else. Society should confront the causes of teenage pregnancy, such as inadequate education and employment opportunities, not the women themselves. Teenage mothers need our support and at least equal treatment, and recognition that a young mother is not necessarily a bad mother. | Portraying teenage mothers as social problems is discriminatory. | entailment |
id_2740 | Great Inventions There are some things we use every day. Can you imagine a world without zippers to fasten clothing? Have you ever wondered about the layout of the keyboard of a typewriter, which we see every day on the computer? These are just two of the many inventions which have made our lives easier. Maybe thats why we dont think about them very much! The Zipper Whatever did we do before the invention of the zipper? In 1893 the worlds first zipper was produced in Chicago. Although the inventor claimed that it was a reliable fastening for clothing, this was not the case. The Chicago zipper sprang open without warning, or jammed shut, and it swiftly lost popularity. Twenty years later a Swedish-born engineer called Sundback solved the problem. He attached tiny cups to the backs of the interlocking teeth, and this meant that the teeth could be enmeshed more firmly and reliably. At first zippers were made of metal. They were heavy, and if they got stuck it was difficult to free them. Then came nylon zippers which were lighter and easier to use, and had smaller teeth. The fashion industry liked the new zippers far better because they did not distort the line of the garment or weigh down light fabrics. They were also easier for the machinists to fit into the garment. Meanwhile a new fastening agent made its appearance at the end of the twentieth century: velcro. Velcro is another product made from nylon. Nylon is a very tough synthetic fibre first developed in the 19305, and bearing a name to remind the hearer of the two places where it was developed: NY for New York and LON for London. Velcro is made with very small nylon hooks on one side of the fastening which catch tiny looped whiskers on the other side of the fastening. It is strong and durable. Velcro is used on clothing, luggage and footwear. It is quick and easy to fasten and unfasten, and has taken a large part of the zippers share of the market. It is also used in ways a zipper cannot be used for instance as an easily changed fastening on plaster casts, and to hold furnishing fabrics in position. The Typewriter and the Keyboard The keyboard of the modern typewriter is laid out in a most odd fashion. Why would anyone place the letters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard in the order Q W E R T Y? The answer is simple: to slow the typist down. But first, lets consider the history of the typewriter itself. In the 1860s a newspaper editor called Christopher Sholes lived in Milwaukee, USA. Sholes invented the first of the modern typewriters, although there had been patents for typewriter-like machines as early as 1714, when Queen Anne of England granted a patent to a man called Henry Mill for a machine which would make marks on paper so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print. In 1829, across the Atlantic in Detroit USA, William Austin Burt took out a patent on a typewriter-like machine, four years before the French inventor Xavier Projean produced his machine designed to record words at a speed comparable to someone writing with a pen. So the typewriter was not a new idea, although there had not been a successful realisation of the idea before Christopher Sholes machine. His typewriter became very popular, and soon people learned to type very quickly so quickly, in fact, that the keys became tangled. On manual typewriters the characters were set on the end of bars which rose to strike the paper when the key was pressed. In the first models, the keys were set alphabetically. When a quick typist tapped out a word like federal, it was very likely the adjacent e and d keys would become entangled. Sholes therefore set about finding ways to slow the typist down. He looked for the letters which were most often used in English, and then placed them far away from each other. For instance, q and v, which are almost always used together in English, are separated by five intervening letters. The plan worked, and the typist was slowed down a little. When computers came into use in the latter part of the twentieth century it was suggested that the keyboard should be rationalised. After all, there was no longer any need to avoid clashing manual typewriter keys. One new board included keys which produced letters which frequently occur together in English, like ing and th and ed, so the word thing would take two strokes to write instead of five. Although this made perfect sense, people found it very hard to learn to use a new keyboard, and the idea was dropped. It is unlikely that the keyboard will ever be changed: as we approach the twenty-first century the voice-activated computer, already in an advanced state of development, is becoming more and more accessible. It is very likely that we will soon have machines which take dictation as we speak to them, and the keyboard will be used for corrections. | The first zipper was successful as a fastener. | contradiction |
id_2741 | Great Inventions There are some things we use every day. Can you imagine a world without zippers to fasten clothing? Have you ever wondered about the layout of the keyboard of a typewriter, which we see every day on the computer? These are just two of the many inventions which have made our lives easier. Maybe thats why we dont think about them very much! The Zipper Whatever did we do before the invention of the zipper? In 1893 the worlds first zipper was produced in Chicago. Although the inventor claimed that it was a reliable fastening for clothing, this was not the case. The Chicago zipper sprang open without warning, or jammed shut, and it swiftly lost popularity. Twenty years later a Swedish-born engineer called Sundback solved the problem. He attached tiny cups to the backs of the interlocking teeth, and this meant that the teeth could be enmeshed more firmly and reliably. At first zippers were made of metal. They were heavy, and if they got stuck it was difficult to free them. Then came nylon zippers which were lighter and easier to use, and had smaller teeth. The fashion industry liked the new zippers far better because they did not distort the line of the garment or weigh down light fabrics. They were also easier for the machinists to fit into the garment. Meanwhile a new fastening agent made its appearance at the end of the twentieth century: velcro. Velcro is another product made from nylon. Nylon is a very tough synthetic fibre first developed in the 19305, and bearing a name to remind the hearer of the two places where it was developed: NY for New York and LON for London. Velcro is made with very small nylon hooks on one side of the fastening which catch tiny looped whiskers on the other side of the fastening. It is strong and durable. Velcro is used on clothing, luggage and footwear. It is quick and easy to fasten and unfasten, and has taken a large part of the zippers share of the market. It is also used in ways a zipper cannot be used for instance as an easily changed fastening on plaster casts, and to hold furnishing fabrics in position. The Typewriter and the Keyboard The keyboard of the modern typewriter is laid out in a most odd fashion. Why would anyone place the letters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard in the order Q W E R T Y? The answer is simple: to slow the typist down. But first, lets consider the history of the typewriter itself. In the 1860s a newspaper editor called Christopher Sholes lived in Milwaukee, USA. Sholes invented the first of the modern typewriters, although there had been patents for typewriter-like machines as early as 1714, when Queen Anne of England granted a patent to a man called Henry Mill for a machine which would make marks on paper so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print. In 1829, across the Atlantic in Detroit USA, William Austin Burt took out a patent on a typewriter-like machine, four years before the French inventor Xavier Projean produced his machine designed to record words at a speed comparable to someone writing with a pen. So the typewriter was not a new idea, although there had not been a successful realisation of the idea before Christopher Sholes machine. His typewriter became very popular, and soon people learned to type very quickly so quickly, in fact, that the keys became tangled. On manual typewriters the characters were set on the end of bars which rose to strike the paper when the key was pressed. In the first models, the keys were set alphabetically. When a quick typist tapped out a word like federal, it was very likely the adjacent e and d keys would become entangled. Sholes therefore set about finding ways to slow the typist down. He looked for the letters which were most often used in English, and then placed them far away from each other. For instance, q and v, which are almost always used together in English, are separated by five intervening letters. The plan worked, and the typist was slowed down a little. When computers came into use in the latter part of the twentieth century it was suggested that the keyboard should be rationalised. After all, there was no longer any need to avoid clashing manual typewriter keys. One new board included keys which produced letters which frequently occur together in English, like ing and th and ed, so the word thing would take two strokes to write instead of five. Although this made perfect sense, people found it very hard to learn to use a new keyboard, and the idea was dropped. It is unlikely that the keyboard will ever be changed: as we approach the twenty-first century the voice-activated computer, already in an advanced state of development, is becoming more and more accessible. It is very likely that we will soon have machines which take dictation as we speak to them, and the keyboard will be used for corrections. | Nylon was used a lot during the Second World War, 1939-1945. | neutral |
id_2742 | Great Inventions There are some things we use every day. Can you imagine a world without zippers to fasten clothing? Have you ever wondered about the layout of the keyboard of a typewriter, which we see every day on the computer? These are just two of the many inventions which have made our lives easier. Maybe thats why we dont think about them very much! The Zipper Whatever did we do before the invention of the zipper? In 1893 the worlds first zipper was produced in Chicago. Although the inventor claimed that it was a reliable fastening for clothing, this was not the case. The Chicago zipper sprang open without warning, or jammed shut, and it swiftly lost popularity. Twenty years later a Swedish-born engineer called Sundback solved the problem. He attached tiny cups to the backs of the interlocking teeth, and this meant that the teeth could be enmeshed more firmly and reliably. At first zippers were made of metal. They were heavy, and if they got stuck it was difficult to free them. Then came nylon zippers which were lighter and easier to use, and had smaller teeth. The fashion industry liked the new zippers far better because they did not distort the line of the garment or weigh down light fabrics. They were also easier for the machinists to fit into the garment. Meanwhile a new fastening agent made its appearance at the end of the twentieth century: velcro. Velcro is another product made from nylon. Nylon is a very tough synthetic fibre first developed in the 19305, and bearing a name to remind the hearer of the two places where it was developed: NY for New York and LON for London. Velcro is made with very small nylon hooks on one side of the fastening which catch tiny looped whiskers on the other side of the fastening. It is strong and durable. Velcro is used on clothing, luggage and footwear. It is quick and easy to fasten and unfasten, and has taken a large part of the zippers share of the market. It is also used in ways a zipper cannot be used for instance as an easily changed fastening on plaster casts, and to hold furnishing fabrics in position. The Typewriter and the Keyboard The keyboard of the modern typewriter is laid out in a most odd fashion. Why would anyone place the letters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard in the order Q W E R T Y? The answer is simple: to slow the typist down. But first, lets consider the history of the typewriter itself. In the 1860s a newspaper editor called Christopher Sholes lived in Milwaukee, USA. Sholes invented the first of the modern typewriters, although there had been patents for typewriter-like machines as early as 1714, when Queen Anne of England granted a patent to a man called Henry Mill for a machine which would make marks on paper so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print. In 1829, across the Atlantic in Detroit USA, William Austin Burt took out a patent on a typewriter-like machine, four years before the French inventor Xavier Projean produced his machine designed to record words at a speed comparable to someone writing with a pen. So the typewriter was not a new idea, although there had not been a successful realisation of the idea before Christopher Sholes machine. His typewriter became very popular, and soon people learned to type very quickly so quickly, in fact, that the keys became tangled. On manual typewriters the characters were set on the end of bars which rose to strike the paper when the key was pressed. In the first models, the keys were set alphabetically. When a quick typist tapped out a word like federal, it was very likely the adjacent e and d keys would become entangled. Sholes therefore set about finding ways to slow the typist down. He looked for the letters which were most often used in English, and then placed them far away from each other. For instance, q and v, which are almost always used together in English, are separated by five intervening letters. The plan worked, and the typist was slowed down a little. When computers came into use in the latter part of the twentieth century it was suggested that the keyboard should be rationalised. After all, there was no longer any need to avoid clashing manual typewriter keys. One new board included keys which produced letters which frequently occur together in English, like ing and th and ed, so the word thing would take two strokes to write instead of five. Although this made perfect sense, people found it very hard to learn to use a new keyboard, and the idea was dropped. It is unlikely that the keyboard will ever be changed: as we approach the twenty-first century the voice-activated computer, already in an advanced state of development, is becoming more and more accessible. It is very likely that we will soon have machines which take dictation as we speak to them, and the keyboard will be used for corrections. | New computers will use the rationalised keyboard. | contradiction |
id_2743 | Great Inventions There are some things we use every day. Can you imagine a world without zippers to fasten clothing? Have you ever wondered about the layout of the keyboard of a typewriter, which we see every day on the computer? These are just two of the many inventions which have made our lives easier. Maybe thats why we dont think about them very much! The Zipper Whatever did we do before the invention of the zipper? In 1893 the worlds first zipper was produced in Chicago. Although the inventor claimed that it was a reliable fastening for clothing, this was not the case. The Chicago zipper sprang open without warning, or jammed shut, and it swiftly lost popularity. Twenty years later a Swedish-born engineer called Sundback solved the problem. He attached tiny cups to the backs of the interlocking teeth, and this meant that the teeth could be enmeshed more firmly and reliably. At first zippers were made of metal. They were heavy, and if they got stuck it was difficult to free them. Then came nylon zippers which were lighter and easier to use, and had smaller teeth. The fashion industry liked the new zippers far better because they did not distort the line of the garment or weigh down light fabrics. They were also easier for the machinists to fit into the garment. Meanwhile a new fastening agent made its appearance at the end of the twentieth century: velcro. Velcro is another product made from nylon. Nylon is a very tough synthetic fibre first developed in the 19305, and bearing a name to remind the hearer of the two places where it was developed: NY for New York and LON for London. Velcro is made with very small nylon hooks on one side of the fastening which catch tiny looped whiskers on the other side of the fastening. It is strong and durable. Velcro is used on clothing, luggage and footwear. It is quick and easy to fasten and unfasten, and has taken a large part of the zippers share of the market. It is also used in ways a zipper cannot be used for instance as an easily changed fastening on plaster casts, and to hold furnishing fabrics in position. The Typewriter and the Keyboard The keyboard of the modern typewriter is laid out in a most odd fashion. Why would anyone place the letters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard in the order Q W E R T Y? The answer is simple: to slow the typist down. But first, lets consider the history of the typewriter itself. In the 1860s a newspaper editor called Christopher Sholes lived in Milwaukee, USA. Sholes invented the first of the modern typewriters, although there had been patents for typewriter-like machines as early as 1714, when Queen Anne of England granted a patent to a man called Henry Mill for a machine which would make marks on paper so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print. In 1829, across the Atlantic in Detroit USA, William Austin Burt took out a patent on a typewriter-like machine, four years before the French inventor Xavier Projean produced his machine designed to record words at a speed comparable to someone writing with a pen. So the typewriter was not a new idea, although there had not been a successful realisation of the idea before Christopher Sholes machine. His typewriter became very popular, and soon people learned to type very quickly so quickly, in fact, that the keys became tangled. On manual typewriters the characters were set on the end of bars which rose to strike the paper when the key was pressed. In the first models, the keys were set alphabetically. When a quick typist tapped out a word like federal, it was very likely the adjacent e and d keys would become entangled. Sholes therefore set about finding ways to slow the typist down. He looked for the letters which were most often used in English, and then placed them far away from each other. For instance, q and v, which are almost always used together in English, are separated by five intervening letters. The plan worked, and the typist was slowed down a little. When computers came into use in the latter part of the twentieth century it was suggested that the keyboard should be rationalised. After all, there was no longer any need to avoid clashing manual typewriter keys. One new board included keys which produced letters which frequently occur together in English, like ing and th and ed, so the word thing would take two strokes to write instead of five. Although this made perfect sense, people found it very hard to learn to use a new keyboard, and the idea was dropped. It is unlikely that the keyboard will ever be changed: as we approach the twenty-first century the voice-activated computer, already in an advanced state of development, is becoming more and more accessible. It is very likely that we will soon have machines which take dictation as we speak to them, and the keyboard will be used for corrections. | The keys of Sholes first machine were likely to jam. | entailment |
id_2744 | Great Inventions There are some things we use every day. Can you imagine a world without zippers to fasten clothing? Have you ever wondered about the layout of the keyboard of a typewriter, which we see every day on the computer? These are just two of the many inventions which have made our lives easier. Maybe thats why we dont think about them very much! The Zipper Whatever did we do before the invention of the zipper? In 1893 the worlds first zipper was produced in Chicago. Although the inventor claimed that it was a reliable fastening for clothing, this was not the case. The Chicago zipper sprang open without warning, or jammed shut, and it swiftly lost popularity. Twenty years later a Swedish-born engineer called Sundback solved the problem. He attached tiny cups to the backs of the interlocking teeth, and this meant that the teeth could be enmeshed more firmly and reliably. At first zippers were made of metal. They were heavy, and if they got stuck it was difficult to free them. Then came nylon zippers which were lighter and easier to use, and had smaller teeth. The fashion industry liked the new zippers far better because they did not distort the line of the garment or weigh down light fabrics. They were also easier for the machinists to fit into the garment. Meanwhile a new fastening agent made its appearance at the end of the twentieth century: velcro. Velcro is another product made from nylon. Nylon is a very tough synthetic fibre first developed in the 19305, and bearing a name to remind the hearer of the two places where it was developed: NY for New York and LON for London. Velcro is made with very small nylon hooks on one side of the fastening which catch tiny looped whiskers on the other side of the fastening. It is strong and durable. Velcro is used on clothing, luggage and footwear. It is quick and easy to fasten and unfasten, and has taken a large part of the zippers share of the market. It is also used in ways a zipper cannot be used for instance as an easily changed fastening on plaster casts, and to hold furnishing fabrics in position. The Typewriter and the Keyboard The keyboard of the modern typewriter is laid out in a most odd fashion. Why would anyone place the letters on the left side of the top row of the keyboard in the order Q W E R T Y? The answer is simple: to slow the typist down. But first, lets consider the history of the typewriter itself. In the 1860s a newspaper editor called Christopher Sholes lived in Milwaukee, USA. Sholes invented the first of the modern typewriters, although there had been patents for typewriter-like machines as early as 1714, when Queen Anne of England granted a patent to a man called Henry Mill for a machine which would make marks on paper so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print. In 1829, across the Atlantic in Detroit USA, William Austin Burt took out a patent on a typewriter-like machine, four years before the French inventor Xavier Projean produced his machine designed to record words at a speed comparable to someone writing with a pen. So the typewriter was not a new idea, although there had not been a successful realisation of the idea before Christopher Sholes machine. His typewriter became very popular, and soon people learned to type very quickly so quickly, in fact, that the keys became tangled. On manual typewriters the characters were set on the end of bars which rose to strike the paper when the key was pressed. In the first models, the keys were set alphabetically. When a quick typist tapped out a word like federal, it was very likely the adjacent e and d keys would become entangled. Sholes therefore set about finding ways to slow the typist down. He looked for the letters which were most often used in English, and then placed them far away from each other. For instance, q and v, which are almost always used together in English, are separated by five intervening letters. The plan worked, and the typist was slowed down a little. When computers came into use in the latter part of the twentieth century it was suggested that the keyboard should be rationalised. After all, there was no longer any need to avoid clashing manual typewriter keys. One new board included keys which produced letters which frequently occur together in English, like ing and th and ed, so the word thing would take two strokes to write instead of five. Although this made perfect sense, people found it very hard to learn to use a new keyboard, and the idea was dropped. It is unlikely that the keyboard will ever be changed: as we approach the twenty-first century the voice-activated computer, already in an advanced state of development, is becoming more and more accessible. It is very likely that we will soon have machines which take dictation as we speak to them, and the keyboard will be used for corrections. | The first typewriters keyboard was different to the modern keyboard. | entailment |
id_2745 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals ? often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watchers boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Bergers, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when its time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when its appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they cant pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they cant reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they cant pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USAs National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Very few experts agree that the movement of aphids can be considered migration. | neutral |
id_2746 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals ? often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watchers boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Bergers, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when its time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when its appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they cant pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they cant reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they cant pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USAs National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Aphids journeys are affected by changes in the light that they perceive. | entailment |
id_2747 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals ? often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watchers boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Bergers, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when its time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when its appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they cant pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they cant reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they cant pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USAs National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Dingles aim is to distinguish between the migratory behaviours of different species. | contradiction |
id_2748 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals ? often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watchers boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Bergers, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when its time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when its appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they cant pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they cant reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they cant pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USAs National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Experts definitions of migration tend to vary according to their area of study. | entailment |
id_2749 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals ? often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watchers boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Bergers, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when its time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when its appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they cant pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they cant reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they cant pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USAs National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Local gulls and migrating arctic terns behave in the same way when offered food. | contradiction |
id_2750 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Local gulls and migrating arctic terns behave in the same way when offered food. | contradiction |
id_2751 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Dingle's aim is to distinguish between the migratory behaviours of different species. | contradiction |
id_2752 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Aphids' journeys are affected by changes in the light that they perceive. | entailment |
id_2753 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Very few experts agree that the movement of aphids can be considered migration. | neutral |
id_2754 | Great Migrations. Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals often in an annual cycle that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside. An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival. Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring. But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round. But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started. Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all. Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway. Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer. | Experts' definitions of migration tend to vary according to their area of study. | entailment |
id_2755 | Gregor Mendel was an Austrian-Hungarian monk who is regarded to be the father of genetics. Mendel was born in poverty and was often believed to suffer from autism. He studied mathematics and physics at university, but subsequently dropped out as he could not fund his studies. He joined amonastery to escape a life of poverty. He loved to collect biological specimens and from this he noticed the different traits that animals and plants possessed. Curiosity led him to experiment with plants in a greenhouse at the monastery, as experiments using animals was forbidden. He collected pure bred pea plants of different colours (green and yellow) and bred them together. He collected the seeds and planted them, noting that all the plants of this second generation produced green peas. He cross bred this second generation of peas and replanted the seeds. Surprisingly, of the third generation, most of the peas produced were green, and a few plants produced yellow peas. From this he deduced that the pea colour was determined by a gene that had different forms, called alleles. Using mathematics he found that the ratio of green peas to yellow peas came to 9:3:3:1, now called the classical Mendelian ratio. This work led to the development of the theory of genetics and how some alleles were dominant over the other and thus deduces the phenotype of the organism in question. | Gregor Mendel was a scientist | entailment |
id_2756 | Gregor Mendel was an Austrian-Hungarian monk who is regarded to be the father of genetics. Mendel was born in poverty and was often believed to suffer from autism. He studied mathematics and physics at university, but subsequently dropped out as he could not fund his studies. He joined amonastery to escape a life of poverty. He loved to collect biological specimens and from this he noticed the different traits that animals and plants possessed. Curiosity led him to experiment with plants in a greenhouse at the monastery, as experiments using animals was forbidden. He collected pure bred pea plants of different colours (green and yellow) and bred them together. He collected the seeds and planted them, noting that all the plants of this second generation produced green peas. He cross bred this second generation of peas and replanted the seeds. Surprisingly, of the third generation, most of the peas produced were green, and a few plants produced yellow peas. From this he deduced that the pea colour was determined by a gene that had different forms, called alleles. Using mathematics he found that the ratio of green peas to yellow peas came to 9:3:3:1, now called the classical Mendelian ratio. This work led to the development of the theory of genetics and how some alleles were dominant over the other and thus deduces the phenotype of the organism in question. | The monastery allowed Mendel to carry out experiments on animals | contradiction |
id_2757 | Gregor Mendel was an Austrian-Hungarian monk who is regarded to be the father of genetics. Mendel was born in poverty and was often believed to suffer from autism. He studied mathematics and physics at university, but subsequently dropped out as he could not fund his studies. He joined amonastery to escape a life of poverty. He loved to collect biological specimens and from this he noticed the different traits that animals and plants possessed. Curiosity led him to experiment with plants in a greenhouse at the monastery, as experiments using animals was forbidden. He collected pure bred pea plants of different colours (green and yellow) and bred them together. He collected the seeds and planted them, noting that all the plants of this second generation produced green peas. He cross bred this second generation of peas and replanted the seeds. Surprisingly, of the third generation, most of the peas produced were green, and a few plants produced yellow peas. From this he deduced that the pea colour was determined by a gene that had different forms, called alleles. Using mathematics he found that the ratio of green peas to yellow peas came to 9:3:3:1, now called the classical Mendelian ratio. This work led to the development of the theory of genetics and how some alleles were dominant over the other and thus deduces the phenotype of the organism in question. | The facilities of the monastery enabled him to carry out his experiments | entailment |
id_2758 | Gregor Mendel was an Austrian-Hungarian monk who is regarded to be the father of genetics. Mendel was born in poverty and was often believed to suffer from autism. He studied mathematics and physics at university, but subsequently dropped out as he could not fund his studies. He joined amonastery to escape a life of poverty. He loved to collect biological specimens and from this he noticed the different traits that animals and plants possessed. Curiosity led him to experiment with plants in a greenhouse at the monastery, as experiments using animals was forbidden. He collected pure bred pea plants of different colours (green and yellow) and bred them together. He collected the seeds and planted them, noting that all the plants of this second generation produced green peas. He cross bred this second generation of peas and replanted the seeds. Surprisingly, of the third generation, most of the peas produced were green, and a few plants produced yellow peas. From this he deduced that the pea colour was determined by a gene that had different forms, called alleles. Using mathematics he found that the ratio of green peas to yellow peas came to 9:3:3:1, now called the classical Mendelian ratio. This work led to the development of the theory of genetics and how some alleles were dominant over the other and thus deduces the phenotype of the organism in question. | The genotype of the organism is influenced by alleles | neutral |
id_2759 | Growth Model Shortly after World War II, development as we now understand it was set in motion. Western governments and donors poured money into new agencies that set about trying to stimulate the economies of underdeveloped countries. Because of this emphasis, it is now widely regarded as the Growth Model. Although we might expect poverty reduction to be the central objective, planners at this stage were primarily concerned with industrial development. It was hoped that the benefits of this would trickle down to poor people through raising incomes and providing employment opportunities, thereby indirectly lifting them above the ascribed poverty threshold of a dollar a day. The weaknesses of these assumptions were revealed, however, when poverty rates and economic growth were found to rise simultaneously in many countries. During the 1970s, a new trend took over trickle-up development. Instead of focusing on macro-economic policy and large-scale industrial projects, planners shifted attention to the core living requirements of individuals and communities. This became known as the Basic Needs Approach to development. It was hoped that through the provision of services such as community sanitation and literacy programmes, poverty could be eliminated from below. Economic growth was desirable but superfluous Basic Needs redefined poverty from involving a lack of money to lacking the capability to attain full human potential. The trouble with Basic Needs programmes, however, was their expensive, resource-intensive nature that entailed continuous management and funding Since the 1980s, development planners have moved towards the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, which emphasises good livelihoods (materially and socially) that, most importantly, are independent and sustainable. Sustainable in this sense means that people are able to recover from the shocks and stresses of daily life, absolving agencies of the need to persistently monitor their lives. This approach emphasises a view of poverty that comes not from the rich but from the impoverished themselves, who are considered to be most suitably positioned to determine the poverty indicators that contribute to the multiple facets of their own deprivation. Although the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach has been criticised for lacking an environmental platform strong enough to respond to climate change, and for disassociating aspects of power and societal status from being a contestable part of development, it is currently the preferred model for development projects. Though there is some linearity to the trajectory of development practice, with paradigms shifting in and out of fashion, vigorous scholarly debate persists around all approaches. The Growth Model, for example, is still defended by many theorists, particularly economists. Those who believe in the Growth Model insist that nothing trumps economic development as a tool for poverty alleviation for the developing countries (although there is often less enthusiasm for its applicability to the postindustrial West). Many countries that have focused explicitly on growth have managed to make considerable inroads into reducing poverty, even in the absence of a development programme; Japan and Germany followed this route after World War II, as has China from the 1970s. On the other hand, some countries with massive inflows of funding for aid-based development projects particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa have struggled to progress with meeting poverty reduction targets. There is a good reason to be sceptical about the Growth Model, however, as is evidenced by the numerous societies that have partly imploded as a consequence of prioritising economic growth above the work of human development. The experiences of many eastern European countries with health and employment crises in the early 1990s are particularly traumatic examples of this. The Growth Model also suffers from an undemocratic, and technocratic, if not autocratic, method underdeveloped countries frequently make policy decisions based on consultation with Western economists and institutions on how to generate growth. This dissolves the autonomy of communities to make their own decisions about what matters to them, and what kind of society they would like to build. The move to the Sustainable livelihoods Approach is a positive move in tills regard, because by operating on a principle that decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, it introduces a role for localised decision-making. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for any country in the near future to ignore economic growth as a development indicator while continuing to meet development targets. It is important, however, that we move away from seeing this type of growth as the prime objective for development. Development is ultimately about people, and human development must be placed at the forefront; economic growth is simply one tool out of many that can help us along the way. We also need to recognise that foreign advisers, whatever qualifications and knowledge they may possess, can sometimes be a hindrance; local autonomy must be respected for real development to occur. The Growth Model may have failed, but this does not render economic growth irrelevant. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach offers helpful and realistic alternatives. But it is folly to commit ourselves to a strictly defined, systematic programme less constrictive mindsets will help us break the development fashion cycle. | The Growth Model is more popular with Third World scholars than Western scholars. | neutral |
id_2760 | Growth Model Shortly after World War II, development as we now understand it was set in motion. Western governments and donors poured money into new agencies that set about trying to stimulate the economies of underdeveloped countries. Because of this emphasis, it is now widely regarded as the Growth Model. Although we might expect poverty reduction to be the central objective, planners at this stage were primarily concerned with industrial development. It was hoped that the benefits of this would trickle down to poor people through raising incomes and providing employment opportunities, thereby indirectly lifting them above the ascribed poverty threshold of a dollar a day. The weaknesses of these assumptions were revealed, however, when poverty rates and economic growth were found to rise simultaneously in many countries. During the 1970s, a new trend took over trickle-up development. Instead of focusing on macro-economic policy and large-scale industrial projects, planners shifted attention to the core living requirements of individuals and communities. This became known as the Basic Needs Approach to development. It was hoped that through the provision of services such as community sanitation and literacy programmes, poverty could be eliminated from below. Economic growth was desirable but superfluous Basic Needs redefined poverty from involving a lack of money to lacking the capability to attain full human potential. The trouble with Basic Needs programmes, however, was their expensive, resource-intensive nature that entailed continuous management and funding Since the 1980s, development planners have moved towards the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, which emphasises good livelihoods (materially and socially) that, most importantly, are independent and sustainable. Sustainable in this sense means that people are able to recover from the shocks and stresses of daily life, absolving agencies of the need to persistently monitor their lives. This approach emphasises a view of poverty that comes not from the rich but from the impoverished themselves, who are considered to be most suitably positioned to determine the poverty indicators that contribute to the multiple facets of their own deprivation. Although the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach has been criticised for lacking an environmental platform strong enough to respond to climate change, and for disassociating aspects of power and societal status from being a contestable part of development, it is currently the preferred model for development projects. Though there is some linearity to the trajectory of development practice, with paradigms shifting in and out of fashion, vigorous scholarly debate persists around all approaches. The Growth Model, for example, is still defended by many theorists, particularly economists. Those who believe in the Growth Model insist that nothing trumps economic development as a tool for poverty alleviation for the developing countries (although there is often less enthusiasm for its applicability to the postindustrial West). Many countries that have focused explicitly on growth have managed to make considerable inroads into reducing poverty, even in the absence of a development programme; Japan and Germany followed this route after World War II, as has China from the 1970s. On the other hand, some countries with massive inflows of funding for aid-based development projects particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa have struggled to progress with meeting poverty reduction targets. There is a good reason to be sceptical about the Growth Model, however, as is evidenced by the numerous societies that have partly imploded as a consequence of prioritising economic growth above the work of human development. The experiences of many eastern European countries with health and employment crises in the early 1990s are particularly traumatic examples of this. The Growth Model also suffers from an undemocratic, and technocratic, if not autocratic, method underdeveloped countries frequently make policy decisions based on consultation with Western economists and institutions on how to generate growth. This dissolves the autonomy of communities to make their own decisions about what matters to them, and what kind of society they would like to build. The move to the Sustainable livelihoods Approach is a positive move in tills regard, because by operating on a principle that decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, it introduces a role for localised decision-making. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for any country in the near future to ignore economic growth as a development indicator while continuing to meet development targets. It is important, however, that we move away from seeing this type of growth as the prime objective for development. Development is ultimately about people, and human development must be placed at the forefront; economic growth is simply one tool out of many that can help us along the way. We also need to recognise that foreign advisers, whatever qualifications and knowledge they may possess, can sometimes be a hindrance; local autonomy must be respected for real development to occur. The Growth Model may have failed, but this does not render economic growth irrelevant. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach offers helpful and realistic alternatives. But it is folly to commit ourselves to a strictly defined, systematic programme less constrictive mindsets will help us break the development fashion cycle. | While institutions often follow development trends, academic disputes are more timeless. | entailment |
id_2761 | Growth Model Shortly after World War II, development as we now understand it was set in motion. Western governments and donors poured money into new agencies that set about trying to stimulate the economies of underdeveloped countries. Because of this emphasis, it is now widely regarded as the Growth Model. Although we might expect poverty reduction to be the central objective, planners at this stage were primarily concerned with industrial development. It was hoped that the benefits of this would trickle down to poor people through raising incomes and providing employment opportunities, thereby indirectly lifting them above the ascribed poverty threshold of a dollar a day. The weaknesses of these assumptions were revealed, however, when poverty rates and economic growth were found to rise simultaneously in many countries. During the 1970s, a new trend took over trickle-up development. Instead of focusing on macro-economic policy and large-scale industrial projects, planners shifted attention to the core living requirements of individuals and communities. This became known as the Basic Needs Approach to development. It was hoped that through the provision of services such as community sanitation and literacy programmes, poverty could be eliminated from below. Economic growth was desirable but superfluous Basic Needs redefined poverty from involving a lack of money to lacking the capability to attain full human potential. The trouble with Basic Needs programmes, however, was their expensive, resource-intensive nature that entailed continuous management and funding Since the 1980s, development planners have moved towards the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, which emphasises good livelihoods (materially and socially) that, most importantly, are independent and sustainable. Sustainable in this sense means that people are able to recover from the shocks and stresses of daily life, absolving agencies of the need to persistently monitor their lives. This approach emphasises a view of poverty that comes not from the rich but from the impoverished themselves, who are considered to be most suitably positioned to determine the poverty indicators that contribute to the multiple facets of their own deprivation. Although the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach has been criticised for lacking an environmental platform strong enough to respond to climate change, and for disassociating aspects of power and societal status from being a contestable part of development, it is currently the preferred model for development projects. Though there is some linearity to the trajectory of development practice, with paradigms shifting in and out of fashion, vigorous scholarly debate persists around all approaches. The Growth Model, for example, is still defended by many theorists, particularly economists. Those who believe in the Growth Model insist that nothing trumps economic development as a tool for poverty alleviation for the developing countries (although there is often less enthusiasm for its applicability to the postindustrial West). Many countries that have focused explicitly on growth have managed to make considerable inroads into reducing poverty, even in the absence of a development programme; Japan and Germany followed this route after World War II, as has China from the 1970s. On the other hand, some countries with massive inflows of funding for aid-based development projects particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa have struggled to progress with meeting poverty reduction targets. There is a good reason to be sceptical about the Growth Model, however, as is evidenced by the numerous societies that have partly imploded as a consequence of prioritising economic growth above the work of human development. The experiences of many eastern European countries with health and employment crises in the early 1990s are particularly traumatic examples of this. The Growth Model also suffers from an undemocratic, and technocratic, if not autocratic, method underdeveloped countries frequently make policy decisions based on consultation with Western economists and institutions on how to generate growth. This dissolves the autonomy of communities to make their own decisions about what matters to them, and what kind of society they would like to build. The move to the Sustainable livelihoods Approach is a positive move in tills regard, because by operating on a principle that decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, it introduces a role for localised decision-making. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for any country in the near future to ignore economic growth as a development indicator while continuing to meet development targets. It is important, however, that we move away from seeing this type of growth as the prime objective for development. Development is ultimately about people, and human development must be placed at the forefront; economic growth is simply one tool out of many that can help us along the way. We also need to recognise that foreign advisers, whatever qualifications and knowledge they may possess, can sometimes be a hindrance; local autonomy must be respected for real development to occur. The Growth Model may have failed, but this does not render economic growth irrelevant. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach offers helpful and realistic alternatives. But it is folly to commit ourselves to a strictly defined, systematic programme less constrictive mindsets will help us break the development fashion cycle. | The Growth Model takes some authority away from local forms of organisation. | entailment |
id_2762 | Growth Model Shortly after World War II, development as we now understand it was set in motion. Western governments and donors poured money into new agencies that set about trying to stimulate the economies of underdeveloped countries. Because of this emphasis, it is now widely regarded as the Growth Model. Although we might expect poverty reduction to be the central objective, planners at this stage were primarily concerned with industrial development. It was hoped that the benefits of this would trickle down to poor people through raising incomes and providing employment opportunities, thereby indirectly lifting them above the ascribed poverty threshold of a dollar a day. The weaknesses of these assumptions were revealed, however, when poverty rates and economic growth were found to rise simultaneously in many countries. During the 1970s, a new trend took over trickle-up development. Instead of focusing on macro-economic policy and large-scale industrial projects, planners shifted attention to the core living requirements of individuals and communities. This became known as the Basic Needs Approach to development. It was hoped that through the provision of services such as community sanitation and literacy programmes, poverty could be eliminated from below. Economic growth was desirable but superfluous Basic Needs redefined poverty from involving a lack of money to lacking the capability to attain full human potential. The trouble with Basic Needs programmes, however, was their expensive, resource-intensive nature that entailed continuous management and funding Since the 1980s, development planners have moved towards the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, which emphasises good livelihoods (materially and socially) that, most importantly, are independent and sustainable. Sustainable in this sense means that people are able to recover from the shocks and stresses of daily life, absolving agencies of the need to persistently monitor their lives. This approach emphasises a view of poverty that comes not from the rich but from the impoverished themselves, who are considered to be most suitably positioned to determine the poverty indicators that contribute to the multiple facets of their own deprivation. Although the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach has been criticised for lacking an environmental platform strong enough to respond to climate change, and for disassociating aspects of power and societal status from being a contestable part of development, it is currently the preferred model for development projects. Though there is some linearity to the trajectory of development practice, with paradigms shifting in and out of fashion, vigorous scholarly debate persists around all approaches. The Growth Model, for example, is still defended by many theorists, particularly economists. Those who believe in the Growth Model insist that nothing trumps economic development as a tool for poverty alleviation for the developing countries (although there is often less enthusiasm for its applicability to the postindustrial West). Many countries that have focused explicitly on growth have managed to make considerable inroads into reducing poverty, even in the absence of a development programme; Japan and Germany followed this route after World War II, as has China from the 1970s. On the other hand, some countries with massive inflows of funding for aid-based development projects particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa have struggled to progress with meeting poverty reduction targets. There is a good reason to be sceptical about the Growth Model, however, as is evidenced by the numerous societies that have partly imploded as a consequence of prioritising economic growth above the work of human development. The experiences of many eastern European countries with health and employment crises in the early 1990s are particularly traumatic examples of this. The Growth Model also suffers from an undemocratic, and technocratic, if not autocratic, method underdeveloped countries frequently make policy decisions based on consultation with Western economists and institutions on how to generate growth. This dissolves the autonomy of communities to make their own decisions about what matters to them, and what kind of society they would like to build. The move to the Sustainable livelihoods Approach is a positive move in tills regard, because by operating on a principle that decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, it introduces a role for localised decision-making. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for any country in the near future to ignore economic growth as a development indicator while continuing to meet development targets. It is important, however, that we move away from seeing this type of growth as the prime objective for development. Development is ultimately about people, and human development must be placed at the forefront; economic growth is simply one tool out of many that can help us along the way. We also need to recognise that foreign advisers, whatever qualifications and knowledge they may possess, can sometimes be a hindrance; local autonomy must be respected for real development to occur. The Growth Model may have failed, but this does not render economic growth irrelevant. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach offers helpful and realistic alternatives. But it is folly to commit ourselves to a strictly defined, systematic programme less constrictive mindsets will help us break the development fashion cycle. | It is not possible to reduce poverty without an explicit development policy. | contradiction |
id_2763 | Growth Model Shortly after World War II, development as we now understand it was set in motion. Western governments and donors poured money into new agencies that set about trying to stimulate the economies of underdeveloped countries. Because of this emphasis, it is now widely regarded as the Growth Model. Although we might expect poverty reduction to be the central objective, planners at this stage were primarily concerned with industrial development. It was hoped that the benefits of this would trickle down to poor people through raising incomes and providing employment opportunities, thereby indirectly lifting them above the ascribed poverty threshold of a dollar a day. The weaknesses of these assumptions were revealed, however, when poverty rates and economic growth were found to rise simultaneously in many countries. During the 1970s, a new trend took over trickle-up development. Instead of focusing on macro-economic policy and large-scale industrial projects, planners shifted attention to the core living requirements of individuals and communities. This became known as the Basic Needs Approach to development. It was hoped that through the provision of services such as community sanitation and literacy programmes, poverty could be eliminated from below. Economic growth was desirable but superfluous Basic Needs redefined poverty from involving a lack of money to lacking the capability to attain full human potential. The trouble with Basic Needs programmes, however, was their expensive, resource-intensive nature that entailed continuous management and funding Since the 1980s, development planners have moved towards the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, which emphasises good livelihoods (materially and socially) that, most importantly, are independent and sustainable. Sustainable in this sense means that people are able to recover from the shocks and stresses of daily life, absolving agencies of the need to persistently monitor their lives. This approach emphasises a view of poverty that comes not from the rich but from the impoverished themselves, who are considered to be most suitably positioned to determine the poverty indicators that contribute to the multiple facets of their own deprivation. Although the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach has been criticised for lacking an environmental platform strong enough to respond to climate change, and for disassociating aspects of power and societal status from being a contestable part of development, it is currently the preferred model for development projects. Though there is some linearity to the trajectory of development practice, with paradigms shifting in and out of fashion, vigorous scholarly debate persists around all approaches. The Growth Model, for example, is still defended by many theorists, particularly economists. Those who believe in the Growth Model insist that nothing trumps economic development as a tool for poverty alleviation for the developing countries (although there is often less enthusiasm for its applicability to the postindustrial West). Many countries that have focused explicitly on growth have managed to make considerable inroads into reducing poverty, even in the absence of a development programme; Japan and Germany followed this route after World War II, as has China from the 1970s. On the other hand, some countries with massive inflows of funding for aid-based development projects particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa have struggled to progress with meeting poverty reduction targets. There is a good reason to be sceptical about the Growth Model, however, as is evidenced by the numerous societies that have partly imploded as a consequence of prioritising economic growth above the work of human development. The experiences of many eastern European countries with health and employment crises in the early 1990s are particularly traumatic examples of this. The Growth Model also suffers from an undemocratic, and technocratic, if not autocratic, method underdeveloped countries frequently make policy decisions based on consultation with Western economists and institutions on how to generate growth. This dissolves the autonomy of communities to make their own decisions about what matters to them, and what kind of society they would like to build. The move to the Sustainable livelihoods Approach is a positive move in tills regard, because by operating on a principle that decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, it introduces a role for localised decision-making. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for any country in the near future to ignore economic growth as a development indicator while continuing to meet development targets. It is important, however, that we move away from seeing this type of growth as the prime objective for development. Development is ultimately about people, and human development must be placed at the forefront; economic growth is simply one tool out of many that can help us along the way. We also need to recognise that foreign advisers, whatever qualifications and knowledge they may possess, can sometimes be a hindrance; local autonomy must be respected for real development to occur. The Growth Model may have failed, but this does not render economic growth irrelevant. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach offers helpful and realistic alternatives. But it is folly to commit ourselves to a strictly defined, systematic programme less constrictive mindsets will help us break the development fashion cycle. | The most favoured method of development is the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. | entailment |
id_2764 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Change of voice does not depend on the glandular function. | neutral |
id_2765 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Glands stop secretion with the advancement of adolescence. | contradiction |
id_2766 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Biological changes of the body extend over several years. | neutral |
id_2767 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | In adolescence, the child undergoes some behavioral changes also. | neutral |
id_2768 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Girls enter the adolescence ahead of boys. | neutral |
id_2769 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Growth means obesity. | neutral |
id_2770 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Physical changes of human body generally takes place during puberty. | contradiction |
id_2771 | Growth indicates improved motor performances with age. Growth is more than enlargement. Parts of the body change in relative size, glands and their secretion take on new functions and innumerable changes take place in the bodys microanatomy and biochemistry. Change in height and weight is most striking in early adolescence. Adolescence sees great increase in height and weight, change from childish to adult body proportions, change in the sexual organs, change in the glandular functions and change in voice. | Change in height and weight usually occurs during adolescence. | entailment |
id_2772 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | Final-year high school students experience more burnout than any other group of students. | neutral |
id_2773 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | One way to assess your learning is to try to explain what you have learnt to someone else. | entailment |
id_2774 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | Successful exam students are usually those who give up other social and sports activities and focus on their study. | contradiction |
id_2775 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | High school students can avoid study burnout by studying well, and by having reasonable, but not overly high, expectations of results. | entailment |
id_2776 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | According to a study in Finland, students who stopped socialising with friends before exams had a higher rate of burnout. | neutral |
id_2777 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | It doesnt matter where a student decides to study, as study environment has no effect on study burnout. | contradiction |
id_2778 | Guard against burnout! Burnout doesnt just affect people in the workforce-high school students who feel bored, overwhelmed and overworked can also be at risk. A Finnish study looking at burnout in students found it was linked to high expectations of school demands, feeling cynical about school work and feeling inadequate as a student. But being prepared, studying well and having reasonable expectations about results could help avoid burnout. Department of Education psychologist Penelope Radunovich said that there were ways to avoid burning out before the final exams. The first was to set up a good study environment. While some students could study while talking to someone and with the TV blaring, others needed perfect silence. Ms Radunovich said students needed to work out what worked for them. She said the most important thing for students to do was to make sure they understood the material. Spend 30 minutes studying, learning and understanding, then take 10 minutes to question yourself, she said. Say do I understand this? Could I tell my mother or a stranger or my friends what I have been doing? If there is nobody to explain it to, do it out loud and, if you dont understand it, go over it again. If you can explain what youve learnt, then you have understood. Parents can help prevent burnout by keeping an eye on their children and how much study they are doing. If a Year 12 student is becoming cynical about their work or they look like they are studying to the point of exhaustion, then she suggests chatting to them or offering to take them to the movies and away from the study environment. I asked kids about burnout and they said some people do feel burnt out and, when they get to that point, they stop working and go do some exercise or have a snack, listen to some music or talk to their friends, she said. The kids who do really well are the ones who do a lot of other things. | If a student is studying too much, it is advised that parents offer to take him/her out, away from the study environment. | entailment |
id_2779 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Block printing was the predominant book manufacturing process whilst Gutenberg was growing up. | neutral |
id_2780 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Gutenberg was taught to read as a boy. | neutral |
id_2781 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Gutenbergs father belonged to the aristocracy. | contradiction |
id_2782 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Gutenbergs family was somewhat sociable. | entailment |
id_2783 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Manuscripts were beautifully crafted. | neutral |
id_2784 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Having well off friends was a good way to expand your reading. | entailment |
id_2785 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Block printing is an appropriate name for what it describes. | entailment |
id_2786 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Manuscripts is an appropriate name for what it describes. | entailment |
id_2787 | Gutenbergs father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is manuscripts, which means handwritings. While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. | Printing with the block process was a simple task of inking up the prepared block and pressing it down on a piece of paper, to make one page of the text. | contradiction |
id_2788 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | It's a good idea to clean your hands between exercises. | neutral |
id_2789 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | When using the stepping machine use the hand rails to help you as much as you like. | contradiction |
id_2790 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | Gentle walking is an adequate warm-up activity for some people. | contradiction |
id_2791 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | Stretching your muscles can increase your heart rate. | neutral |
id_2792 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | If you are tired it is better to skip your gym session. | entailment |
id_2793 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | You should not do any weightlifting if you have heart disease. | contradiction |
id_2794 | Gym safety It is essential to follow certain safety tips while you are out at your fitness center. This will assure your safety during workouts while avoiding injuries and/or other complications. It is imperative that you adhere to your physician's/fitness therapist's guidelines before taking up any workouts. Check out vital gym safety tips. Check your fitness before you start up any strength-training program. You might have to modify or avoid weightlifting if you have muscle or joint problems, seizure disorders, heart disease, high blood pressure, previous injuries or any other physical condition with potential for danger. One of the cardinal principles of gym safety is to never work out when you are tired or ill. You can worsen your situation or injure yourself. Warm up before any aerobic workout, as it involves repetitive exercise that increases your heart rate. Stretch IyEourLmusTclesSbeforePputtinRgthemAthroCughaTstreInuCouswEorkoutT. FoEllowSyourTbrieSfwarmc-upowithmsome stretches. Do not injure your muscles without preparing them adequately. Do not lift weights jerkily. This can lead to muscle injuries. Do your exercises in a slow and controlled manner. Increase weights gradually. Use safety collars when working out on squats, bench presses, curls and dumbbells. This will ensure that weight plates don't slip off and cause an injury. Use a weight belt, wraps, straps and gloves to support heavy lifts. This protects your lumbar region. Knee wraps prevent injury to your tendons and ligaments. repared tend to be injured more easily. Start out with some light cardiovascular activities, such as easy jogging, jumping jacks, or brisk walking, just to get your muscles going. Don't hold your breath while lifting weights, it can cause inter-abdominal pressure that can lead to hernia. Breathe out as you exert yourself and breathe in as you relax and let weight back down. Repeat exercise routines steadily to benefit from the workout. Lift weights with control and not explosively. Don't lean heavily on the stair-stepper rails. Leaning heavily on the stair-stepper rails will place unnecessary weight on your wrists and back. Unnecessary leaning can cause injuries to your wrists and back. Drink water while you workout. This prevents dehydration and aids better workout performance. Stop your gym activity if you experience dizziness, fainting or change in heart rhythm. Any significant increase or drop in blood pressure must not be ignored. A critical gym safety tip is to discontinue the fitness activity if you feel tightness in the chest or shoulders and surrounding areas. Replace gym equipment in the right place after you are done with them. Leaving them around can injure other gym members. Always use the collars that prevent weights from falling off the barbells. Keep your hands away from chains, cams, pulleys, and weight plates of exercise machines when they are in use. Use gym equipment after wiping them. Wash your hands after your workout. This may reduce your chance of catching any virus. | You should wear a belt when lifting heavy weights. | entailment |
id_2795 | HAZARDOUS COMPOUND HELPS TO PRESERVE CRUMBLING BOOKS Librarians may be able to save millions of books from slowly crumbling with a new chemical process that uses a hazardous flammable compound, diethyl zinc (DEZ). Chemists in the US have successfully completed an 18-month trial of the technique, which neutralises the acids in paper which cause books to decay. The method was developed by the Dutch chemical giant, Akzo, in collaboration with the US Library of Congress. It can treat 1,000 books at a time at a fraction of the cost of digitising. The worlds libraries and archives are today stocked mainly with books that are destroying themselves because of a new way of making paper that was introduced over a hundred years ago. In this process, wood pulp became the main source of the cellulose from which paper was made, replacing the cotton or linen rags used previously. Unfortunately, book publishers were unaware that the slightly acidic nature of wood pulp would eventually threaten their work. The acid attacks the cellulose polymer of paper, breaking it down into shorter and shorter pieces until the papers structure collapses. The only answer is to neutralise the acids in the paper by chemical means. This has generally been done by unbinding the book, treating it page by page with a carbonate solution, and then rebinding it. The cost can be as much as 200 per volume. Akzos method can be done without taking the binding off the book. On the face of it, DEZ would seem the last chemical that should be brought in contact with paper. This volatile liquid bursts into flames when it comes in contact with air. However, it is not DEZs sensitivity to oxidation which is the key to its use as a preserving agent, but its ability to neutralise acids by forming zinc salts with them. Because DEZ is volatile, it permeates the pores in paper. When it meets an acid molecule, such as sulphuric acid, it reacts to form zinc sulphate and ethane gas. DEZ is such a strong base that it will react with any acid, including the weaker organic ones. It will also react with any residual water in the paper to form zinc oxide. This is an added bonus for the book conservators, since it buffers the paper against future attack by acidic gases from the atmosphere, such as sulphur dioxide. Not only will DEZ protect against acid attack, but it is also capable of neutralising alkalis, which threaten some kinds of paper, it can do this because zinc oxide is amphoteric capable of reacting with either acids or alkalis. The Akzo method treats books that are closed, yet protects every page. It adds about two per cent of zinc oxide to the weight of the book. Much of this is deposited near the edges of the pages, the parts which are most affected by the acid from readers fingers or environmental pollution. The only risk in the Akzo process comes from the DEZ itself; this compound caused a fire at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center where earlier tests on the method were carried out. For the process, the books are gently heated under vacuum for a day to remove residual traces of moisture. The chamber is then flushed with dry nitrogen gas for five hours to remove the remaining air before DEZ is introduced at a low pressure into the gas stream. DEZ is passed through for about eight hours. Unreacted DEZ is trapped out of the exit gases and recycled, while the ethane is burned off. When the process is complete, the chamber is purged with nitrogen to remove residual DEZ. The whole process takes about three days. The cost per book is about 2, considerably less than the 40 for digitising. This work was originally funded by the US Library of Congress, which has over 10 million books now at risk. According to Dick Miller, Akzos director for book preservation, tests have shown that the method can deal with hundreds of books at a time. A million books a year could be rescued by the new process, for which Akzo has been granted exclusive rights. The treated books should then survive for hundreds of years. Another national institution, the British Library, launched an adopt-a-book scheme to help it meet the costs of processing books. The British Library has so far raised over 80,000. But if the traditional method were used, this would barely cover a twentieth of one per cent of the two million books the Library needs to treat. Edmund King of the British Librarys preservation service says that the Library has developed another method which coats the individual fibres of the paper with ethyl acrylate polymer, protecting the books not only against acid attack but actually making them stronger. The British Library is now seeking an industrial partner to exploit its work. | The Akzo preservation method is more expensive than other techniques. | contradiction |
id_2796 | HAZARDOUS COMPOUND HELPS TO PRESERVE CRUMBLING BOOKS Librarians may be able to save millions of books from slowly crumbling with a new chemical process that uses a hazardous flammable compound, diethyl zinc (DEZ). Chemists in the US have successfully completed an 18-month trial of the technique, which neutralises the acids in paper which cause books to decay. The method was developed by the Dutch chemical giant, Akzo, in collaboration with the US Library of Congress. It can treat 1,000 books at a time at a fraction of the cost of digitising. The worlds libraries and archives are today stocked mainly with books that are destroying themselves because of a new way of making paper that was introduced over a hundred years ago. In this process, wood pulp became the main source of the cellulose from which paper was made, replacing the cotton or linen rags used previously. Unfortunately, book publishers were unaware that the slightly acidic nature of wood pulp would eventually threaten their work. The acid attacks the cellulose polymer of paper, breaking it down into shorter and shorter pieces until the papers structure collapses. The only answer is to neutralise the acids in the paper by chemical means. This has generally been done by unbinding the book, treating it page by page with a carbonate solution, and then rebinding it. The cost can be as much as 200 per volume. Akzos method can be done without taking the binding off the book. On the face of it, DEZ would seem the last chemical that should be brought in contact with paper. This volatile liquid bursts into flames when it comes in contact with air. However, it is not DEZs sensitivity to oxidation which is the key to its use as a preserving agent, but its ability to neutralise acids by forming zinc salts with them. Because DEZ is volatile, it permeates the pores in paper. When it meets an acid molecule, such as sulphuric acid, it reacts to form zinc sulphate and ethane gas. DEZ is such a strong base that it will react with any acid, including the weaker organic ones. It will also react with any residual water in the paper to form zinc oxide. This is an added bonus for the book conservators, since it buffers the paper against future attack by acidic gases from the atmosphere, such as sulphur dioxide. Not only will DEZ protect against acid attack, but it is also capable of neutralising alkalis, which threaten some kinds of paper, it can do this because zinc oxide is amphoteric capable of reacting with either acids or alkalis. The Akzo method treats books that are closed, yet protects every page. It adds about two per cent of zinc oxide to the weight of the book. Much of this is deposited near the edges of the pages, the parts which are most affected by the acid from readers fingers or environmental pollution. The only risk in the Akzo process comes from the DEZ itself; this compound caused a fire at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center where earlier tests on the method were carried out. For the process, the books are gently heated under vacuum for a day to remove residual traces of moisture. The chamber is then flushed with dry nitrogen gas for five hours to remove the remaining air before DEZ is introduced at a low pressure into the gas stream. DEZ is passed through for about eight hours. Unreacted DEZ is trapped out of the exit gases and recycled, while the ethane is burned off. When the process is complete, the chamber is purged with nitrogen to remove residual DEZ. The whole process takes about three days. The cost per book is about 2, considerably less than the 40 for digitising. This work was originally funded by the US Library of Congress, which has over 10 million books now at risk. According to Dick Miller, Akzos director for book preservation, tests have shown that the method can deal with hundreds of books at a time. A million books a year could be rescued by the new process, for which Akzo has been granted exclusive rights. The treated books should then survive for hundreds of years. Another national institution, the British Library, launched an adopt-a-book scheme to help it meet the costs of processing books. The British Library has so far raised over 80,000. But if the traditional method were used, this would barely cover a twentieth of one per cent of the two million books the Library needs to treat. Edmund King of the British Librarys preservation service says that the Library has developed another method which coats the individual fibres of the paper with ethyl acrylate polymer, protecting the books not only against acid attack but actually making them stronger. The British Library is now seeking an industrial partner to exploit its work. | DEZs ability to neutralise acids is the reason why it is used as a preserving agent. | entailment |
id_2797 | HAZARDOUS COMPOUND HELPS TO PRESERVE CRUMBLING BOOKS Librarians may be able to save millions of books from slowly crumbling with a new chemical process that uses a hazardous flammable compound, diethyl zinc (DEZ). Chemists in the US have successfully completed an 18-month trial of the technique, which neutralises the acids in paper which cause books to decay. The method was developed by the Dutch chemical giant, Akzo, in collaboration with the US Library of Congress. It can treat 1,000 books at a time at a fraction of the cost of digitising. The worlds libraries and archives are today stocked mainly with books that are destroying themselves because of a new way of making paper that was introduced over a hundred years ago. In this process, wood pulp became the main source of the cellulose from which paper was made, replacing the cotton or linen rags used previously. Unfortunately, book publishers were unaware that the slightly acidic nature of wood pulp would eventually threaten their work. The acid attacks the cellulose polymer of paper, breaking it down into shorter and shorter pieces until the papers structure collapses. The only answer is to neutralise the acids in the paper by chemical means. This has generally been done by unbinding the book, treating it page by page with a carbonate solution, and then rebinding it. The cost can be as much as 200 per volume. Akzos method can be done without taking the binding off the book. On the face of it, DEZ would seem the last chemical that should be brought in contact with paper. This volatile liquid bursts into flames when it comes in contact with air. However, it is not DEZs sensitivity to oxidation which is the key to its use as a preserving agent, but its ability to neutralise acids by forming zinc salts with them. Because DEZ is volatile, it permeates the pores in paper. When it meets an acid molecule, such as sulphuric acid, it reacts to form zinc sulphate and ethane gas. DEZ is such a strong base that it will react with any acid, including the weaker organic ones. It will also react with any residual water in the paper to form zinc oxide. This is an added bonus for the book conservators, since it buffers the paper against future attack by acidic gases from the atmosphere, such as sulphur dioxide. Not only will DEZ protect against acid attack, but it is also capable of neutralising alkalis, which threaten some kinds of paper, it can do this because zinc oxide is amphoteric capable of reacting with either acids or alkalis. The Akzo method treats books that are closed, yet protects every page. It adds about two per cent of zinc oxide to the weight of the book. Much of this is deposited near the edges of the pages, the parts which are most affected by the acid from readers fingers or environmental pollution. The only risk in the Akzo process comes from the DEZ itself; this compound caused a fire at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center where earlier tests on the method were carried out. For the process, the books are gently heated under vacuum for a day to remove residual traces of moisture. The chamber is then flushed with dry nitrogen gas for five hours to remove the remaining air before DEZ is introduced at a low pressure into the gas stream. DEZ is passed through for about eight hours. Unreacted DEZ is trapped out of the exit gases and recycled, while the ethane is burned off. When the process is complete, the chamber is purged with nitrogen to remove residual DEZ. The whole process takes about three days. The cost per book is about 2, considerably less than the 40 for digitising. This work was originally funded by the US Library of Congress, which has over 10 million books now at risk. According to Dick Miller, Akzos director for book preservation, tests have shown that the method can deal with hundreds of books at a time. A million books a year could be rescued by the new process, for which Akzo has been granted exclusive rights. The treated books should then survive for hundreds of years. Another national institution, the British Library, launched an adopt-a-book scheme to help it meet the costs of processing books. The British Library has so far raised over 80,000. But if the traditional method were used, this would barely cover a twentieth of one per cent of the two million books the Library needs to treat. Edmund King of the British Librarys preservation service says that the Library has developed another method which coats the individual fibres of the paper with ethyl acrylate polymer, protecting the books not only against acid attack but actually making them stronger. The British Library is now seeking an industrial partner to exploit its work. | The US Library of Congress has exclusive rights to the new book preserving process. | contradiction |
id_2798 | HAZARDOUS COMPOUND HELPS TO PRESERVE CRUMBLING BOOKS Librarians may be able to save millions of books from slowly crumbling with a new chemical process that uses a hazardous flammable compound, diethyl zinc (DEZ). Chemists in the US have successfully completed an 18-month trial of the technique, which neutralises the acids in paper which cause books to decay. The method was developed by the Dutch chemical giant, Akzo, in collaboration with the US Library of Congress. It can treat 1,000 books at a time at a fraction of the cost of digitising. The worlds libraries and archives are today stocked mainly with books that are destroying themselves because of a new way of making paper that was introduced over a hundred years ago. In this process, wood pulp became the main source of the cellulose from which paper was made, replacing the cotton or linen rags used previously. Unfortunately, book publishers were unaware that the slightly acidic nature of wood pulp would eventually threaten their work. The acid attacks the cellulose polymer of paper, breaking it down into shorter and shorter pieces until the papers structure collapses. The only answer is to neutralise the acids in the paper by chemical means. This has generally been done by unbinding the book, treating it page by page with a carbonate solution, and then rebinding it. The cost can be as much as 200 per volume. Akzos method can be done without taking the binding off the book. On the face of it, DEZ would seem the last chemical that should be brought in contact with paper. This volatile liquid bursts into flames when it comes in contact with air. However, it is not DEZs sensitivity to oxidation which is the key to its use as a preserving agent, but its ability to neutralise acids by forming zinc salts with them. Because DEZ is volatile, it permeates the pores in paper. When it meets an acid molecule, such as sulphuric acid, it reacts to form zinc sulphate and ethane gas. DEZ is such a strong base that it will react with any acid, including the weaker organic ones. It will also react with any residual water in the paper to form zinc oxide. This is an added bonus for the book conservators, since it buffers the paper against future attack by acidic gases from the atmosphere, such as sulphur dioxide. Not only will DEZ protect against acid attack, but it is also capable of neutralising alkalis, which threaten some kinds of paper, it can do this because zinc oxide is amphoteric capable of reacting with either acids or alkalis. The Akzo method treats books that are closed, yet protects every page. It adds about two per cent of zinc oxide to the weight of the book. Much of this is deposited near the edges of the pages, the parts which are most affected by the acid from readers fingers or environmental pollution. The only risk in the Akzo process comes from the DEZ itself; this compound caused a fire at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center where earlier tests on the method were carried out. For the process, the books are gently heated under vacuum for a day to remove residual traces of moisture. The chamber is then flushed with dry nitrogen gas for five hours to remove the remaining air before DEZ is introduced at a low pressure into the gas stream. DEZ is passed through for about eight hours. Unreacted DEZ is trapped out of the exit gases and recycled, while the ethane is burned off. When the process is complete, the chamber is purged with nitrogen to remove residual DEZ. The whole process takes about three days. The cost per book is about 2, considerably less than the 40 for digitising. This work was originally funded by the US Library of Congress, which has over 10 million books now at risk. According to Dick Miller, Akzos director for book preservation, tests have shown that the method can deal with hundreds of books at a time. A million books a year could be rescued by the new process, for which Akzo has been granted exclusive rights. The treated books should then survive for hundreds of years. Another national institution, the British Library, launched an adopt-a-book scheme to help it meet the costs of processing books. The British Library has so far raised over 80,000. But if the traditional method were used, this would barely cover a twentieth of one per cent of the two million books the Library needs to treat. Edmund King of the British Librarys preservation service says that the Library has developed another method which coats the individual fibres of the paper with ethyl acrylate polymer, protecting the books not only against acid attack but actually making them stronger. The British Library is now seeking an industrial partner to exploit its work. | Preservation scheme of the British Library is more efficient than the scheme of the US Library of Congress. | neutral |
id_2799 | HELIUMS FUTURE UP IN THE AIR In recent years we have all been exposed to dire media reports concerning the impending demise of global coal and oil reserves, but the depletion of another key non-renewable resource continues without receiving much press at all. Helium an inert, odourless, monatomic element known to lay people as the substance that makes balloons float and voices squeak when inhaled could be gone from this planet within a generation. Helium itself is not rare; there is actually a plentiful supply of it in the cosmos. In fact, 24 per cent of our galaxys elemental mass consists of helium, which makes it the second most abundant element in our universe. Because of its lightness, however, most helium vanished from our own planet many years ago. Consequently, only a miniscule proportion 0.00052%, to be exact remains in earths atmosphere. Helium is the byproduct of millennia of radioactive decay from the elements thorium and uranium. The helium is mostly trapped in subterranean natural gas bunkers and commercially extracted through a method known as fractional distillation. The loss of helium on Earth would affect society greatly. Defying the perception of it as a novelty substance for parties and gimmicks, the element actually has many vital applications in society. Probably the most well known commercial usage is in airships and blimps (non-flammable helium replaced hydrogen as the lifting gas du jour after the Hindenburg catastrophe in 1932, during which an airship burst into flames and crashed to the ground killing some passengers and crew). But helium is also instrumental in deep-sea diving, where it is blended with nitrogen to mitigate the dangers of inhaling ordinary air under high pressure; as a cleaning agent for rocket engines; and, in its most prevalent use, as a coolant for superconducting magnets in hospital MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanners. The possibility of losing helium forever poses the threat of a real crisis because its unique qualities are extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible to duplicate (certainly, no biosynthetic ersatz product is close to approaching the point of feasibility for helium, even as similar developments continue apace for oil and coal). Helium is even cheerfully derided as a loner element since it does not adhere to other molecules like its cousin, hydrogen. According to Dr. Lee Sobotka, helium is the most noble of gases, meaning its very stable and non-reactive for the most part ... it has a closed electronic configuration, a very tightly bound atom. It is this coveting of its own electrons that prevents combination with other elements. Another important attribute is heliums unique boiling point, which is lower than that for any other element. The worsening global shortage could render millions of dollars of high-value, life-saving equipment totally useless. The dwindling supplies have already resulted in the postponement of research and development projects in physics laboratories and manufacturing plants around the world. There is an enormous supply and demand imbalance partly brought about by the expansion of high-tech manufacturing in Asia. The source of the problem is the Helium Privatisation Act (HPA), an American law passed in 1996 that requires the U. S. National Helium Reserve to liquidate its helium assets by 2015 regardless of the market price. Although intended to settle the original cost of the reserve by a U. S. Congress ignorant of its ramifications, the result of this fire sale is that global helium prices are so artificially deflated that few can be bothered recycling the substance or using it judiciously. Deflated values also mean that natural gas extractors see no reason to capture helium. Much is lost in the process of extraction. As Sobotka notes: [t]he government had the good vision to store helium, and the question now is: Will the corporations have the vision to capture it when extracting natural gas, and consumers the wisdom to recycle? This takes long-term vision because present market forces are not sufficient to compel prudent practice. For Nobel-prize laureate Robert Richardson, the U. S. government must be prevailed upon to repeal its privatisation policy as the country supplies over 80 per cent of global helium, mostly from the National Helium Reserve. For Richardson, a twenty- to fifty-fold increase in prices would provide incentives to recycle. A number of steps need to be taken in order to avert a costly predicament in the coming decades. Firstly, all existing supplies of helium ought to be conserved and released only by permit, with medical uses receiving precedence over other commercial or recreational demands. Secondly, conservation should be obligatory and enforced by a regulatory agency. At the moment some users, such as hospitals, tend to recycle diligently while others, such as NASA, squander massive amounts of helium. Lastly, research into alternatives to helium must begin in earnest. | The US Congress understood the possible consequences of the HPA. | contradiction |
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