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Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Decomposition fungi as PMI estimators Considering the number of forensic cases in which significant amounts of mycelia are observed is quite high, investigating cadaver associated mycota may prove valuable to the scientific community as they have much forensic potential.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Only one attempt at using fungi as a PMI marker in a forensic case has been published to date. The study reported the presence of two types of fungi (Penicillium and Aspergillus) on a body found in a well in Japan and stated that they could estimate PMI as being approximately ten days based on the known growth cycles of the fungi in question.
Field sports	Field sports	Field sports are outdoor sports that take place in the wilderness or sparsely populated rural areas, where there are vast areas of uninhabited greenfields. The term specifically refers to activities that mandate sufficiently large open spaces and/or interaction with natural ecosystems, including hiking/canyoning, equestrianism, hawking, archery and shooting, but can also extend to various surface water sports such as river trekking, angling, rowing/paddling, rafting and boating/yachting.
Field sports	Field sports	Field sports are considered nostalgic pastimes, especially among country folk. For example, participants of field sports such as riding and fox hunting in the United Kingdom frequently wear traditional attires (British country clothing) to imitate landed gentries and aristocrats of the 19th-century English countryside.
Field sports	Types	Hiking, backpacking and camping Cross country/trail running and mountain biking Hillwalking, mountaineering, canyoning and caving Rock climbing, scrambling, rappelling and tree climbing Equestrianism (horse racing, polo, show jumping, dressage, etc.) Falconry Sport hunting (trophy hunting, safari/big game hunting, fowling) Bowhunting Sport fishing (angling, bowfishing, spearfishing, big game fishing) Shooting sport Field shooting (metallic silhouette, long-range, field target, etc) Clay pigeon Plinking Meat shooting Rook shooting Field archery Rowing/sculling, paddling (canoeing, kayaking, rafting), punting and paddleboarding
Field sports	Environmental issues	Field sports, by definition, involve activities away from typical human settlements, which implies entering into natural areas usually devoid of human presence. Such encroachments can potentially cause ecological disturbances to the wild faunae and florae, including environmental contamination by littered wastes (especially non-degradable plastic waste), wildfire risk from campfires and cigarette butts, disruption of groundcovers and topsoil due to trail-making and camping, damages to rocks by anchors used for aid climbing, irresponsible luring and feeding of wild animals, and light and sound pollution that can frequently trigger startle responses and territorial behaviors, leading to animal attacks, nest abandonment, habitat fragmentation and even habitat loss.
Field sports	Environmental issues	Some field sports, especially hunting and fishing, involve the catching and/or killing of wild animals (collectively referred as "game") for meat, for removing species in conflict with humans (often as volunteered assistance to farmers and landowners), or simply for personal leisure and trophy (i.e. sport hunting or "sporting"). Opponents to such sports consider them controversial, and even immoral, on grounds of animal cruelty (regarded as blood sports using wildlife), animal welfare (of the working animals such as horse and hunting dogs) and environmental protection (concerns for habitat conservation, overexploitation and poaching), especially those involving commercial incentives such as safari big game hunting.
Vietnamese numerals	Vietnamese numerals	Historically Vietnamese has two sets of numbers: one is etymologically native Vietnamese; the other uses Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. In the modern language the native Vietnamese vocabulary is used for both everyday counting and mathematical purposes. The Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary is used only in fixed expressions or in Sino-Vietnamese words, in a similar way that Latin and Greek numerals are used in modern English (e.g., the bi- prefix in bicycle). For numbers up to one million, native Vietnamese terms is often used the most, whilst mixed Sino-Vietnamese origin words and native Vietnamese words are used for units of one million or above.
Vietnamese numerals	Concept	For non-official purposes prior to the 20th century, Vietnamese had a writing system known as Hán-Nôm. Sino-Vietnamese numbers were written in Chữ Hán and native vocabulary was written in Chữ Nôm. Hence, there are two concurrent system in Vietnamese nowadays in the romanized script, one for native Vietnamese and one for Sino-Vietnamese.
Vietnamese numerals	Concept	In the modern Vietnamese writing system, numbers are written as Arabic numerals or in the romanized script Chữ Quốc ngữ (một, hai, ba), which had a Chữ Nôm character. Less common for numbers under one million are the numbers of Sino-Vietnamese origin (nhất [1], nhị [2], tam [3]), using Chữ Hán (classical Chinese characters). Chữ Hán and Chữ Nôm has all but become obsolete in the Vietnamese language, with the Latin-style of reading, writing, and pronouncing native Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese being wide spread instead, when France occupied Vietnam. Chữ Hán can still be seen in traditional temples or traditional literature or in cultural artefacts. The Hán-Nôm Institute resides in Hanoi, Vietnam.
Vietnamese numerals	Basic figures	The following table is an overview of the basic Vietnamese numeric figures, provided in both native and Sino-Vietnamese counting systems. The form that is highlighted in green is the most widely used in all purposes whilst the ones highlighted in blue are seen as archaic but may still be in use. There are slight differences between the Hanoi and Saigon dialects of Vietnamese, readings between each are differentiated below.
Vietnamese numerals	Basic figures	Some other features of Vietnamese numerals include the following: Outside of fixed Sino-Vietnamese expressions, Sino-Vietnamese words are usually used in combination with native Vietnamese words. For instance, "mười triệu" combines native "mười" and Sino-Vietnamese "triệu".
Vietnamese numerals	Basic figures	Modern Vietnamese separates place values in thousands instead of myriads. For example, "123123123" is recorded in Vietnamese as "một trăm hai mươi ba triệu một trăm hai mươi ba nghìn (ngàn) một trăm hai mươi ba, or '123 million, 123 thousand and 123'. Meanwhile, in Chinese, Japanese & Korean, the same number is rendered as "1億2312萬3123" (1 hundred-million, 2312 ten-thousand and 3123).
Vietnamese numerals	Basic figures	Sino-Vietnamese numbers are not in frequent use in modern Vietnamese. Sino-Vietnamese numbers such as "vạn／萬" 'ten thousand', "ức／億" 'hundred-thousand' and "triệu／兆" 'million' are used for figures exceeding one thousand, but with the exception of "triệu" are becoming less commonly used. Number values for these words are used for each numeral increasing tenfold in digit value, 億 being the number for 105, 兆 for 106, et cetera. However, Triệu in Vietnamese and 兆 in Modern Chinese now have different values.
Vietnamese numerals	Other figures	When the number 1 appears after 20 in the unit digit, the pronunciation changes to "mốt". When the number 4 appears after 20 in the unit digit, it is more common to use Sino-Vietnamese "tư／四". When the number 5 appears after 10 in the unit digit, the pronunciation changes to "lăm／𠄻". When "mười" appears after 20, the pronunciation changes to "mươi".
Vietnamese numerals	Ordinal numbers	Vietnamese ordinal numbers are generally preceded by the prefix "thứ-", which is a Sino-Vietnamese word which corresponds to "次-". For the ordinal numbers of one and four, the Sino-Vietnamese readings "nhất／一" and "tư／四" are more commonly used; two is occasionally rendered using the Sino-Vietnamese "nhị／二". In all other cases, the native Vietnamese number is used. In formal cases, the ordinal number with the structure "đệ (第) + Sino-Vietnamese numbers" is used, especially in calling the generation of monarches, with an example being Nữ vương Elizabeth đệ nhị/女王 Elizabeth 第二 (Queen Elizabeth II).
Sphinx (search engine)	Sphinx (search engine)	Sphinx is a fulltext search engine that provides text search functionality to client applications.
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	Sphinx can be used either as a stand-alone server or as a storage engine ("SphinxSE") for the MySQL family of databases. When run as a standalone server Sphinx operates similar to a DBMS and can communicate with MySQL, MariaDB and PostgreSQL through their native protocols or with any ODBC-compliant DBMS via ODBC. MariaDB, a fork of MySQL, is distributed with SphinxSE.
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	SphinxAPI If Sphinx is run as a stand-alone server, it is possible to use SphinxAPI to connect an application to it. Official implementations of the API are available for PHP, Java, Perl, Ruby and Python languages. Unofficial implementations for other languages, as well as various third party plugins and modules are also available. Other data sources can be indexed via pipe in a custom XML format.
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	SphinxQL The Sphinx search daemon supports the MySQL binary network protocol and can be accessed with the regular MySQL API and/or clients. Sphinx supports a subset of SQL known as SphinxQL. It supports standard querying of all index types with SELECT, modifying RealTime indexes with INSERT, REPLACE, and DELETE, and more. SphinxSE Sphinx can also provide a special storage engine for MariaDB and MySQL databases. This allows those MySQL, MariaDB to communicate with Sphinx's searchd to run queries and obtain results. Sphinx indices are treated like regular SQL tables. The SphinxSE storage engine is shipped with MariaDB.
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	Full-text fields and indexing Sphinx is configured to examine a data set via its Indexer. The Indexer process creates a full-text index (a special data structure that enables quick keyword searches) from the given data/text. Full-text fields are the resulting content that is indexed by Sphinx; they can be (quickly) searched for keywords. Fields are named, and you can limit your searches to a single field (e.g. search through "title" only) or a subset of fields (e.g. to "title" and "abstract" only). Sphinx's index format generally supports up to 256 fields. Note that the original data is not stored in the Sphinx index, but are discarded during the Indexing process; Sphinx assumes that you store those contents elsewhere.
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	Attributes Attributes are additional values associated with each document that can be used to perform additional filtering and sorting during search. Attributes are named. Attribute names are case insensitive. Attributes are not full-text indexed; they are stored in the index as is. Currently supported attribute types are: unsigned integers (1-bit to 32-bit wide); UNIX timestamps; floating point values (32-bit, IEEE 754 single precision); string ordinals (specially computed integers); strings(since 1.10-beta); JSON(since 2.1.1-beta); MVA, multi-value attributes (variable-length lists of 32-bit unsigned integers).
Sphinx (search engine)	Overview	JSON attributes in Sphinx Sphinx, like classic SQL databases, works with a so-called fixed schema, that is, a set of predefined attribute columns. These work well when most of the data stored actually has values: mapping sparse data to static columns can be cumbersome. Assume for example that you're running a price comparison or an auction site with many different products categories. Some of the attributes like the price or the vendor are identical across all goods. But from there, for laptops, you also need to store the weight, screen size, HDD type, RAM size, etc. And, say, for shovels, you probably want to store the color, the handle length, and so on. So it's manageable across a single category, but all the distinct fields that you need for all the goods across all the categories are legion. The JSON field can be used to overcome this. Inside the JSON attribute you don't need a fixed structure. You can have various keys which may or may not be present in all documents. When you try to filter on one of these keys, Sphinx will ignore documents that don't have the key in the JSON attribute and will work only with those documents that have it.
Sphinx (search engine)	License	Up until version 3, Sphinx is dual licensed; either: GNU General Public License version 2 or proprietary licensing is available for use-cases which are not within the terms of the GNU GPLv2.Since version 3, Sphinx has become proprietary, with a promise to release its source code in the future
Sphinx (search engine)	Sphinx use examples	Craigslist.org Recruitment.aleph-graymatter.com Tradebit.com vBulletin.com MediaWiki extension Boardreader.com OMBE.com Limundo.com
Sphinx (search engine)	Feature list	Batch and incremental (soft real-time) full-text indexing. Support for non-text attributes (scalars, strings, sets, JSON). Direct indexing of SQL databases. Native support for MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, MSSQL, plus ODBC connectivity. XML document indexing support. Distributed searching support out-of-the-box. Integration via access APIs. SQL-like syntax support via MySQL protocol (since 0.9.9) Full-text searching syntax. Database-like result set processing. Relevance ranking utilizing additional factors besides standard BM25. Text processing support for SBCS and UTF-8 encodings, stopwords, indexing of words known not to appear in the database ("hitless"), stemming, word forms, tokenizing exceptions, and "blended characters" (dual-indexing as both a real character and a word separator). Supports UDF (since 2.0.1).
Sphinx (search engine)	Performance and scalability	Indexing speed of up to 10-15 MB/sec per core and HDD. Searching speed of over 500 queries/sec against 1,000,000 document/1.2 GB collection using a 2-core desktop system with 2 GB of RAM. The biggest known installation using Sphinx, Boardreader.com, indexes 16 billion documents. The busiest known installation, Craigslist, serves over 300,000,000 queries/day and more than 50 billion page views/month.
Sphinx (search engine)	Fork	In 2017, key members of the original Sphinx team formed a fork of the project called Manticore. The Manticore team has set itself the following goal: to deliver fast, stable and powerful free software for full text search. Manticore team keep it's fork opensource, releasing it under GPLv2 license as opposed to Original Sphinx search, which closing the source from the third version.
Combined Online Information System	Combined Online Information System	The Combined Online Information System (COINS) is a database containing HM Treasury's detailed analysis of departmental spending under thousands of category headings. The database contains around 24 million lines of data. The database has codes for more than 1,700 public bodies in the United Kingdom including central government departments, local authorities, NHS trusts and public corporations. COINS is used by the Office for National Statistics for statistical purposes.The Treasury describes the database as "a web based multi-dimensional database used by HM Treasury to collect financial information". Data from the COINS database is used to prepare the National Accounts.
Combined Online Information System	Structure and technical details	The Combined Online Information System or COINS database is one of the biggest datasets in government. COINS uses a database called Camelot. The system is supplied by Descisys.
Combined Online Information System	History	COINS replaced three separate systems previously used by the British Government, Public Expenditure System (PES), Government Online Data System (GOLD) and General Expenditure Monitoring System (GEMS).
Combined Online Information System	Disclosure	The Treasury turned down requests under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 for data contained in COINS prior to the 2010 General Election. After promises during the election campaign to publish the database if elected, the Cameron–Clegg coalition government made available all 120 GB of COINS data in a raw format as of 4 June 2010. The hope is that this will spur third party organisations to find innovative ways to present this information to the public.
EFAMRO	EFAMRO	EFAMRO is a federation of national bodies representing the market research profession in Europe.
EFAMRO	Members	EFAMRO is composed of 16 national bodies:
EFAMRO	Activities	EFAMRO has three primary roles: To adjudicate on cross-border complaints made against market research organizations through a self-regulatory framework To provide a common voice for national bodies when lobbying at a European or international level To develop and enhance international quality standards for market research (most notably the ISO 20252 quality standard which EFAMRO initiated)EFAMRO co-ordinates these activities with other research bodies globally through its participation in the Global Research Business Network (GRBN), a joint initiative with the Asia Pacific Research Committee (APRC) and the Americas Research Industry Alliance (ARIA).
EFAMRO	Leadership	EFAMRO is led by an Executive Board overseen by Jan Oostveen (Director General) and Andrew Cannon (President).
Wide-format printer	Wide-format printer	Wide format printers (large format printers) are generally accepted to be any computer-controlled printing machines (printers) that support a maximum print roll width of between 18 and 100 inches (460 and 2,540 mm). Printers with capacities over 100 in wide are considered super-wide or grand format. Wide-format printers are used to print banners, posters, trade show graphics, wallpaper, murals, backlit film (duratrans), vehicle image wraps, electronic circuit schematics, architectural drawings, construction plans, backdrops for theatrical and media sets, and any other large format artwork or signage. Wide-format printers usually employ some variant of inkjet or toner-based technology to produce the printed image; and are more economical than other print methods such as screen printing for most short-run (low quantity) print projects, depending on print size, run length (quantity of prints per single original), and the type of substrate or print medium. Wide-format printers are usually designed for printing onto a roll of print media that feeds incrementally during the print process, rather than onto individual sheets.
Wide-format printer	Technologies	Wide-format printers can be categorized by the type of ink transfer process they employ: Aqueous: Thermal or Piezo inkjet printers using an ink known as aqueous or water-based. The term water base is a generally accepted misnomer. The pigment is held in a non-reactive carrier solution that is sometimes water and other times a substitute liquid, including a soy-based liquid used by Kodak. Aqueous ink generally comes in two flavors, dye and pigment. Dye ink is high color, low UV-resistant variety that offers the widest color gamut. Pigment ink is generally duller in color, requiring more inks to achieve wide inks but withstands fading from UV rays. Similar in general principle to desktop inkjet printers. Finished prints must be laminated to protect them if they are to be used outdoors. Various substrates (media) are available, including canvases, banners, metabolized plastic, and cloth. Aqueous technology requires that all materials be properly coated to accept and hold the ink.
Wide-format printer	Technologies	Solvent: This term is used to describe any ink that is not water-based. Piezo inkjet printers whose inks use petroleum or a petroleum by-product such as an acetone like carrier liquid. "Eco-Solvent" inks usually contain glycol esters or glycol ether esters and are slower drying. The resulting prints are waterproof. May be used to print directly on uncoated vinyl and other media as well as ridged substrates such as Painted/Coated Metal, Foam Board and PVC. The solvents soften the base material and allow the ink pigments to mechanically latch on to the chemically etched surface. Certain ink manufacturers have different bite based on what solvent carriers they use. Which is what makes solvent ink prints more durable than aqueous inks. However, solvent inks give off strong odor or fumes when drying, as the carrier fluid dissipates through applied heat from the printer's platen. There are various levels of solvent ink ranging from "True or Full Solvent" to "Medium/Mild Solvent" all the way down to "Eco-Solvent". The fume and odour levels decrease accordingly, so does the surface etch of the base material. Full to Medium/Mild Solvents require fume extraction to be considered safe in the working environment. Most Eco-Solvents can be used in an office environment with minimal or tolerable odor levels.
Wide-format printer	Technologies	Dye sublimation: Inks are diffused into the special print media to produce continuous-tone prints of photographic quality. UV: Piezo inkjet printers whose inks are UV-curable (dry when cured with UV light). The resulting prints are waterproof, embossed & vibrant. Any media material can be used in this technology, polymer made media are best. Ceramics, glass, metals, and woods are also used with printing with this technology. Pen/plotter: A pen or pens are used to draw on the print substrate. Mainly used for producing CAD drawings. Generally superseded by digital technologies such as Solvent, Aqueous, and UV.
Product activation	Product activation	Product activation is a license validation procedure required by some proprietary software programs. Product activation prevents unlimited free use of copied or replicated software. Unactivated software refuses to fully function until it determines whether it is authorized to fully function. Activation allows the software to stop blocking its use. An activation can last "forever", or it can have a time limit, requiring a renewal or re-activation for continued use.
Product activation	Implementations	In one form, product activation refers to a method invented by Ric Richardson and patented (U.S. Patent 5,490,216) by Uniloc where a software application hashes hardware serial numbers and an ID number specific to the product's license (a product key) to generate a unique installation ID. This installation ID is sent to the manufacturer to verify the authenticity of the product key and to ensure that the product key is not being used for multiple installations.
Product activation	Implementations	Alternatively, the software vendor sends the user a unique product serial number. When the user installs the application it requests that the user enter their product serial number, and checks it with the vendor's systems over the Internet. The application obtains the license limits that apply to that user's license, such as a time limit or enabling of product features, from the vendor's system and optionally also locks the license to the user's system. Once activated the license continues working on the user's machine with no further communication required with the vendor's systems. Some activation systems also support activation on user systems without Internet connections; a common approach is to exchange encrypted files at an Internet terminal.
Product activation	Implementations	An early example of product activation was in the MS-DOS program D'Bridge Email System written by Chris Irwin, a commercial network system for BBS users and Fidonet. The program generated a unique serial number which then called the author's BBS via a dialup modem connection. Upon connection, the serial number was validated. A unique "key" was returned which allowed the program to continue for a trial period. If two D'Bridge systems communicated using the same key, the software deliberately crashed. The software has long since had the entire activation system removed and is now freeware by Nick J. Andre, Ltd.
Product activation	Implementations	Microsoft Microsoft Product Activation was introduced in the Brazilian version of Microsoft Office 97 Small Business Edition and Microsoft Word 97 sold in the Hungarian market. It broadened that successful pilot with the release of Microsoft Publisher 98 in the Brazilian market. Microsoft then rolled out product activation in its flagship Microsoft Office 2000 product. All retail copies sold in Australia, Brazil, China, France, and New Zealand, and some sold in Canada and the United States, required the user to activate the product via the Internet. However, all copies of Office 2000 do not require activation after April 15, 2003. After its success, the product activation system was extended worldwide and incorporated into Windows XP and Office XP and all subsequent versions of Windows and Office. Despite independently developing its own technology, in April 2009 a jury found Microsoft to have willfully infringed Uniloc's patent. However, in September 2009, US District Judge William Smith "vacated" the jury's verdict and ruled in favour of Microsoft. This ruling was subsequently overturned in 2011.
Product activation	Blocking	Software that has been installed but not activated does not perform its full functions, and/or imposes limits on file size or session time. Some software allows full functionality for a limited "trial" time before requiring activation. Unactivated software typically reminds the user to activate, at program startup or at intervals, and when the imposed size or time limits are reached. (Some unactivated software has taken disruptive actions such as crashing or vandalism, but this is rare.) Some 'unactivated' products act as a time-limited trial until a product key—a number encoded as a sequence of alphanumeric characters—is purchased and used to activate the software. Some products allow licenses to be transferred from one machine to another using online tools, without having to call technical support to deactivate the copy on the old machine before reactivating it on the new machine.
Product activation	Blocking	Software verifies activation every time it starts up, and sometimes while it is running. Some software even "phones home", checking a central database (across the Internet or other means) to check whether the specific activation has been revoked. Some software might stop working or reduce functionality if it cannot connect to the central database.
Product activation	Criticisms	It can enforce software license agreement restrictions that may be legally invalid. For example, a company may refuse to reactivate software on an upgraded or new PC, even if the user may have a legal right to use the product under such circumstances. If the company ceases to support a specific product, goes out of business due to insolvency or consolidation, its purchased product may become unusable or incapable of being (re)installed unless an activation-free copy or final patch that removes or bypasses activation is released.
Product activation	Criticisms	Product activation where there is no straightforward way to transfer the license to another person to activate on their computer has been widely criticised as making second-hand sales of products, particularly games, very difficult. Some suspect companies such as EA to be using product activation to reduce second-hand sales of their games in order to increase sales of new copies.
Product activation	Criticisms	As the transfer of an activation request usually happens encrypted or at least obfuscated, the user cannot see or check if additional data from his/her machine gets transferred, creating privacy concerns. Malfunction of the activating mechanism can delay users from getting started using newly-licensed software. Malfunction of the verification mechanism can cause vital software to suddenly stop working until re-activated or patched. This can happen in response to detected changes of installed hardware, or other software, of the operating system.
SLITRK2	SLITRK2	SLIT and NTRK-like protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLITRK2 gene.
SLITRK2	Function	Members of the SLITRK family, such as SLITRK2, are integral membrane proteins with 2 N-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains similar to those of SLIT proteins (see SLIT1; MIM 603742). Most SLITRKs, including SLITRK2, also have C-terminal regions that share homology with neurotrophin receptors (see NTRK1; MIM 191315). SLITRKs are expressed predominantly in neural tissues and have neurite-modulating activity.
Blue sign	Blue sign	A blue sign or blue board is used by inland waterways vessels within the Trans-European Inland Waterway network when performing a special manoeuvre or passing on the starboard side. On navigable waterways vessels normally pass each other on the port-side, so the display of the blue sign and flashing white light signal intention to pass each other on the starboard-side. This process is known as blue boarding or historically blue flagging.The Code Européen des Voies de la Navigation Intérieure (CEVNI) regulations require upstream vessels operating on the opposite side to display a light-blue sign and scintillating (flashing) white light. Article 3.03 states that the board must be rectangular and 1-metre × 1-metre for large vessels, or 0.6-metres × 0.6-metres for small vessels.The presence and status of the blue sign is transmitted by the ship's Inland-Automatic Identification System (Inland-AIS) transponder to other vessels. The status of the sign is transmitted using two bits of the "regional application flags"/"special manoeuvre field" in the AIS position reports. This must be transmitted every ten seconds.
Drinking straw	Drinking straw	A drinking straw is a utensil that is intended to carry the contents of a beverage to one's mouth. Straws are commonly made from plastics but environmental concerns and new regulation have led to rise in reusable and biodegradable straws. These straws are often made of silicone, cardboard, or metal. A straw is used by placing one end in one's mouth and the other in a beverage. By employing suction, the air pressure in one's mouth drops causing atmospheric pressure to force the liquid through the straw and into the mouth. Drinking straws can be straight or have an angle-adjustable bellows segment. Drinking straws have historically been intended as a single-use product and several countries, regions, and municipalities have banned single-use plastic straws to reduce plastic pollution. Additionally, some companies have even voluntarily banned or reduced the number of plastic straws distributed from their premises.
Drinking straw	History	Early examples The first known straws were made by the Sumerians and were used for drinking beer, probably to avoid the solid byproducts of fermentation that sink to the bottom. The oldest drinking straw in existence, found in a Sumerian tomb dated 3,000 BCE, was a gold tube inlaid with the precious blue stone lapis lazuli. Others claim metal ‘sceptres’ discovered in Armenia in 1897 and date to the Maykop culture (3700 to 2900 BCE) as the oldest surviving straws.
Drinking straw	History	Argentines and their neighbors have, for several hundred years, used (for drinking mate tea) a similar metallic device called a bombilla, that acts as both a straw and a sieve.In the 1800s, the rye grass straw came into fashion because it was cheap and soft, but it had an unfortunate tendency to turn to mush when put in liquid.
Drinking straw	History	American Marvin C. Stone patented the modern drinking straw, 8 1/2 inches long and made of paper, in 1888, to address the shortcomings of the rye grass straw. He came upon the idea while drinking a mint julep on a hot day in Washington, D.C.; the taste of the rye grass straw was mixing with the drink and giving it a grassy taste, which he found unsatisfactory. He wound paper around a pencil to make a thin tube, slid out the pencil from one end, and applied glue between the strips. He later refined it by building a machine that would coat the outside of the paper with wax to hold it together, so the glue would not dissolve in bourbon.Early paper straws had a narrow bore, to prevent seeds from clogging them. It was common to use two of them, to reduce the effort needed to take each sip.
Drinking straw	History	Mass production Plastic straws became widespread following World War II. The materials used in their manufacture were inexpensive, and the types of restaurant fare that they accompanied had become more affordable and popular.In 1930, Otto W. Dieffenbach (Sr.) developed and produced a cellophane drinking straw in Baltimore MD. His company known as Glassips Inc. produced straws for restaurants and other products. One patent dates to 1954. The Sr. Mr. Dieffenbach served as chairman until 1972 and the business, then based in Towson MD. was sold in 1979.One of the first mass-produced twisted straw was Sip-N-See invented by Milton Dinhofer who later came up with the idea and designs for the chimp in the iconic game, Barrel of Monkeys. Dinhofer originally patented his straw in the shape of a scissor with two loops on top, but Macy's would not carry the straw unless it had a character on it. They suggested Dinhofer make three straws (eventually patented in 1950): a cowboy, a clown and an animal for which he made an elephant. Each of his characters was attached to a looping soft polyethylene straw, and users were to sip from another detachable, small, straight, straw of acetate. Rexor Corp. copyrighted the straw the same year, but Macy's decided not to carry them. Dinhofer was told the selling price was too low. Dinhofer then turned to Woolworth and convinced the chain to let him deliver some to several of their stores near his home. After one weekend of sales, Woolworth's placed an order for all of its stores and Sip-N-See went national. The straws were sold in individual boxes, and more characters were eventually added. Other buyers began to carry it, too, and it was marketed as an "action drinking toy." Sip-N-See went on to sell approximately six million units, and, a decade later, the s-shape of the arms on the cowboy straw would inspire Dinhofer's monkey design for Barrel of Monkeys.
Drinking straw	Types	Drinking straws come in many variations and are manufactured using a variety of materials.
Drinking straw	Types	Plastic The most common form of drinking straw is made of the thermoplastic polymer Polypropylene. This plastic is known for its durability, lightness, and ability to be manufactured at a low cost. Other plastic polymers that exhibit these traits include polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).These attributes are what have made the traditional plastic straw ubiquitous in fast food establishments and take-out orders around the world. Additionally, other advantages of plastic straws include their ability to be molded into different shapes and sizes while also being able to withstand a wide range of temperatures without deforming. This is important because straws must be temperature resistant and thermally insulated because they can be used in both hot and cold beverages.
Drinking straw	Types	One interesting variation of the plastic straw is the "bendy straw", commonly referred to in the industry as an "articulated straw". This straw has a concertina-type hinge near its top to allow for improved maneuverability of the straw when drinking a beverage, especially from a low angle. The articulated straw was invented by Joseph Friedman in 1937. He quickly developed the straw after he saw his daughter struggling to use a normal straight straw.Another variation of the plastic straw, the “spoon straw”, has a spoon-like tip at the bottom, and is often used with iced slush beverages."Stir straws" with a relatively short length and quite a narrow bore are often given along with disposable cups for preparing coffee or tea and serve the primary function of being able to stir in sugar, sweetener, cream, or non-dairy creamer, as well as allowing for sipping a hot beverage. Additionally, boba tea plastic straws with wider openings are commonly used to drink bubble tea, to better accommodate its characteristic tapioca pearls. The tip of these straws is often cut at an angle creating a point which allows one to use the straw to puncture the plastic cover of bubble tea drinks.Plastic straws can also be embellished with some forms marketed as "crazy straws", having a number of twists and turns at the top. These straws are often marketed and can be entertaining for young children. The crazy straw was invented by Arthur Philip Gildersleeve and patented in 1936.
Drinking straw	Types	Reusable Environmental concerns, stemming from the impact plastic waste has had on the ocean, have led to a rise in reusable straws. Reusable straws are primarily being manufactured out of Polylactic acid (PLA), silicone, and metal. Polylactic acid and silicone straws are the most similar in texture and feel to their plastic counterparts, however, they fit into the category of biodegradable polymers. These types of straws have some benefits over other more ecologically conscious straws because they are resistant to disintegrating in one's drink and provide adequate insulation for hot and cold drinks. One manufacturer of silicon straws even claims that their straws can be burned into biodegradable ash.Metal and glass straws are other reusable alternatives. A "vampire straw" is a large metal drinking straw with a pointed tip that allows it to double as a dagger-like weapon. A man was arrested at Boston Logan International Airport after a vampire straw was confiscated from his carry-on luggage. Bamboo straws are making headway into the reusable straw industry with their sustainability, inexpensive cost, and relative ease of cleaning.
Drinking straw	Types	Single-use Some companies such as Starbucks have moved away from plastic straws. Bamboo straws are sometimes made from the moso bamboo tree (Phyllostachys edulis).Some companies such as McDonald's have switched to paper and paperboard straws. There are some innovation companies that try to introduce alternative to plastic straws such as Drinking-Straw that are made out of wheat, grass or reed.
Drinking straw	Types	Edible Edible straws have been made out of materials like rice, seaweed, rye, and confectioneries (such as candy).Flavor straws are a form of drinking straw with a flavoring included, designed to make drinking milk more pleasant for children. They first marketed in the United States in 1956 as Flav-R-Straws. Newer variations of the original idea have been resurrected in forms such as Sipahhs, and Magic Milk Straws that contain hundreds of flavored pellets encased within a stiff plastic straw.
Drinking straw	Environmental impact	Plastic drinking straw production contributes a small amount to petroleum consumption, and the used straws become a small part of global plastic pollution when discarded, most after a single use.Plastic straws are not recyclable and may continue to pollute various aspects of the environment, including bodies of water and streets, for over 200 years due to their lack of proper disposal. The image of a plastic straw lodged into the nostril of a sea turtle, filmed by marine biologist Christine Figgener, quickly spread across all forms of media and spurred the elevation of awareness regarding the potential danger of plastic straws for marine life. The scientist who uploaded the video remarks that it is the emotional pull of the imagery, rather than the significance of the plastic straw itself in the plastic debacle, that garnered such high viewership.
Drinking straw	Environmental impact	Quantity One anti-straw advocacy group has estimated that about 500 million straws are used daily in the United States alone – an average 1.6 straws per capita per day. This statistic has been criticized as inaccurate, because it was approximated by Milo Cress, who was nine years old at the time, after surveying straw manufacturers to ask their estimates of the total, which he then averaged. (Further details are unavailable as "being 9, he had not thought to document the process closely.") This figure has been widely cited by major news organizations. Market research firm Freedonia Group estimated the number to be 390 million. Another market research firm Technomic estimated the number to be 170 million, although this number excludes some types of straws.Plastic straws amounted to 5–7.5% of all waste collected from beaches during the 2017 International Cleanup Event, conducted by Ocean Conservancy, making it a minor contamination source, yet considered easy to avoid. In total, they are less than 0.022% of plastic waste emitted to oceans.
Drinking straw	Environmental impact	Microplastics Microplastics pollution is a concern if plastic waste is improperly dumped. If plastic straws are improperly disposed of, they can be transported via water into soil ecosystems, and others, where they break down into smaller, more hazardous pieces than the original plastic straw.Water can break down plastic waste into microplastic and nanoplastic particles. These particles are capable of transmitting harmful substances or can themselves prove dangerous, as they have been shown to negatively affect the surrounding environment.
Drinking straw	Environmental impact	Alternatives Alternatives to plastic straws, some reusable, exist, although they are not always readily available, or deemed to be of sufficient quality for all users (including, in particular, those with a disability). Paper straws have proliferated as a popular alternative, although they are prone to losing their rigidity when soaked inside a beverage, and in some cases are not durable enough for thicker beverages such as milkshakes. Metal straws are more durable, but they are incapable of being bent, can damage teeth or lacerate children or kill adults during falls, and some restaurants have reported them as a target of theft.Some critics have argued that paper and metal alternatives are no more environmentally-friendly than plastic, citing the environmental impacts of paper and mining, and that paper straws would likely end up in landfills and not be composted. In August 2019, after deploying paper straws in the United Kingdom, McDonald's stated that its straws could not actually be recycled at present, since their thickness "makes it difficult for them to be processed by our waste solution providers". The chain stated that they went towards energy production, and not to landfills.Polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable plastic, requires 69% fewer fossil fuel resources to produce than plastic, but it requires very specific conditions to break down fully. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), derived from plant oil, is marine biodegradable. In 2021, the manufacturing company Wincup was distributing a PHA product branded as "the Phade straw."As of 2021 several eco-friendly alternative materials have been tried. Among them are hay straws, bamboo straws, seaweed straws, and straws made from naturally dried fallen coconut leaves.
Drinking straw	Environmental impact	Greenwashing Not all attempts to be more environmentally friendly are in earnest, though. In an attempt to artificially boost sales, some groups have been guilty of "greenwashing," or falsely marketing their products as a viable environmentally friendly alternative, when it is actually just as harmful to the environment, or worse. These marketing tactics draw in well-meaning consumers who believe they are helping the environment (often by paying more for a product), when they are instead encouraging these misleading strategies.To combat this scheme, TerraChoice, an America-based advertising company, crafted a rubric to calculate the amount of greenwashing prevalent in a product. They determined that 95% of products they surveyed at American and Canadian stores are guilty of at least one act of greenwashing.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	In the late-2010s, a movement towards laws banning or otherwise restricting the use of plastic straws and other single-use plastics emerged. Environmental groups have encouraged consumers to object to "forced" inclusion of plastic straws with food service. The movement followed the discovery of plastic particles in oceanic garbage patches and larger plastic waste-reduction efforts that focused on banning plastic bags in some jurisdictions. It has been intensified by viral videos, including one of a plastic straw being removed from a sea turtle's nostril by biologist Nathan J. Robinson and filmed by marine biologist and activist Christine Figgener.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	By country Australia A single-use plastic ban was introduced in the state of South Australia in 2020. Fast food chain McDonald's promised to phase out plastic straws throughout Australia by 2020. Brazil On 5 July 2018, the city of Rio de Janeiro became the first state capital of Brazil to forbid the distribution of plastic straws, "forcing restaurants, coffee shops, bars and the like, beach huts and hawkers of the municipality to use and provide to its customers only biodegradable and/or recyclable paper straws individually".
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Canada In May 2018, the Vancouver city council voted in favor of adopting a "Single Use Reduction Strategy", targeting single-use styrofoam containers and plastic straws. The council approved the first phase of the regulations in November 2019, expected to be in place by April 2020, barring the distribution of single-use straws unless requested (with straws on hand required to be bendable for accessibility reasons). Bubble tea shops will be given a one-year exemption.In March 2019, Starbucks announced that they would be debuting strawless lids for cold drinks across Toronto as a part of their global environmental aspirations.In June 2019, in the lead-up to the federal election, prime minister Justin Trudeau announced his intent to enact legislation restricting the use of petroleum-based single-used plastics as early as 2021.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	European Union In May 2018, the European Union proposed a directive banning a number of single-use plastic items including straws, cotton buds, cutlery, balloon sticks and drink stirrers, in addition to limiting the use other single-use plastics and extending producer responsibility. The EU estimated the plan would avoid 3.4 million tons of carbon emissions, save consumers €6.5 billion, and prevent environmental damage that would cost the equivalent of €22 billion by the year 2030. In October 2018, the European Parliament voted to pass the directive with 571 votes for and 53 votes against, and the directive came into effect on July 2, 2021. The specificity of the European market is that it prohibits all types of straws made of plastic, whether bio-based or compostable. This means that popular straws made of PHA, PBS or PLA for example, are prohibited in this territory. It is not always clear whether or not a drinking straw complies with this legislation, so it is recommended that a pyrolysis test be performed to determine its composition.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Taiwan Single-use plastic straws banned in government facilities, schools, department stores, shopping malls and fast food restaurants from 1 July 2019.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	United Kingdom The UK government committed at most £4 million to “Plastics innovation: towards zero waste” in the summer of 2017 in an attempt to mitigate the circulation of unnecessary plastic. In this endeavor, eleven projects secured the full amount in government support. These projects each invented new ways to recycle used plastic products and prevent them from reaching landfills. In 2018, Queen Elizabeth II banned all single-use plastic items from her palaces.On 19 April 2018, ahead of Earth Day, a proposal to phase out single-use plastics was announced during the meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government. It is estimated that as of 2018, about 23 million straws are used and discarded daily in the UK. In May 2019, England announced that it would ban single-use plastic straws, stirring sticks and cotton buds in April 2020: only registered pharmacies will be allowed to sell straws to the public, and restaurants may only offer them by request of customers. The ban was delayed due to the coronavirus pandemic and came into effect on 1 October 2020.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	United States California On 7 November 2017, the city of Santa Cruz, California implemented a ban on all non-recyclable to-go containers, straws, and lids but allowed for 6 months for all businesses to come into compliance before enforcement would occur. On 1 January 2018, the city of Alameda, California citing the Santa Cruz effort, implemented an immediate ban on all straws, except if requested by a customer, and gave business until 1 July 2018 when it would be required that all straws to be of compostable paper and that all other to-go containers be recyclable.A statewide California law restricting the providing of single-use plastic straws went into effect on 1 January 2019. Under the law, restaurants are only allowed to provide single-use plastic straws upon request. The law applies to sit-down restaurants but exempts fast-food restaurants, delis, coffee shops, and restaurants that do takeout only. The law does not apply to-go cups and takeaway drinks. A restaurant will receive warnings for its first two violations, then a $25 per day fine for each subsequent violation, up to a maximum of $300 in a year. In a statement released upon his signing the legislation into law, then-Governor Jerry Brown said "It is a very small step to make a customer who wants a plastic straw ask for it. And it might make them pause and think again about an alternative. But one thing is clear, we must find ways to reduce and eventually eliminate single-use plastic products."Local regulations have also been passed in Malibu, Davis and San Luis Obispo, California.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Florida Local regulations have been passed in Miami Beach and Fort Myers, Florida. Maryland A ban on single-use straws has been instituted in Montgomery County, Maryland, going into full effect on December 21, 2021.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Massachusetts In 2015, Williamstown, Massachusetts banned straws that are not recyclable or compostable as part of its Article 42 polystyrene regulations.In the first half of 2018, three towns in Massachusetts banned petrochemical plastic straws directly in the case of Provincetown, and as part of broader sustainable food packaging laws in Andover and Brookline.In 2019, Longmeadow, Massachusetts banned plastic straws and polystyrene packaging.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	New York A drinking straw ban has been proposed in New York City since May 2018. Businesses are fined if a straw is provided (unless requested) and also fined if no plastic straws are available and also fined for other reasons regarding straws. Washington state The city of Seattle implemented a ban on non-compostable disposable straws on 1 July 2018.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Voluntary conversions After consideration of a ban in the UK, in 2018, after a two-month trial of paper straws at a number of outlets in the UK, McDonald's announced they would be switching to paper straws for all locations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. and testing the switch in U.S. locations in June 2018.A month after the Vancouver ban passed (but before it took effect) Canada's second-largest fast food chain, A&W announced they would have plastic straws fully phased out by January 2019 in all of their locations.Various independent restaurants have also stopped using plastic straws.Starbucks announced conversion by 2020 to no-straw lids for all cold drinks except for frappucinos, which will be served with straws made from paper or other sustainable materials.Hyatt Hotels announced straws would be provided by request only, starting 1 September 2018. Royal Caribbean plans to offer only paper straws on request by 2019, and IKEA said it would eliminate all single-use plastic items by 2020. Other conversions include Waitrose, London City Airport, and Burger King UK stores starting September 2018. A few other cruise lines, air lines, beverage companies, and hotels, have also made partial or complete reductions, but most companies in those industries have not, as of May 2018.
Drinking straw	Plastic straw bans and proposals	Opposition to bans Since plastic straws account only for a tiny portion (0.022%) of plastic waste emitted in the oceans each year, some pro-environment critics have argued that plastic straw bans are insufficient to address the issue of plastic waste, and are mostly symbolic.Full bans on single-use plastic straws have faced opposition from disability rights advocates, as they feel that alternative materials are not well-suited for use by those with impaired mobility (caused by conditions such as cerebral palsy and spinal muscular atrophy). Some with neuromuscular disabilities may rely on a plastic straw for its heat resistance and due to an inability to lift a cup. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) has required public places to provide plastic straws in order to ensure that those who need them will be able to access them. In particular, not all people with disabilities may be capable of washing reusable straws, straws made from inflexible materials are not capable of being repositioned, paper straws lose their firmness over time when soaked in a beverage, and straws made from hard materials such as metal can cause injuries. Advocates have preferred laws that still allow plastic straws to be offered upon request.The American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC)—a U.S. conservative lobbying group against "excessive" regulation—has promoted model state bills which contain carve-outs for fast food and fast casual restaurants from straw bans (in effect only restricting "sit-down" restaurants), and restrict municipalities from preempting the rule with a stricter regulation (with the draft law text stating that the latter leads to "confusing and varying regulations that could lead to unnecessary increased costs for retail and food establishments to comply with such regulations"). In 2019, the re-election campaign of U.S., Republican Party president Donald Trump marketed packages of reusable plastic straws branded with Trump's name and colored in the signature red associated with the "Make America Great Again" slogan, as a fundraising stunt. The campaign website promoted them as an alternative to "liberal paper straws".
Drinking straw	Fiction	In Miguel Cervantes's novel, Don Quixote (1605, 1615), the narrator tells of an innkeeper who, because Don Quixote refuses to remove his makeshift helmet, fashions a drinking straw by hollowing out a reed and pours wine through it, suggesting that Don Quixote was not accustomed to this method of drinking.Nicholson Baker's novel, The Mezzanine (1988), includes a detailed discussion of various types of drinking straws experienced by the narrator and their relative merits.
Phyllocladane	Phyllocladane	Phyllocladane is a tricyclic diterpane which is generally found in gymnosperm resins. It has a formula of C20H34 and a molecular weight of 274.4840. As a biomarker, it can be used to learn about the gymnosperm input into a hydrocarbon deposit, and about the age of the deposit in general. It indicates a terrogenous origin of the source rock. Diterpanes, such as Phyllocladane are found in source rocks as early as the middle and late Devonian periods, which indicates any rock containing them must be no more than approximately 360 Ma. Phyllocladane is commonly found in lignite, and like other resinites derived from gymnosperms, is naturally enriched in 13C. This enrichment is a result of the enzymatic pathways used to synthesize the compound.The compound can be identified by GC-MS. A peak of m/z 123 is indicative of tricyclic diterpenoids in general, and phyllocladane in particular is further characterized by strong peaks at m/z 231 and m/z 189. Presence of phyllocladane and its relative abundance to other tricyclic diterpanes can be used to differentiate between various oil fields.
Soosõrv opening rule	Soosõrv opening rule	Soosõrv opening rule is a renju opening rule. It was proposed by Estonian player Ants Soosõrv.
Soosõrv opening rule	Rule details	The sequence of moves implied by the rule follows. The first player puts one of the 26 openings. The other player has the right to swap. The white player puts the 4th move anywhere on board and declares whether there will be 1, 2, 3 or 4 fifth moves offered in the game. The other player has a right to swap. The black player puts as many 5th moves on the board as it was declared before. The fifth moves can not be symmetrical. The white player chooses one 5th from these offerings and plays the 6th move.
Soosõrv opening rule	Brief description	This rule gives an average variety of new playable variants in a good number of openings, especially white-oriented, but openings that are very strong for black (like 2D, 2I, 4I, 7I, 4D etc.) don't become playable. To solve this problem the Soosõrv-N advancement was proposed and certified by RIF.
Soosõrv opening rule	Advancement	Soosõrv-N opening rule is an advancement of Soosõrv opening rule. When the white player puts the 4th move and declares the number of fifth moves, the number has to be not less than 1 and not greater than N, instead of the default value 4 for N in the original Soosõrv opening rule.Depending on the value of N this rule gives an average to big variety of new playable variants in a growing number of openings. Soosõrv-5 is very close to Taraguchi concerning a number of playable positions. Soosõrv-8 makes all 26 renju openings available.
Soosõrv opening rule	Tournaments played by this rule	Soosõrv opening rule was an official opening rule for European Renju Championship in 2008 and a couple of minor international tournaments. Soosõrv-N opening rule was certified by Renju International Federation in 2011 after a proposal from Russian Renju Association. In 2015, Soosõrv-8 opening rule was decided to be the opening rule for the Renju World Championship since 2017.
Dental pharmacology	Dental pharmacology	Dental pharmacology is the study of drugs used to treat conditions of the oral cavity.Some of these drugs include antibiotics, analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs and anti-periodontitis agents.
Orbit (dynamics)	Orbit (dynamics)	In mathematics, specifically in the study of dynamical systems, an orbit is a collection of points related by the evolution function of the dynamical system. It can be understood as the subset of phase space covered by the trajectory of the dynamical system under a particular set of initial conditions, as the system evolves. As a phase space trajectory is uniquely determined for any given set of phase space coordinates, it is not possible for different orbits to intersect in phase space, therefore the set of all orbits of a dynamical system is a partition of the phase space. Understanding the properties of orbits by using topological methods is one of the objectives of the modern theory of dynamical systems. For discrete-time dynamical systems, the orbits are sequences; for real dynamical systems, the orbits are curves; and for holomorphic dynamical systems, the orbits are Riemann surfaces.
Orbit (dynamics)	Definition	Given a dynamical system (T, M, Φ) with T a group, M a set and Φ the evolution function Φ:U→M where U⊂T×M with Φ(0,x)=x we define := {t∈T:(t,x)∈U}, then the set := {Φ(t,x):t∈I(x)}⊂M is called orbit through x. An orbit which consists of a single point is called constant orbit. A non-constant orbit is called closed or periodic if there exists a t≠0 in I(x) such that Φ(t,x)=x Real dynamical system Given a real dynamical system (R, M, Φ), I(x) is an open interval in the real numbers, that is I(x)=(tx−,tx+) . For any x in M := {Φ(t,x):t∈(0,tx+)} is called positive semi-orbit through x and := {Φ(t,x):t∈(tx−,0)} is called negative semi-orbit through x.
Orbit (dynamics)	Definition	Discrete time dynamical system For discrete time dynamical system : forward orbit of x is a set : γx+=def{Φ(t,x):t≥0} backward orbit of x is a set : γx−=def{Φ(−t,x):t≥0} and orbit of x is a set : γx=defγx−∪γx+ where : Φ is an evolution function Φ:X→X which is here an iterated function, set X is dynamical space, t is number of iteration, which is natural number and t∈T x is initial state of system and x∈X Usually different notation is used : Φ(t,x) is written as Φt(x) xt=Φt(x) where x0 is x in the above notation.
Orbit (dynamics)	Definition	General dynamical system For a general dynamical system, especially in homogeneous dynamics, when one has a "nice" group G acting on a probability space X in a measure-preserving way, an orbit G.x⊂X will be called periodic (or equivalently, closed) if the stabilizer StabG(x) is a lattice inside G In addition, a related term is a bounded orbit, when the set G.x is pre-compact inside X The classification of orbits can lead to interesting questions with relations to other mathematical areas, for example the Oppenheim conjecture (proved by Margulis) and the Littlewood conjecture (partially proved by Lindenstrauss) are dealing with the question whether every bounded orbit of some natural action on the homogeneous space SL3(R)∖SL3(Z) is indeed periodic one, this observation is due to Raghunathan and in different language due to Cassels and Swinnerton-Dyer . Such questions are intimately related to deep measure-classification theorems.
Orbit (dynamics)	Definition	Notes It is often the case that the evolution function can be understood to compose the elements of a group, in which case the group-theoretic orbits of the group action are the same thing as the dynamical orbits.
Orbit (dynamics)	Examples	The orbit of an equilibrium point is a constant orbit.
Orbit (dynamics)	Stability of orbits	A basic classification of orbits is constant orbits or fixed points periodic orbits non-constant and non-periodic orbitsAn orbit can fail to be closed in two ways. It could be an asymptotically periodic orbit if it converges to a periodic orbit. Such orbits are not closed because they never truly repeat, but they become arbitrarily close to a repeating orbit. An orbit can also be chaotic. These orbits come arbitrarily close to the initial point, but fail to ever converge to a periodic orbit. They exhibit sensitive dependence on initial conditions, meaning that small differences in the initial value will cause large differences in future points of the orbit. There are other properties of orbits that allow for different classifications. An orbit can be hyperbolic if nearby points approach or diverge from the orbit exponentially fast.
Gnog	Gnog	GNOG is a 2017 puzzle video game, developed by KO_OP and published by Double Fine Presents for PlayStation 4, iOS, Microsoft Windows, and macOS.
Gnog	Development	GNOG was developed by Montreal-based studio KO_OP. Originally titled "GNAH", the title was changed due to a trademark dispute. The game was showcased at the 2014 E3 "Horizon conference". It was shown at E3 2015 with a playable demo.It was released on the PlayStation 4 on May 2, 2017, and on iOS on November 28 the same year. Later, on July 17, 2018, it became available via Steam on Windows and macOS as well.
Gnog	Reception	GNOG received generally positive reviews from video game critics.
Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment	Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment	The Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment was an experiment that established the autoimmune nature of the blood disorder immune thrombocytopenic purpura. It was performed in 1950 by the academic staff of Barnes-Jewish Hospital in St. Louis, Missouri.

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