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[
"is merely a replica of the ancient Greece.",
"is quite independent from Greek culture in almost all aspects.",
"is of no relation with the ancient Greece in a subtle way.",
"is influenced by the Greek culture and theology."
] | According to the passage, Byzantine culture _ | Not all modern observers of Byzantium have been so willing to associate the city on the Bosphorus with universalism or cultural breadth. While Byzantium's rating has risen recently, it has not entirely shaken off the criticisms dished out in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the devastating verdict of William Lecky, an Irish historian, who in 1869 described the Byzantine empire as "the most thoroughly base and despicable form that civilisation has yet assumed."
Even Byzantium's modern defenders have tended to set out their case in qualified terms, stressing the empire's relationship to other historical developments. Some see it as a connecting line between classical antiquity and the modern world; others, particularly those who think that civilisations are doomed perpetually to clash, stress the empire's role as a bulwark against Islam, without which Europe as a whole would have turned Muslim. Others again see it as a catalyst for the European Renaissance, especially after Hellenic talent was freed from Byzantine dogmatism.
Judith Herrin, a professor at King's College London, sets out to show that there are far better reasons to study and admire the civilisation that flourished for more than a millennium before the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and whose legacy is still discernible all over south-east Europe and the Levant. She presents Byzantium as a vibrant, dynamic, cosmopolitan reality which somehow escaped the constraints of its official ideology. For example, despite the anti-Semitism of the empire's public discourse and theology, its complex, diversified economy could hardly have functioned without the 30-plus Jewish communities that Benjamin of Tudela, a 12th-century rabbi, described.
Ms Herrin also shows that there was a fluid and perpetually evolving relationship between the competing influences of classical Greek learning, Greek Christianity and popular Byzantine culture. She pays particular attention to the powerful female voices that emerged from Byzantium: not just pious ladies who wrote saints' lives and hymns (including one breathtaking piece of sensual, almost erotic religious poetry) but the sophisticated political history that was penned by Anna Komnene, a frustrated would-be empress of the 12th century.
Ms Herrin will certainly win over some sceptics. But it will remain the case that more people are drawn to Byzantine civilisation through its dazzling art and architecture than by its literature. In August 2006, for example, more than 1,000 academic specialists on Byzantium converged on London for a week-long conference. The success of the quinquennial event was a sign that Byzantine studies are flourishing in almost every corner of the world. But it is a reasonable bet that, whatever they ultimately studied, these scholars were first drawn to the Byzantine world by gazing in wonder at an icon or a frescoed church rather than by perusing the pages of Anna Komnene.
The brilliance of Byzantine art is proof enough that something extraordinary happened on the Bosphorus. And this brilliance remained undimmed even when the empire's geopolitical fortunes were collapsing. Snobbish Western classicists who called Byzantium a poor substitute for ancient Greece may have missed the point. True, the Byzantine world was weighed down by deference to classical Greek models. But that charge could also be laid against the pedagogues who used to dominate the study of the humanities in the Western world. Right now, Byzantine history is in vogue at many universities while old-fashioned classical studies are struggling to hold their own. | 3533.txt | 3 |
[
"biased.",
"negative .",
"skeptical.",
"objective."
] | Towards the classical studies on Byzantium, the author's attitude can be said to be _ | Not all modern observers of Byzantium have been so willing to associate the city on the Bosphorus with universalism or cultural breadth. While Byzantium's rating has risen recently, it has not entirely shaken off the criticisms dished out in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the devastating verdict of William Lecky, an Irish historian, who in 1869 described the Byzantine empire as "the most thoroughly base and despicable form that civilisation has yet assumed."
Even Byzantium's modern defenders have tended to set out their case in qualified terms, stressing the empire's relationship to other historical developments. Some see it as a connecting line between classical antiquity and the modern world; others, particularly those who think that civilisations are doomed perpetually to clash, stress the empire's role as a bulwark against Islam, without which Europe as a whole would have turned Muslim. Others again see it as a catalyst for the European Renaissance, especially after Hellenic talent was freed from Byzantine dogmatism.
Judith Herrin, a professor at King's College London, sets out to show that there are far better reasons to study and admire the civilisation that flourished for more than a millennium before the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and whose legacy is still discernible all over south-east Europe and the Levant. She presents Byzantium as a vibrant, dynamic, cosmopolitan reality which somehow escaped the constraints of its official ideology. For example, despite the anti-Semitism of the empire's public discourse and theology, its complex, diversified economy could hardly have functioned without the 30-plus Jewish communities that Benjamin of Tudela, a 12th-century rabbi, described.
Ms Herrin also shows that there was a fluid and perpetually evolving relationship between the competing influences of classical Greek learning, Greek Christianity and popular Byzantine culture. She pays particular attention to the powerful female voices that emerged from Byzantium: not just pious ladies who wrote saints' lives and hymns (including one breathtaking piece of sensual, almost erotic religious poetry) but the sophisticated political history that was penned by Anna Komnene, a frustrated would-be empress of the 12th century.
Ms Herrin will certainly win over some sceptics. But it will remain the case that more people are drawn to Byzantine civilisation through its dazzling art and architecture than by its literature. In August 2006, for example, more than 1,000 academic specialists on Byzantium converged on London for a week-long conference. The success of the quinquennial event was a sign that Byzantine studies are flourishing in almost every corner of the world. But it is a reasonable bet that, whatever they ultimately studied, these scholars were first drawn to the Byzantine world by gazing in wonder at an icon or a frescoed church rather than by perusing the pages of Anna Komnene.
The brilliance of Byzantine art is proof enough that something extraordinary happened on the Bosphorus. And this brilliance remained undimmed even when the empire's geopolitical fortunes were collapsing. Snobbish Western classicists who called Byzantium a poor substitute for ancient Greece may have missed the point. True, the Byzantine world was weighed down by deference to classical Greek models. But that charge could also be laid against the pedagogues who used to dominate the study of the humanities in the Western world. Right now, Byzantine history is in vogue at many universities while old-fashioned classical studies are struggling to hold their own. | 3533.txt | 1 |
[
"improving plants' ability to absorb sunlight.",
"preventing plants from becoming overheated.",
"transporting nutrients.",
"serving as a raw material for photosynthesis."
] | According to paragraph 1, water provides all of the following essential functions for plants EXCEPT | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 0 |
[
"produce even more seeds than in a wet year.",
"do not sprout from their seeds.",
"bloom much later than in a wet year.",
"are more plentiful than perennials."
] | Paragraph 3 suggests that during a dry year ephemerals | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 1 |
[
"Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desert plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations.",
"Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories.",
"Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification.",
"Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants."
] | How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3? | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 1 |
[
"sudden.",
"early.",
"gradual.",
"strong and healthy."
] | In saying that ephemerals will develop "vigorously" when there is favorableprecipitation, the author means that their development will be | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 3 |
[
"eliminating.",
"making use of.",
"acting against.",
"experiencing."
] | The word "countering"in the passage is closest in meaning to | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 2 |
[
"relatively little growth aboveground.",
"very leafy aboveground structures.",
"non woody plant tissue resistant to wilting.",
"water stored within their roots."
] | According to paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems that are extraordinarily well developed have | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 0 |
[
"pure.",
"diminished.",
"guaranteed.",
"deep."
] | The word "assured"(paragraph 4)in the passage is closest in meaning to | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 2 |
[
"They are always found together.",
"They depend on surface water provided by streams, springs, and lakes.",
"They are phreatophytes.",
"Their roots are capable of breaking through hard soils"
] | What do "the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite"(paragraph 4) have in common? | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 2 |
[
"provide shade from the sun.",
"sometimes become crowded.",
"are places where supplies of food are plentiful.",
"leave the animals vulnerable to predators."
] | It can be inferred from paragraph 6 that all of the places desertanimals retreat to | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 0 |
[
"Each of its feathers is very short and dense.",
"Its wings produce only lateral air movement when flapping.",
"Its feathers are very thickly set on both its back and its wings.",
"It can make its feathers stand up on its back."
] | According to paragraph 7, what special adaptation helps the ostrich copewith hot desert conditions? | The harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. Despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. Most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are transmitted by water; water is a raw material in the vital process of photosynthesis; and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. Water controls the volume of plant matter produced. The distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. Some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
The perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. Most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. They possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. Some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. Another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. It is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. Some plants are woody in type -an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. These have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. Among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. They commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
Animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
Seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. The term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
Some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. For example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. When conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. The sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. Furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the Sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling. | 4078.txt | 3 |
[
"all the diamonds are almost invisible",
"many scientists had tried hard to make perfect diamonds long time ago",
"Bryant's father expected to find a diamond used in industry",
"diamonds are produced with carbon gas"
] | From the first paragraph, we learn that _ . | Bryant Linares has one heck of a secret family recipe: how to make world-class diamonds. Seven years ago his father, Robert, produced a diamond in a high-pressure chamber of carbon gas and dropped it into an acid solution to clean it off. When he returned the next morning, he expected to find the usual yellow stone-a crude artificial diamond of some use to industry, perhaps, but not the stuff of dreams. At first there didn't seem to be any stone at all. Then he saw, at the bottom of the beaker, so clear it was almost invisible, a perfect quarter-carat crystal of pure carbon. " It was the eureka moment," says Bryant. His father had managed what many scientists had given up on long ago: to manufacture a stone that wouldn't look out of place on an engagement ring.
Man-made diamonds are nothing new-industry started making them in the 1950s, and each year about 80 tons of low-quality synthetic diamonds are used in tools like drill bits and sanders. High-quality crystals, though, open up huge possibilities, jewelry being the least of them. Scientists are most excited about the prospect of making diamond microchips. As chips have shrunk over the years, engineers have struggled with ways of dissipating the heat they create. Because silicon, the main component of semiconductors, breaks down at about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, some experts believe a new material will be needed in a decade or so. Diamonds might fit the bill. They can withstand 1,000 degrees, and electrons move through them so easily that they would tend not to heat up in the first place. Engineers could cram a lot more circuits onto a diamond-based micro-chip-if they could perfect a way of making pure crystals cheaply.
The race is on. After working in secrecy for years refining their technique, the Linareses' company, Apollo Diamond, now spits out 20 carats a week, both for jewelry and for diamond wafers that could be fashioned into microchips. Rivals have also been busy. Gemesis, a Sarasota, Fla., firm, has developed a" diamond growth chamber" -a press that squeezes out high-quality diamonds in much the same way that the early presses made rough ones. Gemesis is making blue diamonds-rare and sought-after gemstones.
Chipmakers are also getting into the act. The Japanese firm Nippon Telegraph and Telephone has already made prototype diamond semiconductors, and the Japanese government is actively promoting the technology. Most U.S. research is going on in universities and military labs, but Intel has recently taken an interest. Before the technology is ready for prime time, chipmakers will have to come up with a way to keep out impurities during manufacturing. And the attribute that makes diamonds so attractive-their hardness-also makes them difficult to manipulate.
The new diamonds are likely to show up first as tiny light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, in flat-screen displays and high-definition televisions. And then, of course, there's jewelry. Although synthetics still carry a stigma, even experts can't tell the difference. Natural-diamond merchants claim they aren't worried, but De Beers has made a device that can distinguish between the natural stones and the synthetics and is distributing it to jewelers. Will consumers care? We might find out next year when Gemesis is ready to market its blue diamonds in the United States. | 508.txt | 1 |
[
"Diamond can withstand higher degree than silicon.",
"The main component of semiconductors will be replaced in a few years.",
"High-quality crystals have least usages, esp. in jewelry.",
"Engineers could not find perfect ways of making pure crystal cheaply."
] | Which of the following statements is NOT true according to the text? | Bryant Linares has one heck of a secret family recipe: how to make world-class diamonds. Seven years ago his father, Robert, produced a diamond in a high-pressure chamber of carbon gas and dropped it into an acid solution to clean it off. When he returned the next morning, he expected to find the usual yellow stone-a crude artificial diamond of some use to industry, perhaps, but not the stuff of dreams. At first there didn't seem to be any stone at all. Then he saw, at the bottom of the beaker, so clear it was almost invisible, a perfect quarter-carat crystal of pure carbon. " It was the eureka moment," says Bryant. His father had managed what many scientists had given up on long ago: to manufacture a stone that wouldn't look out of place on an engagement ring.
Man-made diamonds are nothing new-industry started making them in the 1950s, and each year about 80 tons of low-quality synthetic diamonds are used in tools like drill bits and sanders. High-quality crystals, though, open up huge possibilities, jewelry being the least of them. Scientists are most excited about the prospect of making diamond microchips. As chips have shrunk over the years, engineers have struggled with ways of dissipating the heat they create. Because silicon, the main component of semiconductors, breaks down at about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, some experts believe a new material will be needed in a decade or so. Diamonds might fit the bill. They can withstand 1,000 degrees, and electrons move through them so easily that they would tend not to heat up in the first place. Engineers could cram a lot more circuits onto a diamond-based micro-chip-if they could perfect a way of making pure crystals cheaply.
The race is on. After working in secrecy for years refining their technique, the Linareses' company, Apollo Diamond, now spits out 20 carats a week, both for jewelry and for diamond wafers that could be fashioned into microchips. Rivals have also been busy. Gemesis, a Sarasota, Fla., firm, has developed a" diamond growth chamber" -a press that squeezes out high-quality diamonds in much the same way that the early presses made rough ones. Gemesis is making blue diamonds-rare and sought-after gemstones.
Chipmakers are also getting into the act. The Japanese firm Nippon Telegraph and Telephone has already made prototype diamond semiconductors, and the Japanese government is actively promoting the technology. Most U.S. research is going on in universities and military labs, but Intel has recently taken an interest. Before the technology is ready for prime time, chipmakers will have to come up with a way to keep out impurities during manufacturing. And the attribute that makes diamonds so attractive-their hardness-also makes them difficult to manipulate.
The new diamonds are likely to show up first as tiny light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, in flat-screen displays and high-definition televisions. And then, of course, there's jewelry. Although synthetics still carry a stigma, even experts can't tell the difference. Natural-diamond merchants claim they aren't worried, but De Beers has made a device that can distinguish between the natural stones and the synthetics and is distributing it to jewelers. Will consumers care? We might find out next year when Gemesis is ready to market its blue diamonds in the United States. | 508.txt | 2 |
[
"They all work in secrecy.",
"They have improved their techniques.",
"They have developed their own diamond chambers.",
"They have turned the rough diamonds to high-quality ones."
] | According to the passage, why can the companies increase and perfect their production of diamond? | Bryant Linares has one heck of a secret family recipe: how to make world-class diamonds. Seven years ago his father, Robert, produced a diamond in a high-pressure chamber of carbon gas and dropped it into an acid solution to clean it off. When he returned the next morning, he expected to find the usual yellow stone-a crude artificial diamond of some use to industry, perhaps, but not the stuff of dreams. At first there didn't seem to be any stone at all. Then he saw, at the bottom of the beaker, so clear it was almost invisible, a perfect quarter-carat crystal of pure carbon. " It was the eureka moment," says Bryant. His father had managed what many scientists had given up on long ago: to manufacture a stone that wouldn't look out of place on an engagement ring.
Man-made diamonds are nothing new-industry started making them in the 1950s, and each year about 80 tons of low-quality synthetic diamonds are used in tools like drill bits and sanders. High-quality crystals, though, open up huge possibilities, jewelry being the least of them. Scientists are most excited about the prospect of making diamond microchips. As chips have shrunk over the years, engineers have struggled with ways of dissipating the heat they create. Because silicon, the main component of semiconductors, breaks down at about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, some experts believe a new material will be needed in a decade or so. Diamonds might fit the bill. They can withstand 1,000 degrees, and electrons move through them so easily that they would tend not to heat up in the first place. Engineers could cram a lot more circuits onto a diamond-based micro-chip-if they could perfect a way of making pure crystals cheaply.
The race is on. After working in secrecy for years refining their technique, the Linareses' company, Apollo Diamond, now spits out 20 carats a week, both for jewelry and for diamond wafers that could be fashioned into microchips. Rivals have also been busy. Gemesis, a Sarasota, Fla., firm, has developed a" diamond growth chamber" -a press that squeezes out high-quality diamonds in much the same way that the early presses made rough ones. Gemesis is making blue diamonds-rare and sought-after gemstones.
Chipmakers are also getting into the act. The Japanese firm Nippon Telegraph and Telephone has already made prototype diamond semiconductors, and the Japanese government is actively promoting the technology. Most U.S. research is going on in universities and military labs, but Intel has recently taken an interest. Before the technology is ready for prime time, chipmakers will have to come up with a way to keep out impurities during manufacturing. And the attribute that makes diamonds so attractive-their hardness-also makes them difficult to manipulate.
The new diamonds are likely to show up first as tiny light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, in flat-screen displays and high-definition televisions. And then, of course, there's jewelry. Although synthetics still carry a stigma, even experts can't tell the difference. Natural-diamond merchants claim they aren't worried, but De Beers has made a device that can distinguish between the natural stones and the synthetics and is distributing it to jewelers. Will consumers care? We might find out next year when Gemesis is ready to market its blue diamonds in the United States. | 508.txt | 1 |
[
"Quality.",
"Contribution.",
"Appearance.",
"Value."
] | Which of the following best defines the word" attribute" （Line 5, Paragraph 4）? | Bryant Linares has one heck of a secret family recipe: how to make world-class diamonds. Seven years ago his father, Robert, produced a diamond in a high-pressure chamber of carbon gas and dropped it into an acid solution to clean it off. When he returned the next morning, he expected to find the usual yellow stone-a crude artificial diamond of some use to industry, perhaps, but not the stuff of dreams. At first there didn't seem to be any stone at all. Then he saw, at the bottom of the beaker, so clear it was almost invisible, a perfect quarter-carat crystal of pure carbon. " It was the eureka moment," says Bryant. His father had managed what many scientists had given up on long ago: to manufacture a stone that wouldn't look out of place on an engagement ring.
Man-made diamonds are nothing new-industry started making them in the 1950s, and each year about 80 tons of low-quality synthetic diamonds are used in tools like drill bits and sanders. High-quality crystals, though, open up huge possibilities, jewelry being the least of them. Scientists are most excited about the prospect of making diamond microchips. As chips have shrunk over the years, engineers have struggled with ways of dissipating the heat they create. Because silicon, the main component of semiconductors, breaks down at about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, some experts believe a new material will be needed in a decade or so. Diamonds might fit the bill. They can withstand 1,000 degrees, and electrons move through them so easily that they would tend not to heat up in the first place. Engineers could cram a lot more circuits onto a diamond-based micro-chip-if they could perfect a way of making pure crystals cheaply.
The race is on. After working in secrecy for years refining their technique, the Linareses' company, Apollo Diamond, now spits out 20 carats a week, both for jewelry and for diamond wafers that could be fashioned into microchips. Rivals have also been busy. Gemesis, a Sarasota, Fla., firm, has developed a" diamond growth chamber" -a press that squeezes out high-quality diamonds in much the same way that the early presses made rough ones. Gemesis is making blue diamonds-rare and sought-after gemstones.
Chipmakers are also getting into the act. The Japanese firm Nippon Telegraph and Telephone has already made prototype diamond semiconductors, and the Japanese government is actively promoting the technology. Most U.S. research is going on in universities and military labs, but Intel has recently taken an interest. Before the technology is ready for prime time, chipmakers will have to come up with a way to keep out impurities during manufacturing. And the attribute that makes diamonds so attractive-their hardness-also makes them difficult to manipulate.
The new diamonds are likely to show up first as tiny light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, in flat-screen displays and high-definition televisions. And then, of course, there's jewelry. Although synthetics still carry a stigma, even experts can't tell the difference. Natural-diamond merchants claim they aren't worried, but De Beers has made a device that can distinguish between the natural stones and the synthetics and is distributing it to jewelers. Will consumers care? We might find out next year when Gemesis is ready to market its blue diamonds in the United States. | 508.txt | 0 |
[
"LEDs",
"flat-screen displays",
"high-definition televisions",
"prototype diamond semiconductors"
] | The new diamond is NOT first used in _ . | Bryant Linares has one heck of a secret family recipe: how to make world-class diamonds. Seven years ago his father, Robert, produced a diamond in a high-pressure chamber of carbon gas and dropped it into an acid solution to clean it off. When he returned the next morning, he expected to find the usual yellow stone-a crude artificial diamond of some use to industry, perhaps, but not the stuff of dreams. At first there didn't seem to be any stone at all. Then he saw, at the bottom of the beaker, so clear it was almost invisible, a perfect quarter-carat crystal of pure carbon. " It was the eureka moment," says Bryant. His father had managed what many scientists had given up on long ago: to manufacture a stone that wouldn't look out of place on an engagement ring.
Man-made diamonds are nothing new-industry started making them in the 1950s, and each year about 80 tons of low-quality synthetic diamonds are used in tools like drill bits and sanders. High-quality crystals, though, open up huge possibilities, jewelry being the least of them. Scientists are most excited about the prospect of making diamond microchips. As chips have shrunk over the years, engineers have struggled with ways of dissipating the heat they create. Because silicon, the main component of semiconductors, breaks down at about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, some experts believe a new material will be needed in a decade or so. Diamonds might fit the bill. They can withstand 1,000 degrees, and electrons move through them so easily that they would tend not to heat up in the first place. Engineers could cram a lot more circuits onto a diamond-based micro-chip-if they could perfect a way of making pure crystals cheaply.
The race is on. After working in secrecy for years refining their technique, the Linareses' company, Apollo Diamond, now spits out 20 carats a week, both for jewelry and for diamond wafers that could be fashioned into microchips. Rivals have also been busy. Gemesis, a Sarasota, Fla., firm, has developed a" diamond growth chamber" -a press that squeezes out high-quality diamonds in much the same way that the early presses made rough ones. Gemesis is making blue diamonds-rare and sought-after gemstones.
Chipmakers are also getting into the act. The Japanese firm Nippon Telegraph and Telephone has already made prototype diamond semiconductors, and the Japanese government is actively promoting the technology. Most U.S. research is going on in universities and military labs, but Intel has recently taken an interest. Before the technology is ready for prime time, chipmakers will have to come up with a way to keep out impurities during manufacturing. And the attribute that makes diamonds so attractive-their hardness-also makes them difficult to manipulate.
The new diamonds are likely to show up first as tiny light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, in flat-screen displays and high-definition televisions. And then, of course, there's jewelry. Although synthetics still carry a stigma, even experts can't tell the difference. Natural-diamond merchants claim they aren't worried, but De Beers has made a device that can distinguish between the natural stones and the synthetics and is distributing it to jewelers. Will consumers care? We might find out next year when Gemesis is ready to market its blue diamonds in the United States. | 508.txt | 3 |
[
"When the Computer Is Down",
"The Most Frightening Words",
"The Computer of the Airport",
"Asking the Computer"
] | The best title for the article is _ . | The most frightening words in the English language are, "Our computer is down." You hear it more and more when you are on business. The other day I was at the airport waiting for a ticket to Washington and the girl in the ticket office said, "I'm sorry, I can't sell you a ticket. Our computer is down."
"If your computer is down, just write me out a ticket."
"I can't write you out a ticket. The computer is the only one allowed to do so."
I looked down on the computer and every passenger was just standing there drinking coffee and staring at the black screen. Then I asked her, "What do all you people do?"
"We give the computer the information about your trip, and then it tells us whether you can fly with us or not."
"So when it goes down, you go down with it."
"That's good, sir."
"How long will the computer be down?" I wanted to know.
"I have no idea. Sometimes it's down for 10 minutes, sometimes for two hours. There's no way we can find out without asking the computer, and since it's down it won't answer us."
After the girl told me they had no backup computer, I said. "Let's forget the computer. What about your planes? They're still flying, aren't they?"
"I couldn't tell without asking the computer."
"Maybe I could just go to the gate and ask the pilot if he's flying to Washington, " I suggested.
"I wouldn't know what gate to send you to. Even if the pilot was going to Washington, he couldn't take you if you didn't have a ticket."
"Is there any other airline flying to Washington within the next few hours?"
"I wouldn't know, " she said, pointing at the dark screen. "Only ‘IT' knows. ‘It' can't tell me."
By this time there were quite a few people standing in lines. The word soon spread to other travelers that the computer was down. Some people went white, some people started to cry and still others kicked their luggage. | 996.txt | 0 |
[
"She could sell a ticket.",
"She could write out a ticket.",
"She could answer the passengers' questions.",
"She could do nothing."
] | What could the girl in the ticket office do for the passengers without asking the computer? | The most frightening words in the English language are, "Our computer is down." You hear it more and more when you are on business. The other day I was at the airport waiting for a ticket to Washington and the girl in the ticket office said, "I'm sorry, I can't sell you a ticket. Our computer is down."
"If your computer is down, just write me out a ticket."
"I can't write you out a ticket. The computer is the only one allowed to do so."
I looked down on the computer and every passenger was just standing there drinking coffee and staring at the black screen. Then I asked her, "What do all you people do?"
"We give the computer the information about your trip, and then it tells us whether you can fly with us or not."
"So when it goes down, you go down with it."
"That's good, sir."
"How long will the computer be down?" I wanted to know.
"I have no idea. Sometimes it's down for 10 minutes, sometimes for two hours. There's no way we can find out without asking the computer, and since it's down it won't answer us."
After the girl told me they had no backup computer, I said. "Let's forget the computer. What about your planes? They're still flying, aren't they?"
"I couldn't tell without asking the computer."
"Maybe I could just go to the gate and ask the pilot if he's flying to Washington, " I suggested.
"I wouldn't know what gate to send you to. Even if the pilot was going to Washington, he couldn't take you if you didn't have a ticket."
"Is there any other airline flying to Washington within the next few hours?"
"I wouldn't know, " she said, pointing at the dark screen. "Only ‘IT' knows. ‘It' can't tell me."
By this time there were quite a few people standing in lines. The word soon spread to other travelers that the computer was down. Some people went white, some people started to cry and still others kicked their luggage. | 996.txt | 3 |
[
"Because it was easy down",
"Because it was very expensive.",
"Because it was not advanced enough.",
"Because it was not as big as the main computer."
] | Why do you think they had not a backup computer? | The most frightening words in the English language are, "Our computer is down." You hear it more and more when you are on business. The other day I was at the airport waiting for a ticket to Washington and the girl in the ticket office said, "I'm sorry, I can't sell you a ticket. Our computer is down."
"If your computer is down, just write me out a ticket."
"I can't write you out a ticket. The computer is the only one allowed to do so."
I looked down on the computer and every passenger was just standing there drinking coffee and staring at the black screen. Then I asked her, "What do all you people do?"
"We give the computer the information about your trip, and then it tells us whether you can fly with us or not."
"So when it goes down, you go down with it."
"That's good, sir."
"How long will the computer be down?" I wanted to know.
"I have no idea. Sometimes it's down for 10 minutes, sometimes for two hours. There's no way we can find out without asking the computer, and since it's down it won't answer us."
After the girl told me they had no backup computer, I said. "Let's forget the computer. What about your planes? They're still flying, aren't they?"
"I couldn't tell without asking the computer."
"Maybe I could just go to the gate and ask the pilot if he's flying to Washington, " I suggested.
"I wouldn't know what gate to send you to. Even if the pilot was going to Washington, he couldn't take you if you didn't have a ticket."
"Is there any other airline flying to Washington within the next few hours?"
"I wouldn't know, " she said, pointing at the dark screen. "Only ‘IT' knows. ‘It' can't tell me."
By this time there were quite a few people standing in lines. The word soon spread to other travelers that the computer was down. Some people went white, some people started to cry and still others kicked their luggage. | 996.txt | 1 |
[
"a modern computer won't be down.",
"computers can take the place of humans",
"sometimes a computer may bring suffering to people",
"there will be great changes in computers"
] | The last paragraph suggests that _ . | The most frightening words in the English language are, "Our computer is down." You hear it more and more when you are on business. The other day I was at the airport waiting for a ticket to Washington and the girl in the ticket office said, "I'm sorry, I can't sell you a ticket. Our computer is down."
"If your computer is down, just write me out a ticket."
"I can't write you out a ticket. The computer is the only one allowed to do so."
I looked down on the computer and every passenger was just standing there drinking coffee and staring at the black screen. Then I asked her, "What do all you people do?"
"We give the computer the information about your trip, and then it tells us whether you can fly with us or not."
"So when it goes down, you go down with it."
"That's good, sir."
"How long will the computer be down?" I wanted to know.
"I have no idea. Sometimes it's down for 10 minutes, sometimes for two hours. There's no way we can find out without asking the computer, and since it's down it won't answer us."
After the girl told me they had no backup computer, I said. "Let's forget the computer. What about your planes? They're still flying, aren't they?"
"I couldn't tell without asking the computer."
"Maybe I could just go to the gate and ask the pilot if he's flying to Washington, " I suggested.
"I wouldn't know what gate to send you to. Even if the pilot was going to Washington, he couldn't take you if you didn't have a ticket."
"Is there any other airline flying to Washington within the next few hours?"
"I wouldn't know, " she said, pointing at the dark screen. "Only ‘IT' knows. ‘It' can't tell me."
By this time there were quite a few people standing in lines. The word soon spread to other travelers that the computer was down. Some people went white, some people started to cry and still others kicked their luggage. | 996.txt | 2 |
[
"originally.",
"supposedly.",
"obviously.",
"usually."
] | The word "presumably"(paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning to | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 1 |
[
"They had cellulose-based cell walls.",
"They were closely related to green algae",
"They were able to store nutrients",
"They had a sophisticated multicellular structure."
] | According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of ancestral plants EXCEPT | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 3 |
[
"restricted by",
"distant from",
"exposed to",
"combined with"
] | The phrase "subjected to"(paragraph 1) in the passage is closest in | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 2 |
[
"They lived in a generally wet environment that was sometimes dry.",
"They adapted better to changes in water temperature than did to other changes in the environment.",
"They inhabited areas that were close to the ocean.",
"They had lived primarily on land."
] | What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about ancient green algae? | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 0 |
[
"dusty.",
"hardened.",
"deserted.",
"dried out."
] | The word "desolate"in the passage is closest in meaning to | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 2 |
[
"it was exposed to high levels of solar radiation.",
"it contained a limited supply of carbon dioxide.",
"it had developed 400 million years earlier.",
"it lacked the presence of any organisms."
] | According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about theterrestrial world at the time it was colonized by plants? | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 3 |
[
"shared.",
"presented.",
"strengthened.",
"concealed."
] | the word "posed"(paragraph 4)in the passage is closest in meaning to | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 1 |
[
"a tendency to become dry.",
"the inability to limit surface sunlight.",
"the absence of a structure to support the body of the plant.",
"the inability to transport water and minerals through the plant."
] | According to paragraph 5, all of the following are problems that early terrestrial plants had to overcome Except | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 1 |
[
"To emphasize how long it took for ancestral plants to adjust to life on land.",
"To disprove the argument that land plants adapted easily to their new terrestrial environment.",
"To explain how plant colonization changed the physical environment of the terrestrial world.",
"To describe how ancestral plants solved the problems they confirmed in colonizing."
] | What purpose does paragraph 5 serve in the larger discussion of the origins of terrestrial plants? | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 3 |
[
"Plants developed reproductive strategies usable in both land and water environment.",
"the plant diversity achieved in water environments diminished on land.",
"seed plants became the dominant species among plants.",
"a greater range of plants was able to develop."
] | According to Paragraph 6, The adaptation made by terrestrial plants hadwhich of the following effect? | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 3 |
[
"the author provided and overview of the evolutionary relationships between specific species of algae and land plants.",
"The author discusses the transformation plants underwent in the process of changing from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment.",
"the author establishes a pattern of similarity between major land and water pant groups.",
"The author resents evidence to support the hypothesis that plants first fully evolved in water before finding their way to land."
] | Which of the following best describes the author's presentation of the information about land plants? | The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today's different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are plants'closest living relatives. In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.
Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that their early evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, the green algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resulted in adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling or organisms.
The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of ocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally or even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.
The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out that way. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million years ago, the land was barren and desolate, inhospitable to life. From a plant's evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations that helped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prospered and diversified.
When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challenges posed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water is missing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends to dry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures that support the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts of plant, and structures that conserve water. The resulting adaptations to dry land include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; now these features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots or root like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves and stems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leaves and stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducing water loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestrial life and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These include conducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots and that move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plant body and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helping it expose maximum surface area to sunlight.
Life on land, however, also required new methods of transporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannot always rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse their fertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those that evolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of water and structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protected embryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin of seed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen, seeds, and later, flowers and fruits. | 4152.txt | 1 |
[
"is organized by a middle school",
"is as famous as the Toronto Festival",
"shows films made by children",
"offers awards to film school students"
] | Wingspan Arts Kids Film Festival. | Young adult filmmakers all hope to show their works in international festivals like Sundance and Toronto.But what about really young filmmakers who aren't in film school yet and aren't,strictly speaking,even adults?
They are at the heart of Wingspan Arts Kids Film Festival,tomorrow,in a setting any director might envy:Lincoln Center.Complete with "red carpet" interviews and various awards,the festival has much in common with events for more experienced moviemakers,except for the age of the participants:about 8 to 18.
"What's really exciting is that it's film for kids by kids," said Cori Gardner,managing director of Wingspan Arts,a nonprofit organization offering youth arts programs in the New York area.This year the festival will include films not only from Wingspan but also from other city organizations and one from a middle school in Arlington,Virginia."We want to make this a national event," Ms.Gardner added.
The nine shorts to be shown range from a Claymation biography of
B.B.King to a science fiction adventure set in the year 3005."A lot of the material is really mature," Ms.Gardner said,talking about films by the New York City branch of Global Action Project,a media arts and leadership-training group."The Choice is about the history of a family and Master Anti-Smoker is about the dangers of secondhand smoke.Dream of the Invisibles describes young immigrants' feelings of both belonging and not belonging in their adopted country."
The festival will end with an open reception at which other films will be shown.These include a music video and a full-length film whose title is Pressures. | 3470.txt | 2 |
[
"It helps young filmmakers to make money.",
"It provides arts projects for young people.",
"It's a media arts and leadership-training group.",
"It's a national organization for young people."
] | Which of the following is true of Wingspan Arts? | Young adult filmmakers all hope to show their works in international festivals like Sundance and Toronto.But what about really young filmmakers who aren't in film school yet and aren't,strictly speaking,even adults?
They are at the heart of Wingspan Arts Kids Film Festival,tomorrow,in a setting any director might envy:Lincoln Center.Complete with "red carpet" interviews and various awards,the festival has much in common with events for more experienced moviemakers,except for the age of the participants:about 8 to 18.
"What's really exciting is that it's film for kids by kids," said Cori Gardner,managing director of Wingspan Arts,a nonprofit organization offering youth arts programs in the New York area.This year the festival will include films not only from Wingspan but also from other city organizations and one from a middle school in Arlington,Virginia."We want to make this a national event," Ms.Gardner added.
The nine shorts to be shown range from a Claymation biography of
B.B.King to a science fiction adventure set in the year 3005."A lot of the material is really mature," Ms.Gardner said,talking about films by the New York City branch of Global Action Project,a media arts and leadership-training group."The Choice is about the history of a family and Master Anti-Smoker is about the dangers of secondhand smoke.Dream of the Invisibles describes young immigrants' feelings of both belonging and not belonging in their adopted country."
The festival will end with an open reception at which other films will be shown.These include a music video and a full-length film whose title is Pressures. | 3470.txt | 1 |
[
"cover different subjects",
"focus on kids' life",
"are produced by Global Action Project",
"are directed by Ms.Gardner"
] | Movies to be shown in the festival. | Young adult filmmakers all hope to show their works in international festivals like Sundance and Toronto.But what about really young filmmakers who aren't in film school yet and aren't,strictly speaking,even adults?
They are at the heart of Wingspan Arts Kids Film Festival,tomorrow,in a setting any director might envy:Lincoln Center.Complete with "red carpet" interviews and various awards,the festival has much in common with events for more experienced moviemakers,except for the age of the participants:about 8 to 18.
"What's really exciting is that it's film for kids by kids," said Cori Gardner,managing director of Wingspan Arts,a nonprofit organization offering youth arts programs in the New York area.This year the festival will include films not only from Wingspan but also from other city organizations and one from a middle school in Arlington,Virginia."We want to make this a national event," Ms.Gardner added.
The nine shorts to be shown range from a Claymation biography of
B.B.King to a science fiction adventure set in the year 3005."A lot of the material is really mature," Ms.Gardner said,talking about films by the New York City branch of Global Action Project,a media arts and leadership-training group."The Choice is about the history of a family and Master Anti-Smoker is about the dangers of secondhand smoke.Dream of the Invisibles describes young immigrants' feelings of both belonging and not belonging in their adopted country."
The festival will end with an open reception at which other films will be shown.These include a music video and a full-length film whose title is Pressures. | 3470.txt | 0 |
[
"various awards",
"\"red carpet\" interviews",
"an open reception",
"a concert at Lincoln Center"
] | At the end of this film festival,there will be. | Young adult filmmakers all hope to show their works in international festivals like Sundance and Toronto.But what about really young filmmakers who aren't in film school yet and aren't,strictly speaking,even adults?
They are at the heart of Wingspan Arts Kids Film Festival,tomorrow,in a setting any director might envy:Lincoln Center.Complete with "red carpet" interviews and various awards,the festival has much in common with events for more experienced moviemakers,except for the age of the participants:about 8 to 18.
"What's really exciting is that it's film for kids by kids," said Cori Gardner,managing director of Wingspan Arts,a nonprofit organization offering youth arts programs in the New York area.This year the festival will include films not only from Wingspan but also from other city organizations and one from a middle school in Arlington,Virginia."We want to make this a national event," Ms.Gardner added.
The nine shorts to be shown range from a Claymation biography of
B.B.King to a science fiction adventure set in the year 3005."A lot of the material is really mature," Ms.Gardner said,talking about films by the New York City branch of Global Action Project,a media arts and leadership-training group."The Choice is about the history of a family and Master Anti-Smoker is about the dangers of secondhand smoke.Dream of the Invisibles describes young immigrants' feelings of both belonging and not belonging in their adopted country."
The festival will end with an open reception at which other films will be shown.These include a music video and a full-length film whose title is Pressures. | 3470.txt | 2 |
[
"forgetting for lack of practice tends to be obviously inadaptive",
"if a person gets very forgetful all of a sudden he must be very adaptive",
"the gradual process of forgetting is an indication of an individual's adaptability",
"sudden forgetting may bring about adaptive consequences"
] | From the evolutionary point of view, . | That experiences influence subsequent behaviour is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering. Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory. Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to lead to skillful performance on the piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences.
Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals. Indeed, when one's memory of an emotionally painful experience lead to serious anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.
In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time, since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out, providing clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability would suffer, for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be. Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion. Thus forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species.
Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting. In this view, continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output). Indeed, there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned. Such data offer gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance. | 1375.txt | 3 |
[
"he would survive best",
"he would have a lot of trouble",
"his ability to learn would be enhanced",
"the evolution of memory would stop"
] | According to the passage, if a person never forgot, . | That experiences influence subsequent behaviour is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering. Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory. Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to lead to skillful performance on the piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences.
Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals. Indeed, when one's memory of an emotionally painful experience lead to serious anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.
In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time, since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out, providing clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability would suffer, for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be. Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion. Thus forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species.
Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting. In this view, continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output). Indeed, there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned. Such data offer gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance. | 1375.txt | 1 |
[
"forgetfulness is a response to learning",
"the memory storage system is an exactly balanced input-output system",
"memory is a compensation for forgetting",
"the capacity of a memory storage system is limited because forgetting occurs"
] | From the last paragraph we know that . | That experiences influence subsequent behaviour is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering. Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory. Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to lead to skillful performance on the piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences.
Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals. Indeed, when one's memory of an emotionally painful experience lead to serious anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.
In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time, since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out, providing clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability would suffer, for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be. Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion. Thus forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species.
Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting. In this view, continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output). Indeed, there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned. Such data offer gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance. | 1375.txt | 0 |
[
"remembering",
"forgetting",
"adapting",
"experiencing"
] | In this article, the author tries to interpret the function of . | That experiences influence subsequent behaviour is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering. Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory. Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to lead to skillful performance on the piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences.
Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals. Indeed, when one's memory of an emotionally painful experience lead to serious anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.
In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time, since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out, providing clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability would suffer, for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be. Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion. Thus forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species.
Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting. In this view, continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output). Indeed, there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned. Such data offer gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance. | 1375.txt | 1 |
[
"attend full-time universities",
"work part time to further their education",
"improve their education at home to get better jobs",
"earn their degrees in different ways that suit them"
] | This advertisement aims at calling on people to _ . | GET YOUR DEGREE AT HOME!
Have you ever wondered what a Degree might be worth to you in your job or career? It means a lot of Americans with an Associate Degree average nearly $10,000 more in yearly earnings than those with just a High School Diploma.
Harcourt Learning Direct offers you a way to get a Specialized Associate Degree in 11 of today's growing fields-without having to go to college full time. With Harcourt, you study at home, in your spare time-so you don't have to give up your present job while you train for a better one. Choose from exciting majors like Business Management, Accounting, Dressmaking &Design, Bookkeeping, Photography, Computer Science, Engineering, and more! Your training includes everything you need! Books, lessons, learning aids-even professional-quality tools and equipment-everything you need to master your training and more ahead to a new career is included in the low tuition price you pay. Your education is nationally recognized! Nearly 2, 000 American companies-including General Electric, IBM, Mobile, General Motors, Ford, and many others-have used our training for their employees. If companies like these recognize the value of our training, you can be sure that employees in your area will, too!
Earn your degree in as little as two years! Get a career diploma in just six months! The career of your dreams is closer than you think! Even if you have no experience before, you can get valuable job skills in today's hottest fields! Step-by-step lessons make learning easy. Prepare for promotions, pay raises, even start a business of your own! Send today for FREE information about Harcourt at home training!
Simply fill in your name and address on the coupon above. Then write in the name and number of the one program you're most interested in, and mail it today. We'll rush your free information about how you can take advantage of the opportunities in the field you've chosen. Act today!
Mail coupon today! Or call the number below 1-800-372-1589. Call any time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. www. Harcourt-learning. com E-mail：Harcourt@learning. com. | 1170.txt | 2 |
[
"The way how you will get your degree.",
"Tuition price.",
"The hot fields you will be preparing yourself for.",
"The length of time it will take you to get a degree."
] | Which of the following is NOT clearly mentioned in this advertisement? | GET YOUR DEGREE AT HOME!
Have you ever wondered what a Degree might be worth to you in your job or career? It means a lot of Americans with an Associate Degree average nearly $10,000 more in yearly earnings than those with just a High School Diploma.
Harcourt Learning Direct offers you a way to get a Specialized Associate Degree in 11 of today's growing fields-without having to go to college full time. With Harcourt, you study at home, in your spare time-so you don't have to give up your present job while you train for a better one. Choose from exciting majors like Business Management, Accounting, Dressmaking &Design, Bookkeeping, Photography, Computer Science, Engineering, and more! Your training includes everything you need! Books, lessons, learning aids-even professional-quality tools and equipment-everything you need to master your training and more ahead to a new career is included in the low tuition price you pay. Your education is nationally recognized! Nearly 2, 000 American companies-including General Electric, IBM, Mobile, General Motors, Ford, and many others-have used our training for their employees. If companies like these recognize the value of our training, you can be sure that employees in your area will, too!
Earn your degree in as little as two years! Get a career diploma in just six months! The career of your dreams is closer than you think! Even if you have no experience before, you can get valuable job skills in today's hottest fields! Step-by-step lessons make learning easy. Prepare for promotions, pay raises, even start a business of your own! Send today for FREE information about Harcourt at home training!
Simply fill in your name and address on the coupon above. Then write in the name and number of the one program you're most interested in, and mail it today. We'll rush your free information about how you can take advantage of the opportunities in the field you've chosen. Act today!
Mail coupon today! Or call the number below 1-800-372-1589. Call any time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. www. Harcourt-learning. com E-mail：Harcourt@learning. com. | 1170.txt | 1 |
[
"To show that their training is widely used in the country.",
"To show that the training program is fully supported by famous companies in the U. S.",
"To prove the value of their training in every area.",
"To show the importance of getting recognized by the most famous companies."
] | What does the writer of this ad intend to say by naming General Electric, IBM, Ford, etc. | GET YOUR DEGREE AT HOME!
Have you ever wondered what a Degree might be worth to you in your job or career? It means a lot of Americans with an Associate Degree average nearly $10,000 more in yearly earnings than those with just a High School Diploma.
Harcourt Learning Direct offers you a way to get a Specialized Associate Degree in 11 of today's growing fields-without having to go to college full time. With Harcourt, you study at home, in your spare time-so you don't have to give up your present job while you train for a better one. Choose from exciting majors like Business Management, Accounting, Dressmaking &Design, Bookkeeping, Photography, Computer Science, Engineering, and more! Your training includes everything you need! Books, lessons, learning aids-even professional-quality tools and equipment-everything you need to master your training and more ahead to a new career is included in the low tuition price you pay. Your education is nationally recognized! Nearly 2, 000 American companies-including General Electric, IBM, Mobile, General Motors, Ford, and many others-have used our training for their employees. If companies like these recognize the value of our training, you can be sure that employees in your area will, too!
Earn your degree in as little as two years! Get a career diploma in just six months! The career of your dreams is closer than you think! Even if you have no experience before, you can get valuable job skills in today's hottest fields! Step-by-step lessons make learning easy. Prepare for promotions, pay raises, even start a business of your own! Send today for FREE information about Harcourt at home training!
Simply fill in your name and address on the coupon above. Then write in the name and number of the one program you're most interested in, and mail it today. We'll rush your free information about how you can take advantage of the opportunities in the field you've chosen. Act today!
Mail coupon today! Or call the number below 1-800-372-1589. Call any time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. www. Harcourt-learning. com E-mail：Harcourt@learning. com. | 1170.txt | 2 |
[
"its convenience",
"the degree's nation-wide recognition",
"the economic benefit it will bring about",
"the hot fields the training will help people to enter"
] | It seems to the writer that the greatest attraction for people to take their training is _ . | GET YOUR DEGREE AT HOME!
Have you ever wondered what a Degree might be worth to you in your job or career? It means a lot of Americans with an Associate Degree average nearly $10,000 more in yearly earnings than those with just a High School Diploma.
Harcourt Learning Direct offers you a way to get a Specialized Associate Degree in 11 of today's growing fields-without having to go to college full time. With Harcourt, you study at home, in your spare time-so you don't have to give up your present job while you train for a better one. Choose from exciting majors like Business Management, Accounting, Dressmaking &Design, Bookkeeping, Photography, Computer Science, Engineering, and more! Your training includes everything you need! Books, lessons, learning aids-even professional-quality tools and equipment-everything you need to master your training and more ahead to a new career is included in the low tuition price you pay. Your education is nationally recognized! Nearly 2, 000 American companies-including General Electric, IBM, Mobile, General Motors, Ford, and many others-have used our training for their employees. If companies like these recognize the value of our training, you can be sure that employees in your area will, too!
Earn your degree in as little as two years! Get a career diploma in just six months! The career of your dreams is closer than you think! Even if you have no experience before, you can get valuable job skills in today's hottest fields! Step-by-step lessons make learning easy. Prepare for promotions, pay raises, even start a business of your own! Send today for FREE information about Harcourt at home training!
Simply fill in your name and address on the coupon above. Then write in the name and number of the one program you're most interested in, and mail it today. We'll rush your free information about how you can take advantage of the opportunities in the field you've chosen. Act today!
Mail coupon today! Or call the number below 1-800-372-1589. Call any time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. www. Harcourt-learning. com E-mail：Harcourt@learning. com. | 1170.txt | 2 |
[
"One.",
"Two.",
"Three.",
"Four."
] | How many ways are mentioned in the ad for people to get in touch with the Harcourt Learning Direct? | GET YOUR DEGREE AT HOME!
Have you ever wondered what a Degree might be worth to you in your job or career? It means a lot of Americans with an Associate Degree average nearly $10,000 more in yearly earnings than those with just a High School Diploma.
Harcourt Learning Direct offers you a way to get a Specialized Associate Degree in 11 of today's growing fields-without having to go to college full time. With Harcourt, you study at home, in your spare time-so you don't have to give up your present job while you train for a better one. Choose from exciting majors like Business Management, Accounting, Dressmaking &Design, Bookkeeping, Photography, Computer Science, Engineering, and more! Your training includes everything you need! Books, lessons, learning aids-even professional-quality tools and equipment-everything you need to master your training and more ahead to a new career is included in the low tuition price you pay. Your education is nationally recognized! Nearly 2, 000 American companies-including General Electric, IBM, Mobile, General Motors, Ford, and many others-have used our training for their employees. If companies like these recognize the value of our training, you can be sure that employees in your area will, too!
Earn your degree in as little as two years! Get a career diploma in just six months! The career of your dreams is closer than you think! Even if you have no experience before, you can get valuable job skills in today's hottest fields! Step-by-step lessons make learning easy. Prepare for promotions, pay raises, even start a business of your own! Send today for FREE information about Harcourt at home training!
Simply fill in your name and address on the coupon above. Then write in the name and number of the one program you're most interested in, and mail it today. We'll rush your free information about how you can take advantage of the opportunities in the field you've chosen. Act today!
Mail coupon today! Or call the number below 1-800-372-1589. Call any time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. www. Harcourt-learning. com E-mail：Harcourt@learning. com. | 1170.txt | 3 |
[
"produce energy for breathing",
"diffuse immediately in the blood",
"penetrate slowly into the air sacs",
"travel in opposite ways in the lungs"
] | It can be inferred from the passage that oxygen and carbon dioxide _ . | Blood vessels running all through the lungs carry blood to each air sac, or alveolus, and then back again to the heart. Only the thin wall of the air sac and the thin wall of a capillary are between the air and the blood. So oxygen easily diffuses from the air sacs through the walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide easily diffuses from the blood through the walls into the air sacs.
When blood is sent to the lungs by the heart, it has come back from the cells in the rest of the body. So the blood that goes into the wall of an air sac contains much dissolved carbon dioxide but very little oxygen. At the same time, the air that goes into the air sac contains much oxygen but very little carbon dioxide. You have learned that dissolved materials always diffuse from where there is more of them to where there is less. Oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture on the lining of the air sac and diffuses through the lining into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air sac. The blood then flows from the lungs back to the heart, which sends it out to all other parts of the body.
Soon after air goes into an air sac, it gives up some of its oxygen and takes in some carbon dioxide from the blood. To keep diffusion going as it should, this carbon dioxide must be gotten rid of. Breathing, which is caused by movements of the chest, forces the used air out of the air sacs in your lungs and brings in fresh air. The breathing muscles are controlled automatically so that you breathe at the proper rote to keep your air sacs supplied with fresh air. Ordinarily, you breathe about twenty-two times a minute. Of course, you breathe faster when you are exercising and slower when you are resting. Fresh air is brought into your lungs when you breathe in, or inhale, while used air is forced out of your lungs when you breathe out, or exhale.
Some people think that all the oxygen is taken out of the air in the lungs and that what we breathe out is pure carbon dioxide. But these ideas are not correct. Air is a mixture of gases that is mostly nitrogen. This gas is not used in the body. So the amount of nitrogen does not change as air is breathed in and out. But while air is in the lungs, it is changed in three ways: ( 1 ) About one-fifth of the oxygen in the air goes into the blood. (2) An almost equal amount of carbon dioxide comes out of the blood into the air. (3) Moisture from the linings of the air passages and air sacs evaporates until the air is almost saturated. | 2633.txt | 3 |
[
"more oxygen was contained in blood",
"more carbon dioxide was contained in the blood",
"less carbon dioxide was contained in an air sac",
"less oxygen was contained in an air sac"
] | When blood travels back to the lungs by the heart, _ . | Blood vessels running all through the lungs carry blood to each air sac, or alveolus, and then back again to the heart. Only the thin wall of the air sac and the thin wall of a capillary are between the air and the blood. So oxygen easily diffuses from the air sacs through the walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide easily diffuses from the blood through the walls into the air sacs.
When blood is sent to the lungs by the heart, it has come back from the cells in the rest of the body. So the blood that goes into the wall of an air sac contains much dissolved carbon dioxide but very little oxygen. At the same time, the air that goes into the air sac contains much oxygen but very little carbon dioxide. You have learned that dissolved materials always diffuse from where there is more of them to where there is less. Oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture on the lining of the air sac and diffuses through the lining into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air sac. The blood then flows from the lungs back to the heart, which sends it out to all other parts of the body.
Soon after air goes into an air sac, it gives up some of its oxygen and takes in some carbon dioxide from the blood. To keep diffusion going as it should, this carbon dioxide must be gotten rid of. Breathing, which is caused by movements of the chest, forces the used air out of the air sacs in your lungs and brings in fresh air. The breathing muscles are controlled automatically so that you breathe at the proper rote to keep your air sacs supplied with fresh air. Ordinarily, you breathe about twenty-two times a minute. Of course, you breathe faster when you are exercising and slower when you are resting. Fresh air is brought into your lungs when you breathe in, or inhale, while used air is forced out of your lungs when you breathe out, or exhale.
Some people think that all the oxygen is taken out of the air in the lungs and that what we breathe out is pure carbon dioxide. But these ideas are not correct. Air is a mixture of gases that is mostly nitrogen. This gas is not used in the body. So the amount of nitrogen does not change as air is breathed in and out. But while air is in the lungs, it is changed in three ways: ( 1 ) About one-fifth of the oxygen in the air goes into the blood. (2) An almost equal amount of carbon dioxide comes out of the blood into the air. (3) Moisture from the linings of the air passages and air sacs evaporates until the air is almost saturated. | 2633.txt | 1 |
[
"help the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs",
"prevent the inhaling of excessive carbon dioxide",
"keep the regular circulation of blood",
"strengthen the function of breathing muscles"
] | The movement of breathing can effectively _ . | Blood vessels running all through the lungs carry blood to each air sac, or alveolus, and then back again to the heart. Only the thin wall of the air sac and the thin wall of a capillary are between the air and the blood. So oxygen easily diffuses from the air sacs through the walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide easily diffuses from the blood through the walls into the air sacs.
When blood is sent to the lungs by the heart, it has come back from the cells in the rest of the body. So the blood that goes into the wall of an air sac contains much dissolved carbon dioxide but very little oxygen. At the same time, the air that goes into the air sac contains much oxygen but very little carbon dioxide. You have learned that dissolved materials always diffuse from where there is more of them to where there is less. Oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture on the lining of the air sac and diffuses through the lining into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air sac. The blood then flows from the lungs back to the heart, which sends it out to all other parts of the body.
Soon after air goes into an air sac, it gives up some of its oxygen and takes in some carbon dioxide from the blood. To keep diffusion going as it should, this carbon dioxide must be gotten rid of. Breathing, which is caused by movements of the chest, forces the used air out of the air sacs in your lungs and brings in fresh air. The breathing muscles are controlled automatically so that you breathe at the proper rote to keep your air sacs supplied with fresh air. Ordinarily, you breathe about twenty-two times a minute. Of course, you breathe faster when you are exercising and slower when you are resting. Fresh air is brought into your lungs when you breathe in, or inhale, while used air is forced out of your lungs when you breathe out, or exhale.
Some people think that all the oxygen is taken out of the air in the lungs and that what we breathe out is pure carbon dioxide. But these ideas are not correct. Air is a mixture of gases that is mostly nitrogen. This gas is not used in the body. So the amount of nitrogen does not change as air is breathed in and out. But while air is in the lungs, it is changed in three ways: ( 1 ) About one-fifth of the oxygen in the air goes into the blood. (2) An almost equal amount of carbon dioxide comes out of the blood into the air. (3) Moisture from the linings of the air passages and air sacs evaporates until the air is almost saturated. | 2633.txt | 0 |
[
"increases a bit because of the exchange of air",
"reduces a bit because of the exchange of air",
"remains the same as we breathe it in",
"keeps the same as that needed in lungs"
] | When we breathe out, the amount of nitrogen _ . | Blood vessels running all through the lungs carry blood to each air sac, or alveolus, and then back again to the heart. Only the thin wall of the air sac and the thin wall of a capillary are between the air and the blood. So oxygen easily diffuses from the air sacs through the walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide easily diffuses from the blood through the walls into the air sacs.
When blood is sent to the lungs by the heart, it has come back from the cells in the rest of the body. So the blood that goes into the wall of an air sac contains much dissolved carbon dioxide but very little oxygen. At the same time, the air that goes into the air sac contains much oxygen but very little carbon dioxide. You have learned that dissolved materials always diffuse from where there is more of them to where there is less. Oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture on the lining of the air sac and diffuses through the lining into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air sac. The blood then flows from the lungs back to the heart, which sends it out to all other parts of the body.
Soon after air goes into an air sac, it gives up some of its oxygen and takes in some carbon dioxide from the blood. To keep diffusion going as it should, this carbon dioxide must be gotten rid of. Breathing, which is caused by movements of the chest, forces the used air out of the air sacs in your lungs and brings in fresh air. The breathing muscles are controlled automatically so that you breathe at the proper rote to keep your air sacs supplied with fresh air. Ordinarily, you breathe about twenty-two times a minute. Of course, you breathe faster when you are exercising and slower when you are resting. Fresh air is brought into your lungs when you breathe in, or inhale, while used air is forced out of your lungs when you breathe out, or exhale.
Some people think that all the oxygen is taken out of the air in the lungs and that what we breathe out is pure carbon dioxide. But these ideas are not correct. Air is a mixture of gases that is mostly nitrogen. This gas is not used in the body. So the amount of nitrogen does not change as air is breathed in and out. But while air is in the lungs, it is changed in three ways: ( 1 ) About one-fifth of the oxygen in the air goes into the blood. (2) An almost equal amount of carbon dioxide comes out of the blood into the air. (3) Moisture from the linings of the air passages and air sacs evaporates until the air is almost saturated. | 2633.txt | 2 |
[
"inhaling some amount of oxygen",
"the evaporation of moisture",
"exhaling some amount of carbon dioxide",
"generating a passage for evaporation"
] | The air in the lungs changes through _ . | Blood vessels running all through the lungs carry blood to each air sac, or alveolus, and then back again to the heart. Only the thin wall of the air sac and the thin wall of a capillary are between the air and the blood. So oxygen easily diffuses from the air sacs through the walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide easily diffuses from the blood through the walls into the air sacs.
When blood is sent to the lungs by the heart, it has come back from the cells in the rest of the body. So the blood that goes into the wall of an air sac contains much dissolved carbon dioxide but very little oxygen. At the same time, the air that goes into the air sac contains much oxygen but very little carbon dioxide. You have learned that dissolved materials always diffuse from where there is more of them to where there is less. Oxygen from the air dissolves in the moisture on the lining of the air sac and diffuses through the lining into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air sac. The blood then flows from the lungs back to the heart, which sends it out to all other parts of the body.
Soon after air goes into an air sac, it gives up some of its oxygen and takes in some carbon dioxide from the blood. To keep diffusion going as it should, this carbon dioxide must be gotten rid of. Breathing, which is caused by movements of the chest, forces the used air out of the air sacs in your lungs and brings in fresh air. The breathing muscles are controlled automatically so that you breathe at the proper rote to keep your air sacs supplied with fresh air. Ordinarily, you breathe about twenty-two times a minute. Of course, you breathe faster when you are exercising and slower when you are resting. Fresh air is brought into your lungs when you breathe in, or inhale, while used air is forced out of your lungs when you breathe out, or exhale.
Some people think that all the oxygen is taken out of the air in the lungs and that what we breathe out is pure carbon dioxide. But these ideas are not correct. Air is a mixture of gases that is mostly nitrogen. This gas is not used in the body. So the amount of nitrogen does not change as air is breathed in and out. But while air is in the lungs, it is changed in three ways: ( 1 ) About one-fifth of the oxygen in the air goes into the blood. (2) An almost equal amount of carbon dioxide comes out of the blood into the air. (3) Moisture from the linings of the air passages and air sacs evaporates until the air is almost saturated. | 2633.txt | 1 |
[
"To remember the birth of jazz.",
"To protect cultural diversity.",
"To encourage people to study music.",
"To recognize the value of jazz."
] | Why did UNESCO set April 30 as International Jazz Day? | Despite the celebrations, though, in the U.S. the jazz audience continues to shrink and grow older, and the music has failed to connect with younger generations.
It's Jason Moran's job to help change that. As the Kennedy Center's artistic adviser for jazz, Moran hopes to widen the audience for jazz, make the music more accessible, and preserve its history and culture.
"Jazz seems like it's not really a part of the American appetite," Moran tells National Public Radio's reporter Neal Conan. "What I'm hoping to accomplish is that my generation and younger start to reconsider and understand that jazz is not black and write anymore. It's actually color, and it's actually digital."
Moran says one of the problems with jazz today is that the entertainment aspect of the music has been lost. "The music can't be presented today the way it was in 1908 or 1958. It has to continue to move, because the way the world works is not the same," says Moran.
Last year, Moran worked on a project that arranged Fats Waller's music for a dance party, "Just to kind of put it back in the mind that Waller is dance music as much as it is concert music," says Moran. "For me, it's the recontextualization. In music, where does the emotion lie? Are we, as humans, gaining any insight on how to talk about ourselves and how something as abstract as a Charlie Parker record gets us into a dialogue about our emotions and our thoughts? Sometimes we lose sight that the music has a wider context," says Moran, "so I want to continue those dialogues. Those are the things I want to foster." | 3946.txt | 3 |
[
"It will disappear gradually.",
"It remains black and white.",
"It should keep up with the times.",
"It changes every 50 years."
] | What can we infer about Moran's opinion on jazz? | Despite the celebrations, though, in the U.S. the jazz audience continues to shrink and grow older, and the music has failed to connect with younger generations.
It's Jason Moran's job to help change that. As the Kennedy Center's artistic adviser for jazz, Moran hopes to widen the audience for jazz, make the music more accessible, and preserve its history and culture.
"Jazz seems like it's not really a part of the American appetite," Moran tells National Public Radio's reporter Neal Conan. "What I'm hoping to accomplish is that my generation and younger start to reconsider and understand that jazz is not black and write anymore. It's actually color, and it's actually digital."
Moran says one of the problems with jazz today is that the entertainment aspect of the music has been lost. "The music can't be presented today the way it was in 1908 or 1958. It has to continue to move, because the way the world works is not the same," says Moran.
Last year, Moran worked on a project that arranged Fats Waller's music for a dance party, "Just to kind of put it back in the mind that Waller is dance music as much as it is concert music," says Moran. "For me, it's the recontextualization. In music, where does the emotion lie? Are we, as humans, gaining any insight on how to talk about ourselves and how something as abstract as a Charlie Parker record gets us into a dialogue about our emotions and our thoughts? Sometimes we lose sight that the music has a wider context," says Moran, "so I want to continue those dialogues. Those are the things I want to foster." | 3946.txt | 2 |
[
"Exploring the Future of Jazz.",
"The Rise and Fall of Jazz.",
"The Story of a Jazz Musician.",
"Celebrating the Jazz Day."
] | Which of the following can be the best title for the text? | Despite the celebrations, though, in the U.S. the jazz audience continues to shrink and grow older, and the music has failed to connect with younger generations.
It's Jason Moran's job to help change that. As the Kennedy Center's artistic adviser for jazz, Moran hopes to widen the audience for jazz, make the music more accessible, and preserve its history and culture.
"Jazz seems like it's not really a part of the American appetite," Moran tells National Public Radio's reporter Neal Conan. "What I'm hoping to accomplish is that my generation and younger start to reconsider and understand that jazz is not black and write anymore. It's actually color, and it's actually digital."
Moran says one of the problems with jazz today is that the entertainment aspect of the music has been lost. "The music can't be presented today the way it was in 1908 or 1958. It has to continue to move, because the way the world works is not the same," says Moran.
Last year, Moran worked on a project that arranged Fats Waller's music for a dance party, "Just to kind of put it back in the mind that Waller is dance music as much as it is concert music," says Moran. "For me, it's the recontextualization. In music, where does the emotion lie? Are we, as humans, gaining any insight on how to talk about ourselves and how something as abstract as a Charlie Parker record gets us into a dialogue about our emotions and our thoughts? Sometimes we lose sight that the music has a wider context," says Moran, "so I want to continue those dialogues. Those are the things I want to foster." | 3946.txt | 0 |
[
"One person.",
"Two persons.",
"Three persons.",
"Four persons."
] | How many people saw the tiger before it was driven off? | One day last November, Tom Baker stopped out of his house into the morning light and headed across the rice fields toward the bank of the Rapti River. Tom, a 32-year-old school teacher in the farming village of Madanpur, was going for his morning bath.
As he approached the river, the head of a tiger suddenly appeared over the edge of the river bank. Before he could turn to run, the tiger was upon him. It jumped on his shoulder and threw him to the ground, its huge jaws attacked his head in a killing bite.
Peter Smith was also on his way to the river and saw the attack. He screamed. The tiger lifted its head and roared at him. Peter ran.
From the window of his house John Brown heard the tiger roar and ran out to see it attacking a man. He screamed, too, and all the villagers ran out shouting as the tiger dropped its victim and ran off. When the villagers reached the river bank, Tom was already dead.
For the villagers, the horror of the incident intensified by the tales of man-eating tigers that has once run around in the countryside, killing hundreds. | 1090.txt | 2 |
[
"A hunter.",
"A teacher.",
"A farmer.",
"A manager."
] | What was the victim's professional job? | One day last November, Tom Baker stopped out of his house into the morning light and headed across the rice fields toward the bank of the Rapti River. Tom, a 32-year-old school teacher in the farming village of Madanpur, was going for his morning bath.
As he approached the river, the head of a tiger suddenly appeared over the edge of the river bank. Before he could turn to run, the tiger was upon him. It jumped on his shoulder and threw him to the ground, its huge jaws attacked his head in a killing bite.
Peter Smith was also on his way to the river and saw the attack. He screamed. The tiger lifted its head and roared at him. Peter ran.
From the window of his house John Brown heard the tiger roar and ran out to see it attacking a man. He screamed, too, and all the villagers ran out shouting as the tiger dropped its victim and ran off. When the villagers reached the river bank, Tom was already dead.
For the villagers, the horror of the incident intensified by the tales of man-eating tigers that has once run around in the countryside, killing hundreds. | 1090.txt | 1 |
[
"it was hungry",
"it was angry",
"it was frightened by the man",
"not mentioned in the passage"
] | The reason why the tiger attacked the man was. | One day last November, Tom Baker stopped out of his house into the morning light and headed across the rice fields toward the bank of the Rapti River. Tom, a 32-year-old school teacher in the farming village of Madanpur, was going for his morning bath.
As he approached the river, the head of a tiger suddenly appeared over the edge of the river bank. Before he could turn to run, the tiger was upon him. It jumped on his shoulder and threw him to the ground, its huge jaws attacked his head in a killing bite.
Peter Smith was also on his way to the river and saw the attack. He screamed. The tiger lifted its head and roared at him. Peter ran.
From the window of his house John Brown heard the tiger roar and ran out to see it attacking a man. He screamed, too, and all the villagers ran out shouting as the tiger dropped its victim and ran off. When the villagers reached the river bank, Tom was already dead.
For the villagers, the horror of the incident intensified by the tales of man-eating tigers that has once run around in the countryside, killing hundreds. | 1090.txt | 3 |
[
"Early in the morning",
"At noon",
"Late in the afternoon",
"At five before dark"
] | When did the attack take place? | One day last November, Tom Baker stopped out of his house into the morning light and headed across the rice fields toward the bank of the Rapti River. Tom, a 32-year-old school teacher in the farming village of Madanpur, was going for his morning bath.
As he approached the river, the head of a tiger suddenly appeared over the edge of the river bank. Before he could turn to run, the tiger was upon him. It jumped on his shoulder and threw him to the ground, its huge jaws attacked his head in a killing bite.
Peter Smith was also on his way to the river and saw the attack. He screamed. The tiger lifted its head and roared at him. Peter ran.
From the window of his house John Brown heard the tiger roar and ran out to see it attacking a man. He screamed, too, and all the villagers ran out shouting as the tiger dropped its victim and ran off. When the villagers reached the river bank, Tom was already dead.
For the villagers, the horror of the incident intensified by the tales of man-eating tigers that has once run around in the countryside, killing hundreds. | 1090.txt | 0 |
[
"stressing their high quality",
"convincing him of their low price",
"maintaining a balance between quality and price",
"appealing to his buying motives"
] | Advertising can persuade the consumer to buy worthless products by _ . | The appeal of advertising to buying motives can have both negative and positive effects consumers may be convinced to buy a product of poor quality or high price because of an advertisement. For example, some advertisers have appealed to people's desire for better fuel economy for their cars by advertising automotive products that improve gasoline mileage. Some of the products work. Others are worthless and a waste of consumers' money.
Sometimes advertising is intentionally misleading. A few years ago a brand of bread was offer to dieters with the message that there were fewer calories in every slice. It turned out that the bread was not dietetic, but just regular bread. There were fewer calories because it was sliced very thin, but there were the same number of calories in every loaf.
On the positive side, emotional appeals may respond to a consumer's real concerns. Consider fire insurance. Fire insurance may be sold by appealing to fear of loss. But fear of loss is the real reason for fire insurance. The security of knowing that property is protected by insurance makes the purchase of fire insurance a worthwhile investment for most people. If consumers consider the quality of the insurance plans as well as the message in the ads, they will benefit from the advertising.
Each consumer must evaluate her or his own situation. Are the benefits of the product important enough to justify buying it? Advertising is intended to appeal to consumers, but it does not force them to buy the product. Consumers still control the final buying decision. | 3029.txt | 3 |
[
"thin slices of bread could contain more calories",
"the loaf was cut into regular slices",
"the bread was not genuine bread",
"the total number of calories in the loaf remained the same"
] | The reason why the bread advertisement is misleading is that _ . | The appeal of advertising to buying motives can have both negative and positive effects consumers may be convinced to buy a product of poor quality or high price because of an advertisement. For example, some advertisers have appealed to people's desire for better fuel economy for their cars by advertising automotive products that improve gasoline mileage. Some of the products work. Others are worthless and a waste of consumers' money.
Sometimes advertising is intentionally misleading. A few years ago a brand of bread was offer to dieters with the message that there were fewer calories in every slice. It turned out that the bread was not dietetic, but just regular bread. There were fewer calories because it was sliced very thin, but there were the same number of calories in every loaf.
On the positive side, emotional appeals may respond to a consumer's real concerns. Consider fire insurance. Fire insurance may be sold by appealing to fear of loss. But fear of loss is the real reason for fire insurance. The security of knowing that property is protected by insurance makes the purchase of fire insurance a worthwhile investment for most people. If consumers consider the quality of the insurance plans as well as the message in the ads, they will benefit from the advertising.
Each consumer must evaluate her or his own situation. Are the benefits of the product important enough to justify buying it? Advertising is intended to appeal to consumers, but it does not force them to buy the product. Consumers still control the final buying decision. | 3029.txt | 3 |
[
"sometimes advertisements really sell what the consumer needs",
"advertisements occasionally force consumers into buying things they don't need",
"the buying motives of consumers are controlled by advertisements",
"fire insurance is seldom a worthwhile investment"
] | The passage tells us that _ . | The appeal of advertising to buying motives can have both negative and positive effects consumers may be convinced to buy a product of poor quality or high price because of an advertisement. For example, some advertisers have appealed to people's desire for better fuel economy for their cars by advertising automotive products that improve gasoline mileage. Some of the products work. Others are worthless and a waste of consumers' money.
Sometimes advertising is intentionally misleading. A few years ago a brand of bread was offer to dieters with the message that there were fewer calories in every slice. It turned out that the bread was not dietetic, but just regular bread. There were fewer calories because it was sliced very thin, but there were the same number of calories in every loaf.
On the positive side, emotional appeals may respond to a consumer's real concerns. Consider fire insurance. Fire insurance may be sold by appealing to fear of loss. But fear of loss is the real reason for fire insurance. The security of knowing that property is protected by insurance makes the purchase of fire insurance a worthwhile investment for most people. If consumers consider the quality of the insurance plans as well as the message in the ads, they will benefit from the advertising.
Each consumer must evaluate her or his own situation. Are the benefits of the product important enough to justify buying it? Advertising is intended to appeal to consumers, but it does not force them to buy the product. Consumers still control the final buying decision. | 3029.txt | 0 |
[
"think carefully about the benefits described in the advertisements",
"guard against the deceiving nature of advertisements",
"be familiar with various advertising strategies",
"avoid buying products that have strong emotional appeal"
] | It can be inferred from the passage that a smart consumer should _ . | The appeal of advertising to buying motives can have both negative and positive effects consumers may be convinced to buy a product of poor quality or high price because of an advertisement. For example, some advertisers have appealed to people's desire for better fuel economy for their cars by advertising automotive products that improve gasoline mileage. Some of the products work. Others are worthless and a waste of consumers' money.
Sometimes advertising is intentionally misleading. A few years ago a brand of bread was offer to dieters with the message that there were fewer calories in every slice. It turned out that the bread was not dietetic, but just regular bread. There were fewer calories because it was sliced very thin, but there were the same number of calories in every loaf.
On the positive side, emotional appeals may respond to a consumer's real concerns. Consider fire insurance. Fire insurance may be sold by appealing to fear of loss. But fear of loss is the real reason for fire insurance. The security of knowing that property is protected by insurance makes the purchase of fire insurance a worthwhile investment for most people. If consumers consider the quality of the insurance plans as well as the message in the ads, they will benefit from the advertising.
Each consumer must evaluate her or his own situation. Are the benefits of the product important enough to justify buying it? Advertising is intended to appeal to consumers, but it does not force them to buy the product. Consumers still control the final buying decision. | 3029.txt | 0 |
[
"how to make a wise buying decision",
"ways to protect the interests of the consumer",
"the positive and negative aspects of advertising",
"the function of advertisements in promoting sales"
] | The passage is mainly about _ . | The appeal of advertising to buying motives can have both negative and positive effects consumers may be convinced to buy a product of poor quality or high price because of an advertisement. For example, some advertisers have appealed to people's desire for better fuel economy for their cars by advertising automotive products that improve gasoline mileage. Some of the products work. Others are worthless and a waste of consumers' money.
Sometimes advertising is intentionally misleading. A few years ago a brand of bread was offer to dieters with the message that there were fewer calories in every slice. It turned out that the bread was not dietetic, but just regular bread. There were fewer calories because it was sliced very thin, but there were the same number of calories in every loaf.
On the positive side, emotional appeals may respond to a consumer's real concerns. Consider fire insurance. Fire insurance may be sold by appealing to fear of loss. But fear of loss is the real reason for fire insurance. The security of knowing that property is protected by insurance makes the purchase of fire insurance a worthwhile investment for most people. If consumers consider the quality of the insurance plans as well as the message in the ads, they will benefit from the advertising.
Each consumer must evaluate her or his own situation. Are the benefits of the product important enough to justify buying it? Advertising is intended to appeal to consumers, but it does not force them to buy the product. Consumers still control the final buying decision. | 3029.txt | 2 |
[
"The Byzantine Empire was a unique case in which the usual order ofmilitary and economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed.",
"The economic, cultural, and military revival in the Byzantine Empirebetween the eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to thesequence of revival in Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens.",
"After 810 Byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and, later,cultural expansion that lasted until 1453.",
"The revival of the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventhcenturies shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival, thereverse of the generally accepted sequence of progress."
] | Which of the following best states the central idea of the text? | Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empirestaged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that isall the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internaldecline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds ofthe territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area wasbeing raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to takeConstantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the stateand its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary productionhad virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire hadregained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure,and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered,the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances asdifferentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, thesethree forms of progress have gone together in a number of states andcivilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the mostobvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequentialconnections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might helpexplain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case ofByzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids onits own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantineresources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize artand literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economicadvances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the courseof the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably camefirst. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860's the Byzantine Empire began torecover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with theAbbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire's favor. The beginning of theempire's economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally,the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A numberof notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of theeighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasteduntil the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order ofmilitary revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery wasreversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itselfhave influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. | 1094.txt | 3 |
[
"in 600.",
"during the seventh century.",
"a century after the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire hadbeen lost.",
"soon after the revival of Byzantine learning."
] | It can be inferred from the text that the Byzantine Empire sustainedsignificant territorial losses | Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empirestaged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that isall the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internaldecline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds ofthe territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area wasbeing raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to takeConstantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the stateand its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary productionhad virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire hadregained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure,and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered,the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances asdifferentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, thesethree forms of progress have gone together in a number of states andcivilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the mostobvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequentialconnections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might helpexplain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case ofByzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids onits own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantineresources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize artand literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economicadvances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the courseof the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably camefirst. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860's the Byzantine Empire began torecover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with theAbbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire's favor. The beginning of theempire's economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally,the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A numberof notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of theeighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasteduntil the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order ofmilitary revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery wasreversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itselfhave influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. | 1094.txt | 1 |
[
"suggest that the process of revival in Byzantium accords with thismodel.",
"set up an order of events that is then shown to be not generallyapplicable to the case of Byzantium.",
"cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship aboutByzantium.",
"suggest that Byzantium represents a case for which no historicalprecedent exists."
] | In the third paragraph, the author most probably provides anexplanation of the apparent connections among economic, military, and culturaldevelopment in order to | Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empirestaged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that isall the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internaldecline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds ofthe territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area wasbeing raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to takeConstantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the stateand its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary productionhad virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire hadregained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure,and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered,the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances asdifferentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, thesethree forms of progress have gone together in a number of states andcivilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the mostobvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequentialconnections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might helpexplain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case ofByzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids onits own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantineresources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize artand literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economicadvances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the courseof the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably camefirst. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860's the Byzantine Empire began torecover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with theAbbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire's favor. The beginning of theempire's economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally,the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A numberof notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of theeighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasteduntil the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order ofmilitary revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery wasreversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itselfhave influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. | 1094.txt | 1 |
[
"The Byzantine military revival of the 860's led to economic and culturaladvances.",
"The Byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453.",
"The Byzantine economic recovery began in the 900's.",
"The revival of Byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighthcentury."
] | Which of the following does the author mention as crucial evidenceconcerning the manner in which the Byzantine revival began? | Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empirestaged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that isall the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internaldecline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds ofthe territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area wasbeing raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to takeConstantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the stateand its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary productionhad virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire hadregained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure,and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered,the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances asdifferentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, thesethree forms of progress have gone together in a number of states andcivilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the mostobvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequentialconnections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might helpexplain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case ofByzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids onits own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantineresources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize artand literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economicadvances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the courseof the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably camefirst. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860's the Byzantine Empire began torecover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with theAbbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire's favor. The beginning of theempire's economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally,the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A numberof notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of theeighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasteduntil the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order ofmilitary revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery wasreversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itselfhave influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. | 1094.txt | 3 |
[
"revolutionary and too new to have been applied to the history of theByzantine Empire.",
"reasonable, but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress.",
"not applicable to the Byzantine revival as a whole, but does perhapsaccurately describe limited periods during the revival.",
"equally applicable to the Byzantine case as a whole and to thehistory of military, economic, and cultural advances in ancient Greece andRome."
] | According to the author, "The common explanation" (line 1, paragraph 3) ofconnections between economic, military, and cultural development is | Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empirestaged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that isall the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internaldecline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds ofthe territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area wasbeing raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to takeConstantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the stateand its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary productionhad virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire hadregained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure,and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered,the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances asdifferentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, thesethree forms of progress have gone together in a number of states andcivilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the mostobvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequentialconnections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might helpexplain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case ofByzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids onits own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantineresources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize artand literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economicadvances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the courseof the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably camefirst. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860's the Byzantine Empire began torecover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with theAbbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire's favor. The beginning of theempire's economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally,the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A numberof notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of theeighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasteduntil the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order ofmilitary revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery wasreversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itselfhave influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. | 1094.txt | 2 |
[
"by classification",
"by comparison",
"by example",
"by process"
] | The author develops the second paragraph mainly. | Ever since they were first put on the market in the early 1990s, gentically mondified (GM, ) foods have been increasingly developed and marketed in many countries in the word,mainly on the basis of their promise to end the worldwide food crisis. But can GM technology solve world hunger problems? Even if it would ,is it the best solutiorr?
Despite what it promiises,GM technology actually has not increased the production potential of any corp. In fact
Studies show that the most crown GM croo.
GM soybeans, has suffered reduced productivity. For instance, a report than analysed nearly two decades of research on mojor GM food crops shows that GM engineering has failed to significantly increase US crop production.
Something else, however, has been on the rise, While GM seeds are expensive, GM companics tell farmers that they will make good profits by saving money on pesticides. On the contrary, US government data show that GM crops in the US have produced an overall increase in pesticide use compared to traditional crops. " The promise was that you could use less chemicals and boost production. But nether is true," said Bill Christison, President of the US National Farm Coalition.
At the same time, the authors of the book World Hunger: Twelve Myths argue that there actually is more than enough food in the world and that the hunger crisis is not caused by production, but by problems in food distribution and politics. These indeed deserve our efforts and money. Meanwhile, the rise in food prices results from the increased use of crops for fuel rather than food, according to a 2008 World Bank report.
As a matter of fact ,scientists see better ways to feed the world. Another World Bank report concluded that GM crops have little to offer to the challenges of worldwide poverty and hunger, because better ways out are available, among which "green" farming is supposed to be the first choice. | 3403.txt | 2 |
[
"practicing \"green\" farming",
"use of less chemicals",
"fair distribution of their crops",
"using more crops for fuel"
] | GM companies promise farmers that they will benefit from _ . | Ever since they were first put on the market in the early 1990s, gentically mondified (GM, ) foods have been increasingly developed and marketed in many countries in the word,mainly on the basis of their promise to end the worldwide food crisis. But can GM technology solve world hunger problems? Even if it would ,is it the best solutiorr?
Despite what it promiises,GM technology actually has not increased the production potential of any corp. In fact
Studies show that the most crown GM croo.
GM soybeans, has suffered reduced productivity. For instance, a report than analysed nearly two decades of research on mojor GM food crops shows that GM engineering has failed to significantly increase US crop production.
Something else, however, has been on the rise, While GM seeds are expensive, GM companics tell farmers that they will make good profits by saving money on pesticides. On the contrary, US government data show that GM crops in the US have produced an overall increase in pesticide use compared to traditional crops. " The promise was that you could use less chemicals and boost production. But nether is true," said Bill Christison, President of the US National Farm Coalition.
At the same time, the authors of the book World Hunger: Twelve Myths argue that there actually is more than enough food in the world and that the hunger crisis is not caused by production, but by problems in food distribution and politics. These indeed deserve our efforts and money. Meanwhile, the rise in food prices results from the increased use of crops for fuel rather than food, according to a 2008 World Bank report.
As a matter of fact ,scientists see better ways to feed the world. Another World Bank report concluded that GM crops have little to offer to the challenges of worldwide poverty and hunger, because better ways out are available, among which "green" farming is supposed to be the first choice. | 3403.txt | 1 |
[
"Optimistic",
"Defensive",
"Disapproving",
"Casual"
] | Which of the following best describes the attitude of the author towards GM technology? | Ever since they were first put on the market in the early 1990s, gentically mondified (GM, ) foods have been increasingly developed and marketed in many countries in the word,mainly on the basis of their promise to end the worldwide food crisis. But can GM technology solve world hunger problems? Even if it would ,is it the best solutiorr?
Despite what it promiises,GM technology actually has not increased the production potential of any corp. In fact
Studies show that the most crown GM croo.
GM soybeans, has suffered reduced productivity. For instance, a report than analysed nearly two decades of research on mojor GM food crops shows that GM engineering has failed to significantly increase US crop production.
Something else, however, has been on the rise, While GM seeds are expensive, GM companics tell farmers that they will make good profits by saving money on pesticides. On the contrary, US government data show that GM crops in the US have produced an overall increase in pesticide use compared to traditional crops. " The promise was that you could use less chemicals and boost production. But nether is true," said Bill Christison, President of the US National Farm Coalition.
At the same time, the authors of the book World Hunger: Twelve Myths argue that there actually is more than enough food in the world and that the hunger crisis is not caused by production, but by problems in food distribution and politics. These indeed deserve our efforts and money. Meanwhile, the rise in food prices results from the increased use of crops for fuel rather than food, according to a 2008 World Bank report.
As a matter of fact ,scientists see better ways to feed the world. Another World Bank report concluded that GM crops have little to offer to the challenges of worldwide poverty and hunger, because better ways out are available, among which "green" farming is supposed to be the first choice. | 3403.txt | 2 |
[
"is easy to get along with",
"is unhappy with the life they are living",
"is good at observing and understanding",
"is never pleased with her neigbours"
] | This passage mainly suggests that the writer _ . | My husband and children think they are very lucky that they are living and that it's Christmas again. They can't see that we live on a dirty street in a dirty house among people who aren't much good. But Johnny and children can't see this. What a pity it is that our neighbours have to make happiness out of all this dirt. I decided that my children must get out of this. The money that we've saved isn't nearly enough.
The McGaritys have money but they are so proud. They look down upon the poor. The McGarity girl just yesterday stood out there in the street eating from a bag of candywhile a ring of hungry children watched her. I saw those children looking at her and crying in their hearts; and when she couldn't eat any more she threw the rest down the sewer. Why, is it only because they have money ? There is more to happiness than money in the world, isn't there?
Miss Jackson who teaches at the Settlement House isn't rich, but she knows things. She understands people. Her eyes look straight into yours when she talks with you. She can read your mind. I'd like to see the children be like Miss Jackson when they grow up. | 2916.txt | 1 |
[
"She is proud and hungry.",
"She is selfish and cruel.",
"She is lonely and friendless.",
"She is unhappy and misunderstood."
] | What do you think of McGarity girl? | My husband and children think they are very lucky that they are living and that it's Christmas again. They can't see that we live on a dirty street in a dirty house among people who aren't much good. But Johnny and children can't see this. What a pity it is that our neighbours have to make happiness out of all this dirt. I decided that my children must get out of this. The money that we've saved isn't nearly enough.
The McGaritys have money but they are so proud. They look down upon the poor. The McGarity girl just yesterday stood out there in the street eating from a bag of candywhile a ring of hungry children watched her. I saw those children looking at her and crying in their hearts; and when she couldn't eat any more she threw the rest down the sewer. Why, is it only because they have money ? There is more to happiness than money in the world, isn't there?
Miss Jackson who teaches at the Settlement House isn't rich, but she knows things. She understands people. Her eyes look straight into yours when she talks with you. She can read your mind. I'd like to see the children be like Miss Jackson when they grow up. | 2916.txt | 1 |
[
"money is the key to everything",
"the more money you have, the less happy you'll be",
"there is something more important than money",
"when talking to people we should look into their eyes"
] | In this text, the writer tries to tell us that _ . | My husband and children think they are very lucky that they are living and that it's Christmas again. They can't see that we live on a dirty street in a dirty house among people who aren't much good. But Johnny and children can't see this. What a pity it is that our neighbours have to make happiness out of all this dirt. I decided that my children must get out of this. The money that we've saved isn't nearly enough.
The McGaritys have money but they are so proud. They look down upon the poor. The McGarity girl just yesterday stood out there in the street eating from a bag of candywhile a ring of hungry children watched her. I saw those children looking at her and crying in their hearts; and when she couldn't eat any more she threw the rest down the sewer. Why, is it only because they have money ? There is more to happiness than money in the world, isn't there?
Miss Jackson who teaches at the Settlement House isn't rich, but she knows things. She understands people. Her eyes look straight into yours when she talks with you. She can read your mind. I'd like to see the children be like Miss Jackson when they grow up. | 2916.txt | 2 |
[
"Why, is it only because they have money",
"There is more to happiness than money.",
"Miss Jackson isn't rich, but she knows things.",
"The money we saved isn't nearly enough."
] | Pick out the one that does NOT describe the writer's view on money. | My husband and children think they are very lucky that they are living and that it's Christmas again. They can't see that we live on a dirty street in a dirty house among people who aren't much good. But Johnny and children can't see this. What a pity it is that our neighbours have to make happiness out of all this dirt. I decided that my children must get out of this. The money that we've saved isn't nearly enough.
The McGaritys have money but they are so proud. They look down upon the poor. The McGarity girl just yesterday stood out there in the street eating from a bag of candywhile a ring of hungry children watched her. I saw those children looking at her and crying in their hearts; and when she couldn't eat any more she threw the rest down the sewer. Why, is it only because they have money ? There is more to happiness than money in the world, isn't there?
Miss Jackson who teaches at the Settlement House isn't rich, but she knows things. She understands people. Her eyes look straight into yours when she talks with you. She can read your mind. I'd like to see the children be like Miss Jackson when they grow up. | 2916.txt | 3 |
[
"technology cannot solve all of our human problems",
"progress in vaccine research for influenza has lagged behind",
"great achievements have been made by men in exploring the unknown",
"the development of vaccine production methods can not be stopped"
] | The moon-landing is mentioned in the first paragraph to illustrate _ . | Modern technology has put men on the moon and deciphered the human genome. But when it comes to brewing up flu to make vaccines, science still turns to the incredible edible egg. Ever since the 1940s, vaccine makers have grown large batches of virus inside chicken eggs. But given that some 36,000 Americans die of flu each year, it's remarkable that our first line of defense is still what Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson calls "the cumbersome and archaic egg-based production." New cell-based technologies are in the pipeline, however, and may finally get the support they need now that the United States is faced with a critical shortage of flu vaccine. Although experts disagree on whether new ways of producing vaccine could have prevented a shortage like the one happening today, there is no doubt that the existing system has serious flaws.
Each year, vaccine manufacturers place advance orders for millions of specially grown chicken eggs. Meanwhile, public-health officials monitor circulating strains of flu, and each March they recommend three strains-two influenza A strains and one B strain-for manufacturers to include in vaccines. In the late spring and summer, automated machines inject virus into eggs and later suck out the influenza-rich goop. Virus from the eggs' innards gets killed and processed to remove egg proteins and other contaminants before being packaged into vials for fall shipment.
Why has this egg method persisted for six decades? The main reason is that it's reliable. But even though the eggs are reliable, they have serious drawbacks. One is the long lead time needed to order the eggs. That means it's hard to make more vaccine in a hurry, in case of a shortage or unexpected outbreak. And eggs may simply be too cumbersome to keep up with the hundreds of millions of doses required to handle the demand for flu vaccine.
What's more, some flu strains don't grow well in eggs. Last year, scientists were unable to include the Fujian strain in the vaccine formulation. It was a relatively new strain, and manufacturers simply couldn't find a quick way to adapt it so that it grew well in eggs. "We knew the strain was out there," recalls Theodore Eickhoff of the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, "but public-health officials were left without a vaccine-and, consequently, a more severe flu season."
Worse, the viruses that pose the greatest threat might be hardest to grow in eggs. That's because global pandemics like the one that killed over 50 million people between 1918 and 1920 are thought to occur when a bird influenza changes in a way that lets it cross the species barrier and infect humans. Since humans haven't encountered the new virus before, they have little protective immunity. The deadly bird flu circulating in Asia in 1997 and 1998, for example, worried public-health officials because it spread to some people who handled birds and killed them-although the bug never circulated among humans. But when scientists tried to make vaccine the old-fashioned way, the bird flu quickly killed the eggs. | 1070.txt | 1 |
[
"Manufacturers implant the vaccine into ordered chicken eggs.",
"Scientists identify the exact strain soon after a flu pandemic starts.",
"Public health measures are taken as an important pandemic-fighting tool.",
"Viruses are deadened and made clean before being put into vaccine use."
] | What step is essential to the traditional production of flu vaccine? | Modern technology has put men on the moon and deciphered the human genome. But when it comes to brewing up flu to make vaccines, science still turns to the incredible edible egg. Ever since the 1940s, vaccine makers have grown large batches of virus inside chicken eggs. But given that some 36,000 Americans die of flu each year, it's remarkable that our first line of defense is still what Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson calls "the cumbersome and archaic egg-based production." New cell-based technologies are in the pipeline, however, and may finally get the support they need now that the United States is faced with a critical shortage of flu vaccine. Although experts disagree on whether new ways of producing vaccine could have prevented a shortage like the one happening today, there is no doubt that the existing system has serious flaws.
Each year, vaccine manufacturers place advance orders for millions of specially grown chicken eggs. Meanwhile, public-health officials monitor circulating strains of flu, and each March they recommend three strains-two influenza A strains and one B strain-for manufacturers to include in vaccines. In the late spring and summer, automated machines inject virus into eggs and later suck out the influenza-rich goop. Virus from the eggs' innards gets killed and processed to remove egg proteins and other contaminants before being packaged into vials for fall shipment.
Why has this egg method persisted for six decades? The main reason is that it's reliable. But even though the eggs are reliable, they have serious drawbacks. One is the long lead time needed to order the eggs. That means it's hard to make more vaccine in a hurry, in case of a shortage or unexpected outbreak. And eggs may simply be too cumbersome to keep up with the hundreds of millions of doses required to handle the demand for flu vaccine.
What's more, some flu strains don't grow well in eggs. Last year, scientists were unable to include the Fujian strain in the vaccine formulation. It was a relatively new strain, and manufacturers simply couldn't find a quick way to adapt it so that it grew well in eggs. "We knew the strain was out there," recalls Theodore Eickhoff of the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, "but public-health officials were left without a vaccine-and, consequently, a more severe flu season."
Worse, the viruses that pose the greatest threat might be hardest to grow in eggs. That's because global pandemics like the one that killed over 50 million people between 1918 and 1920 are thought to occur when a bird influenza changes in a way that lets it cross the species barrier and infect humans. Since humans haven't encountered the new virus before, they have little protective immunity. The deadly bird flu circulating in Asia in 1997 and 1998, for example, worried public-health officials because it spread to some people who handled birds and killed them-although the bug never circulated among humans. But when scientists tried to make vaccine the old-fashioned way, the bird flu quickly killed the eggs. | 1070.txt | 3 |
[
"the complex process of vaccine production",
"its potential threat to human being",
"the low survival rate for new flu vaccines",
"its contribution to the flu vaccine shortage"
] | The foremost reason why the egg-based method is defective lies in _ . | Modern technology has put men on the moon and deciphered the human genome. But when it comes to brewing up flu to make vaccines, science still turns to the incredible edible egg. Ever since the 1940s, vaccine makers have grown large batches of virus inside chicken eggs. But given that some 36,000 Americans die of flu each year, it's remarkable that our first line of defense is still what Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson calls "the cumbersome and archaic egg-based production." New cell-based technologies are in the pipeline, however, and may finally get the support they need now that the United States is faced with a critical shortage of flu vaccine. Although experts disagree on whether new ways of producing vaccine could have prevented a shortage like the one happening today, there is no doubt that the existing system has serious flaws.
Each year, vaccine manufacturers place advance orders for millions of specially grown chicken eggs. Meanwhile, public-health officials monitor circulating strains of flu, and each March they recommend three strains-two influenza A strains and one B strain-for manufacturers to include in vaccines. In the late spring and summer, automated machines inject virus into eggs and later suck out the influenza-rich goop. Virus from the eggs' innards gets killed and processed to remove egg proteins and other contaminants before being packaged into vials for fall shipment.
Why has this egg method persisted for six decades? The main reason is that it's reliable. But even though the eggs are reliable, they have serious drawbacks. One is the long lead time needed to order the eggs. That means it's hard to make more vaccine in a hurry, in case of a shortage or unexpected outbreak. And eggs may simply be too cumbersome to keep up with the hundreds of millions of doses required to handle the demand for flu vaccine.
What's more, some flu strains don't grow well in eggs. Last year, scientists were unable to include the Fujian strain in the vaccine formulation. It was a relatively new strain, and manufacturers simply couldn't find a quick way to adapt it so that it grew well in eggs. "We knew the strain was out there," recalls Theodore Eickhoff of the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, "but public-health officials were left without a vaccine-and, consequently, a more severe flu season."
Worse, the viruses that pose the greatest threat might be hardest to grow in eggs. That's because global pandemics like the one that killed over 50 million people between 1918 and 1920 are thought to occur when a bird influenza changes in a way that lets it cross the species barrier and infect humans. Since humans haven't encountered the new virus before, they have little protective immunity. The deadly bird flu circulating in Asia in 1997 and 1998, for example, worried public-health officials because it spread to some people who handled birds and killed them-although the bug never circulated among humans. But when scientists tried to make vaccine the old-fashioned way, the bird flu quickly killed the eggs. | 1070.txt | 2 |
[
"Flu vaccines now mainly use egg-based technology.",
"A bird influenza has once circulated among humans.",
"Safety can be greatly improved with cell-culture vaccines.",
"Modern vaccine production methods are to replace egg-based methods."
] | Which of the following is true according to the passage? | Modern technology has put men on the moon and deciphered the human genome. But when it comes to brewing up flu to make vaccines, science still turns to the incredible edible egg. Ever since the 1940s, vaccine makers have grown large batches of virus inside chicken eggs. But given that some 36,000 Americans die of flu each year, it's remarkable that our first line of defense is still what Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson calls "the cumbersome and archaic egg-based production." New cell-based technologies are in the pipeline, however, and may finally get the support they need now that the United States is faced with a critical shortage of flu vaccine. Although experts disagree on whether new ways of producing vaccine could have prevented a shortage like the one happening today, there is no doubt that the existing system has serious flaws.
Each year, vaccine manufacturers place advance orders for millions of specially grown chicken eggs. Meanwhile, public-health officials monitor circulating strains of flu, and each March they recommend three strains-two influenza A strains and one B strain-for manufacturers to include in vaccines. In the late spring and summer, automated machines inject virus into eggs and later suck out the influenza-rich goop. Virus from the eggs' innards gets killed and processed to remove egg proteins and other contaminants before being packaged into vials for fall shipment.
Why has this egg method persisted for six decades? The main reason is that it's reliable. But even though the eggs are reliable, they have serious drawbacks. One is the long lead time needed to order the eggs. That means it's hard to make more vaccine in a hurry, in case of a shortage or unexpected outbreak. And eggs may simply be too cumbersome to keep up with the hundreds of millions of doses required to handle the demand for flu vaccine.
What's more, some flu strains don't grow well in eggs. Last year, scientists were unable to include the Fujian strain in the vaccine formulation. It was a relatively new strain, and manufacturers simply couldn't find a quick way to adapt it so that it grew well in eggs. "We knew the strain was out there," recalls Theodore Eickhoff of the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, "but public-health officials were left without a vaccine-and, consequently, a more severe flu season."
Worse, the viruses that pose the greatest threat might be hardest to grow in eggs. That's because global pandemics like the one that killed over 50 million people between 1918 and 1920 are thought to occur when a bird influenza changes in a way that lets it cross the species barrier and infect humans. Since humans haven't encountered the new virus before, they have little protective immunity. The deadly bird flu circulating in Asia in 1997 and 1998, for example, worried public-health officials because it spread to some people who handled birds and killed them-although the bug never circulated among humans. But when scientists tried to make vaccine the old-fashioned way, the bird flu quickly killed the eggs. | 1070.txt | 0 |
[
"remarkable",
"criticized",
"efficient",
"accepted"
] | In the author's view, the new vaccine production method seems to be _ . | Modern technology has put men on the moon and deciphered the human genome. But when it comes to brewing up flu to make vaccines, science still turns to the incredible edible egg. Ever since the 1940s, vaccine makers have grown large batches of virus inside chicken eggs. But given that some 36,000 Americans die of flu each year, it's remarkable that our first line of defense is still what Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson calls "the cumbersome and archaic egg-based production." New cell-based technologies are in the pipeline, however, and may finally get the support they need now that the United States is faced with a critical shortage of flu vaccine. Although experts disagree on whether new ways of producing vaccine could have prevented a shortage like the one happening today, there is no doubt that the existing system has serious flaws.
Each year, vaccine manufacturers place advance orders for millions of specially grown chicken eggs. Meanwhile, public-health officials monitor circulating strains of flu, and each March they recommend three strains-two influenza A strains and one B strain-for manufacturers to include in vaccines. In the late spring and summer, automated machines inject virus into eggs and later suck out the influenza-rich goop. Virus from the eggs' innards gets killed and processed to remove egg proteins and other contaminants before being packaged into vials for fall shipment.
Why has this egg method persisted for six decades? The main reason is that it's reliable. But even though the eggs are reliable, they have serious drawbacks. One is the long lead time needed to order the eggs. That means it's hard to make more vaccine in a hurry, in case of a shortage or unexpected outbreak. And eggs may simply be too cumbersome to keep up with the hundreds of millions of doses required to handle the demand for flu vaccine.
What's more, some flu strains don't grow well in eggs. Last year, scientists were unable to include the Fujian strain in the vaccine formulation. It was a relatively new strain, and manufacturers simply couldn't find a quick way to adapt it so that it grew well in eggs. "We knew the strain was out there," recalls Theodore Eickhoff of the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, "but public-health officials were left without a vaccine-and, consequently, a more severe flu season."
Worse, the viruses that pose the greatest threat might be hardest to grow in eggs. That's because global pandemics like the one that killed over 50 million people between 1918 and 1920 are thought to occur when a bird influenza changes in a way that lets it cross the species barrier and infect humans. Since humans haven't encountered the new virus before, they have little protective immunity. The deadly bird flu circulating in Asia in 1997 and 1998, for example, worried public-health officials because it spread to some people who handled birds and killed them-although the bug never circulated among humans. But when scientists tried to make vaccine the old-fashioned way, the bird flu quickly killed the eggs. | 1070.txt | 3 |
[
"is a leading factor that has caused the sales of Yoplait Greek to lag behind other brands.",
"will make the sales of Yoplait Greek lag behind other brands",
"will help increase the sales of Yoplait Greek.",
"has no direct relationship with the fact that the sales of Yoplait Greek have already lagged far behind other brands."
] | The lawsuit against General Mills | A class action lawsuit has been filed against General Mills for misrepresenting the product it calls Yoplait Greek. It isn't Greek, and it isn't yogurt. The sales of Yoplait Greek already lag far behind other brands such as Chobani and Fage in an exploding Greek yogurt market, and this latest lawsuit won't help any.
"Yoplait Greek does not comply with the standard of identity of yogurt," the lawsuit states. "Indeed, Yoplait Greek contains Milk Protein Concentrate ("MPC") which is not among the permissible ingredients of yogurt, non-fat yogurt, and low-fat
yogurt (collectively "yogurt") as set forth under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act."
Authentic Greek yogurt is thicker in consistency and richer in protein because it's strained of liquid whey. But MPC offers an alternative to this process. It is, as described on FoodNavigator-USA, "a very high protein dry milk product, which has been touted for use in Greek-style products to increase their protein content and pr ovide a thick, creamy texture without the need for expensive straining."
In its corporate eagerness to claim a larger share of the Greek yogurt market, General Mills adds MPC to Yoplait Greek because, as reported in the Minneapolis \/ St. Paul Business Jour nal, it is "cheaper to store and transport than wet milk and costs less than dry milk due to minimal tariffs on MPC imports and lower foreign milk prices." New Zealand is the biggest supplier of MPC to the United States. In short, as stated in the lawsuit, "The use of MPC is financially advantageous to defendants." It allows General Mills to manufacture more product at lower cost, and that's the only reason it's in the yogurt.
Never mind that the use of the substance in yogurt flouts FDA rules for the stand ard of identity of the food. So far the extent of General Mills's defense is that the FDA never explicitly prohibited MPC in yogurt. That's a lesson in logic. Any substance that is not explicitly prohibited is officially permitted.
Never mind, as well, the questionable safety of the substance, which is not included on the FDA list of substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or on the FDA list of food additives. In other words, it hasn't actually been approved for use in food. | 541.txt | 3 |
[
"is strained of liquid whey.",
"thicker in consistency than Yoplait Greek.",
"richer in protein than Yoplait Greek.",
"contains MPC."
] | Authentic Greek yogurt | A class action lawsuit has been filed against General Mills for misrepresenting the product it calls Yoplait Greek. It isn't Greek, and it isn't yogurt. The sales of Yoplait Greek already lag far behind other brands such as Chobani and Fage in an exploding Greek yogurt market, and this latest lawsuit won't help any.
"Yoplait Greek does not comply with the standard of identity of yogurt," the lawsuit states. "Indeed, Yoplait Greek contains Milk Protein Concentrate ("MPC") which is not among the permissible ingredients of yogurt, non-fat yogurt, and low-fat
yogurt (collectively "yogurt") as set forth under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act."
Authentic Greek yogurt is thicker in consistency and richer in protein because it's strained of liquid whey. But MPC offers an alternative to this process. It is, as described on FoodNavigator-USA, "a very high protein dry milk product, which has been touted for use in Greek-style products to increase their protein content and pr ovide a thick, creamy texture without the need for expensive straining."
In its corporate eagerness to claim a larger share of the Greek yogurt market, General Mills adds MPC to Yoplait Greek because, as reported in the Minneapolis \/ St. Paul Business Jour nal, it is "cheaper to store and transport than wet milk and costs less than dry milk due to minimal tariffs on MPC imports and lower foreign milk prices." New Zealand is the biggest supplier of MPC to the United States. In short, as stated in the lawsuit, "The use of MPC is financially advantageous to defendants." It allows General Mills to manufacture more product at lower cost, and that's the only reason it's in the yogurt.
Never mind that the use of the substance in yogurt flouts FDA rules for the stand ard of identity of the food. So far the extent of General Mills's defense is that the FDA never explicitly prohibited MPC in yogurt. That's a lesson in logic. Any substance that is not explicitly prohibited is officially permitted.
Never mind, as well, the questionable safety of the substance, which is not included on the FDA list of substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or on the FDA list of food additives. In other words, it hasn't actually been approved for use in food. | 541.txt | 0 |
[
"for the improvement of its quality",
"for the convenience of transportation",
"for the reduction of costs",
"for the extension of its shelf life"
] | According to the lawsuit, it is that General Mills adds MPC to Yoplait Greek. | A class action lawsuit has been filed against General Mills for misrepresenting the product it calls Yoplait Greek. It isn't Greek, and it isn't yogurt. The sales of Yoplait Greek already lag far behind other brands such as Chobani and Fage in an exploding Greek yogurt market, and this latest lawsuit won't help any.
"Yoplait Greek does not comply with the standard of identity of yogurt," the lawsuit states. "Indeed, Yoplait Greek contains Milk Protein Concentrate ("MPC") which is not among the permissible ingredients of yogurt, non-fat yogurt, and low-fat
yogurt (collectively "yogurt") as set forth under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act."
Authentic Greek yogurt is thicker in consistency and richer in protein because it's strained of liquid whey. But MPC offers an alternative to this process. It is, as described on FoodNavigator-USA, "a very high protein dry milk product, which has been touted for use in Greek-style products to increase their protein content and pr ovide a thick, creamy texture without the need for expensive straining."
In its corporate eagerness to claim a larger share of the Greek yogurt market, General Mills adds MPC to Yoplait Greek because, as reported in the Minneapolis \/ St. Paul Business Jour nal, it is "cheaper to store and transport than wet milk and costs less than dry milk due to minimal tariffs on MPC imports and lower foreign milk prices." New Zealand is the biggest supplier of MPC to the United States. In short, as stated in the lawsuit, "The use of MPC is financially advantageous to defendants." It allows General Mills to manufacture more product at lower cost, and that's the only reason it's in the yogurt.
Never mind that the use of the substance in yogurt flouts FDA rules for the stand ard of identity of the food. So far the extent of General Mills's defense is that the FDA never explicitly prohibited MPC in yogurt. That's a lesson in logic. Any substance that is not explicitly prohibited is officially permitted.
Never mind, as well, the questionable safety of the substance, which is not included on the FDA list of substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or on the FDA list of food additives. In other words, it hasn't actually been approved for use in food. | 541.txt | 2 |
[
"The FDA has approved the use of MPC in yogurt.",
"MPC is on the FDA list of substances generally recognized as safe",
"The FDA has neither prohibited nor approved the use of MPC in yogurt.",
"MPC is on the FDA list of food additives."
] | Which of the following statements is true? | A class action lawsuit has been filed against General Mills for misrepresenting the product it calls Yoplait Greek. It isn't Greek, and it isn't yogurt. The sales of Yoplait Greek already lag far behind other brands such as Chobani and Fage in an exploding Greek yogurt market, and this latest lawsuit won't help any.
"Yoplait Greek does not comply with the standard of identity of yogurt," the lawsuit states. "Indeed, Yoplait Greek contains Milk Protein Concentrate ("MPC") which is not among the permissible ingredients of yogurt, non-fat yogurt, and low-fat
yogurt (collectively "yogurt") as set forth under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act."
Authentic Greek yogurt is thicker in consistency and richer in protein because it's strained of liquid whey. But MPC offers an alternative to this process. It is, as described on FoodNavigator-USA, "a very high protein dry milk product, which has been touted for use in Greek-style products to increase their protein content and pr ovide a thick, creamy texture without the need for expensive straining."
In its corporate eagerness to claim a larger share of the Greek yogurt market, General Mills adds MPC to Yoplait Greek because, as reported in the Minneapolis \/ St. Paul Business Jour nal, it is "cheaper to store and transport than wet milk and costs less than dry milk due to minimal tariffs on MPC imports and lower foreign milk prices." New Zealand is the biggest supplier of MPC to the United States. In short, as stated in the lawsuit, "The use of MPC is financially advantageous to defendants." It allows General Mills to manufacture more product at lower cost, and that's the only reason it's in the yogurt.
Never mind that the use of the substance in yogurt flouts FDA rules for the stand ard of identity of the food. So far the extent of General Mills's defense is that the FDA never explicitly prohibited MPC in yogurt. That's a lesson in logic. Any substance that is not explicitly prohibited is officially permitted.
Never mind, as well, the questionable safety of the substance, which is not included on the FDA list of substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or on the FDA list of food additives. In other words, it hasn't actually been approved for use in food. | 541.txt | 2 |
[
"Staying on the farm.",
"Moving to the countryside.",
"Leaving home for the city.",
"Running away from the school."
] | What was the writer always thinking about when he was a child? | When I was a child，I often dreamed of the time when I could leave home and escape to the city.We lived on a farm and，in the winter especially，we were quite cut off from the outside world.As soon as I left school, I packed my bags and moved to the capital. However，I soon discovered that city life has its problems too.
One big disadvantage is money-it costs so much to go out，not to mention basics like food and housing. Another disadvantage is pollution.I suffer from asthma，and at times the air is so bad that I am afraid to go outside. Then there is the problem of traveling round. Although I have a car，I seldom use it because of the traffic jams.One choice is to go by bicycle，but that can be quite dangerous.
Of course there are advantages.First，there is so much to do in the city，whatever your tastes in culture or entertainment.Besides，there are wonderful jobs and greater chances of moving to a more important job or position.Finally，if you like shopping，the variety of goods is very surprising-and，what is more，shops are often only a short walk away.
Is life better then, in the city? Perhaps it is，when you are in your teensor twenties. However，as you get older，and especially if you have small children，the peace of the countryside may seem preferable. I certainly hope to move back there soon. | 3466.txt | 2 |
[
"He is very old now.",
"He is in good health.",
"He prefers driving a car.",
"He lives in the city now."
] | Which of the following is true about the writer? | When I was a child，I often dreamed of the time when I could leave home and escape to the city.We lived on a farm and，in the winter especially，we were quite cut off from the outside world.As soon as I left school, I packed my bags and moved to the capital. However，I soon discovered that city life has its problems too.
One big disadvantage is money-it costs so much to go out，not to mention basics like food and housing. Another disadvantage is pollution.I suffer from asthma，and at times the air is so bad that I am afraid to go outside. Then there is the problem of traveling round. Although I have a car，I seldom use it because of the traffic jams.One choice is to go by bicycle，but that can be quite dangerous.
Of course there are advantages.First，there is so much to do in the city，whatever your tastes in culture or entertainment.Besides，there are wonderful jobs and greater chances of moving to a more important job or position.Finally，if you like shopping，the variety of goods is very surprising-and，what is more，shops are often only a short walk away.
Is life better then, in the city? Perhaps it is，when you are in your teensor twenties. However，as you get older，and especially if you have small children，the peace of the countryside may seem preferable. I certainly hope to move back there soon. | 3466.txt | 3 |
[
"express his opinions about way of life",
"describe his life in the countryside",
"show an interest in the outside world",
"persuade the reader to live in the city"
] | In the passage，the writer tries to _ . | When I was a child，I often dreamed of the time when I could leave home and escape to the city.We lived on a farm and，in the winter especially，we were quite cut off from the outside world.As soon as I left school, I packed my bags and moved to the capital. However，I soon discovered that city life has its problems too.
One big disadvantage is money-it costs so much to go out，not to mention basics like food and housing. Another disadvantage is pollution.I suffer from asthma，and at times the air is so bad that I am afraid to go outside. Then there is the problem of traveling round. Although I have a car，I seldom use it because of the traffic jams.One choice is to go by bicycle，but that can be quite dangerous.
Of course there are advantages.First，there is so much to do in the city，whatever your tastes in culture or entertainment.Besides，there are wonderful jobs and greater chances of moving to a more important job or position.Finally，if you like shopping，the variety of goods is very surprising-and，what is more，shops are often only a short walk away.
Is life better then, in the city? Perhaps it is，when you are in your teensor twenties. However，as you get older，and especially if you have small children，the peace of the countryside may seem preferable. I certainly hope to move back there soon. | 3466.txt | 0 |
[
"By inferring.",
"By comparing.",
"By listing examples.",
"By giving explanations."
] | How is the passage mainly developed? | When I was a child，I often dreamed of the time when I could leave home and escape to the city.We lived on a farm and，in the winter especially，we were quite cut off from the outside world.As soon as I left school, I packed my bags and moved to the capital. However，I soon discovered that city life has its problems too.
One big disadvantage is money-it costs so much to go out，not to mention basics like food and housing. Another disadvantage is pollution.I suffer from asthma，and at times the air is so bad that I am afraid to go outside. Then there is the problem of traveling round. Although I have a car，I seldom use it because of the traffic jams.One choice is to go by bicycle，but that can be quite dangerous.
Of course there are advantages.First，there is so much to do in the city，whatever your tastes in culture or entertainment.Besides，there are wonderful jobs and greater chances of moving to a more important job or position.Finally，if you like shopping，the variety of goods is very surprising-and，what is more，shops are often only a short walk away.
Is life better then, in the city? Perhaps it is，when you are in your teensor twenties. However，as you get older，and especially if you have small children，the peace of the countryside may seem preferable. I certainly hope to move back there soon. | 3466.txt | 1 |
[
"only co-education can be in harmony with society.",
"people are in great need of co-education.",
"any form of education other than co-education is simply unthinkable.",
"co-education has many features."
] | What is the best title for this passage? | Contribution of Coeducation
Imagining being asked to spend twelve or so years of your life in a society which consisted only of members of own sex. How would you react? Unless there was something definitely wrong with you, you wouldn't be too happy about it, to say the least. It is all the more surprising therefore that so many parents in the world choose to impose such abnormal conditions on their children conditions which they themselves wouldn't put up with for one minute!
Any discussion of this topic is bound to question the aims of education. Stuffing children's heads full of knowledge is far from being foremost among them. One of the chief aims of educations is to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society.
Now adult society is made up of men and women, so how can a segregated school possibly offer the right sort of preparation for it?
Anyone entering adult society after years of segregation can only be in for a shock.
A co-educational school offers children nothing less than a true version of society in miniature. Boys and girls are given the opportunity to get to know each other, to learn to live together from their earliest years.
They are put in a position where they can compare themselves with each other in terms of academic ability, athletic achievement and many of the extra-curricular activities which are part of school life.
What a practical advantage it is(to give just a small example)to be able to put on a school play in which the male parts will be taken by boys and the female parts by girls! What nonsense co-education makes of the argument that boys are cleverer than girl or vice-versa.
When segregated, boys and girls are made to feel that they are a race apart. Rivalry between the sexes is fostered.
In a coeducational school, everything falls into its proper place. But perhaps the greatest contribution of co-education is the healthy attitude to life it encourages.
Boys don't grow up believing that women are mysterious creaturesairy goddesses, more like book-illustrations to a fairy-tale, than human beings. Girls don't grow up imagining that men are romantic heroes.
Years of living together at school dispel illusions of this kind. There are no goddesses with freckles, pigtails, piercing voices and inky fingers. There are no romantic heroes with knobbly knees, dirty fingernails and unkempt hair. The awkward stage of adolescence brings into sharp focus some of the physical and emotional problems involved in growing up. These can better be overcome in a co-educational environment.
Segregated schools sometimes provide the right conditions for sexual deviation. This is hardly possible under a co-educational system. When the time comes for the pupils to leave school, they are fully prepared to enter society as well-adjusted adults.
They have already had years of experience in coping with many of the problems that face men and women. | 293.txt | 2 |
[
"A society.",
"A true small model of society.",
"A real life.",
"1}ue version of social condition."
] | what does co-education offer to children? | Contribution of Coeducation
Imagining being asked to spend twelve or so years of your life in a society which consisted only of members of own sex. How would you react? Unless there was something definitely wrong with you, you wouldn't be too happy about it, to say the least. It is all the more surprising therefore that so many parents in the world choose to impose such abnormal conditions on their children conditions which they themselves wouldn't put up with for one minute!
Any discussion of this topic is bound to question the aims of education. Stuffing children's heads full of knowledge is far from being foremost among them. One of the chief aims of educations is to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society.
Now adult society is made up of men and women, so how can a segregated school possibly offer the right sort of preparation for it?
Anyone entering adult society after years of segregation can only be in for a shock.
A co-educational school offers children nothing less than a true version of society in miniature. Boys and girls are given the opportunity to get to know each other, to learn to live together from their earliest years.
They are put in a position where they can compare themselves with each other in terms of academic ability, athletic achievement and many of the extra-curricular activities which are part of school life.
What a practical advantage it is(to give just a small example)to be able to put on a school play in which the male parts will be taken by boys and the female parts by girls! What nonsense co-education makes of the argument that boys are cleverer than girl or vice-versa.
When segregated, boys and girls are made to feel that they are a race apart. Rivalry between the sexes is fostered.
In a coeducational school, everything falls into its proper place. But perhaps the greatest contribution of co-education is the healthy attitude to life it encourages.
Boys don't grow up believing that women are mysterious creaturesairy goddesses, more like book-illustrations to a fairy-tale, than human beings. Girls don't grow up imagining that men are romantic heroes.
Years of living together at school dispel illusions of this kind. There are no goddesses with freckles, pigtails, piercing voices and inky fingers. There are no romantic heroes with knobbly knees, dirty fingernails and unkempt hair. The awkward stage of adolescence brings into sharp focus some of the physical and emotional problems involved in growing up. These can better be overcome in a co-educational environment.
Segregated schools sometimes provide the right conditions for sexual deviation. This is hardly possible under a co-educational system. When the time comes for the pupils to leave school, they are fully prepared to enter society as well-adjusted adults.
They have already had years of experience in coping with many of the problems that face men and women. | 293.txt | 1 |
[
"It is for students to acquire knowledge.",
"It is to equip future citizens with scientific technology.",
"It is to equip future citizens with what is required in getting a position in society.",
"It is for students to get academic achievements."
] | According to the passage, what is one of the chief aims of education? | Contribution of Coeducation
Imagining being asked to spend twelve or so years of your life in a society which consisted only of members of own sex. How would you react? Unless there was something definitely wrong with you, you wouldn't be too happy about it, to say the least. It is all the more surprising therefore that so many parents in the world choose to impose such abnormal conditions on their children conditions which they themselves wouldn't put up with for one minute!
Any discussion of this topic is bound to question the aims of education. Stuffing children's heads full of knowledge is far from being foremost among them. One of the chief aims of educations is to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society.
Now adult society is made up of men and women, so how can a segregated school possibly offer the right sort of preparation for it?
Anyone entering adult society after years of segregation can only be in for a shock.
A co-educational school offers children nothing less than a true version of society in miniature. Boys and girls are given the opportunity to get to know each other, to learn to live together from their earliest years.
They are put in a position where they can compare themselves with each other in terms of academic ability, athletic achievement and many of the extra-curricular activities which are part of school life.
What a practical advantage it is(to give just a small example)to be able to put on a school play in which the male parts will be taken by boys and the female parts by girls! What nonsense co-education makes of the argument that boys are cleverer than girl or vice-versa.
When segregated, boys and girls are made to feel that they are a race apart. Rivalry between the sexes is fostered.
In a coeducational school, everything falls into its proper place. But perhaps the greatest contribution of co-education is the healthy attitude to life it encourages.
Boys don't grow up believing that women are mysterious creaturesairy goddesses, more like book-illustrations to a fairy-tale, than human beings. Girls don't grow up imagining that men are romantic heroes.
Years of living together at school dispel illusions of this kind. There are no goddesses with freckles, pigtails, piercing voices and inky fingers. There are no romantic heroes with knobbly knees, dirty fingernails and unkempt hair. The awkward stage of adolescence brings into sharp focus some of the physical and emotional problems involved in growing up. These can better be overcome in a co-educational environment.
Segregated schools sometimes provide the right conditions for sexual deviation. This is hardly possible under a co-educational system. When the time comes for the pupils to leave school, they are fully prepared to enter society as well-adjusted adults.
They have already had years of experience in coping with many of the problems that face men and women. | 293.txt | 2 |
[
"They live together and know each other too well.",
"Years of living together at school dismiss such illusion.",
"co-education encourage them to have an healthy attitude toward life.",
"They are familiar with each other' s problems."
] | Why do boys and girls in co-education have no illusion about each other? | Contribution of Coeducation
Imagining being asked to spend twelve or so years of your life in a society which consisted only of members of own sex. How would you react? Unless there was something definitely wrong with you, you wouldn't be too happy about it, to say the least. It is all the more surprising therefore that so many parents in the world choose to impose such abnormal conditions on their children conditions which they themselves wouldn't put up with for one minute!
Any discussion of this topic is bound to question the aims of education. Stuffing children's heads full of knowledge is far from being foremost among them. One of the chief aims of educations is to equip future citizens with all they require to take their place in adult society.
Now adult society is made up of men and women, so how can a segregated school possibly offer the right sort of preparation for it?
Anyone entering adult society after years of segregation can only be in for a shock.
A co-educational school offers children nothing less than a true version of society in miniature. Boys and girls are given the opportunity to get to know each other, to learn to live together from their earliest years.
They are put in a position where they can compare themselves with each other in terms of academic ability, athletic achievement and many of the extra-curricular activities which are part of school life.
What a practical advantage it is(to give just a small example)to be able to put on a school play in which the male parts will be taken by boys and the female parts by girls! What nonsense co-education makes of the argument that boys are cleverer than girl or vice-versa.
When segregated, boys and girls are made to feel that they are a race apart. Rivalry between the sexes is fostered.
In a coeducational school, everything falls into its proper place. But perhaps the greatest contribution of co-education is the healthy attitude to life it encourages.
Boys don't grow up believing that women are mysterious creaturesairy goddesses, more like book-illustrations to a fairy-tale, than human beings. Girls don't grow up imagining that men are romantic heroes.
Years of living together at school dispel illusions of this kind. There are no goddesses with freckles, pigtails, piercing voices and inky fingers. There are no romantic heroes with knobbly knees, dirty fingernails and unkempt hair. The awkward stage of adolescence brings into sharp focus some of the physical and emotional problems involved in growing up. These can better be overcome in a co-educational environment.
Segregated schools sometimes provide the right conditions for sexual deviation. This is hardly possible under a co-educational system. When the time comes for the pupils to leave school, they are fully prepared to enter society as well-adjusted adults.
They have already had years of experience in coping with many of the problems that face men and women. | 293.txt | 1 |
[
"the point(P1) is very small",
"the hole isn't big enough",
"light rays don't travel in straight lines",
"light rays can't pass through a small hole"
] | In Figure 1 we see a faint small point on the wall because. | Why do we have in a camera a lensinstead of a simple hole?
The reason can be seen from the figures.
In Figure 1, the hole is small. Rays of light from a point (P1)outside reach a very small part of the wall opposite, and we see there a small point. But when the hole is bigger, as in Figure 2, rays from the point(P2)can cover a larger part of the wall opposite, and we don't see a clear point, Rays from other points(Q) outside can also fall on the same place inside. Therefore the picture is not clear when the hole is big and it is not bright when the hole is small because very very little light can pass through it.. We can get better result with a lens. If the lens is made in the shape shown in Figure 3, all the rays of light from the point(P3) are thrown on point(P') inside. The picture which we see, therefore, is clear, and it is also bright because more light can pass through a lens than through a small hole. | 1256.txt | 1 |
[
"the more light can pass through",
"the clearer the picture will be",
"the better result we will get",
"the faster the light rays travel"
] | Figure 2 shows that the bigger the hole is,. | Why do we have in a camera a lensinstead of a simple hole?
The reason can be seen from the figures.
In Figure 1, the hole is small. Rays of light from a point (P1)outside reach a very small part of the wall opposite, and we see there a small point. But when the hole is bigger, as in Figure 2, rays from the point(P2)can cover a larger part of the wall opposite, and we don't see a clear point, Rays from other points(Q) outside can also fall on the same place inside. Therefore the picture is not clear when the hole is big and it is not bright when the hole is small because very very little light can pass through it.. We can get better result with a lens. If the lens is made in the shape shown in Figure 3, all the rays of light from the point(P3) are thrown on point(P') inside. The picture which we see, therefore, is clear, and it is also bright because more light can pass through a lens than through a small hole. | 1256.txt | 0 |
[
"can form a clear picture",
"can make light go in a straight line",
"can help light rays to go faster",
"cannot give the picture more light than in Fig. 2"
] | From figure 3, we can see a lens. | Why do we have in a camera a lensinstead of a simple hole?
The reason can be seen from the figures.
In Figure 1, the hole is small. Rays of light from a point (P1)outside reach a very small part of the wall opposite, and we see there a small point. But when the hole is bigger, as in Figure 2, rays from the point(P2)can cover a larger part of the wall opposite, and we don't see a clear point, Rays from other points(Q) outside can also fall on the same place inside. Therefore the picture is not clear when the hole is big and it is not bright when the hole is small because very very little light can pass through it.. We can get better result with a lens. If the lens is made in the shape shown in Figure 3, all the rays of light from the point(P3) are thrown on point(P') inside. The picture which we see, therefore, is clear, and it is also bright because more light can pass through a lens than through a small hole. | 1256.txt | 0 |
[
"a smaller hole is better than a bigger one",
"big holes are better than small ones",
"both a big hole and a small one have their weak points",
"light rays are sure to pass through a hole no matter it is big or small"
] | The main idea of the second paragraph of the article is that. | Why do we have in a camera a lensinstead of a simple hole?
The reason can be seen from the figures.
In Figure 1, the hole is small. Rays of light from a point (P1)outside reach a very small part of the wall opposite, and we see there a small point. But when the hole is bigger, as in Figure 2, rays from the point(P2)can cover a larger part of the wall opposite, and we don't see a clear point, Rays from other points(Q) outside can also fall on the same place inside. Therefore the picture is not clear when the hole is big and it is not bright when the hole is small because very very little light can pass through it.. We can get better result with a lens. If the lens is made in the shape shown in Figure 3, all the rays of light from the point(P3) are thrown on point(P') inside. The picture which we see, therefore, is clear, and it is also bright because more light can pass through a lens than through a small hole. | 1256.txt | 3 |
[
"Light can go through all kinds of materials",
"A camera can't be made without a lens",
"The lens is only used in a camera",
"Most of the light we get is from the lens"
] | Which of the following statements is true? | Why do we have in a camera a lensinstead of a simple hole?
The reason can be seen from the figures.
In Figure 1, the hole is small. Rays of light from a point (P1)outside reach a very small part of the wall opposite, and we see there a small point. But when the hole is bigger, as in Figure 2, rays from the point(P2)can cover a larger part of the wall opposite, and we don't see a clear point, Rays from other points(Q) outside can also fall on the same place inside. Therefore the picture is not clear when the hole is big and it is not bright when the hole is small because very very little light can pass through it.. We can get better result with a lens. If the lens is made in the shape shown in Figure 3, all the rays of light from the point(P3) are thrown on point(P') inside. The picture which we see, therefore, is clear, and it is also bright because more light can pass through a lens than through a small hole. | 1256.txt | 1 |
[
"by educating its citizens",
"by careful family planning",
"by developing TV programmes",
"by chance"
] | According to the passage, Brazil has cut back its population growth ________. | Brazil has become one of the developing world's great successes at reducing population growth-but more by accident than design. While countries such as India have made joint efforts to reduce birth rates, Brazil has had better result without really trying, says George Martine at Harvard.
Brazil's population growth rate has dropped from 2.99% a year between 1951 and 1960 to 1.93% a year between 1981 and 1990, and Brazilian women now have only 2.7 children on average. Martine says this figure may have fallen still further since 1990, an achievement that makes it the envy of many other Third World countries.
Martine puts it down to, among other things, soap operas and installment plans introduced in the 1970s. Both played an important, although indirect, role in lowering the birth rate. Brazil is one of the world's biggest producers of soap operas. Globo, Brazil's most popular television network, shows three hours of soaps six nights a week, while three others show at least one hour a night. Most soaps are based on wealthy characters living the high life in big cities.
"Although they have never really tried to work in a message towards the problems of reproduction, they describe middle and upper class values-not many children, different attitudes towards sex, women working," says Martine. "They sent this image to all parts of Brazil and made people conscious of other patterns of behavior and other values, which were put into a very attractive package."
Meanwhile, the installment plans tried to encourage the poor to become consumers. "This led to an enormous change in consumption patterns and consumption was incompatible with unlimited reproduction," says Martine. | 430.txt | 3 |
[
"haven't attached much importance to birth control",
"would soon join Brazil in controlling their birth rate",
"haven't yet found an effective measure to control their population",
"neglected the role of TV plays in family planning"
] | According to the passage, many Third World countries ________. | Brazil has become one of the developing world's great successes at reducing population growth-but more by accident than design. While countries such as India have made joint efforts to reduce birth rates, Brazil has had better result without really trying, says George Martine at Harvard.
Brazil's population growth rate has dropped from 2.99% a year between 1951 and 1960 to 1.93% a year between 1981 and 1990, and Brazilian women now have only 2.7 children on average. Martine says this figure may have fallen still further since 1990, an achievement that makes it the envy of many other Third World countries.
Martine puts it down to, among other things, soap operas and installment plans introduced in the 1970s. Both played an important, although indirect, role in lowering the birth rate. Brazil is one of the world's biggest producers of soap operas. Globo, Brazil's most popular television network, shows three hours of soaps six nights a week, while three others show at least one hour a night. Most soaps are based on wealthy characters living the high life in big cities.
"Although they have never really tried to work in a message towards the problems of reproduction, they describe middle and upper class values-not many children, different attitudes towards sex, women working," says Martine. "They sent this image to all parts of Brazil and made people conscious of other patterns of behavior and other values, which were put into a very attractive package."
Meanwhile, the installment plans tried to encourage the poor to become consumers. "This led to an enormous change in consumption patterns and consumption was incompatible with unlimited reproduction," says Martine. | 430.txt | 2 |
[
"attributes it to",
"finds it a reason for",
"sums it up as",
"compares it to"
] | The phrase "puts it down to" (Line 1, Para. 3) is closest in meaning to "________". | Brazil has become one of the developing world's great successes at reducing population growth-but more by accident than design. While countries such as India have made joint efforts to reduce birth rates, Brazil has had better result without really trying, says George Martine at Harvard.
Brazil's population growth rate has dropped from 2.99% a year between 1951 and 1960 to 1.93% a year between 1981 and 1990, and Brazilian women now have only 2.7 children on average. Martine says this figure may have fallen still further since 1990, an achievement that makes it the envy of many other Third World countries.
Martine puts it down to, among other things, soap operas and installment plans introduced in the 1970s. Both played an important, although indirect, role in lowering the birth rate. Brazil is one of the world's biggest producers of soap operas. Globo, Brazil's most popular television network, shows three hours of soaps six nights a week, while three others show at least one hour a night. Most soaps are based on wealthy characters living the high life in big cities.
"Although they have never really tried to work in a message towards the problems of reproduction, they describe middle and upper class values-not many children, different attitudes towards sex, women working," says Martine. "They sent this image to all parts of Brazil and made people conscious of other patterns of behavior and other values, which were put into a very attractive package."
Meanwhile, the installment plans tried to encourage the poor to become consumers. "This led to an enormous change in consumption patterns and consumption was incompatible with unlimited reproduction," says Martine. | 430.txt | 0 |
[
"they keep people sitting long hours watching TV",
"they have gradually changed people's way of life",
"people are drawn to their attractive package",
"they popularize birth control measures"
] | Soap operas have helped in lowering Brazil's birth rate because ________. | Brazil has become one of the developing world's great successes at reducing population growth-but more by accident than design. While countries such as India have made joint efforts to reduce birth rates, Brazil has had better result without really trying, says George Martine at Harvard.
Brazil's population growth rate has dropped from 2.99% a year between 1951 and 1960 to 1.93% a year between 1981 and 1990, and Brazilian women now have only 2.7 children on average. Martine says this figure may have fallen still further since 1990, an achievement that makes it the envy of many other Third World countries.
Martine puts it down to, among other things, soap operas and installment plans introduced in the 1970s. Both played an important, although indirect, role in lowering the birth rate. Brazil is one of the world's biggest producers of soap operas. Globo, Brazil's most popular television network, shows three hours of soaps six nights a week, while three others show at least one hour a night. Most soaps are based on wealthy characters living the high life in big cities.
"Although they have never really tried to work in a message towards the problems of reproduction, they describe middle and upper class values-not many children, different attitudes towards sex, women working," says Martine. "They sent this image to all parts of Brazil and made people conscious of other patterns of behavior and other values, which were put into a very attractive package."
Meanwhile, the installment plans tried to encourage the poor to become consumers. "This led to an enormous change in consumption patterns and consumption was incompatible with unlimited reproduction," says Martine. | 430.txt | 1 |
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