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Oracle Developer Suite	History	When the Oracle Relational Database Management System hit the market in 1986 – the first commercially available version was version 4 – it comprised already SQLForms, which was one of the first Fourth Generation Language (4GL) products marketed as such. In the early 1990s, Oracle then had two complementary tools - SQLForms and SQLReportWriter. SQLForms was used to develop data entry systems SQL*ReportWriter was used to developer reports Both tools were character-based and there was some integration between the two although they were sold as separate products. The developer interface became more similar over time and they were eventually bundled together as a single product named Oracle CDE (Cooperative Development Environment). The suite was later renamed to Oracle Developer and later Developer/2000 As with most products that had 2000 in their name, this was dropped after 1999 and the suite was renamed Oracle Developer Suite. Tools such as JDeveloper were added over subsequent years. Most of the component parts of Oracle Developer Suite are now part of what Oracle calls Oracle Fusion Middleware.
Oracle Developer Suite	Components	The name of the suite has been changed a few times. The software components that are included in the suite have also been renamed over time.
Oracle Developer Suite	Current status	The latest release, Oracle Developer Suite 10g consists of the following components: Oracle JDeveloper Oracle Forms Oracle Reports Oracle Designer Oracle Discoverer Oracle Software Configuration Manager Oracle Business Intelligence BeansOracle Technet download page for 10g says it is no longer supported (updated 5 September 2018) and no newer versions exist.
Cartographica	Cartographica	The Cartographica is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed academic journal and the official publication of the Canadian Cartographic Association, in affiliation with the International Cartographic Association.Cartographica is published four times a year by the University of Toronto Press.
Cartographica	Abstracting and indexing	The journal is abstracted and indexed in: Academic Search Alumni Edition Academic Search Complete Academic Search Elite Academic Search Premier Canadian Reference Centre Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) Microsoft Academic Search Scopus Ulrich's Periodicals Directory
Evans Tuning	Evans Tuning	Evans Tuning, LLC is an automotive engine tuning, and aftermarket modification shop that specializes in the reprogramming of engine control units (ECUs), to provide a smooth driving experience and safe engine conditions after modifications to a stock automotive configuration have been performed.
Evans Tuning	Overview	The company was founded in 2004 by Jeffrey Evans and is located in Mount Bethel, Pennsylvania. The company was initially started in Easton, PA and in late 2009 moved to its current location in Mount Bethel. Additionally, the company started by only performing service to modified Honda and Acura models. Mid 2004, the company purchased its first 2WD Dynapack Dynomometer (dyno) and began their in-house dyno tuning operations. In early 2009 an additional 2WD Dynapack Dyno was purchased expanding their operation into an AWD dyno shop.
Evans Tuning	Tuning Services	Dyno Tuning Evans Tuning's dyno tuning service requires the car to be present for tuning. After a car has been put on the dyno it can be tuned (usually in real-time) and air/fuel ratios, timing, cam angles, and other adjustments can be made to optimize the engine. All of these tuning services are included with the standard tuning rate (which varies depending on the car and tuning system used).
Evans Tuning	Tuning Services	The use of a Dynapack Dyno requires the wheels to be removed prior to tuning. Adapters are then bolted onto the wheel hubs using lug nuts to properly center them. The dyno is then connected to the adapters and locked into place. eTuning Evans Tuning began eTuning in February 2010. The eTuning service was discontinued in late 2014.
Evans Tuning	Drag Racing	2011 Evans Tuning began drag racing again in 2011 after taking 4 racing seasons off with a 95 Acura Integra built for the True Street Class. The car was built for 2 years by Jeffrey Evans before it was ready for competition. It made its debut in the 4th Annual $10,000 Outlaw FWD Shootout with Brian Ballard driving during Fall Nationals at Old Bridge Township Raceway Park in Englishtown, NJ.
Evans Tuning	Drag Racing	Record and Crash Jeffrey Evans was able to set a record in the class running an 8.980 @ 167.34MPH during the first round of qualifying and on the 3rd full power pass in the car. He was the first in the class to run an 8-second quarter mile at a True Street event in full legal race trim. Control of the car was lost after it made it to the end of the track. The car swerved across lanes and crashed into the wall. Although Evans Tuning has said on their official Facebook page that they will compete it 2012, it is unknown whether this car will be repaired for next season. 2012 Evans Tuning is building a new race car based on the Honda EK hatchback chassis for the 2012 season. The car debuted at World Cup Finals at Maryland International Raceway piloted by Andrea Evans but had issues preventing it from running. 2013 The Evans Tuning True Street Civic made its first appearance of the 2013 season at Maryland International Raceway piloted by Andrea Evans.
Hafada piercing	Hafada piercing	A hafada piercing is a surface piercing anywhere on the skin of the scrotum. Piercings on the scrotal raphe or "seam" of the scrotum are common. This piercing does not penetrate deep into the scrotum, and due to the looseness and flexibility of the skin in that area, does not migrate or reject as much as many other surface piercings. The main motives are beautification and individualization. A piercing that passes through the scrotum, from front-to-back, or from side-to-side, is known as a transscrotal piercing. Multiple hafada piercings are not uncommon, often as an extension of a frenum ladder or Jacob's Ladder, which is a series of piercings from the frenulum to the scrotum.
Hafada piercing	Historical origin	The Hafada piercing may have originated in Arabia and spread from there to the Middle East and North Africa. According to piercing lore, it was a ritual usually performed when a young man entered puberty. It was most commonly applied on the left side. In Europe, Hafada piercing was adopted by some members of the French Legion, who were active in the areas of Syria and Lebanon. While originally a Hafada piercing referred to a scrotal piercing with a ring or barbell placed high and laterally (i.e. on the side of the scrotum,) the term Hafada piercing is now used used interchangeably with scrotal piercing and can refer to piercings anywhere on the scrotum.
Hafada piercing	Jewelry	Hafada piercings are usually pierced with a captive bead ring (also called a BCR or ball closure ring,) a curved barbell or straight barbell. One source states that while rings were popular in the past, "barbells are more common nowadays." Since the skin of the scrotum is thin, titanium jewelry is advantageous due to its lower weight. Horizontal piercings (with one hole beside the other) are most common. Although vertical scrotum piercings are rare, they have been done successfully, using straight or curved barbells.
Hafada piercing	Healing	Healing is relatively uncomplicated and lasts normally between six and eight weeks according to some sources, or up to 13 weeks according to other sources. A single scrotal piercing will tend to heal faster than multiple piercings. For this reason, many piercers will not place more than two or three ‘rungs’ of a ladder at a time, scheduling another set a month or two later.
Hafada piercing	Advantages	While piercings on the penis can break a condom during intercourse, that is not a risk with piercings on the scrotum. This piercing does not interfere with sex. Due to the looseness of the skin, the rate of rejection is lower than for other surface piercings. While this piercing is primarily done for aesthetic reasons, piercings high on the scrotum (close to the penis shaft) may provide stimulation to a sexual partner during intercourse. Since the scrotum is sexually sensitive, Hafada piercings may enhance pleasure when the scrotum is rubbed or orally stimulated by a partner or during masturbation.
Hafada piercing	Advantages	In comparison to facial piercings, a scrotal piercing is private, except in circumstances the pierced person chooses.
Hafada piercing	Disadvantages	In some cases, Hafada piercings might induce discomfort while walking or running, or when riding a motorcycle or on horseback, especially during the healing process. Avoidance of tight clothing would minimize any sensitivity while walking. Piercings might present minor interference when shaving the scrotum. Piercings on the scrotal raphe or "seam" of the scrotum may not be particularly visible when the penis is flaccid. Piercings anywhere on the scrotum may become hidden should the wearer choose to not shave the scrotum.
Hafada piercing	Contraindications	Scrotal piercings would not be advisable for anyone with tinea cruris (jock itch) or other dermatological conditions. Men who have had a recent vasectomy should wait for incisions to heal prior to obtaining a scrotal piercing.
Hafada piercing	Motivations	Scrotal piercings are done primarily for aesthetic reasons and as an artistic expression of personal style. Unlike most other male genital piercings, scrotal piercings were not devised for and are not promoted for the enhancement of sexual pleasure, either for the wearer or for a sexual partner. Any such benefits are incidental. The presumed motivation for obtaining a scrotal piercing is simply as an adornment, either on its own, or in juxtaposition to other genital piercings. Beyond that, motivations may be simple or complex, and might not even be fully understood by the person obtaining the piercing. Some people say that even if they were the only person who ever saw their genital piercings, they would be happy with them. Some men may get a piercing to please their partner, perhaps to surprise or test their partner, or possibly in the hope of attracting, amusing or pleasing some future partner. Mention or display of a particular genital piercing such as a hafada piercing may serve as a personal marketing device (analogous to product differentiation) on online dating websites and apps and in sexting. Some might hope to use their piercing as a conversation starter. For someone with facial or other normally visible piercings, a scrotal piercing might be an answer to the potential question, "Do you have any other piercings?" For some, a scrotal piercing, which is said to be one of the least risky genital piercings, might be an "entry piercing" to test one's resolve or willingness to proceed with other genital piercings.
Hafada piercing	Motivations	For many who have been sexually abused, teased, or psychologically hurt in other ways, genital piercings serve as a means to reclaim their sexuality or their ownership of their genitals.
Hafada piercing	Motivations	Some people who obtain a genital piercings may seek a sense of uniqueness or intend to make a statement of non-conformity. Recent research suggests, however, that genital piercings are becoming mainstream, at least within some age groups, so are unlikely to succeed in providing a sense of uniqueness, signs of individuality or of subcultural identity, or as visual declarations of non-conformity. One piercer observed that, as of 2018, it was becoming more mainstream and acceptable for men to have one or multiple genital piercings, whereas in the late 1970s and early 1980s it was still very taboo.In social situations where one is naked, such as skinny dipping or naturism, genital piercings may serve as an implicit invitation to others to admire the wearer's genital area. People new to naturism usually feel they must avoid glancing at, and certainly avoid staring at, other naturists' genitals. However, jewelry is intended to attract attention, so genital piercings such as hafada piercings may be taken as an indication that fellow naturists are welcome to let their eyes wander and indeed linger without feeling they are visually trespassing or making the pierced individual uncomfortable. Elaborate piercings such as scrotal ladders might be taken as a clear message that the wearer is totally comfortable with being naked and with having others look at, and maybe even discuss, his piercings.
Hafada piercing	Motivations	Conversely, individuals who do not practice naturism may simply wish to get a body piercing that is private or a secret shared only with their intimate partner. Unlike some penis piercings, a scrotal piercing is unlikely to be noticeable even when wearing a tight bathing suit or using a urinal in a public washroom. Teenagers may wish to get a piercing that their parents won't know about. (Note, however, that many jurisdictions prohibit or require parental consent for genital piercings of minors.) Fathers might wish to get a piercing that (in conservative families) their children won't see (and take as an implicit endorsement of body piercing.) For some males, a scrotal piercing may simply be the most discreet and least risky body piercing option. It is a body piercing that won't become an object of discussion or derision in the workplace or at the dinner table.
Sxy 5′ UTR element	Sxy 5′ UTR element	The Sxy 5′ UTR element is an RNA element that controls expression of the sxy gene in H. influenzae. The sxy gene is a transcription factor (also known as TfoX) that regulates competence which is the ability of bacteria to take up DNA from their environment. When the sxy gene is deleted the bacterium loses the ability to express genes in the competence regulon. Cameron et al. recently showed that mutations in the 5′ end of the sxy gene lead to hypercompetance. They showed that this region formed an RNA secondary structure that occludes the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Mutations that interfere with the stability of this secondary structure lead to increased translation of sxy followed by upregulation of the competence regulon.
Sxy 5′ UTR element	tfoR RNA	In the fellow gammaproteobacterium Vibrio cholerae, a different RNA regulatory system is used. Here, a sRNA named 'tfoR' positively regulates expression of the sxy (tfoX) protein.The RNA element responds to chitin, which is an important regulator of competence in V. cholera. Deletion of tfoR removed all competence for exogenous DNA in V. cholera in vivo.
INH1	INH1	INH1, a thiazolyl benzamide compound, is a cell-permeable Hec1/Nek2 mitotic pathway inhibitor I.
INH1	Biological activity	INH1 controls the biological activity of Hec1/Nek2 mitotic pathway. It specifically disrupts the Hec1/Nek2 interaction by directly binding to Hec1, resulting in defective Hec1 kinetochores localization and low-level cellular Nek2 protein. INH1 induces a transient mitotic arrest, exhibiting metaphase chromosome misalignment, spindle abnormality, and consequently cancer cell apoptosis. Experiments show that INH1 potently inhibits the proliferation of multiple human breast cancer cell lines, cervical HeLa cells, and colon cancer cells in vitro.
Bernold Fiedler	Bernold Fiedler	Bernold Fiedler (born 15 May 1956) is a German mathematician, specializing in nonlinear dynamics.
Bernold Fiedler	Bernold Fiedler	Fiedler received a Diploma from Heidelberg University in 1980 for his thesis Ein Räuber-Beute-System mit zwei time lags ("A predator-prey system with two time lags") and his doctorate with his thesis Stabilitätswechsel und globale Hopf-Verzweigung (Stability transformation and global Hopf bifurcation), written under the direction of Willi Jäger. Fiedler is a professor at the Institute for Mathematics of the Free University of Berlin.His research includes, among other topics, global bifurcation, global attractors, and patterning in reaction-diffusion equations (an area of research pioneered by Alan Turing).In 2008, Fiedler gave the Gauss Lecture with a talk titled "Aus Nichts wird nichts? Mathematik der Selbstorganisation". In 2002 he was, with Stefan Liebscher, an Invited Speaker at the ICM in Beijing, with a talk titled "Bifurcations without parameters: some ODE and PDE examples".
Bernold Fiedler	Selected publications	Articles with S. B. Angenent: The dynamics of rotating waves in scalar reaction diffusion equations, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 307 (1988), 545–568 doi:10.1090/S0002-9947-1988-0940217-X with Peter Poláčik: "Complicated dynamics of scalar reaction diffusion equations with a nonlocal term." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section A: Mathematics 115, no. 1–2 (1990): 167–192. doi:10.1017/S0308210500024641 with Shui-Nee Chow and Bo Deng: "Homoclinic bifurcation at resonant eigenvalues." Journal of Dynamics and Differential Equations 2, no. 2 (1990): 177–244. doi:10.1007/BF01057418 with Carlos Rocha: Orbit equivalence of global attractors of semilinear parabolic differential equations, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 352 (2000), 257–284 doi:10.1090/S0002-9947-99-02209-6 Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Reaction-Diffusion Patterns, in M. Kirkilionis, S. Krömker, R. Rannacher, F. Tomi (eds.) Trends in Nonlinear Analysis, Festschrift dedicated to Willi Jäger for his 60th birthday, Springer-Verlag, 2003, pp. 23–152. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-05281-5_2 Romeo und Julia, spontane Musterbildung und Turings Instabilität, in Martin Aigner, Ehrhard Behrends (eds.) Alles Mathematik. Von Pythagoras zum CD Player, Vieweg, 3rd edition 2009 doi:10.1007/978-3-658-09990-9_7 Books Fiedler, Bernold; Scheurle, Jürgen (1996). Discretization of homoclinic orbits, rapid forcing, and "invisible chaos". Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-1-4704-0149-8. OCLC 851088509.
Bernold Fiedler	Selected publications	Fiedler, Bernold (2001). Ergodic Theory, Analysis, and Efficient Simulation of Dynamical Systems. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-642-56589-2. OCLC 840292245. Hasselblatt, Boris; Katok, A. B. (2002). Handbook of dynamical systems. Amsterdam: N.H. North Holland. ISBN 978-0-08-093226-2. OCLC 162578012. Fiedler, Bernold (1988). Global bifurcation of periodic solutions with symmetry. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-39150-0. OCLC 294802397.
Soapbox Science	Soapbox Science	Soapbox Science is a public outreach platform that promotes women working in science and the research that they do. The events turns public spaces into an area for learning and debate, in the spirit of Hyde Park's Speakers' Corner. Soapbox Science encourages scientists to explain their research to members of the public using non-traditional methods (for example, there is no use of a projector or slides). Speakers typically make props at home to explain the processes behind their research.
Soapbox Science	Soapbox Science	Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, where it was led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli. It aims to showcase eminent female scientists across the world.
Soapbox Science	History	Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli and funded by L'Oreal UNESCO For Women in Science Scheme, Zoological Society of London and the Science & Technology Facilities Council. Soapbox Science formed a partnership with Speakezee in 2016. The first three annual events 2011-2013 ran in London, in 2014 events ran in London, Bristol, Dublin, and Swansea.In 2015 more cities joined including Exeter, Manchester, Newcastle, Belfast and Glasgow. In 2016, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Milton Keynes, Oxford, Galway, Reading and Brisbane ran events.By 2021, there were 45 events in 15 countries worldwide.
Soapbox Science	Impact	Soapbox Science was established to complement other initiatives such as Athena SWAN that tackle the low numbers of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in the UK.
Soapbox Science	Awards and honours	Serian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli were awarded a Point of Light Award in 2015 from the UK Prime Minister, a Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London in 2016, presented by Sir John Beddington, and an Equality & Diversity Champion Award from the British Ecological Society in 2017, in recognition of their work on the Soapbox Science initiative. Notable alumni Prof Athene Donald Dr Sue Black OBE Prof Julie Williams Prof Hilary Lappin-Scott Prof Karen Holford Prof Sunetra Gupta Prof Georgina Mace Prof Lesley Yellowlees Dr Maggie Aderin-Pocock Dr Victoria Foster Dr Goedele De Clerck Prof Siwan Davies Prof Farah Bhatti
NDUFA5	NDUFA5	NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] 1 alpha subcomplex subunit 5 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the NDUFA5 gene. The NDUFA5 protein is a subunit of NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), which is located in the mitochondrial inner membrane and is the largest of the five complexes of the electron transport chain.
NDUFA5	Structure	The NDUFA5 gene is located on the q arm of chromosome 7 and it spans 64,655 base pairs. The gene produces a 13.5 kDa protein composed of 116 amino acids. NDUFA5 is a subunit of the enzyme NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), the largest of the respiratory complexes. The structure is L-shaped with a long, hydrophobic transmembrane domain and a hydrophilic domain for the peripheral arm that includes all the known redox centers and the NADH binding site. It has been noted that the N-terminal hydrophobic domain has the potential to be folded into an alpha helix spanning the inner mitochondrial membrane with a C-terminal hydrophilic domain interacting with globular subunits of Complex I. The highly conserved two-domain structure suggests that this feature is critical for the protein function and that the hydrophobic domain acts as an anchor for the NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) complex at the inner mitochondrial membrane. NDUFA5 is one of about 31 hydrophobic subunits that form the transmembrane region of Complex I. The protein localizes to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of the 7 component-containing, water-soluble iron-sulfur protein (IP) fraction of complex I, although its specific role is unknown. It is assumed to undergo post-translational removal of the initiator methionine and N-acetylation of the next amino acid. The predicted secondary structure is primarily alpha helix, but the carboxy-terminal half of the protein has high potential to adopt a coiled-coil form. The amino-terminal part contains a putative beta sheet rich in hydrophobic amino acids that may serve as mitochondrial import signal. Related pseudogenes have also been identified on four other chromosomes.
NDUFA5	Function	The human NDUFA5 gene codes for the B13 subunit of complex I of the respiratory chain, which transfers electrons from NADH to ubiquinone. The NDUFA5 protein localizes to the mitochondrial inner membrane and it is thought to aid in this transfer of electrons. Initially, NADH binds to Complex I and transfers two electrons to the isoalloxazine ring of the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) prosthetic arm to form FMNH2. The electrons are transferred through a series of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters in the prosthetic arm and finally to coenzyme Q10 (CoQ), which is reduced to ubiquinol (CoQH2). The flow of electrons changes the redox state of the protein, resulting in a conformational change and pK shift of the ionizable side chain, which pumps four hydrogen ions out of the mitochondrial matrix. The high degree of conservation of NDUFA5 extending to plants and fungi indicates its functional significance in the enzyme complex.
NDUFA5	Clinical significance	NDUFA5, ATP5A1 and ATP5A1 all show consistently reduced expression in brains of autism patients. Mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired ATP synthesis can result in oxidative stress, which may play a role in the development of autism.
NDUFA5	Interactions	NDUFA5 has many protein-protein interactions, such as ubiquitin C and with members of the NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] 1 beta subcomplex, including NDUFB1, NDUFB9 and NDUFB10.
PassMap	PassMap	PassMap is a map-based graphical password method of authentication, similar to passwords, proposed by National Tsing Hua University researchers. The word PassMap originates from the word password by substituting word with map.
PassMap	History and usage	PassMap was proposed by National Tsing Hua University researchers Hung-Min Sun, Yao-Hsin Chen, Chiung-Cheng Fang, and Shih-Ying Chang at the 7th Association for Computing Machinery Symposium on Information, Computer and Communications Security. They defined PassMap as letting a consumer get authenticated by choosing a series of points on a big world map. Their study showed that for people PassMap passwords are more user friendly and memorable.Users are shown Google Maps on their screen through which they can zoom in to choose any two points they want to become their PassMap password. Since PassMap uses Google Maps, it cannot be used in applications that lack Internet access or Google Maps integration.
PassMap	History and usage	By default, PassMap's screen is set to the eighth zoom level and is centered on Taiwan. PassMap has no constraints on the zoom level, so consumers are allowed to select dots at unsafer, lower levels like level 8. It does not normalize error tolerance based on a screen's zoom position. PassMap's effective login percentage is 92.59%.
PassMap	Commentary	Ritika Sachdev wrote in the International Journal of Pure and Applied Research in Engineering and Technology that based on psychological studies, people can effortlessly recall the milestones they have visited. Sachdev called PassMap a "highly subjective or customized based password to ensure security".S. Rajarajan, M. Prabhu, and S. Palanivel praised PassMap for having "good memorability due to the usage of map for the password mechanism". But they noted that like many graphical passwords, PassMap is susceptible to a shoulder surfing intrusion.
Quick reaction force	Quick reaction force	A rapid reaction force / rapid response force (RRF), quick reaction force / quick response force (QRF), rapid deployment force (RDF) or quick maneuver force (QMF) is a military or police unit capable of responding to emergencies in a very short time frame. When used in reference to law enforcement and security forces, such as police tactical units, the time frame is usually minutes, while in military applications, such as paratroopers or commandos, the time frame can be minutes, hours or days. Rapid reaction forces are designed to intervene quickly as a spearhead to gain and hold ground in quickly unfolding combat or low-intensity conflicts, such as uprisings that necessitate the evacuation of foreign embassies. They are usually transported by air. Rapid reaction forces are usually lightly armed—limited to small arms and light crew-served weapons, and lacking vehicles, armor, and heavy equipment—but are often very well-trained to compensate.
Quick reaction force	Types	Rapid reaction force A rapid reaction force is an armed military unit capable of rapidly responding to developing situations, usually to assist allied units in need of assistance. They are equipped to respond to any type of emergency within a short time frame, often only a few minutes, based on unit standard operating procedures (SOPs). Cavalry units are frequently postured as rapid reaction forces, with a main mission of security and reconnaissance. They are generally platoon-sized in the U.S. military's combat arms.
Quick reaction force	Types	A rapid reaction force is a military reserve unit that belongs directly to the commander of the unit it is created from. Depending on the unit size and protocols, the commander may be the only person authorized to control a RRF, or they may delegate this responsibility to one or more additional people. RRFs are commonly found in maneuver battalion-level task forces and above, in addition to many operating bases having their own dedicated RRF to react to threats on or immediately around the base.
Quick reaction force	Types	The readiness level of a RRF is based on unit SOPs. Since maintaining extremely high levels of readiness is draining on equipment, resources, and personnel, a RRF is postured based on the likelihood of being called up. During a high-intensity conflict, a RRF may be forced to maintain high readiness, with all members waiting in their vehicles to respond. However, during a low-intensity conflict, when deployment is less likely and may be more readily predicted, command establishes how fast a RRF must be able to react, which can range from vehicles and personnel in a central location with the troops rotating regularly, to the vehicles staged close to a unit area with all personnel staying close enough for rapid recall. The speed at which a RRF is expected to react is defined by its readiness condition level.
Quick reaction force	Types	The mission of a RRF can vary widely, as they are used to respond to any threat the commander chooses to employ them for. Depending on the mission requirement, additional units can be attached to an organic platoon to expand their capabilities. Examples include attaching explosive ordnance disposal teams to a RRF responding to bombs or similar threats, and vehicle recovery assets to a RRF expected to recover damaged trucks Rapid deployment force A rapid deployment force (RDF) is a military formation that is capable of fast deployment outside their country's borders. Rapid deployment forces typically consist of well-trained military units (special forces, paratroopers, marines, etc.) that can be deployed fairly quickly.
Quick reaction force	List	Rapid reaction force The concept of a United Nations rapid reaction force was proposed in the mid-1990s by several commentators and officials, including Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali. The UN rapid reaction force would consist of personnel stationed in their home countries, but they would have the same training, equipment, and procedures, and would conduct joint exercises. The force would remain at high readiness at all times so as to quickly deploy them where necessary.
Quick reaction force	List	The Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) is a NATO rapid reaction force, established in 1992. A successor to the British Army's I Corps, the ARRC is capable of rapidly deploying a NATO headquarters for operations and crisis response. The European Gendarmerie Force (EUROGENDFOR) is a European rapid reaction force under the European Union, established in 2006. An alliance of gendarmerie forces from Italy, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Spain, it serves as a unified intervention force of European militarized police.
Quick reaction force	List	The European Rapid Operational Force (EUROFOR) was a European rapid reaction force under the European Union and Western European Union, established in 1995 and composed of military units from Italy, France, Portugal, and Spain. EUROFOR was tasked with performing duties outlined in the Petersberg Tasks. EUROFOR deployed to Kosovo from 2000 to 2001, and North Macedonia as part of EUFOR Concordia in 2003. After being converted into an EU Battlegroup, EUROFOR was dissolved in 2012.
Quick reaction force	List	The European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) was the intended result of the Helsinki Headline Goal. Though many media reports suggested the ERRF would be a European Union army, the Helsinki Headline Goal was little more than headquarters arrangements and a list of theoretically available national forces for a rapid reaction force. The NATO Response Force (NRF) is a NATO rapid reaction force, established in 2003. Distinct from the ARRC, the NRF comprises land, sea, air, and special forces units that can be deployed quickly. Riot Police Units (RPU) are the rapid reaction forces of Japanese prefectural police. They combine riot police, police tactical units, and disaster response squads under one unit. Each prefectural police force operates RPUs, sometimes under different names. 2nd Quick Response Division ROK Marine Corps Quick Maneuver Force The Immediate Response Force (IRF) is an American rapid reaction force composed of units from the United States Army and United States Air Force. They are capable of responding to any location in the world within 18 hours of notice.
Quick reaction force	List	The Joint Rapid Reaction Force (JRRF) was a British Armed Forces capability concept created in 1999. The force was composed of units from all three branches of the British military, and was able to rapidly deploy anywhere in the world at short notice. However, the War in Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq siphoned British personnel and equipment, leaving the JRRF with insufficient forces. The JRRF was succeeded by the Combined Joint Expeditionary Force in 2010 and the UK Joint Expeditionary Force in 2014.
Quick reaction force	List	Rapid deployment force Argentine Rapid Deployment Force 3rd Brigade Rapid Deployment Force Egyptian Rapid Deployment Forces Finnish Rapid Deployment Force / Rapid Forces Division Indonesian Quick Reaction Forces Command Indonesian Army Strategic Command Indonesian Marine Corps NEDSA Corps / NATO Rapid Deployable Corps – Italy Central Readiness Regiment ROKMC Quick Maneuver Force 10th Parachute Brigade Netherlands Marine Corps Norwegian Telemark Battalion 710th Special Operations Wing Rapid Reaction Brigade Guards Air Mobile Brigade 31st Infantry Regiment, King's Guard The Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force (RDJTF) was a former United States Department of Defense joint task force. It was formed in 1979 as the Rapid Deployment Force (RDF), envisioned as a mobile force that could quickly deploy U.S. forces to any location outside the usual American deployment areas of Western Europe and East Asia, soon coming to focus on the Middle East. It was inactivated in 1983 and reorganized as the United States Central Command.
Quick reaction force	List	Marine Expeditionary Unit XVIII Airborne Corps 75th Ranger Regiment / Russian Airborne Forces EU Battlegroup
Giant magnetoimpedance	Giant magnetoimpedance	In materials science Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) is the effect that occurs in some materials where an external magnetic field causes a large variation in the electrical impedance of the material. It should not be confused with the separate physical phenomenon of Giant Magnetoresistance.
Giant magnetoimpedance	The phenomenology of the GMI	GMI is caused by the penetration length that is a measure of how deep an ac electrical current can flow inside an electrical conductor. The penetration length (also known as the skin-depth effect) increases with the square root of the electrical resistivity of the material and is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of the magnetic permeability and the frequency of the ac electrical current. Thus, in materials with very high values of magnetic permeability, such as soft-ferromagnetic materials, the penetration-length can be much less than the thickness of the conductor even for moderate values of frequencies driving the current near the surface of the material. When an external magnetic field is applied, the size of the permeability diminishes, increasing the penetration of the current in the magnetic material. Large variations are observed in both in-phase and out-of-phase components of the magnetoimpedance for applied magnetic fields close to the value of the Earth magnetic field up to few tens of Oersted. For comparison, in normal electrical conductors the effect of the skin-depth becomes important for frequencies in the microwave range only. Despite the fact that the dependence of the GMI on the geometry of the electrical conductor (ribbons, wires, multilayers meander-likes) and external parameters is somewhat complex, there are theoretical models that allow calculation of the GMI to within some approximations. Beside the dependence of the GMI on the frequency of the current there are other sources that contribute to the frequency dependence of the GMI, such as the motion of the domain wall and the ferromagnetic resonance.
Giant magnetoimpedance	Experimental measurement	A typical experimental set-up for investigating the GMI in research laboratories is shown below. It includes an alternating current source, a phase sensitive amplifier for detecting the ac voltage across the sample and an electromagnet for applying a dc magnetic field. A cryostat or an oven may be required for measuring the temperature dependence of the GMI. Several experimental measurements were also performed to characterize the long-term stability and the thermal drift of the GMI, which were supported by a theoretical model describing the physical modeling of the sensing element.
Giant magnetoimpedance	History	The observation that the impedance of soft-magnetic materials is influenced by the frequency and amplitudes of applied magnetic fields was first observed in the 1930s. These initial studies were limited to frequencies of a few hundreds of Hz and the changes of impedance reported in those works were not large. Starting in the 1990s, this phenomenon was investigated again, this time making use of currents with frequencies of hundreds of kHz.Because of the huge variations observed in the magnetic field dependence of the magnetoimpedance it was named giant magnetoimpedance. Due to the high sensitivity of the sensors using the GMI effect, they have been used in compasses, accelerometers, virus detection, biomagnetism, among other applications.
Universal quantification	Universal quantification	In mathematical logic, a universal quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which is interpreted as "given any", "for all", or "for any". It expresses that a predicate can be satisfied by every member of a domain of discourse. In other words, it is the predication of a property or relation to every member of the domain. It asserts that a predicate within the scope of a universal quantifier is true of every value of a predicate variable.
Universal quantification	Universal quantification	It is usually denoted by the turned A (∀) logical operator symbol, which, when used together with a predicate variable, is called a universal quantifier ("∀x", "∀(x)", or sometimes by "(x)" alone). Universal quantification is distinct from existential quantification ("there exists"), which only asserts that the property or relation holds for at least one member of the domain. Quantification in general is covered in the article on quantification (logic). The universal quantifier is encoded as U+2200 ∀ FOR ALL in Unicode, and as \forall in LaTeX and related formula editors.
Universal quantification	Basics	Suppose it is given that 2·0 = 0 + 0, and 2·1 = 1 + 1, and 2·2 = 2 + 2, etc. This would seem to be a logical conjunction because of the repeated use of "and". However, the "etc." cannot be interpreted as a conjunction in formal logic. Instead, the statement must be rephrased: For all natural numbers n, one has 2·n = n + n. This is a single statement using universal quantification. This statement can be said to be more precise than the original one. While the "etc." informally includes natural numbers, and nothing more, this was not rigorously given. In the universal quantification, on the other hand, the natural numbers are mentioned explicitly.
Universal quantification	Basics	This particular example is true, because any natural number could be substituted for n and the statement "2·n = n + n" would be true. In contrast, For all natural numbers n, one has 2·n > 2 + n is false, because if n is substituted with, for instance, 1, the statement "2·1 > 2 + 1" is false. It is immaterial that "2·n > 2 + n" is true for most natural numbers n: even the existence of a single counterexample is enough to prove the universal quantification false.
Universal quantification	Basics	On the other hand, for all composite numbers n, one has 2·n > 2 + n is true, because none of the counterexamples are composite numbers. This indicates the importance of the domain of discourse, which specifies which values n can take. In particular, note that if the domain of discourse is restricted to consist only of those objects that satisfy a certain predicate, then for universal quantification this requires a logical conditional. For example, For all composite numbers n, one has 2·n > 2 + n is logically equivalent to For all natural numbers n, if n is composite, then 2·n > 2 + n.
Universal quantification	Basics	Here the "if ... then" construction indicates the logical conditional.
Universal quantification	Basics	Notation In symbolic logic, the universal quantifier symbol ∀ (a turned "A" in a sans-serif font, Unicode U+2200) is used to indicate universal quantification. It was first used in this way by Gerhard Gentzen in 1935, by analogy with Giuseppe Peano's ∃ (turned E) notation for existential quantification and the later use of Peano's notation by Bertrand Russell.For example, if P(n) is the predicate "2·n > 2 + n" and N is the set of natural numbers, then ∀n∈NP(n) is the (false) statement "for all natural numbers n, one has 2·n > 2 + n".Similarly, if Q(n) is the predicate "n is composite", then ∀n∈N(Q(n)→P(n)) is the (true) statement "for all natural numbers n, if n is composite, then 2·n > 2 + n".Several variations in the notation for quantification (which apply to all forms) can be found in the Quantifier article.
Universal quantification	Properties	Negation The negation of a universally quantified function is obtained by changing the universal quantifier into an existential quantifier and negating the quantified formula. That is, is equivalent to ∃x¬P(x) where ¬ denotes negation.
Universal quantification	Properties	For example, if P(x) is the propositional function "x is married", then, for the set X of all living human beings, the universal quantification Given any living person x, that person is married is written ∀x∈XP(x) This statement is false. Truthfully, it is stated that It is not the case that, given any living person x, that person is married or, symbolically: ¬∀x∈XP(x) .If the function P(x) is not true for every element of X, then there must be at least one element for which the statement is false. That is, the negation of ∀x∈XP(x) is logically equivalent to "There exists a living person x who is not married", or: ∃x∈X¬P(x) It is erroneous to confuse "all persons are not married" (i.e. "there exists no person who is married") with "not all persons are married" (i.e. "there exists a person who is not married"): ¬∃x∈XP(x)≡∀x∈X¬P(x)≢¬∀x∈XP(x)≡∃x∈X¬P(x) Other connectives The universal (and existential) quantifier moves unchanged across the logical connectives ∧, ∨, →, and ↚, as long as the other operand is not affected; that is: provided that provided that provided that provided that Y≠∅ Conversely, for the logical connectives ↑, ↓, ↛, and ←, the quantifiers flip: provided that provided that provided that provided that Y≠∅ Rules of inference A rule of inference is a rule justifying a logical step from hypothesis to conclusion. There are several rules of inference which utilize the universal quantifier.
Universal quantification	Properties	Universal instantiation concludes that, if the propositional function is known to be universally true, then it must be true for any arbitrary element of the universe of discourse. Symbolically, this is represented as ∀x∈XP(x)→P(c) where c is a completely arbitrary element of the universe of discourse. Universal generalization concludes the propositional function must be universally true if it is true for any arbitrary element of the universe of discourse. Symbolically, for an arbitrary c, P(c)→∀x∈XP(x). The element c must be completely arbitrary; else, the logic does not follow: if c is not arbitrary, and is instead a specific element of the universe of discourse, then P(c) only implies an existential quantification of the propositional function. The empty set By convention, the formula ∀x∈∅P(x) is always true, regardless of the formula P(x); see vacuous truth.
Universal quantification	Universal closure	The universal closure of a formula φ is the formula with no free variables obtained by adding a universal quantifier for every free variable in φ. For example, the universal closure of P(y)∧∃xQ(x,z) is ∀y∀z(P(y)∧∃xQ(x,z))
Universal quantification	As adjoint	In category theory and the theory of elementary topoi, the universal quantifier can be understood as the right adjoint of a functor between power sets, the inverse image functor of a function between sets; likewise, the existential quantifier is the left adjoint.For a set X , let PX denote its powerset. For any function f:X→Y between sets X and Y , there is an inverse image functor f∗:PY→PX between powersets, that takes subsets of the codomain of f back to subsets of its domain. The left adjoint of this functor is the existential quantifier ∃f and the right adjoint is the universal quantifier ∀f That is, ∃f:PX→PY is a functor that, for each subset S⊂X , gives the subset ∃fS⊂Y given by ∃fS={y∈Y\|∃x∈X.f(x)=y∧x∈S}, those y in the image of S under f . Similarly, the universal quantifier ∀f:PX→PY is a functor that, for each subset S⊂X , gives the subset ∀fS⊂Y given by ∀fS={y∈Y\|∀x∈X.f(x)=y⟹x∈S}, those y whose preimage under f is contained in S The more familiar form of the quantifiers as used in first-order logic is obtained by taking the function f to be the unique function !:X→1 so that P(1)={T,F} is the two-element set holding the values true and false, a subset S is that subset for which the predicate S(x) holds, and P(!):P(1)→P(X)T↦XF↦{} ∃!S=∃x.S(x), which is true if S is not empty, and ∀!S=∀x.S(x), which is false if S is not X.
Universal quantification	As adjoint	The universal and existential quantifiers given above generalize to the presheaf category.
Snow shovel	Snow shovel	A snow shovel is a specialized shovel designed for snow removal. Snow shovels come in several different designs, each of which is designed to move snow in a different way. Removing snow with a snow shovel has health and injury risks, but can also have significant health benefits when the snow shovel is used correctly.
Snow shovel	History	The earliest known snow shovel was found in a bog in Russia. Estimated to be 6,000 years old, its blade was made from a carved elk antler section. According to archaeologists, the antler piece was tied to a wood or bone handle.
Snow shovel	Features	All snow shovels consist of a handle and a scoop. Sometimes there may be a shaft connecting handle and scoop, while in other snow shovels, the handle is extended and attaches directly to the scoop.Most snow shovels are designed for either pushing snow or lifting snow, although some are crossovers which can do either job. Some snow shovel scoops have sharpened blades which can chip away and lever up slabs of ice.Handles may be straight or bent. Straight handles make the pushing angle easier to adjust and snow throwing easier compared to a bent handle. Long handles enable the user to leverage their weight for pushing snow, but shorter handles make tossing snow easier. Plastic and fiberglass handles are lightweight, while wood handles are heavy. Metal handles conduct heat away from the hands more readily than other kinds of handles, so they feel colder.Some handles include a D-shaped grip or padded grip at the end of the handle. There may also be extra grips in the middle of the handle to assist with the snow shovel's lever action when lifting snow.Snow shovels designed for lifting snow generally have smaller scoops than snow shovels designed for throwing snow. A typical push-type shovel scoop would be about 24 inches across with a wide, blunt blade, while a lift-type shovel scoop may be half that size. A narrower scoop makes the removal of deep, wet, or heavy snow easier. Scoops with a large curve can carry more snow, while those with a shallow curve are intended to push snow rather than carry it. Metal scoops are sturdier than plastic but heavier, and they also require more maintenance. Steel and steel-edged scoops are heavier than aluminum or plastic, but are also more durable. Although they are very good for dealing with ice, they can also damage delicate outdoor home surfaces.Snow shovel designs which let one push aside snow without lifting it are sometimes called snow sled shovels, or snow scoops and sleigh shovels. They are large and deep hopper-like implements fitted with a wide handle and designed to scoop up a load of snow and slide it to another location without lifting. These tools may be effective for dealing with lighter accumulations of snow, but cannot handle thick or heavy snow or ice.
Snow shovel	Features	Many homeowners who deal with large amounts of snow have multiple snow shovels for different types of snow. If lifting is a concern, then they may choose separate shovels for lifting versus pushing. Otherwise, users may wish to have a shovel for fresh light snow and another one to manage icy hard snow.
Snow shovel	Safe usage	Shoveling snow is hard work. In a single winter, shoveling a typical driveway can involve moving more than 25 tons of snow. Health risks associated with shoveling snow include heart attacks (myocardial infarction), worsening of existing breathing issues, sprains and strains, slips and falls, back injuries, hypothermia and frostbite, and accidents involving road traffic.Persons doing snow shoveling can reduce their risk of injury by shoveling snow when it is fresh and light. Slip-resistant boots protect against user falls. Appropriate clothing prevents hypothermia and frostbite. Ideal snow shoveling clothing for the rest of the body is lightweight, layered, and water-repellent to increase ventilation while maintaining insulation.Proper snow throwing technique minimizes strains and back injuries. Recommended technique is that when lifting snow, the user bends their knees to collect the snow while maintaining a straight upright back, then straightening the legs to stand and lift. It is best to lift snow by using the shovel as a lever. Never lift snow with a side-twisting motion, as that can lead to injury.Shoveling snow is a known trigger for myocardial infarction among people at risk for heart problems and who do not regularly engage in strenuous physical activity. People who suffer from pre-existing heart or breathing problems should consult their doctor before shoveling snow.When done correctly, snow shoveling can provide good exercise. One hour of shoveling snow can burn 600 calories. Shoveling snow also builds bone and muscle mass and is a good form of aerobic exercise.
Snow shovel	In popular culture	In Advance of the Broken Arm, a 1915 readymade sculpture from Marcel Duchamp, consisted of a regular snow shovel with "from Marcel Duchamp 1915" painted on the handle. The original artwork which used to hang in Duchamp's studio is now lost, but an authorized replica is in the collection of the Yale University Art Gallery.
Alpine skiing	Alpine skiing	Alpine skiing, or downhill skiing, is the pastime of sliding down snow-covered slopes on skis with fixed-heel bindings, unlike other types of skiing (cross-country, Telemark, or ski jumping), which use skis with free-heel bindings. Whether for recreation or for sport, it is typically practiced at ski resorts, which provide such services as ski lifts, artificial snow making, snow grooming, restaurants, and ski patrol.
Alpine skiing	Alpine skiing	"Off-piste" skiers—those skiing outside ski area boundaries—may employ snowmobiles, helicopters or snowcats to deliver them to the top of a slope. Back-country skiers may use specialized equipment with a free-heel mode, including 'sticky' skins on the bottoms of the skis to stop them sliding backwards during an ascent, then locking the heel and removing the skins for their descent. Alpine ski racing has been held at the Winter Olympics since 1936. A competition corresponding to modern slalom was introduced in Norway at Oslo in 1886.
Alpine skiing	Participants and venues	As of 2023, there were estimated to be 55 million people worldwide who engaged in alpine skiing. The estimated number of skiers, who practiced alpine, cross-country skiing, and related snow sports, amounted to 30 million in Europe, 20 million in North America, and 14 million in Japan. As of 1996, there were reportedly 4,500 ski areas, operating 26,000 ski lifts and enjoying skier visits. The predominant region for downhill skiing was Europe, followed by Japan and the US.
Alpine skiing	History	The ancient origins of skiing can be traced back to prehistoric times in Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway where varying sizes and shapes of wooden planks were found preserved in peat bogs. The word ski is related to the Old Norse word skíð, which means "split piece of wood or firewood." Skis were first invented to cross wetlands and marshes in the winter when they froze over. Skiing was an integral part of transportation in colder countries for thousands of years. In the 1760s, skiing was recorded as being used in military training. The Norwegian army held skill competitions involving skiing down slopes, around trees and obstacles while shooting. The birth of modern alpine skiing is often dated to the 1850s, and during the late 19th century, skiing was adapted from a method of transportation to a competitive and recreational sport. Norwegian legend Sondre Norheim first began the trend of skis with curved sides, and bindings with stiff heel bands made of willow. Norheim also trended the slalom turn style. The wooden skis designed by Norheim closely resemble the shape of modern slalom skis. Norheim was the champion of the first downhill skiing competition, reportedly held in Oslo, Norway in 1868. Norheim impressed spectators when he used the stem christie in Christiania (Oslo) in 1868, the technique was originally called christiania turn (norwegian: christianiasving or kristianiasving) after the city (first printed in 1901 in guidelines for ski jumping). The telemark turn was the alternative technique. The christiania turn later developed into parallel turn as the standard technique in alpine skiing.The term "slalom" is from Norwegian dialects slalåm meaning a trail (låm) on a slope (sla). In Telemark in the 1800s, the steeper and more difficult trails were called ville låmir (wild trails). Skiing competitions in Telemark often began on a steep mountain, continued along a logging-slides (tømmerslepe) and was completed with a sharp turn (Telemark turn) on a field or frozen lake. This type of competition used the natural and typical terrain in Telemark. Some races were on "bumpy courses" (kneikelåm) and sometimes included "steep jumps" (sprøytehopp) for difficulty. The first known slalom competitions were presumably held in Telemark around 1870 in conjunction with ski jumping competitions, involving the same athletes and on slopes next to the ski jump. Husebyrennet from 1886 included svingrenn (turning competition on hills), the term slalåm had not been introduced at that time. Slalom was first used at a skiing competition in Sonnenberg in 1906. Two to three decades later, the sport spread to the rest of Europe and the US. The first slalom ski competition occurred in Mürren, Switzerland in 1922.
Alpine skiing	Technique	A skier following the fall line will reach the maximum possible speed for that slope. A skier with skis pointed perpendicular to the fall line, across the hill instead of down it, will accelerate more slowly. The speed of descent down any given hill can be controlled by changing the angle of motion in relation to the fall line, skiing across the hill rather than down it.
Alpine skiing	Technique	Downhill skiing technique focuses on the use of turns to smoothly turn the skis from one direction to another. Additionally, the skier can use the same techniques to turn the ski away from the direction of movement, generating skidding forces between the skis and snow which further slow the descent. Good technique results in a fluid flowing motion from one descent angle to another one, adjusting the angle as needed to match changes in the steepness of the run. This looks more like a single series of S's than turns followed by straight sections.
Alpine skiing	Technique	Stemming The oldest and still common type of turn on skis is the stem, angling the tail of the ski off to the side, while the tips remain close together. In doing so, the snow resists passage of the stemmed ski, creating a force that retards downhill speed and sustains a turn in the opposite direction. When both skis are stemmed, there is no net turning force, only retardation of downhill speed.
Alpine skiing	Technique	Carving Carving is based on the shape of the ski itself; when the ski is rotated onto its edge, the pattern cut into its side causes it to bend into an arc. The contact between the arc of the ski edges and the snow naturally causes the ski to tend to move along that arc, changing the skiers direction of motion.
Alpine skiing	Technique	Checking This is an advanced form of speed control by increasing the pressure on one inside edge (for example the right ski), then releasing the pressure and shifting immediately to increasing the other inside edge (the left ski). Then repeat if necessary. Each increased pressure slows the speed. Alternating right and left allows the skis to remain parallel and point ahead without turning. The increase and release sequence results in the up and down motions of the upper body. Some skiers go down the top of moguls and control the speed by checking at the tops. This is how they can practically go straight down the fall line without gaining speed.
Alpine skiing	Technique	Snowplough turn The snowplough turn is the simplest form of turning and is usually learned by beginners. To perform the snowplough turn one must be in the snowplough position while going down the ski slope. While doing this they apply more pressure to the inside of the opposite foot of which the direction they would like to turn. This type of turn allows the skier to keep a controlled speed and introduces the idea of turning across the fall line.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Skis Modern alpine skis are shaped to enable carve turning, and have evolved significantly since the 1980s, with variants including powder skis, freestyle skis, all-mountain skis, and children's skis. Powder skis are usually used when there is a large amount of fresh snow; the shape of a powder ski is wide, allowing the ski to float on top of the snow, compared to a normal downhill ski which would most likely sink into the snow. Freestyle skis are used by skiers who ski terrain parks. These skis are meant to help a skier who skis jumps, rails, and other features placed throughout the terrain park. Freestyle skis are usually fully symmetric, meaning they are the same dimensions from the tip of the ski to the backside (tail) of the ski. All-mountain skis are the most common type of ski, and tend to be used as a typical alpine ski. All-mountain skis are built to do a little bit of everything; they can be used in fresh snow (powder) or used when skiing groomed runs. Slalom race skis, usually referred to as race skis, are short, narrow skis, which tend to be stiffer because they are meant for those who want to go fast as well as make quick sharp turns.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Bindings The binding is a device used to connect the skier's boot to the ski. The purpose of the binding is to allow the skier to stay connected to the ski, but if the skier falls the binding can safely release them from the ski to prevent injury. There are two types of bindings: the heel and toe system (step-in) and the plate system binding.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Boots Ski boots are one of the most important accessories to skiing. They connect the skier to the skis, allowing them full control over the ski. When ski boots first came about they were made of leather and laces were used. The leather ski boots started off as low-cut, but gradually became taller, allowing for more ankle support, as injuries became more common . Eventually the tied laces were replaced with buckles and the leather boots were replaced with plastic. This allowed the bindings to be more closely matched to the fit of the boot, and offer improved performance. The new plastic model contained two parts of the boots: an inner boot and an outer shell. The inner part of the boot (also called the liner) is the cushioning part of the boot and contains a footbed along with a cushion to keep a skier's foot warm and comfortable. The outer shell is the part of the boot that is made of plastic and contains the buckles. Most ski boots contain a strap at shin level to allow for extra strength when tightening the boots.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Poles Ski poles, one in each hand, are used for balance and propulsion.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Helmet Ski helmets reduce the chances of head injury while skiing. Ski helmets also help to provide warmth to the head since they incorporate an inner liner that traps warmth. Helmets are available in many styles, and typically consist of a hard plastic/resin shell with inner padding. Modern ski helmets may include many additional features such as vents, earmuffs, headphones, goggle mounts, and camera mounts.
Alpine skiing	Equipment	Protective gear The protective gear used in alpine skiing includes: helmets, mouth guards, shin guards, chin guards, arm guards, back protectors, pole guards, and padding. Mouth guards can reduce the effects of a concussion and protect the teeth of the athlete. Shin guards, pole guards, arm guards and chin guards are mainly used in slalom skiing in order to protect the body parts having impact with the gates. Back protectors and padding, also known as stealth, is worn for giant slalom and other speed events in order to better protect the body if an athlete were to have an accident at high speeds.
Alpine skiing	Competition	Elite competitive skiers participate in the FIS World Cup, the World Championships, and the Winter Olympics. Broadly speaking, competitive skiing is divided into two disciplines: Racing, comprising slalom, giant slalom, super giant slalom, combined, and downhill, parallel slalom and parallel giant slalom. Freestyle skiing, incorporating events such as moguls, aerials, halfpipe, and ski cross.Other disciplines administered by the FIS but not usually considered part of alpine are speed skiing and grass skiing.
Alpine skiing	Ski trail ratings	In most ski resorts, the runs are graded according to comparative difficulty so that skiers can select appropriate routes. The grading schemes around the world are related, although with significant regional variations. A beginner-rated trail at a large mountain may be more of an intermediate-rated trail on a smaller mountain.
Alpine skiing	Ski trail ratings	In the United States and Canada, there are four rating symbols: Easy (green circle), Intermediate (blue square), and Difficult (black diamond), and Experts Only (double black diamond) Ski trail difficulty is measured by percent slope, not degree angle. A 100% slope is a 45-degree angle. In general, beginner slopes (green circle) are between 6% and 25%. Intermediate slopes (blue square) are between 25% and 40%. Difficult slopes (black diamond) are 40% and up. Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a trail difficulty rating, other factors come into play. A trail will be rated by its most difficult part, even if the rest of the trail is easy. Ski resorts assign ratings to their own trails, rating a trail compared only with other trails at that resort. Also considered are width of the trail, sharpest turns, terrain roughness, and whether the resort regularly grooms the trail.
Alpine skiing	Safety	In 2014, there were more than 114,000 alpine skiing-related injuries treated in hospitals, doctor's offices, and emergency rooms.

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