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Petya and NotPetya	Reaction	Europol said it was aware of and urgently responding to reports of a cyber attack in member states of the European Union. The United States Department of Homeland Security was involved and coordinating with its international and local partners. In a letter to the NSA, Democratic Congressman Ted Lieu asked the agency to collaborate more actively with technology companies to notify them of software vulnerabilities and help them prevent future attacks based on malware created by the NSA.
Petya and NotPetya	Reaction	On 15 February 2018, the Trump administration blamed Russia for the attack and warned that there would be "international consequences". The United Kingdom and the Australian government also issued similar statements.In October 2020 the DOJ named further GRU officers in an indictment. At the same time, the UK government blamed GRU's Sandworm also for attacks on the 2020 Summer Games.
Petya and NotPetya	Other notable low-level malware	CIH (1998) Stuxnet (2010) WannaCry (2017)
Dell MediaDirect	Dell MediaDirect	Dell MediaDirect is a software application that is published by Dell, Inc. and is pre-installed on the computers they sell. It attempts to provide DVD and CD playback and recent editions include features such as an address book and calendar. It is a custom version of CyberLink PowerCinema developed and licensed to Dell by CyberLink. MediaDirect works in conjunction with the operating system and the Dell QuickSet application.
Dell MediaDirect	Design controversy	Earlier versions of MediaDirect attracted criticism since they adopt a distinctive combination of BIOS and hard drive layout to bypass the installed OS and boot directly to the media player application using a single button press. The chosen approach causes disk geometry to be deliberately misreported, can prevent the successful backup of hard disks and may trigger catastrophic data loss when MediaDirect is launched.
Dell MediaDirect	Design controversy	Unless the drive and all pre-existing operating systems are left as originally installed, MediaDirect can trigger a forced repartitioning of the drive whilst attempting to load. This intervention typically causes the loss of all operating systems and data on the device. Removing or disabling the application is challenging because Dell employs Host protected area technology to cloak the location of the partition containing the software, contributing to the misreported disk geometry.
Dell MediaDirect	Versions	Version 4 Version 4 deletes the dual-boot "fast start" capability and associated disk partition. It is now installed as a standard application. MediaDirect 4 includes optimisations for multi-media playback and is primarily used to support Blu-ray drives. Version 3 Version 3.5 is compatible with Microsoft Windows XP and Vista (it also works on Windows 7 and Windows 8.1). Each version has separate editions that can only be installed on certain computer models. This is achieved by using folder and file names in the installation software that matches the BIOS SystemID. XPS M1330 XPS M1530 MXG071 - XPSM1730Version 3.3 is compatible with Microsoft Windows XP and Vista (it also works on Windows 7 and Windows 8.1). Each version has separate editions that can only be installed on certain computer models. This is achieved by using folder and file names in the installation software that matches the BIOS SystemID. MXC061 - Inspiron 640M MM061 - Inspiron 6400/E1505 MP061 - Inspiron 9400/E1705 MXC062 - XPS M1210 MXG061 - XPS M1710 MXP061 - XPS M2010Version 3 has a dual-boot option where the software can utilize a minimal load of the operating system which speeds boot time and simplifies operation. Version 1.1 Released Sep. 1, 2005, is compatible with Microsoft Windows XP and the following Dell systems: Inspiron 6000 XPS/Inspiron XPS Gen 2 Inspiron 9300 XPS/Inspiron M170 Inspiron 1720
Dell MediaDirect	More information	Understanding the Dell Media Direct Partition Dell Media Direct Destroys Partitions?, Dell Direct Media Nuked my System Dell MediaDirect 4.0 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) How to Reinstall MediaDirect 3.0 or 3.3 How to Install Dell MediaDirect 2.0 Download / How to Install MediaDirect 1.1 CyberLink PowerCinema Linux
Mercury Meltdown	Mercury Meltdown	Mercury Meltdown is a puzzle-platform game for the PlayStation Portable (PSP). It is the sequel to Archer Maclean's Mercury. Like the first game, the goal is to tilt the stage in order to navigate one or more blobs of mercury to the destination. In contrast to the original, Ignition Banbury had more time and experience developing the game and listened to player feedback, allowing the game to be easier and provide players with more freedom to choose levels. The game has new hazards, enemies, and minigames.
Mercury Meltdown	Mercury Meltdown	The game received a port to the PlayStation 2 (PS2) titled Mercury Meltdown Remix released a month after the original, with improved graphics, new levels and optimized for the PS2's controller. A second port for the Wii titled Mercury Meltdown Revolution was released in 2007 and also changing the levels, improving the graphics further from the Remix version and making use of Wii's motion controls.
Mercury Meltdown	Mercury Meltdown	All versions of Mercury Meltdown were well-received by critics. The game was praised for being an overall improvement from the original in terms of difficulty and art style. Mercury Meltdown Remix received mixed reviews in regards to the PS2 controls with some criticism of removing multiplayer. Mercury Meltdown Revolution also criticized for lack of multiplayer but was praised for its motion controls.
Mercury Meltdown	Gameplay	Similar to its predecessor, Mercury Meltdown is a puzzle-platform game. The goal is to navigate one or more blobs of mercury to one or more finish posts in the level by tilting the stage using the analog stick of the PSP. Players automatically lose the stage if all of the mercury is from the stage is lost, or no longer meeting the requirements to complete the level. The mercury can be split into multiple blobs by using sharp objects or obstacles. The color of the mercury can be changed using a Paintshop or merging with other blobs of different colors. Color mixing is based on the RGB color model. The game is made up of worlds referred to as "Laboratories" that are split into 16 stages represented as test-tubes. Stages have achievements for completing with 100% remaining mercury, obtaining the top score, and obtaining all bonus stars. An additional achievement is granted for obtaining all three in a single stage and can all be obtained individually via multiple playthroughs. Laboratories are unlocked after accumulating enough mercury after each stage completion. If players do exceptionally well in one particular laboratory, a secret 17th stage in that laboratory is unlocked.Mercury Meltdown introduces the Playground; a circular arena, with most of the items found in stages to play and test with. Another new mechanic is the ability to change the mercury into 3 new states: Cold, Hot, and Solid. The Hot state makes the mercury an easily splittable liquid that travels quickly. The Cold state makes the mercury a semi-solid blob that moves slowly and is harder to split. The Solid state turns the mercury into a solid ball that can't be split, allowing it to traverse over rails. Multiplayer is accessible between two PSPs via Ad-Hoc wireless mode or online network infrastructure mode. In multiplayer mode, players can participate in battle mode in which players can race each other from previously unlocked single player levels. Bonus stars are replaced with battle pick-ups that can assist players or hinder their opponent.In addition to the main game, Mercury Meltdown introduces five unlockable party games: Rodeo, Race, Metrix, Shove, and Paint. In Rodeo, players tilt the stage to prevent the mercury from falling off. In Race, players race mercury around a track. Metrix is a match 3 puzzle minigame requiring one to make a group of three or more colored blobs that fits inside a pre-defined grid. In Shove, players aim the mercury for the center spot of a target, avoiding hazards; similar to curling. In Paint, players move the mercury to paint the tray in their respected colors before the opponent does. These can be unlocked by collecting the bonus stars in the main game. All the party games can be played in single-player and multiplayer.
Mercury Meltdown	Development and release	Mercury Meltdown was developed by Ignition Banbury (formerly Awesome Studios). Early in production stages Archer Maclean who originally coined the concept of the first game, had resigned from Ignition Banbury. His resignation was early enough in development to not have hindered the game's production. The first game, Mercury, was released in a tight production schedule to match the launch of the PlayStation Portable, resulting in a lack of refinements. Mercury Meltdown was closer to what the development team originally wanted in the first game due to them becoming more experienced with PSP development. Ignition Banbury chose to use a cel-shaded style with the purpose of differentiating it from its predecessor and to appeal to a wider audience. One of the criticism of the original game that the developers made note of was the difficulty. Ignition Banbury focused on making it easier and less linear. It was intended to be released in Europe by September 2006 with plans of having downloadable content (DLC), however the game was delayed and no DLC was released. Mercury Meltdown was released in North America on October 3, 2006 and in Europe on October 6, 2006. A limited edition bundle was released with its predecessor, Archer Maclean's Mercury on October 19, 2010. An iOS version was announced in E3 2011, however no new information had since been released.A month prior to the release of the PSP version, Ignition Banbury announced a revised version for the PlayStation 2 titled Mercury Meltdown Remix. This version makes use of the DualShock controller's second analog stick and rumble feature as opposed to the PSP's singular analog. It added new levels, making the total over 200 levels. Mercury Meltdown Remix was released in Europe on November 24, 2006, and in North America on December 4, 2006.The PS2 version was revised once more and ported onto the Wii under the title, Mercury Meltdown Revolution. Ignition Banbury began development when Nintendo announced the Wii under the code name: Revolution and were inspired by the Wii's motion controls. Ignition Banbury then pitched the concept to Nintendo in E3 2006, which resulted in it being approved by Nintendo. Ignition Banbury produced the game using an unfinished Gamecube engine and the tilt sensor mechanics that were intended to be used for the original Mercury game. Ignition Banbury further improved graphics from Mercury Meltdown Remix, added in new levels, and refined the difficulty curve. In addition to utilizing the Wii Remote's tilt control, Ignition Banbury also implemented the option to play Revolution with a Classic Controller and also attempted to add GameCube controller support, but this feature did not make the final release. Mercury Meltdown Revolution was released in Europe on June 8, 2007, and in North America on October 17, 2007.
Mercury Meltdown	Reception	All versions of Mercury Meltdown have been well received by critics. The PSP, PS2, and Wii versions hold an aggregated score of 78, 73, and 77 out of 100 respectively. Both the PSP and Wii version were featured in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. In regards to the original PSP version, critics gave praise on the improvements it made from the difficult and new visual style. Eurogamer praised the difficulty curves being more consistent and the variety of the level designs IGN complimented the new cel-shaded design and bright colors as opposed from the cold-steel design of its predecessor, stating that it brightens the game and makes it more fun. IGN further elaborated that the new cel-shaded design of the mercury blob making it easier to define the shape of the blob and when it dissipates. GameSpot also praised the stages being more pleasing to the eye due to the bright and colorful. PALGN noted that the environments didn't feel as epic, however, did feel more lively. Pocket Gamer stated it was an improvement from its predecessor in nearly every way.Mercury Meltdown Remix received mixed reviews from critics. Both GameZone and PALGN complimented the camera controls for improving the game. GameSpot criticized the new controls for controlling the camera, stating the sensitivity was too high and allowing more mistakes to be made. Another criticism was the lack of multiplayer option, causing the Party games to become dull without it. IGN was also critical of it, feeling that the PlayStation 2 controller did not feel right.Mercury Meltdown Revolution received more positive reception, in particular for the motion controls. PALGN complimented how well the motion controls work. Eurogamer felt that the controls were more well-realized than other Wii games at the time and were accessible to all players. IGN UK gave it an editor's choice award, although they said that the sound could be better and a lack of multiplayer is disappointing, especially on the Wii. GamePro stated the motion controls were fresh and a lot of fun, however also criticized the lack of multiplayer option. Play was very critical of the Wii version due to similar titles in the Wii's library and the art style not being as appealing as other titles such as Kororinpa.
Tablet-K	Tablet-K	Tablet-K is a kosher certification agency that was under the leadership of Rabbi Rafael Saffra until his death in 2009.
Tablet-K	Supervision and certification	Tablet-K products are commonly available at Costco, often for dairy and fish products. Many cheeses produced by Cabot Creamery have a Tablet-K hechsher. In 2006, Cabot Creamery expanded its line of kosher products, with some cheeses receiving a Tablet-K certification.The Tablet-K hechsher is generally not regarded as reliable by Orthodox Jews, with cheeses and meats considered especially problematic, but some Modern Orthodox Jews find them to be acceptable.
Horizontal integration	Horizontal integration	Horizontal integration is the process of a company increasing production of goods or services at the same level of the value chain, in the same industry. A company may do this via internal expansion, acquisition or merger.The process can lead to monopoly if a company captures the vast majority of the market for that product or service.Other benefits include, increasing economies of scale, expanding an existing market or improving product differentiation. Horizontal integration contrasts with vertical integration, where companies integrate multiple stages of production of a small number of production units.
Horizontal integration	Horizontal alliance	Horizontal integration is related to horizontal alliance (also known as horizontal cooperation). However, in the case of a horizontal alliance, the partnering companies set up a contract, but remain independent. For example, Raue & Wieland (2015) describe the example of legally independent logistics service providers who cooperate. Such an alliance relates to competition.
Horizontal integration	Aspects	Benefits of horizontal integration to both the firm and society may include economies of scale and economies of scope. For the firm, horizontal integration may provide a strengthened presence in the reference market. This means that with the merger, two firms would then be able to produce more revenue than one firm alone. It may also allow the horizontally integrated firm to engage in monopoly pricing, which is disadvantageous to society as a whole and which may cause regulators to ban or constrain horizontal integration. Strategies around horizontal mergers often relate to revenue production, reducing market entrants or expanding into new markets. The three forms of horizontal integration are mergers, acquisitions and internal expansion. Mergers: Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) refer to the consolidation of companies or assets through various financial transactions, such as mergers, acquisitions, and consolidations. M&A activities can be an effective way for companies to expand their operations, diversify their product or service offerings, and increase their market share. These activities can also lead to cost savings, increased efficiencies, and access to new technologies or markets.Mergers involve the combination of two or more companies to form a new entity. This can occur through a stock-for-stock transaction, where shareholders of both companies receive shares in the new entity based on a predetermined exchange ratio. Alternatively, a cash merger can occur, where one company purchases another using cash or other financial instruments.Acquisitions: Acquisitions, on the other hand, involve the purchase of one company by another. This can occur through a friendly acquisition, where the target company agrees to the acquisition and its shareholders receive compensation for their shares. Alternatively, a hostile takeover can occur, where the acquiring company purchases a controlling stake in the target company without its approval.Consolidations refer to the combination of two or more companies to form a single entity without the creation of a new entity. This can occur through the merger of equals, where two companies of equal size and strength combine forces, or through the acquisition of a smaller company by a larger one.M&A activities can have a significant impact on various stakeholders, including shareholders, employees, customers, and suppliers. Shareholders can benefit from increased stock prices and dividends, while employees may face job losses or changes to their employment terms. Customers and suppliers may also be affected by changes to product or service offerings and supplier relationships.Regulatory bodies play an important role in overseeing M&A activities to ensure they do not violate antitrust laws and do not harm competition in the marketplace. The approval of mergers and acquisitions may also require approval from government agencies or industry regulators.
Horizontal integration	Aspects	Overall, mergers and acquisitions can be an effective strategy for companies to achieve growth and gain a competitive advantage. However, careful consideration of the potential benefits and drawbacks, as well as regulatory compliance, is essential to ensure a successful outcome for all stakeholders involved.Internal Expansion: In addition to mergers and acquisitions, companies can also pursue internal expansion through horizontal integration. This involves expanding their operations and product or service offerings within their existing industry by acquiring or developing new capabilities.
Horizontal integration	Aspects	Horizontal integration can take various forms, including expanding through new product development, expanding geographically, or acquiring competitors or suppliers. This strategy can enable companies to increase their market share and achieve economies of scale by leveraging existing resources and capabilities.Internal expansion through horizontal integration can also involve the integration of different business functions, such as production, marketing, and sales, to streamline operations and increase efficiency. This can result in cost savings and improved profitability.However, there are potential drawbacks to internal expansion through horizontal integration. It can be costly and time-consuming to develop new capabilities or expand into new markets, and there is a risk that these efforts may not be successful. Additionally, companies may face increased competition and regulatory scrutiny as they expand their operations.Overall, internal expansion through horizontal integration can be a viable strategy for companies looking to achieve growth and gain a competitive advantage. However, it requires careful planning, execution, and management to ensure success and mitigate potential risks. Companies should also consider the potential benefits and drawbacks of this strategy compared to other growth strategies, such as mergers and acquisitions.
Horizontal integration	Media terms	Media critics, such as Robert W. McChesney, have noted that the current trend within the entertainment industry has been toward the increased concentration of media ownership into the hands of a smaller number of transmedia and transnational conglomerates. Media is seen to amass in center where wealthy individuals have the ability to purchase such ventures (e.g., Rupert Murdoch).That emerged are new strategies for content development and distribution designed to increase the "synergy" between the different divisions of the same company. Studios seek content that can move fluidly across media channels.
Horizontal integration	Examples	An example of horizontal integration in the food industry was the Heinz and Kraft Foods merger. On 25 March 2015, Heinz and Kraft merged into one company, the deal valued at $46 billion. Both produce processed food for the consumer market. On 9 December 2013, Sysco agreed to acquire US Foods but on 24 June 2015, the federal judge ruled against the deal saying that such merger would control 75% of the U.S. foodservice industry and that will stifle competition. It would have been horizontal integration, as both distribute food to restaurants, healthcare, and educational facilities.
Horizontal integration	Examples	On 16 November 2015, Marriott International announced that it would acquire Starwood for $13.6 billion, creating the world's largest hotel chain. The merger was finalized on 23 September 2016.The AB-Inbev acquisition of SAB Miller for $107 Billion, which completed in 2016, is one of the biggest deals of all time.On 1 November 2017, Centurylink bought Level 3 Communications for $34 billion, and incorporated Level 3 as part of Centurylink.
Horizontal integration	Examples	On 14 December 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced a $52.4 billion bid in stock to acquire 21st Century Fox along with its bulk of assets, which included the famed 20th Century Fox film studio and other assets such as FX Networks and 30% stake in Hulu. Both companies produced and distributed films and television series, as well as each owning a 30% stake in Hulu.
Physical change	Physical change	Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate.
Physical change	Physical change	A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural change, shape, size, color, volume and density.
Physical change	Physical change	An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge. Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Physical change	Examples	Heating and cooling Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation. Magnetism Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reversible and does not affect the chemical composition. Crystalisation Many elements and compounds form crystals. Some such as carbon can form several different forms including diamond, graphite, graphene and fullerenes including buckminsterfullerene.
Physical change	Examples	Crystals in metals have a major effect of the physical properties of the metal including strength and ductility. Crystal type, shape and size can be altered by physical hammering, rolling and by heat Mixtures Mixtures of substances that are not soluble are usually readily separated by physical sieving or settlement. However mixtures can have different properties from the individual components. One familiar example is the mixture of fine sand with water used to make sandcastles. Neither the sand on its own nor the water on its own will make a sand-castle but by using physical properties of surface tension, the mixture behaves in a different way.
Physical change	Examples	Solutions Most solutions of salts and some compounds such as sugars can be separated by evaporation. Others such as mixtures or volatile liquids such as low molecular weight alcohols, can be separated by fractional distillation. Alloys The mixing of different metal elements is known as alloying. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Separating individual metals from an alloy can be difficult and may require chemical processing – making an alloy is an example of a physical change that cannot readily be undone by physical means. Alloys where mercury is one of the metals can be separated physically by melting the alloy and boiling the mercury off as a vapour.
Stoop (architecture)	Stoop (architecture)	In American English, a stoop is a small staircase ending in a platform and leading to the entrance of an apartment building or other building.
Stoop (architecture)	Etymology	Originally brought to the Hudson Valley of New York by settlers from the Netherlands, the word "stoop" is part of the Dutch vocabulary that has survived there from colonial times until the present. Stoop, "a small porch", comes from Dutch stoep (meaning: step/sidewalk, pronounced the same as English "stoop"); the word is now in general use in the Northeastern United States and is probably spreading.
Stoop (architecture)	History	New York stoops may have been a simple carry-over from the Dutch practice of constructing elevated buildings.
Stoop (architecture)	Stoops as a social device	Traditionally, in North American cities, the stoop served an important function as a spot for brief, incidental social encounters. Homemakers, children, and other household members would sit on the stoop outside their home to relax, and greet neighbors passing by. Similarly, while on an errand, one would stop and converse with neighbors sitting on their stoops. Within an urban community, stoop conversations helped to disseminate gossip and reaffirm casual relationships. Similarly, it was the place that children would congregate to play street games such as stoop ball. Urbanites lacking yards often hold stoop sales instead of yard sales.
Stoop (architecture)	Stoops as a social device	In her pivotal book The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane Jacobs includes the stoop as part of her model of the self-regulating urban street. By providing a constant human presence watching the street, institutions such as stoops prevent street crime, without intervention from authority figures. In addition, they motivate better street maintenance and beautification, by giving it social as well as utilitarian value.
Stoop (architecture)	Literature	Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York: Random House, 1961 Mario Maffi, New York City: An Outsider's Inside View, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2004
Ice pop	Ice pop	An ice pop is a liquid-based frozen snack on a stick. Unlike ice cream or sorbet, which are whipped while freezing to prevent ice crystal formation, an ice pop is "quiescently" frozen—frozen while at rest—and becomes a solid block of ice. The stick is used as a handle to hold it. Without a stick, the frozen product would be a freezie.
Ice pop	Ice pop	An ice pop is also referred to as a popsicle in Canada and the United States, paleta in Mexico, the Southwestern United States and parts of Latin America, ice lolly in the United Kingdom (the term ice pop refers to a freezie in the United Kingdom), Ireland and the Commonwealth, lolly ice by most people in Liverpool and some people in Ireland, ice lol as a colloquial form in areas where people say ice lolly, ice drop in the Philippines, ice gola in India, ice candy in the Philippines, India and Japan, ai tim tang or ice cream tang in Thailand (though both words are also colloquially used to refer to ice cream bar), and kisko in the Caribbean. The term icy pole is often used in Australia, but is a brand name for a specific type, so ice block is also used.
Ice pop	History	As far back as 1872, two men, doing business as Ross and Robbins, sold a frozen-fruit confection on a stick, which they called the Hokey-Pokey.Francis William "Frank" Epperson of San Francisco, California, popularized ice pops after patenting the concept of "frozen ice on a stick" in 1923.Epperson claimed to have first created an ice pop in 1905, at the age of 11, when he accidentally left a glass of powdered lemonade soda and water with a mixing stick in it on his porch during a cold night, a story still printed on the back of Popsicle treat boxes.
Ice pop	History	Epperson lived in Oakland and worked as a lemonade salesman.In 1922, Epperson, a realtor with Realty Syndicate Company in Oakland, introduced the Popsicle at a fireman's ball. The product got traction quickly; in 1923, at the age of 29, Epperson received a patent for his "Epsicle" ice pop, and by 1924, had patented all handled, frozen confections or ice lollipops. He officially debuted the Epsicle in seven fruit flavors at Neptune Beach amusement park, marketed as a "frozen lollipop," or a "drink on a stick."A couple of years later, Epperson sold the rights to the invention and the Popsicle brand to the Joe Lowe Company in New York City.
Ice pop	Terminology	In the United States and Canada frozen ice on a stick is generically referred to as a popsicle due to the early popularity of the Popsicle brand, and the word has become a genericized trademark to mean any ice pop, regardless of brand or format. The word is a portmanteau of pop and icicle; the word is genericized to such an extent that there are decades-old derived slang meanings such as "popsicle stand". The term ice pop is also used in the United States.In Ireland the term ice pop is predominantly used. In the United Kingdom the term ice lolly is used to refer to ice pop while the term ice pop refers to a freezie (flavoured ice inside a tube). The term chihiro is used as a slang term in the Cayman Islands, partially derived from chill. Different parts of Australia use either ice block or icy pole (which is a brand name), and New Zealand uses ice block. In the Philippines the term ice drop is used with coconut flavor ice pops being called ice bukos. India uses the terms ice gola and ice candy. In Japan the term ice candy is used.
Ice pop	Terminology	Paleta After a trip to the United States in the early 1940s Ignacio Alcázar returned to his home city of Tocumbo, Michoacán, México, bringing the idea to manufacture ice pops or paletas (little sticks) using locally available fresh fruit. He and some family members expanded by opening a shop in Mexico City which became very popular and he began to franchise Paletería La Michoacana to friends and family from his town. The popularity of paletas and association with Tocumbo has increased to the status of a national Mexican food.Paleta flavors can be divided into two basic categories: milk-based or water-based. The composition of each flavor may vary, but the base is most often fruit. Paleterias usually have dozens of flavors of paleta including local flavors like horchata, tamarind, mamey and nanche along with other flavors like strawberry, lime, chocolate and mango. Distinctly Mexican ingredients like chili pepper, chamoy, and vanilla are often present in these paletas. Paleterias adapt their flavors to the tastes of the community and local availability of ingredients.
Ice pop	Terminology	Paletero A paletero (roughly equivalent to the English "ice cream man"), is a street seller of paletas and other frozen treats, usually from a pushcart labeled with the name of the enterprise that made the paletas (paletería). Today, many paleteros are now commonly found in American cities with significant Mexican populations. Vending requirements for paleteros vary widely by city.
Ice pop	Homemade ice pops	An alternative to the store-bought ice pops is making them at home using fruit juice, drinks, or any freezable beverage. A classic method involves using ice cube trays and toothpicks, although various ice pop freezer molds are also available. In the UK, there is an increasing number of people making alcoholic ice lollies at home by putting alcoholic drinks inside the mould. Buckfast, Kopparberg and Strongbow Dark Fruit ciders are popular choices used.
Ice pop	Innovations in ice pop creation	In 2018, the UK food-focused design firm called Bompas & Parr announced that they had created the world's first 'non-melting' ice pop. The ice pop does melt but not as fast as other ice pops. This is due to the strands of fruit fibers inside the ice pops which makes them thicker than regular ice pops. The thicker the ice pop the slower it melts. This design was inspired by the material called pykrete, which was invented by Geoffrey Pyke.
Ice pop	World record ice pop	On June 22, 2005, Snapple tried to beat the existing Guinness World Records entry of a 1997 Dutch 21-foot (6.4 m) ice pop by attempting to erect a 25-foot (7.6 m) ice pop in New York City. The 17.5 short tons (15.9 t) of frozen juice that had been brought from Edison, New Jersey, in a freezer truck melted faster than expected, dashing hopes of a new record. Spectators fled to higher ground as firefighters hosed away the melted juice.
Path-ordering	Path-ordering	In theoretical physics, path-ordering is the procedure (or a meta-operator P ) that orders a product of operators according to the value of a chosen parameter: P{O1(σ1)O2(σ2)⋯ON(σN)}≡Op1(σp1)Op2(σp2)⋯OpN(σpN). Here p is a permutation that orders the parameters by value: p:{1,2,…,N}→{1,2,…,N} σp1≤σp2≤⋯≤σpN. For example: P{O1(4)O2(2)O3(3)O4(1)}=O4(1)O2(2)O3(3)O1(4).
Path-ordering	Examples	If an operator is not simply expressed as a product, but as a function of another operator, we must first perform a Taylor expansion of this function. This is the case of the Wilson loop, which is defined as a path-ordered exponential to guarantee that the Wilson loop encodes the holonomy of the gauge connection. The parameter σ that determines the ordering is a parameter describing the contour, and because the contour is closed, the Wilson loop must be defined as a trace in order to be gauge-invariant.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	In quantum field theory it is useful to take the time-ordered product of operators. This operation is denoted by T . (Although T is often called the "time-ordering operator", strictly speaking it is neither an operator on states nor a superoperator on operators.) For two operators A(x) and B(y) that depend on spacetime locations x and y we define: := if if τx<τy.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	Here τx and τy denote the invariant scalar time-coordinates of the points x and y.Explicitly we have := θ(τx−τy)A(x)B(y)±θ(τy−τx)B(y)A(x), where θ denotes the Heaviside step function and the ± depends on if the operators are bosonic or fermionic in nature. If bosonic, then the + sign is always chosen, if fermionic then the sign will depend on the number of operator interchanges necessary to achieve the proper time ordering. Note that the statistical factors do not enter here.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	Since the operators depend on their location in spacetime (i.e. not just time) this time-ordering operation is only coordinate independent if operators at spacelike separated points commute. This is why it is necessary to use τ rather than t0 , since t0 usually indicates the coordinate dependent time-like index of the spacetime point. Note that the time-ordering is usually written with the time argument increasing from right to left.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	In general, for the product of n field operators A1(t1), …, An(tn) the time-ordered product of operators are defined as follows: T{A1(t1)A2(t2)⋯An(tn)}=∑pθ(tp1>tp2>⋯>tpn)ε(p)Ap1(tp1)Ap2(tp2)⋯Apn(tpn)=∑p(∏j=1n−1θ(tpj−tpj+1))ε(p)Ap1(tp1)Ap2(tp2)⋯Apn(tpn) where the sum runs all over p's and over the symmetric group of n degree permutations and for bosonic operators, sign of the permutation for fermionic operators.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	The S-matrix in quantum field theory is an example of a time-ordered product. The S-matrix, transforming the state at t = −∞ to a state at t = +∞, can also be thought of as a kind of "holonomy", analogous to the Wilson loop. We obtain a time-ordered expression because of the following reason: We start with this simple formula for the exponential exp lim N→∞(1+hN)N.
Path-ordering	Time ordering	Now consider the discretized evolution operator S=⋯(1+h+3)(1+h+2)(1+h+1)(1+h0)(1+h−1)(1+h−2)⋯ where 1+hj is the evolution operator over an infinitesimal time interval [jε,(j+1)ε] . The higher order terms can be neglected in the limit ε→0 . The operator hj is defined by hj=1iℏ∫jε(j+1)εdt∫d3xH(x→,t). Note that the evolution operators over the "past" time intervals appears on the right side of the product. We see that the formula is analogous to the identity above satisfied by the exponential, and we may write exp exp ⁡(∫dtd3xH(x→,t)iℏ). The only subtlety we had to include was the time-ordering operator T because the factors in the product defining S above were time-ordered, too (and operators do not commute in general) and the operator T ensures that this ordering will be preserved.
COinS	COinS	ContextObjects in Spans (COinS) is a method to embed bibliographic metadata in the HTML code of web pages. This allows bibliographic software to publish machine-readable bibliographic items and client reference management software to retrieve bibliographic metadata. The metadata can also be sent to an OpenURL resolver. This allows, for instance, searching for a copy of a book at a specific library.
COinS	History	In the late 1990s OpenURL was created at Ghent University as a framework to provide context-sensitive links. The OpenURL link server implementation called SFX was sold to Ex Libris Group which marketed it to libraries, shaping the idea of a "link resolver". The OpenURL framework was later standardized as ANSI/NISO Z39.88 in 2004 (revised 2010). A core part of OpenURL was the concept of "ContextObjects" as metadata to describe referenced resources.
COinS	History	In late 2004, Richard Cameron, the creator of CiteULike, drew attention to the need for a standard way of embedding metadata in HTML pages. In January 2005 Daniel Chudnov suggested the use of OpenURL. Embedding OpenURL ContextObjects in HTML had been proposed before by Herbert Van de Sompel and Oren Beit-Arie and a working paper by Chudnov and Jeremy Frumkin. Discussion of the latter on the GPS-PCS mailing list resulted in a draft specification for embedding OpenURLs in HTML, which later became COinS. A ContextObject is embedded in an HTML span element.
COinS	History	The adoption of COinS was pushed by various publications and implementations. The specification was OCOinS.info, which includes specific guides to implement COinS for journal articles and books.
COinS	Summary of the data model	From OpenURL 1.0 COinS borrows one of its serialization formats ("KEV") and some ContextObject metadata formats included in OpenURL implementation guidelines. The ContextObject implementation guidelines of COinS include four publication types (article with several subtypes, book, patent, and generic) and a couple of simple fields. However, the guidelines are not required part of COinS, so the standard does not provide a strict metadata model like Dublin Core or the Bibliographic Ontology.
COinS	Use in websites	The following websites make use of COinS: Citebase CiteULike Copac HubMed Mendeley Wikipedia Wikivoyage (German branch) WorldCat
COinS	Server-side applications	Some server-side applications embed COinS, including refbase.
COinS	Client tools	Client tools which can make use of COinS include: BibDesk Bookends (Mac) Citavi LibX Mendeley ResearchGate Sente (Mac) Zotero
Hilbert curve scheduling	Hilbert curve scheduling	In parallel processing, the Hilbert curve scheduling method turns a multidimensional task allocation problem into a one-dimensional space filling problem using Hilbert curves, assigning related tasks to locations with higher levels of proximity. Other space filling curves may also be used in various computing applications for similar purposes.The SLURM job scheduler which is used on a number of supercomputers uses a best fit algorithm based on Hilbert curve scheduling in order to optimize locality of task assignments.
Great hexacronic icositetrahedron	Great hexacronic icositetrahedron	In geometry, the great hexacronic icositetrahedron is the dual of the great cubicuboctahedron. Its faces are kites. Part of each kite lies inside the solid, hence is invisible in solid models.
Great hexacronic icositetrahedron	Proportions	The kites have two angles of arccos 117.200 570 380 16 ∘ , one of arccos 94.199 144 429 76 ∘ and one of arccos 31.399 714 809 92 ∘ . The dihedral angle equals arccos 17 94.531 580 798 20 ∘ . The ratio between the lengths of the long and short edges is 2.70710678118655
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony chemistry is the chemistry of compounds containing a carbon to antimony (Sb) chemical bond. Relevant oxidation states are Sb(V) and Sb(III). The toxicity of antimony limits practical application in organic chemistry.
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony(V) chemistry	Antimony compounds of the type R5Sb (stiboranes) can be synthesised from trivalent Sb precursors: Ph3Sb + Cl2 → Ph3SbCl2 Ph3SbCl2 + 2 PhLi → Ph5SbAsymmetric compounds can also be obtained through the stibonium ion: R5Sb + X2 → [R4Sb]+[X] [R4Sb]+[X] + R'MgX → R4R'SbJust as in the related organobismuth compounds (same group 15), organoantimony(V) compounds form onium compounds and ate complexes.
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony(V) chemistry	Pentaphenylantimony decomposes at 200 °C to triphenylstibine and biphenyl. It forms a trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry. In the related Me5Sb all methyl protons are equivalent at -100 °C in proton NMR. Compounds of the type R4SbX tend to form dimers.
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony(III) chemistry	Compounds of the type R3Sb (stibines) can be accessed by reaction of antimony trichloride with organolithium or Grignard reagents. SbCl3 + 3 RLi (or RMgCl) → R3SbTypical reactions are: R3Sb + Br2 → R3SbBr2 R3Sb + O2 → R3SbO R3Sb + Na + NH3 → R2SbNa R3Sb + B2H6 → R3Sb·BH3Stibanes are weak Lewis acids and therefore ate complexes are not encountered. On the other hand, they have good donor properties and are therefore widely used in coordination chemistry. R3Sb compounds are more air-sensitive than the R5Sb counterparts.
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony(III) chemistry	Antimony Metallocenes are known as well: 14SbI3 + 3 (CpAl)4 → [2CpSb]+[AlI4]− + 8Sb + 6 AlI3The Cp-Sb-Cp angle is 154°. The cyclic compound stibole, a structural analog of pyrrole, has not been isolated, but substituted derivatives known as stiboles are known.
Organoantimony chemistry	Organoantimony(II) chemistry	Distibines have a Sb-Sb single bond and are of some interest as thermochromic materials. For example, tetramethyldistibine is colorless as a gas, yellow as a liquid, red as solid just below the melting point of 18.5 °C and again yellow well below the melting point.
JWH-018	JWH-018	JWH-018 (1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole, NA-PIMO or AM-678) is an analgesic chemical from the naphthoylindole family that acts as a full agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with some selectivity for CB2. It produces effects in animals similar to those of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a cannabinoid naturally present in cannabis, leading to its use in synthetic cannabis products that in some countries are sold legally as "incense blends".As a full agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, this chemical compound is classified as an analgesic medication. The analgesic effects of cannabinoid ligands, mediated by CB1 receptors are well established in treatment of neuropathic pain, as well as cancer pain and arthritis.These compounds work by mimicking the body's naturally-produced endocannabinoid hormones such as 2-AG and anandamide (AEA), which are biologically active and can exacerbate or inhibit nerve signaling. As the cause is poorly understood in chronic pain states, more research and development must be done before the therapeutic potential of this class of biologic compounds can be realized.
JWH-018	History	John W. Huffman, an organic chemist at Clemson University, synthesized a variety of chemical compounds that affect the endocannabinoid system. JWH-018 is one of these compounds, with studies showing an affinity for the cannabinoid (CB1) receptor five times greater than that of THC. Cannabinoid receptors are found in mammalian brain and spleen tissue; however, the structural details of the active sites are currently unknown.On December 15, 2008, it was reported by German pharmaceutical companies that JWH-018 was found as one of the active components in at least three versions of the grey market drug Spice, which has been sold as an incense in a number of countries around the world since 2002. An analysis of samples acquired four weeks after the German prohibition of JWH-018 took place found that the manufacturers had shortened the alkyl chain by one carbon to circumvent the ban.
JWH-018	Pharmacology	JWH-018 is a full agonist of both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with a reported binding affinity of 9.00 ± 5.00 nM at CB1 and 2.94 ± 2.65 nM at CB2. JWH-018 has an EC50 of 102 nM for human CB1 receptors, and 133 nM for human CB2 receptors. JWH-018 produces bradycardia and hypothermia in rats at doses of 0.3–3 mg/kg, suggesting potent cannabinoid-like activity.
JWH-018	Pharmacology	Pharmacokinetics Metabolism of JWH-018 was assessed using Wistar rats which had been administered an ethanolic extract containing JWH-018. Urine was collected for 24 hours, followed by extraction of JWH-018 metabolites using both liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction. GC-MS was utilized to separate and identify the extracted compounds. JWH-018 and its N-dealkylated metabolite were only detected in small amounts, with hydroxylated N-dealkylated metabolites comprising the primary signal. The observed mass shift indicates that it is likely that hydroxylation occurs in both the naphthalene and indole portions of the molecule. Human metabolites were similar although most metabolism took place on the indole ring and pentyl side chain, and the hydroxylated metabolites were extensively conjugated with glucuronide.
JWH-018	Usage	At least one case of JWH-018 dependence has been reported by the media. The user consumed JWH-018 daily for eight months. Withdrawal symptoms were more severe than those experienced as a result of cannabis dependence. JWH-018 has been shown to cause profound changes in CB1 receptor density following administration, causing desensitization to its effects more rapidly than related cannabinoids.On October 15, 2011, Anderson County coroner Greg Shore attributed the death of a South Carolina college basketball player to "drug toxicity and organ failure" caused by JWH-018. A November 2011 email concerning the case was released in December 2011 under the Freedom of Information Act after multiple requests to see the information had been denied.Compared to THC, which is a partial agonist at CB1 receptors, JWH-018, and many synthetic cannabinoids, are full agonists. THC has been shown to inhibit GABA receptor neurotransmission in the brain via several pathways. JWH-018 may cause intense anxiety, agitation, and, in rare cases (generally with non-regular JWH users), has been assumed to have been the cause of seizures and convulsions by inhibiting GABA neurotransmission more effectively than THC. Cannabinoid receptor full agonists may present serious dangers to the user when used to excess.Various physical and psychological adverse effects have been reported from JWH-018 use. One study reported psychotic relapses and anxiety symptoms in well-treated patients with mental illness following JWH-018 inhalation. Due to concerns about the potential of JWH-018 and other synthetic cannabinoids to cause psychosis in vulnerable individuals, it has been recommended that people with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of psychosis) not use these substances.
JWH-018	Detection in biological fluids	JWH-018 usage is readily detected in urine using "spice" screening immunoassays from several manufacturers focused on both the parent drug and its omega-hydroxy and carboxyl metabolites. JWH-018 will not be detected by older methods employed for detecting THC and other cannabis terpenoids. Determination of the parent drug in serum or its metabolites in urine has been accomplished by GC-MS or LC-MS. Serum JWH-018 concentrations are generally in the 1–10 μg/L range during the first few hours after recreational usage. The major urinary metabolite is a compound that is monohydroxylated on the omega minus one carbon atom of the alkyl side chain. A lesser metabolite monohydroxylated on the omega (terminal) position was present in the urine of six users of the drug at concentrations of 6–50 μg/L, primarily as a glucuronide conjugate.
Restraint chair	Restraint chair	A restraint chair is a type of physical restraint that is used to force an individual to remain seated in one place to prevent injury and harm to themselves or others. They are commonly used in prisons for violent inmates and hospitals for out of control patients. However, they have also been used to restrain prisoners at Guantanamo Bay detention camp during force-feeding.
Restraint chair	Restraint chair	In the United States, the use of these chairs is controversial because a number of deaths and injuries from prolonged periods have been reported. There have been numerous cases of financial settlements, as well as personal lawsuits and at least one class action suit.In Australia, the mere use of restraint chairs has sparked opposition.
Restraint chair	History	Various forms of restraint chair have been used for centuries. The modern, institutional type was introduced into the United States in the late 1990s.
Restraint chair	Description	A typical, modern restraint chair consists of a sturdy frame, padded seat and padded reclining back, arm rests, a foot rest, and a set of back wheels. Straps secure the individual at the ankles, wrists, shoulders, and waist.
Restraint chair	Organizations using restraint chairs	Restraint chairs are used in local jails as well as state and federal prisons. They are used by the U.S. Marshals Service, the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement and also in psychiatric hospitals and juvenile detention facilities.
Restraint chair	Statistics	Numbers vary within the United States and across the world. An example of the number of times the chair was used is as follows: According to Jacksonville Sheriff's Office records, the restraint chair was used 137 times in 2014 and 130 times in 2015. In Gwinnett County, Georgia, during the first half of 2013, 129 inmates were held in a restraint chair.
Restraint chair	Hazards	A review of deaths at United States county jails revealed that there have been nearly 40 restraint chair-related deaths since the late 1990s. Prolonged periods in a restraint chair can cause blood clots. Incidents There have been numerous incidents associated with the improper use of restraint chairs involving injury, torture, and death. Cheatham County Jail officers were placed on leave after a 2017 video was released showing Jordan Norris being tased while restrained. One officer says on the video "I'll keep on doing that until I run out of batteries." The victim has since filed a civil rights lawsuit in federal court. San Luis Obispo County was ordered to pay $5 million following the death of Andrew Holland who died after spending 46 hours in a restraining chair at the San Luis Obispo County Jail. In July 2017, six Oklahoma officers were charged with manslaughter after Anthony Huff, a 58-year-old prisoner, died after spending over 48 hours in a restraining chair without enough food and water, and inadequate medical attention. In March 2009, a Florida man was pepper sprayed multiple times then placed in a restraint chair in a Lee County jail. After being strapped in, a spit hood was placed over his head. He was then pepper sprayed twice more and left in the chair for a further six hours. He died in the hospital. A video was released of two Georgia officers tasing a mentally ill man while he was restrained in a chair. 22-year-old Matthew Ajibade later died while in police custody. The use of restraint chairs and spit hoods at the Don Dale Youth Detention Centre in the Northern Territory, Australia were part of the reason for the establishment of the Royal Commission into the Protection and Detention of Children in the Northern Territory.
Supporting line	Supporting line	In geometry, a supporting line L of a curve C in the plane is a line that contains a point of C, but does not separate any two points of C. In other words, C lies completely in one of the two closed half-planes defined by L and has at least one point on L.
Supporting line	Properties	There can be many supporting lines for a curve at a given point. When a tangent exists at a given point, then it is the unique supporting line at this point, if it does not separate the curve.
Supporting line	Generalizations	The notion of supporting line is also discussed for planar shapes. In this case a supporting line may be defined as a line which has common points with the boundary of the shape, but not with its interior.The notion of a supporting line to a planar curve or convex shape can be generalized to n dimension as a supporting hyperplane.
Supporting line	Critical support lines	If two bounded connected planar shapes have disjoint convex hulls that are separated by a positive distance, then they necessarily have exactly four common lines of support, the bitangents of the two convex hulls. Two of these lines of support separate the two shapes, and are called critical support lines. Without the assumption of convexity, there may be more or fewer than four lines of support, even if the shapes themselves are disjoint. For instance, if one shape is an annulus that contains the other, then there are no common lines of support, while if each of two shapes consists of a pair of small disks at opposite corners of a square then there may be as many as 16 common lines of support.
Shibor	Shibor	The Shanghai Interbank Offered Rate (or Shibor, 上海银行间同业拆放利率) is a daily reference rate based on the interest rates at which banks offer to lend unsecured funds to other banks in the Shanghai wholesale (or "interbank") money market. There are eight Shibor rates, with maturities ranging from overnight to a year. They are calculated from rates quoted by 18 banks, eliminating the four highest and the four lowest rates, and then averaging the remaining 10.
Microbiology of decomposition	Microbiology of decomposition	Microbiology of decomposition is the study of all microorganisms involved in decomposition, the chemical and physical processes during which organic matter is broken down and reduced to its original elements. Decomposition microbiology can be divided into two fields of interest, namely the decomposition of plant materials and the decomposition of cadavers and carcasses. The decomposition of plant materials is commonly studied in order to understand the cycling of carbon within a given environment and to understand the subsequent impacts on soil quality. Plant material decomposition is also often referred to as composting. The decomposition of cadavers and carcasses has become an important field of study within forensic taphonomy.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of plant materials	The breakdown of vegetation is highly dependent on oxygen and moisture levels. During decomposition, microorganisms require oxygen for their respiration. If anaerobic conditions dominate the decomposition environment, microbial activity will be slow and thus decomposition will be slow. Appropriate moisture levels are required for microorganisms to proliferate and to actively decompose organic matter. In arid environments, bacteria and fungi dry out and are unable to take part in decomposition. In wet environments, anaerobic conditions will develop and decomposition can also be considerably slowed down. Decomposing microorganisms also require the appropriate plant substrates in order to achieve good levels of decomposition. This usually translates to having appropriate carbon to nitrogen ratios (C:N). The ideal composting carbon-to-nitrogen ratio is thought to be approximately 30:1. As in any microbial process, the decomposition of plant litter by microorganisms will also be dependent on temperature. For example, leaves on the ground will not undergo decomposition during the winter months where snow cover occurs as temperatures are too low to sustain microbial activities.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	The decomposition processes of cadavers and carcasses are studied within the field of forensic taphonomy in order to: aid in the estimation of post-mortem interval (PMI) or time since death; aid in the location of potential clandestine graves.Decomposition microbiology as applied to forensic taphonomy can be divided into 2 groups of studies: microorganisms from within the body; microorganisms from the decomposition environment.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Microorganisms in the body When considering cadavers and carcasses, putrefaction is the proliferation of microorganisms within the body following death and also encompasses the breakdown of tissues brought upon by the growth of bacteria. The first signs of putrefaction are usually the discolorations of the body which can vary between shades of green, blue, red or black depending on 1) where the color changes are observed and 2) how far along within the decomposition process the observation is made. This phenomenon is known as marbling. Discolorations are the results of bile pigments being released following an enzymatic attack of the liver, gallbladder and pancreas and the release of hemoglobin breakdown products. Proliferation of bacteria throughout the body is accompanied with the production of considerable amounts of gases due to their capacities of fermentation. As gases accumulate within the bodily cavities the body appears to swell as it enters the bloat stage of decomposition.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	As oxygen is present within a body at the beginning of decomposition, aerobic bacteria flourish during the first stages of the process. As the microbial population increases, an accumulation of gases changes the environment into anaerobic conditions which is consequently followed by a change to anaerobic bacteria. Gastro-intestinal bacteria are thought to be responsible for the majority of the putrefactive processes that occur in cadavers and carcasses. This can be in part attributed to the impressive concentrations of viable gastro-intestinal organisms and the metabolic capacities they possess allowing them to use an array of different nutrient sources. Gastro-intestinal bacteria are also capable of migrating from the gut to any other region of the body by using the lymphatic system and blood vessels. Furthermore, we know that coliform varieties of Staphylococcus are important members of the aerobic putrefactive bacteria and that members of the genus Clostridium make up a large part of anaerobic putrefactive bacteria.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Microorganisms outside the body Cadavers and carcasses are usually left to decompose in contact with soil whether through burial in a grave or if left to decompose on the soil surface. This allows microorganisms in the soil and air to come in contact with the body and to take part in the decomposition process. Soil microorganism communities also undergo changes as a result of decomposition fluids leaching in the environment. Cadavers and carcasses often show signs of fungal growth suggesting that fungi use the body as a source of nutrients.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	The exact impacts that decomposition may have on surrounding soil microbial communities remains unclear as some studies have shown increases in microbial biomass following decomposition whereas other have seen decreases. It is likely that the survival of microorganisms throughout the decomposition process is highly dependent of a multitude of environmental factors including pH, temperature and moisture.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Decomposition fluids and soil microbiology Decomposition fluids entering the soil represent an important influx of organic matter and can also contain a large microbial load of organisms from the body. The area where the majority of the decomposition fluid leaches into the soil is often referred to as a cadaver decomposition island (CDI). It has been observed that decomposition can have a favorable influence on the growth of plants due to increased fertility, a useful tool when trying to locate clandestine graves. The changes in the concentration of nutrients can have lasting effects that are still seen years after a body or carcass has completely disappeared. The influence that the surge in nutrients can have on the microorganisms and vegetation of a given site is not well understood but it appears that decomposition initially has an inhibitory effect for an initial stage before entering a second stage of increased growth.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Decomposition fungi It is well known that fungi are heterotrophic for carbon compounds and almost all other nutrients they require. They must obtain these through saprophytic or parasitic associations with their hosts which implicates them in many decomposition processes.
Microbiology of decomposition	Decomposition microbiology of cadavers and carcasses	Two major groups of fungi have been identified as being linked to cadaver decomposition: ammonia fungi post-putrefactive fungiAmmonia fungi are broken-down into two groups referred to as "early stage fungi" and "late stage fungi." Such a classification is possible due to the successions that are observed between the types of fungi that fruit in or around a burial environment. The progression between the two groups occurs following the release of nitrogenous products from a body in decomposition. Early stage fungi are described as being ascomycetes, deuteromycetes and saprophytic basidiomycetes whereas late stage fungi consisted of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes.

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