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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Diagnosis
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A fasting blood sugar level of ≥ 7.0 mmol / L (126 mg/dL) is used in the general diagnosis of diabetes. There are no clear guidelines for the diagnosis of LADA, but the criteria often used are that the patient should develop the disease in adulthood, not need insulin treatment for the first 6 months after diagnosis and have autoantibodies in the blood.Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibody (GADA), islet cell autoantibody (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibody, and zinc transporter autoantibody (ZnT8) testing should be performed in order to correctly diagnose diabetes.Persons with LADA typically have low, although sometimes moderate, levels of C-peptide as the disease progresses. Those with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes are more likely to have high levels of C-peptide due to an over production of insulin.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Diagnosis
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Autoantibodies Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GADA), islet cell autoantibodies (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibodies, and zinc transporter autoantibodies (ZnT8) are all associated with LADA; GADAs are commonly found in cases of diabetes mellitus type 1.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Diagnosis
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The presence of islet cell complement fixing autoantibodies also aids in a differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes. Persons with LADA often test positive for ICA, whereas type 2 diabetics only seldom do.Persons with LADA usually test positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies, whereas in type 1 diabetes these antibodies are more commonly seen in adults rather than in children. In addition to being useful in making an early diagnosis for type 1 diabetes mellitus, GAD antibodies tests are used for differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes and may also be used for differential diagnosis of gestational diabetes, risk prediction in immediate family members for type 1, as well as a tool to monitor prognosis of the clinical progression of type 1 diabetes.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Prevalence
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Since there is no regular autoantibody screening, patients with LADA are at risk of being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, which makes it difficult to estimate the prevalence of LADA. Globally, it is estimated that about 8.5% of adults have some form of diabetes and it is estimated that LADA accounts for about 3-12% of all adult diabetes cases. Estimates from 2015 are saying that there could be as many as 10–20% of people with diabetes having LADA.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Risk factors
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There is limited research on LADA and its etiology. As with both T1D and T2D, the risk of LADA depends on both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic risk factors for LADA are similar to T1D, i.e. is affected by the HLA complex, but also genetic variants associated with T2D have been identified in LADA. LADA has several lifestyle risk factors in common with T2D, such as obesity, physical inactivity, smoking and consumption of sweetened beverages, all of which are linked to insulin resistance.Obesity has been shown to increase the risk of LADA in several studies, and one study showed that the risk was particularly high in combination with having diabetes in the family. Physical activity also affects the risk of LADA, with less physical activity increasing the risk. A Swedish study showed that low birth weight, in addition to increasing the risk of T2D, increases the risk of LADA.Although smoking has been shown to increase the risk of T2D while coffee consumption has been shown to reduce the risk of T2D, the results regarding these products and LADA are unclear. However, results from two studies based on the same population seem to indicate that coffee consumption increases the risk of LADA. Other foods that have been shown to increase the risk of LADA are sweetened beverages and processed red meat while consumption of fatty fish has been shown to have a protective effect.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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Management
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Diabetes is a chronic disease, i.e. it cannot be cured, but symptoms and complications can be minimized with proper treatment. Diabetes can lead to elevated blood sugar levels, which in turn can lead to damage to the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, eyes and nerves. There are very few studies on how to treat LADA, specifically, which is probably due to difficulties in classifying and diagnosing the disease. LADA patients often do not need insulin treatment immediately after being diagnosed because their own insulin production decreases more slowly than T1D patients, but in the long run they will need it. About 80% of all LADA patients initially misdiagnosed with type 2 (and who have GAD antibodies) will become insulin-dependent within 3 to 15 years (according to differing LADA sources).The treatment for Type 1 diabetes/LADA is exogenous insulin to control glucose levels, prevent further destruction of residual beta cells, reduce the possibility of diabetic complications, and prevent death from diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Although LADA may appear to initially respond to similar treatment (lifestyle and medications) as type 2 diabetes, it will not halt or slow the progression of beta cell destruction, and people with LADA will eventually become insulin-dependent. People with LADA have insulin resistance similar to long-term type 1 diabetes; some studies showed that people with LADA have less insulin resistance, compared with those with type 2 diabetes; however, others have not found a difference.A Cochrane systematic review from 2011 showed that treatment with Sulphonylurea did not improve control of glucose levels more than insulin at 3 nor 12 months of treatment. This same review actually found evidence that treatment with Sulphonylurea could lead to earlier insulin dependence, with 30% of cases requiring insulin at 2 years. When studies measured fasting C-peptide, no intervention influenced its concentration, but insulin maintained concentration better compared to Sulphonylurea. The authors also examined a study utilizing Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase formulated with aluminium hydroxide (GAD65), which showed improvements in C-peptide levels that were maintained for 5 years. Vitamin D with insulin also demonstrated steady fasting C-peptide levels in the vitamin group, with the same levels declining in the insulin-only group at a 12-month follow-up. One study examining the effects of Chinese remedies on fasting C-peptide on a 3-month follow-up did not show a difference compared to insulin alone. Still, it is important to highlight that the studies available to be included in this review presented considerable flaws in quality and design.
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Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults
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History
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Although type 1 diabetes has been identified as an autoimmune disease since the 1970s, the concept of latent autoimmune diabetes mellitus was not noted until 1993, when it was used to describe slow-onset type 1 autoimmune diabetes occurring in adults. This followed the concept that GAD autoantibodies were a feature of type 1 diabetes and not type 2 diabetes.
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Kepler-16
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Kepler-16
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Kepler-16 is an eclipsing binary star system in the constellation of Cygnus that was targeted by the Kepler spacecraft. Both stars are smaller than the Sun; the primary, Kepler-16A, is a K-type main-sequence star and the secondary, Kepler-16B, is an M-type red dwarf. They are separated by 0.22 AU, and complete an orbit around a common center of mass every 41 days.
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Kepler-16
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Kepler-16
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The system is host to one known extrasolar planet in circumbinary orbit: the Saturn-sized Kepler-16b.
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Kepler-16
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Eclipses
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The Kepler-16 system is almost edge-on to Earth and the two stars eclipse each other as they orbit. The larger and brighter primary star is partially eclipsed by the secondary for about six hours and the brightness drops by about 0.15 magnitudes. The secondary star is completely occulted by the primary star for about two hours, but the overall brightness only drops by about 0.02 magnitudes. There are also shallow eclipses caused by a large exoplanet. When this transits across the primary star, the brightness drops by slightly more than the secondary eclipse. When it transits the secondary star, the brightness drops by 0.001 magnitudes.
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Kepler-16
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Planetary system
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Kepler-16b is a gas giant that orbits the two stars in the Kepler-16 system. The planet is a third of Jupiter's mass and slightly smaller than Saturn at 0.7538 Jupiter radii, but is more dense. Kepler-16b completes a nearly circular orbit every 228.776 days.
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TURBINE (US government project)
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TURBINE (US government project)
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TURBINE is the codename of an automated system which enables the United States National Security Agency (NSA) automated management and control of a large surveillance network.
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TURBINE (US government project)
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TURBINE (US government project)
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The NSA has built an infrastructure which enables it to covertly hack into computers on a mass scale by using automated systems that reduce the level of human oversight in the process. This system places and controls implants – a form of remotely transmitted malware on selected individual computer devices or in bulk on tens of thousands of devices. As quoted by The Intercept, TURBINE is designed to "allow the current implant network to scale to large size (millions of implants) by creating a system that does automated control implants by groups instead of individually." The NSA has shared many of its files on the use of implants with its counterparts in the so-called Five Eyes surveillance alliance – the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
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TURBINE (US government project)
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TURBINE (US government project)
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Among other things due to TURBINE and its control over the implants the NSA is capable of: breaking into targeted computers and to siphoning out data from foreign Internet and phone networks infecting a target's computer and exfiltrating files from a hard drive covertly recording audio from a computer's microphone and taking snapshots with its webcam launching cyberattacks by corrupting and disrupting file downloads or denying access to websites exfiltrating data from removable flash drives that connect to an infected computerThe TURBINE implants are linked to, and relies upon, a large network of clandestine surveillance "sensors" that the NSA has installed at locations across the world, including the agency's headquarters in Maryland (Fort George G. Meade) and eavesdropping bases used by the agency in Misawa, Japan (Misawa Air Base) and Menwith Hill, England (RAF Menwith Hill). Codenamed as TURMOIL, the sensors operate as a sort of high-tech surveillance dragnet, monitoring packets of data as they are sent across the Internet. When TURBINE implants exfiltrate data from infected computer systems, the TURMOIL sensors automatically identify the data and return it to the NSA for analysis. And when targets are communicating, the TURMOIL system can be used to send alerts or "tips" to TURBINE, enabling the initiation of a malware attack. To identify surveillance targets, the NSA uses a series of data "selectors" as they flow across Internet cables. These selectors can include email addresses, IP addresses, or the unique "cookies" containing a username or other identifying information that are sent to a user's computer by websites such as Google, Facebook, Hotmail, Yahoo, and Twitter, unique Google advertising cookies that track browsing habits, unique encryption key fingerprints that can be traced to a specific user, and computer IDs that are sent across the Internet when a Windows computer crashes or updates.
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Sensory phenomena
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Sensory phenomena
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Sensory phenomena are general feelings, urges or bodily sensations. They are present in many conditions including autism spectrum disorders, epilepsy, neuropathy, obsessive–compulsive disorder, pain conditions, tardive syndromes, and tic disorders.
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Sensory phenomena
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In tic disorders
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Sensory phenomena are associated with Tourette syndrome and tic disorders, and defined as "uncomfortable feelings or sensations preceding tics that usually are relieved by the movement". The tics of Tourette's are temporarily suppressible and preceded by a premonitory urge which is similar to the need to sneeze or scratch an itch. Individuals describe the need to tic as the buildup of tension in a particular anatomical location, which they may consciously choose to release, or which is released involuntarily. The presence of sensory phenomena differentiates subjects with Tourette syndrome plus obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) from subjects with OCD alone, and may be an important measure for grouping patients along the OCD-Tourette's disorder spectrum.
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Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a
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Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a
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In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA F1/F2/snoR5a refers to a group of related non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules which function in the biogenesis of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). These small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are modifying RNAs and usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis.
These three snoRNas identified in rice (Oryza sativa), called F1, F2 and snoR5a, belong to the H/ACA box class of snoRNAs as they have the predicted hairpin-hinge-hairpin-tail structure and has the conserved H/ACA-box motifs. The majority of H/ACA box class of snoRNAs are involved in guiding the modification of uridine) to pseudouridine in other RNAs
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Pourbaix diagram
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Pourbaix diagram
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In electrochemistry, and more generally in solution chemistry, a Pourbaix diagram, also known as a potential/pH diagram, EH–pH diagram or a pE/pH diagram, is a plot of possible thermodynamically stable phases (i.e., at chemical equilibrium) of an aqueous electrochemical system. Boundaries (50 %/50 %) between the predominant chemical species (aqueous ions in solution, or solid phases) are represented by lines. As such a Pourbaix diagram can be read much like a standard phase diagram with a different set of axes. Similarly to phase diagrams, they do not allow for reaction rate or kinetic effects. Beside potential and pH, the equilibrium concentrations are also dependent upon, e.g., temperature, pressure, and concentration. Pourbaix diagrams are commonly given at room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and molar concentrations of 10−6 and changing any of these parameters will yield a different diagram.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Pourbaix diagram
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The diagrams are named after Marcel Pourbaix (1904–1998), the Russian-born Belgian chemist who invented them.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Naming
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Pourbaix diagrams are also known as EH-pH diagrams due to the labeling of the two axes.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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The vertical axis is labeled EH for the voltage potential with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) as calculated by the Nernst equation. The "H" stands for hydrogen, although other standards may be used, and they are for room temperature only.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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For a reversible redox reaction described by the following chemical equilibrium: a A + b B ⇌ c C + d D With the corresponding equilibrium constant K: K=[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, The Nernst equation is: ln K, ln [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, sometimes formulated as: log [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, or, more simply directly expressed numerically as: 0.05916 log [C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b, where: 0.02569 volt is the thermal voltage or the "Nernst slope" at standard temperatureλ = ln(10) ≈ 2.30, so that 0.05916 volt.The horizontal axis is labeled pH for the −log function of the H+ ion activity.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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pH log 10 log 10 (1aH+).
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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The lines in the Pourbaix diagram show the equilibrium conditions, that is, where the activities are equal, for the species on each side of that line. On either side of the line, one form of the species will instead be said to be predominant.In order to draw the position of the lines with the Nernst equation, the activity of the chemical species at equilibrium must be defined. Usually, the activity of a species is approximated as equal to the concentration (for soluble species) or partial pressure (for gases). The same values should be used for all species present in the system.For soluble species, the lines are often drawn for concentrations of 1 M or 10−6 M. Sometimes additional lines are drawn for other concentrations.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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If the diagram involves the equilibrium between a dissolved species and a gas, the pressure is usually set to P0 = 1 atm = 101325 Pa, the minimum pressure required for gas evolution from an aqueous solution at standard conditions.In addition, changes in temperature and concentration of solvated ions in solution will shift the equilibrium lines in accordance with the Nernst equation.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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The diagrams also do not take kinetic effects into account, meaning that species shown as unstable might not react to any significant degree in practice.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Diagram
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A simplified Pourbaix diagram indicates regions of "immunity", "corrosion" and "passivity", instead of the stable species. They thus give a guide to the stability of a particular metal in a specific environment. Immunity means that the metal is not attacked, while corrosion shows that general attack will occur. Passivation occurs when the metal forms a stable coating of an oxide or other salt on its surface, the best example being the relative stability of aluminium because of the alumina layer formed on its surface when exposed to air.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Applicable chemical systems
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While such diagrams can be drawn for any chemical system, it is important to note that the addition of a metal binding agent (ligand) will often modify the diagram. For instance, carbonate (CO−3) has a great effect upon the diagram for uranium. (See diagrams at right). The presence of trace amounts of certain species such as chloride ions can also greatly affect the stability of certain species by destroying passivating layers.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Limitations
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Even though Pourbaix diagrams are useful for a metal corrosion potential estimation they have, however, some important limitations:: 111 Equilibrium is always assumed, though in practice it may differ.
The diagram does not provide information on actual corrosion rates.
Does not apply to alloys.
Does not indicate whether passivation (in the form of oxides or hydroxides) is protective or not. Diffusion of oxygen ions through thin oxide layers are possible.
Excludes corrosion by chloride ions (Cl−, Cl3+ etc.).
Usually applicable only to temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), which is assumed by default. The Pourbaix diagrams for higher temperatures exist.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Expression of the Nernst equation as a function of pH
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The Eh and pH of a solution are related by the Nernst equation as commonly represented by a Pourbaix diagram ( Eh – pH plot). Eh explicitly denotes red expressed versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). For a half cell equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction (i.e., electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side): aA+bB+hH++ze−↽−−⇀cC+dD The equilibrium constant K of this reduction reaction is: K={C}c{D}d{A}a{B}b{H+}h=(γc)c[C]c(γd)d[D]d(γa)a[A]a(γb)b[B]b(γh+)h[H+]h=(γc)c(γd)d(γa)a(γb)b(γh)h×[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h where curly braces { } indicate activities (a), rectangle braces [ ] denote molar or molal concentrations (C), γ represent the activity coefficients, and the stoichiometric coefficients are shown as exponents. Activities correspond to thermodynamic concentrations and take into account the electrostatic interactions between ions present in solution. When the concentrations are not too high, the activity ( ai ) can be related to the measurable concentration ( Ci ) by a linear relationship with the activity coefficient ( γi ): ai=γiCi The half-cell standard reduction potential red ⊖ is given by red volt )=−ΔG⊖zF where ΔG⊖ is the standard Gibbs free energy change, z is the number of electrons involved, and F is the Faraday's constant. The Nernst equation relates pH and Eh as follows: red red log pH In the following, the Nernst slope (or thermal voltage) VT=RT/F is used, which has a value of 0.02569... V at STP. When base-10 logarithms are used, VT λ = 0.05916... V at STP where λ = ln[10] = 2.3026. red red 0.05916 log 0.05916 pH This equation is the equation of a straight line for red as a function of pH with a slope of 0.05916 (hz) volt (pH has no units). This equation predicts lower red at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O2 into H2O, or OH−, and for reduction of H+ into H2. red is then often noted as Eh to indicate that it refers to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) whose red = 0 by convention under standard conditions (T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 F, Pgas = 1 atm (1.013 bar), concentrations = 1 M and thus pH = 0).
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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When the activities ( ai ) can be considered as equal to the molar, or the molal, concentrations ( Ci ) at sufficiently diluted concentrations when the activity coefficients ( γi ) tend to one, the term regrouping all the activity coefficients is equal to one, and the Nernst equation can be written simply with the concentrations ( Ci ) denoted here with square braces [ ]: red red 0.05916 log 0.05916 pH There are three types of line boundaries in a Pourbaix diagram: Vertical, horizontal, and sloped.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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Vertical boundary line When no electrons are exchanged (z = 0), the equilibrium between A, B, C, and D only depends on [H+] and is not affected by the electrode potential. In this case, the reaction is a classical acid-base reaction involving only protonation/deprotonation of dissolved species. The boundary line will be a vertical line at a particular value of pH. The reaction equation may be written: aA+bB+hH+↽−−⇀cC+dD and the energy balance is written as ln K , where K is the equilibrium constant: K=[C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h Thus: ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b[H+]h) or, in base-10 logarithms, log pH ) which may be solved for the particular value of pH.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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For example consider the iron and water system, and the equilibrium line between the ferric ion Fe3+ ion and hematite Fe2O3. The reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq ) which has 8242.5 J/mol . The pH of the vertical line on the Pourbaix diagram can then be calculated: pH log Fe Fe 3+]2[H2O]3)) Because the activities (or the concentrations) of the solid phases and water are equal to unity: [Fe2O3] = [H2O] = 1, the pH only depends on the concentration in dissolved Fe3+: pH log Fe 3+]2)) At STP, for [Fe3+] = 10−6, this yields pH = 1.76.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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Horizontal boundary line When H+ and OH− ions are not involved in the reaction, the boundary line is horizontal and independent of pH. The reaction equation is thus written: , but without H+) As, the standard Gibbs free energy ln K ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) Using the definition of the electrode potential ∆G = -zFE, where F is the Faraday constant, this may be rewritten as a Nernst equation: ln ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) or, using base-10 logarithms: log ([C]c[D]d[A]a[B]b) For the equilibrium Fe2+/Fe3+, taken as example here, considering the boundary line between Fe2+ and Fe3+, the half-reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq ) Since H+ ions are not involved in this redox reaction, it is independent of pH. Eo = 0.771 V with only one electron involved in the redox reaction.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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The potential Eh is a function of temperature via the thermal voltage VT and directly depends on the ratio of the concentrations of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions: log Fe Fe 3+]) For both ionic species at the same concentration (e.g., 10 −6M ) at STP, log 1 = 0, so, 0.771 V , and the boundary will be a horizontal line at Eh = 0.771 volts. The potential will vary with temperature.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Calculation of a Pourbaix diagram
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Sloped boundary line In this case, both electrons and H+ ions are involved and the electrode potential is a function of pH. The reaction equation may be written: aA+bB+hH++ze−↽−−⇀cC+dD Using the expressions for the free energy in terms of potentials, the energy balance is given by a Nernst equation: log pH ) For the iron and water example, considering the boundary line between the ferrous ion Fe2+ and hematite Fe2O3, the reaction equation is: Fe aq Fe aq )+3H2O(l) with 0.728 V .The equation of the boundary line, expressed in base-10 logarithms is: log Fe Fe pH ) As, the activities, or the concentrations, of the solid phases and water are always taken equal to unity by convention in the definition of the equilibrium constant K: [Fe2O3] = [H2O] = 1. The Nernst equation thus limited to the dissolved species Fe2+ and H+ is written as: log Fe pH ) For, [Fe2+] = 10−6 M, this yields: 1.0826 0.1775 in volts ) Note the negative slope (-0.1775) of this line in a Eh–pH diagram.
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Pourbaix diagram
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The stability region of water
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In many cases, the possible conditions in a system are limited by the stability region of water. In the Pourbaix diagram for uranium presented here above, the limits of stability of water are marked by the two dashed green lines, and the stability region for water falls between these two lines. It is also depicted here beside by the two dashed red lines in the simplified Pourbaix diagram restricted to the water stability region only.
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Pourbaix diagram
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The stability region of water
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Under highly reducing conditions (low EH), water is reduced to hydrogen according to: 2H++2e−⟶H2(g) (at low pH)and, OH − (at high pH)Using the Nernst equation, setting E0 = 0 V as defined by convention for the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE, serving as reference in the reduction potentials series) and the hydrogen gas fugacity (corresponding to chemical activity for a gas) at 1, the equation for the lower stability line of water in the Pourbaix diagram at standard temperature and pressure is: pH 0.05916 pH Below this line, water is reduced to hydrogen, and it will usually not be possible to pass beyond this line as long as there is still water present in the system to be reduced.
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Pourbaix diagram
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The stability region of water
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Correspondingly, under highly oxidizing conditions (high EH) water is oxidized into oxygen gas according to: 2H2O⟶4H++O2(g)+4e− (at low pH)and, OH −⟶O2(g)+2H2O+4e− (at high pH)Using the Nernst equation as above, but with E0 = −ΔG0H2O/2F = 1.229 V for water oxidation, gives an upper stability limit of water as a function of the pH value: pH 1.229 0.05916 pH at standard temperature and pressure. Above this line, water is oxidized to form oxygen gas, and it will usually not be possible to pass beyond this line as long as there is still water present in the system to be oxidized. The two upper and lower stability lines having the same negative slope (−59 mV/pH unit), they are parallel in a Pourbaix diagram and the reduction potential decreases with pH.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Applications
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Pourbaix diagrams have many applications in different fields dealing with e.g., corrosion problems, geochemistry, and environmental sciences. Using the Pourbaix diagram correctly will help shedding light not only on the nature of the species present in aqueous solution, or in the solid phases, but may also help to understand the reaction mechanism.
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Pourbaix diagram
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Applications
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Concept of pe in environmental chemistry Pourbaix diagrams are widely used to describe the behaviour of chemical species in the hydrosphere. In this context, reduction potential pe is often used instead of EH. The main advantage is to directly work with a logarithm scale. pe is a dimensionless number and can easily be related to EH by the equation: 0.05916 16.903 ×EH Where, VT=RTF is the thermal voltage, with R, the gas constant (8.314 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1), T, the absolute temperature in Kelvin (298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F), and F, the Faraday constant (96 485 coulomb/mol of e−). Lambda, λ = ln(10) ≈ 2.3026. Moreover, log [e−] , an expression with a similar form to that of pH.pe values in environmental chemistry ranges from −12 to +25, since at low or high potentials water will be respectively reduced or oxidized. In environmental applications, the concentration of dissolved species is usually set to a value between 10−2 M and 10−5 M for the determination of the equilibrium lines.
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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This prize should not be confused with the Watson Davis Award from the Association for Information Science and Technology.
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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The Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize of the History of Science Society is awarded yearly for a book published, during the past three years, on the history of science for a wide public. The book should "introduce an entire field, a chronological period, a national tradition, or the work of a noteworthy individual." The book can be written by multiple authors or editors and is required to be written in English and suitable for an audience including undergraduates and readers without specialized, technical knowledge. The author (or collective author) receives 1,000 U.S. dollars and a certificate. The prize, established in 1985, is named in honor of Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis who were science popularizers in the USA.
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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1986 Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers: A History of Man’s Search to Know His World and Himself (New York: Random House, 1983).
1987 Thomas L. Hankins, Science in the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
1988 John Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
1989 Joan Mark, A Stranger in Her Native Land: Alice Fletcher and the American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988). biography of Alice Fletcher.
1990 Robert W. Smith, The Space Telescope: A Study of NASA Science, Technology, and Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
1991 Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Modern Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
1992 John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
1993 James Moore and Adrian Desmond, Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist (London: Michael Joseph, 1991).
1994 David C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
1995 Victor J. Katz, History of Mathematics: An Introduction (New York: Harper Collins, 1993).
1996 Betty Jo Teeter Dobbs and Margaret C. Jacob, Newton and the Culture of Newtonianism (Humanities Press, 1995).
1997 Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1995).
1998 Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
1999 Daniel J. Kevles, The Baltimore Case: A Trial of Politics, Science and Character (W.W. Norton & Company, 1998).
2000 Gregg Mitman, Reel Nature: America’s Romance with Wildlife on Film (Harvard University Press, 1999).
2001 Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Harvard University Press, 2000).
2002 Peter Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500-1700 (Princeton University Press, 2001).
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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2003 Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World (The Free Press, 2002, on Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre's meridian expedition in France in the 1790s) 2004 Jeff Hughes, The Manhattan Project: Big Science and the Atomic Bomb (Columbia University Press/Icon Books, 2003) 2005 Alan M. Kraut, Goldberger’s War: The Life and Work of a Public Health Crusader (Hill and Wang, 2004). biography of Joseph Goldberger.
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Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
|
Prize winners of the Watson Davis and Helen Miles Davis Prize
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2006 Robin Marantz Henig, Pandora’s Baby: How the First Test Tube Babies Sparked the Reproductive Revolution (Houghton Mifflin Press, 2004).
2007 Matt Ridley, Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Atlas Books, Harper Collins Publishers, 2006).
2008 Helen Rozwadowski, Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea (Belknap Press, 2005).
2009 Charles Seife, Sun in a Bottle: The Strange History of Fusion and the Science of Wishful Thinking (Viking Adult, 2008).
2010 Marcia Bartusiak, The Day We Found the Universe (Pantheon Books, 2009).
2011 Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (Bloomsbury Press, 2010).
2012 Mark Barrow, Nature’s Ghosts: Confronting Extinction from the Age of Jefferson to the Age of Ecology (University of Chicago Press, 2009).
2013 David Kaiser, How the Hippies Saved Physics: Science, Counterculture and the Quantum Revival (W.W. Norton & Company, 2011).
2014 W. Patrick McCray, The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnologies, and a Limitless Future (Princeton University Press, 2012).
2015 Martin Rudwick, Earth's Deep History: How It Was Discovered and Why It Matters (The University of Chicago Press, 2014).
2016 Jacob Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism (Oxford University Press, 2013).
2017 Tania Munz, The Dancing Bees: Karl von Frisch and the Discovery of the Honeybee Language (University Of Chicago Press, 2016).
2018 Jim Endersby, Orchid: A Cultural History (University of Chicago Press, 2016).
2019 Michael F. Robinson, The Lost White Tribe: Explorers, Scientists, and the Theory that Changed a Continent (Oxford University Press, 2016).
2020 Cathy Gere, Pain, Pleasure and the Greater Good, from the Panopticon to the Skinner Box and Beyond (University of Chicago Press, 2017).
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Bounding point
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Bounding point
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In functional analysis, a branch of mathematics, a bounding point of a subset of a vector space is a conceptual extension of the boundary of a set.
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Bounding point
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Definition
|
Let A be a subset of a vector space X . Then x∈X is a bounding point for A if it is neither an internal point for A nor its complement.
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Groundswell (book)
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Groundswell (book)
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Groundswell is a book by Forrester Research executives Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff that focuses on how companies can take advantage of emerging social technologies. It was published in 2008 by Harvard Business Press. A revised edition was published in 2011.
The book attempts to explain a shift in the relationship between customers and companies, in which companies are no longer able to control customers' attitudes through market research, customer service, and advertising. Instead, customers are controlling the conversation by using new media to communicate about products and companies.
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Groundswell (book)
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Synopsis
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The groundswell is characterized by several tactics that guide companies into using social technologies strategically and effectively.
Listening: Businesses should listen to their customers to understand what the market is looking for in their products. In order to do this, a company needs to find out if their customers are using social technologies and how they are using them.
Talking: Instead of advertising to customers, marketing departments should find creative ways to connect with users about their experience with a product and their feelings about the brand. One common method is participation in social networks.
Energizing: Enthusiastic customers are part of the groundswell, and companies can recognize and appreciate these customers by creating online communities and social platforms where they can connect with the brand and provide reviews.
Supporting: Businesses can harness the support of their own employees by creating internal social applications for them to connect with the brand, also known as enterprise social software.
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Groundswell (book)
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Groundswell in action
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Examples Some companies distinguish their product through the use of social technologies. Tom Dickson successfully marketed his Blendtec line of blenders through the viral marketing campaign Will It Blend? The groundswell spread marketing messages through Digg and YouTube with a small budget and little marketing experience.
Other companies have been able to listen to and talk with the groundswell by building their own online communities. Procter & Gamble created beinggirl.com to introduce girls to P&G feminine care products. The community approach worked because the company could reach girls with information that might seem embarrassing or sensitive in a traditional marketing campaign.
Risks Features of particular industries or companies can make direct customer engagement more difficult. For instance, some companies must work within industry regulations, national or multinational corporations must balance corporate and local engagement, and other companies must find ways to engage with customers on time-sensitive issues.
|
Groundswell (book)
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Reception
|
Kevin Allison of the Financial Times praised the book for its focus on Web analytics: "[Groundswell] is not so much a manifesto or a dissection of online culture as it is a how-to manual for executives and mid-level managers trying to navigate this fast-changing and often confusing environment."The book won the American Marketing Association Foundation’s Berry-AMA Book Prize for best marketing book of 2009. It was also listed by: Amazon, as one of the Top 10 Business & Investing Books of 2008 CIO Insight, as one of the Top 10 Business-Tech Books of 2008 and one of 10 Insightful Web 2.0 Books Fortune as Magazine as one of the 3 best Web books of 2008 Advertising Age as number 3 of 10 Books You Should Have Read BusinessWeek as one of the Best Innovation & Design Books of 2008 "strategy+business" as one of the Best Business Books 2008 and “Top Shelf” in Marketing
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Hohenhöfer Formation
|
Hohenhöfer Formation
|
The Hohenhöfer Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.
|
Zelda Wii
|
Zelda Wii
|
Zelda Wii may refer to three different video games in The Legend of Zelda series for the Wii console: The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess, released in 2006 The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword, released in 2011 Link's Crossbow Training, a spinoff game in The Legend of Zelda series, released in 2007These three particular games are the more modern works, though some others may now be in print
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Orbital apex syndrome
|
Orbital apex syndrome
|
Orbital apex syndrome, is a collection of cranial nerve deficits associated with a mass lesion near the apex of the orbit of the eye. This syndrome is a separate entity from Rochon–Duvigneaud syndrome, which occurs due to a lesion immediately anterior to the orbital apex. Most commonly optic nerve is involved.
|
Orbital apex syndrome
|
Presentation
|
The most common finding is oculomotor nerve dysfunction leading to ophthalmoplegia. This is often accompanied by ophthalmic nerve dysfunction, leading to hypoesthesia of the upper face. The optic nerve may eventually be involved, with resulting visual loss.
|
Orbital apex syndrome
|
Causes
|
Jacod Syndrome is commonly associated with a tumor of the middle cranial fossa (near the apex of the orbit); but it can have several other causes.
Neoplastic causes Head and neck cancer Neural tumors Hematological cancer Inflammatory causes Sarcoidosis Systemic lupus erythematosus Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Giant cell arteritis Thyroid disease Traumatic causes Iatrogenic (following surgery) Orbital apex fracture Penetrating injury Vascular causes Carotid aneurysm
|
Orbital apex syndrome
|
Diagnosis
|
Diagnostic methods vary, and are based on specific possible etiologies; however, an X-ray computed tomography scan of the face (or magnetic resonance imaging, or both) may be helpful.
|
Functional analog (chemistry)
|
Functional analog (chemistry)
|
In chemistry and pharmacology, functional analogs are chemical compounds that have similar physical, chemical, biochemical, or pharmacological properties. Functional analogs are not necessarily structural analogs with a similar chemical structure. An example of pharmacological functional analogs are morphine, heroin and fentanyl, which have the same mechanism of action, but fentanyl is structurally quite different from the other two with significant variance in dosage.
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 (DATA 2000), Title XXXV, Section 3502 of the Children's Health Act, permits physicians who meet certain qualifications to treat opioid addiction with Schedule III, IV, and V narcotic medications that have been specifically approved by the Food and Drug Administration for that indication. Since there is only one narcotic medication approved by the FDA for the treatment of opioid use disorder within the schedules given, DATA 2000 essentially governs the prescription of buprenorphine (Schedule III) for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Methadone and LAAM are Schedule II narcotics approved for the same purpose within the highly regulated methadone clinic setting, usually known as an opioid treatment program (OTP).
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
Legislative history
|
The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 was authored by Senator Orrin Hatch (R-UT), Senator Joe Biden (D-DE), and Senator Carl Levin (D-MI).
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
DATA 2000 waiver
|
Under the Act, physicians may apply for a waiver to prescribe buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid addiction or dependence outside of an opioid treatment program (OTP). Requirements include a current state medical license, a valid DEA registration number, specialty or subspecialty certification in addiction from the American Board of Medical Specialties, American Society of Addiction Medicine, or American Osteopathic Association. Exceptions were also created for physicians who participated in the initial studies of buprenorphine and for state certification of addiction specialists. However, the Act was intended to bring the treatment of addiction back to the primary care provider. Thus most waivers are obtained after taking an 8-hour course from one of the five medical organizations designated in the Act and otherwise approved by the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services. When physicians qualify for the waiver, they are given a second DEA number (i.e., in addition to the standard DEA prescribing number). This number begins with 'X', prompting the common nickname 'X-waiver'. Once prescribers obtain the waiver, they may treat up to 30 patients with buprenorphine-- following recent federal changes described below, they can request to increase their patient panel sizes after they have had a waiver for one year.
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
Recent changes impacting the DATA waiver and buprenorphine prescribing
|
The Comprehensive Addiction Recovery Act of 2016 allowed for qualifying physician assistants and nurse practitioners to obtain DATA waivers.In July 2016, the Department of Health and Human Services issued a final rule, “Medication Assisted Treatment for Opioid Use Disorders”, in the Federal Register (81 FR 44712). This rule, effective on October 27, 2016, allowed eligible prescribers who have already held a waiver for one year to apply to treat up to 275 patients, up from the previous ceiling of 100.The SUPPORT Act of 2018 further amended the definition of “qualifying other practitioner” to include clinical nurse specialists (CNS), certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNA), and certified nurse midwives (CNW) until October 1, 2023. Such "qualifying other providers" are subject to 24 hours of qualifying training while physicians are required to complete 8.
|
Drug Addiction Treatment Act
|
Current prescribing limits
|
"Qualifying physicians can treat 100 patients in the first year if they meet the criteria outlined in the SUPPORT Act, and 275 after one year of prescribing at the 100-patient limit. If a physician does not meet the criteria to treat 100 patients in the first year, they would have to prescribe at the 30-patient limit for one year before requesting an increase to 100 patients, and then treat at the 100-patient limit for one year before requesting an increase to 275 patients."
|
Direction cosine
|
Direction cosine
|
In analytic geometry, the direction cosines (or directional cosines) of a vector are the cosines of the angles between the vector and the three positive coordinate axes. Equivalently, they are the contributions of each component of the basis to a unit vector in that direction.
|
Direction cosine
|
Three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates
|
If v is a Euclidean vector in three-dimensional Euclidean space, R3, v=vxex+vyey+vzez, where ex, ey, ez are the standard basis in Cartesian notation, then the direction cosines are cos cos cos c=v⋅ez‖v‖=vzvx2+vy2+vz2.
It follows that by squaring each equation and adding the results cos cos cos 1.
Here α, β and γ are the direction cosines and the Cartesian coordinates of the unit vector v/|v|, and a, b and c are the direction angles of the vector v.
The direction angles a, b and c are acute or obtuse angles, i.e., 0 ≤ a ≤ π, 0 ≤ b ≤ π and 0 ≤ c ≤ π, and they denote the angles formed between v and the unit basis vectors, ex, ey and ez.
|
Direction cosine
|
General meaning
|
More generally, direction cosine refers to the cosine of the angle between any two vectors. They are useful for forming direction cosine matrices that express one set of orthonormal basis vectors in terms of another set, or for expressing a known vector in a different basis.
|
Combo box
|
Combo box
|
A combo box is a commonly used graphical user interface widget (or control). Traditionally, it is a combination of a drop-down list or list box and a single-line editable textbox, allowing the user to either type a value directly or select a value from the list. The term "combo box" is sometimes used to mean "drop-down list". In both Java and .NET, "combo box" is not a synonym for "drop-down list". Definition of "drop down list" is sometimes clarified with terms such as "non-editable combo box" (or something similar) to distinguish it from "combo box".
|
Hippogonal
|
Hippogonal
|
A hippogonal (pronounced ) chess move is one similar to a knight's move. That is, a leap m squares in one of the orthogonal directions, and n squares in the other, for integer values of m and n. It need not be a 2:1 ratio for m and n. A specific type of hippogonal move can be written (m,n), usually with the smaller number first.
|
Hippogonal
|
Hippogonal
|
For example, the knight itself moves two squares in one orthogonal direction and one in the other—it moves hippogonally. It is a (1,2) hippogonal mover, sometimes referred to as a (1,2) leaper.
|
Hippogonal
|
Hippogonal
|
Other hippogonally moving pieces include the camel, a fairy chess piece, which moves three squares in one direction and one in the other, and thus is a (1,3) hippogonal mover. The Xiangqi horse is a hippogonal stepper and the nightrider is a hippogonal rider.The pieces are colourbound if the sum of m and n is even, and change colour with every move otherwise.
|
Hippogonal
|
Etymology
|
The word hippogonal is derived from the ancient Greek ἵππος, híppos, 'horse' (knights used to be called horses, and still are in some languages), and γωνία (gōnía), meaning "angle".
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
The Data Plane Development Kit (DPDK) is an open source software project managed by the Linux Foundation. It provides a set of data plane libraries and network interface controller polling-mode drivers for offloading TCP packet processing from the operating system kernel to processes running in user space. This offloading achieves higher computing efficiency and higher packet throughput than is possible using the interrupt-driven processing provided in the kernel.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
DPDK provides a programming framework for x86, ARM, and PowerPC processors and enables faster development of high speed data packet networking applications. It scales from mobile processors, such as Intel Atom, to server-grade processors, such as Intel Xeon. It supports instruction set architectures such as Intel, IBM POWER8, EZchip, and ARM. It is provided and supported under the open-source BSD license.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
DPDK was created by Intel engineer Venky Venkatesan, who is affectionately known as "The Father of DPDK." He died in 2018 after a long battle with cancer.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Overview
|
The DPDK framework creates a set of libraries for specific hardware/software environments through the creation of an Environment Abstraction Layer (EAL). The EAL hides the environment specifics and provides a standard programming interface to libraries, available hardware accelerators and other hardware and operating system (Linux, FreeBSD) elements. Once the EAL is created for a specific environment, developers link to the library to create their applications. For instance, EAL provides the frameworks to support Linux, FreeBSD, Intel IA-32 or 64-bit, IBM POWER9 and ARM 32- or 64-bit.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Overview
|
The EAL also provides additional services including time references, generic bus access, trace and debug functions and alarm operations.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Overview
|
Using DPDK libraries one can implement a low overhead run-to-completion, pipeline or staged, event driven, or hybrid model completely in userspace eliminating kernel and kernel to user copy. Hardware assists from NIC/Regex/Accelerators, libraries enhanced to make use of Intelligence Storage Acceleration (ISA) for bulk performance and accessing devices via polling helps to eliminate the performance overhead of interrupt too. Hugepages are used for large memory pool allocation, to decrease the amount of lookups and page management.The DPDK also includes software examples that highlight best practices for software architecture, tips for data structure design and storage, application profiling and performance tuning utilities and tips that address common network performance deficits.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Libraries
|
The DPDK includes data plane libraries and optimized network interface controller (NIC) drivers for the following: A queue manager implements lockless queues A buffer manager pre-allocates fixed size buffers A memory manager allocates pools of objects in memory and uses a ring to store free objects; ensures that objects are spread equally on all DRAM channels Poll mode drivers (PMD) are designed to work without asynchronous notifications, reducing overhead A packet framework – a set of libraries that are helpers to develop packet processingAll libraries are stored in the dpdk/lib/librte_* directories Plugins The DPDK includes drivers for many hardware types. There have been some additional out-of-tree plugin drivers in the past, which are now considered deprecated.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Libraries
|
librte_pmd_vmxnet3.so – provides PMD Ethernet layer supporting Vmxnet3 paravirtualized NIC; superseded by full VMXNET3 support in native DPDK.
librte_pmd_memnic_copy.so – provides a Virtual PMD Ethernet layer through shared memory based on 2 memory copies of packets
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Environment
|
The DPDK was originally designed to run using a bare-metal mode which is currently deprecated. DPDK's EAL provides support for Linux or FreeBSD userland application.EAL can be extended in order to support any processors.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Ecosystem
|
DPDK is now an open-source project under the Linux Foundation, supported by many companies. DPDK is governed by a Governing Board. The technical activities are overseen by a Technical Board. Beside Intel, which is a contributor to the DPDK, several other vendors also support the DPDK within their products and some offer additional training, support and professional services. The list of vendors who have announced DPDK support includes: 6WIND, ALTEN Calsoft Labs, Advantech, Brocade, Big Switch Networks, Mellanox Technologies, Radisys, Tieto, Wind River, Lanner Inc. and NXP.
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Projects
|
The pfSense project published a road map on 25 February 2015, in which developer Jim Thompson announced the rewriting of the pfSense core—including pf, network packet forwarding and shaping, link bonding, IPsec—using DPDK: "We have a goal of being able to forward, with packet filtering at rates of at least 14.88 Mpps. This is 'line rate' on a 10 Gbps interface. There is simply no way to use today's FreeBSD (or linux) in-kernel stacks for this type of load."Open vSwitch (OVS) has a limited set of features running userland that can be leveraged to bypass the Linux kernel OVS processing. This use case of OVS with DPDK userland is usually named OVS-DPDK. It is mostly deployed with OpenStack Neutron but it assumes that many features and software-defined networking (SDN) capabilities of Openstack are disabled. For instance, when OVS-DPDK is used, Neutron provides a lower level of security than when OVS kernel is used (no stateful firewalling, less security group).
|
Data Plane Development Kit
|
Projects
|
The FD.IO VPP platform is an extensible framework that provides out-of-the-box production quality switch/router functionality. It is the open source version of Cisco's Vector Packet Processing (VPP) technology: a high performance, packet-processing stack that can run on commodity CPUs, and can leverage the Poll Mode Drivers for both NICs and cryptographic acceleration hardware and libraries. VPP supports and uses the DPDK library.TRex is an open source traffic generator using DPDK. It generates L4–7 traffic based on pre-processing and smart replay of real traffic templates. TRex amplifies both client and server side traffic and can scale to 200 Gbit/s with one UCS using Intel XL710. TRex also supports multiple streams, ability to change any packet field and provides per stream statistics, latency and jitter.DTS (DPDK Test Suite) is a Python-based framework for functional tests and benchmarks. It is an open-source project, started in 2014, and is hosted on dpdk.org. It supports both software traffic generators like Scapy and dpdk-pktgen, and a hardware traffic generator like Ixia.DPDK has support for several SRIOV network drivers, enabling creating a PF (Physical Function) and VFs, and also to launch VMs (like QEMU VMs) and assign VFs to them using PCI Passthrough DDP (Dynamic Device Personalization) is one of the new advanced features implemented with DPDK. It allows you to load firmware for a device dynamically, without resetting the host.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
In Shona music, the kushaura is the leading part. Compare with the kutsinhira part.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
The kushaura can be thought of being the first part, with the kutsinhira usually being a beat behind, within a cycle of 12 beats. However, this is not always the case. Furthermore, certain parts are both kushaura and kutsinhira parts, depending on where they are played. Typically a kushaura of this type is played a beat behind to make a kutsinhira.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
In the most standard form, both kushaura and kutsinhira parts can be conceptualized as a repetition of a sequence of four cycles in a western 12/8 meter with all notes falling exactly on one of the twelve eighth-note subdivisions. However the beginning of the cycle is not standardized, and may be different for different regions, players, and musical parts. In general the primary beat of the hosho falls on every three subdivisions, which can result in a 4/4-like sound. However the kushaura or kutsinhira parts also come in varieties that typically sound as a 3/4 part to most westerners. In this case, the two parts, nominally 4/4 and 3/4, combine in a polyrhythm encompassed by the conceptualization of the piece as 12/8, and sync at every 12 eighth notes. Some kushaura parts may sound like they begin with an upbeat to the western ear, whereas the first note actually lands on the beat itself.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
Both kushaura and kutsinhira parts typically have high lines played by the right hand (on the right manual of the mbira dzavadzimu), and these lines tend to be composed of notes that alternate on every other eighth note. The other defining feature of the kushaura in contrast with the kustinhira is that these high line notes are in alternating opposition to the notes of the kutsinhira, forming an interlocked high line composed of the right hand notes of both players. In many transcriptions, the first right hand note of the kushaura will fall on the eighth note immediately after the first hosho beat, whereas the kutsinhira's will fall directly on this beat—however since the beginning of a given cycle is somewhat arbitrary, this description is context-specific to these standard conceptualizations of the beginnings. Viewing a single line, especially in the left hand (lower) part, changing the perceived beginning of the cycle will often change the perceptual modal structure of the line.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
Example from Nhemamusasa (using western approximation of notes) version 1: CCEEAA CCFFAA DDFFAA CCEEGG version 2: FFAADD FFAACC EEGGCC EEAACC (same notes, different cycle divisions)Typically the player playing the kushaura part leads the performance in choosing variations to play, whereas the kutsinhira player will attempt to follow that lead with complementary parts. Variations exist for both the right hand, and left hand. Some variations of the left hand are almost exclusively played on the upper left manual, entirely avoiding the bottom left one.
|
Kushaura
|
Kushaura
|
Typical to the right hand part are repeating notes, as well as descending, but not ascending, lines, for example: GGGGFEDD GGFEDDBB DDCCBBAA (Taireva, separated into three descending lines) FFEEDDCCBAGG EEDDCCBBAAGG (Nhemamusasa, separated into two descending lines)In the right hand, the most common chord is the octave composed of the far-left key played with the thumb, and the fourth key, played with the index finger. In the left hand, consecutive octaves and fifths are common, whereas thirds of chords are generally avoided, and chords entirely within the left hand are not played on most typical instruments, because only a single digit, the thumb, is used.
|
Kushaura
|
Kutsinhira
|
This section refers to the Shona musical part. For the Cultural Arts Center located in Eugene, OR, see Kutsinhira Cultural Arts Center.In Shona music, the kutsinhira is the following part. The kutsinhira is often a beat behind the kushaura part. More generally, the kutsinhira is the part that is more, or mostly off the beat when compared to the kushaura.
|
Kushaura
|
Kutsinhira
|
Usually the kushaura player begins to lead the direction of the improvisation, and the kutsinhira player follows or otherwise responds, especially with regard to particular registers, low or high. Emergent high and low lines are then composed of the interlocking of the kutsinhira part with the kushaura, rather than the lines of any one player alone.
|
Synephrine dehydratase
|
Synephrine dehydratase
|
The enzyme synephrine dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.88) catalyzes the chemical reaction (R)-synephrine ⇌ (4-hydroxyphenyl)acetaldehyde + methylamineThis enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically the hydro-lyases, which cleave carbon-oxygen bonds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is (R)-synephrine hydro-lyase (methylamine-forming).
|
October 1966 lunar eclipse
|
October 1966 lunar eclipse
|
A penumbral lunar eclipse took place on Saturday, October 29, 1966, the second of two lunar eclipses in 1966. This was a deep penumbral eclipse, with over 90% within Penumbral Shadow.
|
October 1966 lunar eclipse
|
Related lunar eclipses
|
Lunar year series Metonic series The metonic cycle repeats nearly exactly every 19 years and represents a Saros cycle plus one lunar year. Because it occurs on the same calendar date, the earth's shadow will in nearly the same location relative to the background stars.
Half-Saros cycle A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two solar eclipses of Solar Saros 123.
|
International Computer Music Conference
|
International Computer Music Conference
|
The International Computer Music Conference (ICMC) is a yearly international conference for computer music researchers and composers. It is the annual conference of the International Computer Music Association (ICMA).
|
International Computer Music Conference
|
History
|
In 1986, the Institute of Sonology institute was moved to the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, hosting the International Computer Music Conference there during its inaugural year.Each year there is a specific theme. For example, in 2007, the theme was "Immersed Music" and immersive media. ICMC 2007 took place in Copenhagen. On August 28, there was an "Underwater/Water Concert" at the DGI-byen swimcenter, in the hundred-metre DGI-byen pool, as well as the various other pools of the Vandkulturhuset.
|
International Computer Music Conference
|
History
|
This "Immersed Music" theme of ICMC 2007 explored important issues in musical instrument classification and immersion.
2014 40th ICMC is organised joint with the 11th Sound and Music Computing Conference in Athens, Greece 14–20 September 2014.2017 43rd ICMC took place from Oct 16, 2017 - Oct 20, 2017 in Shanghai, China. 2018 44th ICMC took place from 5–10 August 2018 in Daegu, Korea.
|
Vermifilter
|
Vermifilter
|
A vermifilter (also vermi-digester or lumbrifilter) is an aerobic treatment system, consisting of a biological reactor containing media that filters organic material from wastewater. The media also provides a habitat for aerobic bacteria and composting earthworms that purify the wastewater by removing pathogens and oxygen demand. The "trickling action" of the wastewater through the media dissolves oxygen into the wastewater, ensuring the treatment environment is aerobic for rapid decomposition of organic substances.
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Vermifilter
|
Vermifilter
|
Vermifilters are most commonly used for sewage treatment and for agro-industrial wastewater treatment. Vermifilters can be used for primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage, including blackwater and greywater in on-site systems and municipal wastewater in large centralised systems. Vermifilters are used where wastewater requires treatment before being safely discharged into the environment. Treated effluent is disposed of to either surface or subsurface leach fields. Solid material (such as fecal matter and toilet paper) is retained, de-watered and digested by bacteria and earthworms into humus that is integrated into the filtration media. The liquid passes through the filtration media where the attached aerobic microorganisms biodegrade pathogens and other organic compounds, resulting in treated wastewater.
|
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