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Allen Brain Atlas	History	In 2001, Paul Allen gathered a group of scientists, including James Watson and Steven Pinker, to discuss the future of neuroscience and what could be done to enhance neuroscience research (Jones 2009). During these meetings David Anderson from the California Institute of Technology proposed the idea that a three-dimensional atlas of gene expression in the mouse brain would be of great use to the neuroscience community. The project was set in motion in 2003 with a 100 million dollar donation by Allen through the Allen Institute for Brain Science. The project used a technique for mapping gene expression developed by Gregor Eichele and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Goettingen, Germany. The technique uses colorimetric in situ hybridization to map gene expression. The project set a 3-year goal of finishing the project and making it available to the public.
Allen Brain Atlas	History	An initial release of the first atlas, the mouse brain atlas, occurred in December 2004. Subsequently, more data for this atlas was released in stages. The final genome-wide data set was released in September 2006. However, the final release of the atlas was not the end of the project; the Atlas is still being improved upon. Also, other projects including the human brain atlas, developing mouse brain, developing human brain, mouse connectivity, non-human primate atlas, and the mouse spinal cord atlas are being developed through the Allen Institute for Brain Science in conjunction with the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas.
Allen Brain Atlas	Goals for the project	The overarching goal and motto for all Allen Institute projects is "fueling discovery". The project strives to fulfill this goal and advance science in a few ways. First, they create brain atlases to better understand the connections between genes and brain functioning. They aim to advance the research and knowledge about neurobiological conditions such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Autism with their mapping of gene expression throughout the brain. The Brain Atlas projects also follow the "Allen Institute" motto with their open release of data and findings. This policy is also related to another goal of the Institute: collaborative and multidisciplinary research. Thus, any scientist from any discipline is able to look at the findings and take them into account while designing their own experiments. Also available to the public is the Brain Explorer application.
Allen Brain Atlas	Research techniques	The Allen Institute for Brain Science uses a project-based philosophy for their research. Each brain atlas focuses on its own project, made up of its own team of researchers. To complete an atlas, each research team collects and synthesizes brain scans, medical data, genetic information and psychological data. With this information, they are able to construct the 3-D biochemical architecture of the brain and figure out which proteins are expressed in certain parts of the brain. To gather the needed data, scientists at the Allen Institute use various techniques. One technique involves the use of postmortem brains and brain scanning technology to discover where in the brain genes are turned on and off. Another technique, called in situ hybridization, or ISH, is used to view gene expression patterns as in situ hybridization images.
Allen Brain Atlas	Research techniques	Within the Brain Atlases, these 3-D ISH digital images and graphs reveal, in color, the regions where a given gene is expressed. In the Brain Explorer, any gene can be searched for and selected resulting in the in situ image appearing as an easily manipulated and explored fashion. Part of the creation of this anatomy-centred database of gene expression, includes aligning ISH data for each gene with a three-dimensional coordinate space through registration with a reference atlas created for the project.
Allen Brain Atlas	Contributions to neuroscience	The different types of cells in the central nervous system originate from varying gene expression. A map of gene expression in the brain allows researchers to correlate forms and functions. The Allen Brain Atlas lets researchers view the areas of differing expression in the brain which enables the viewing of neural connections throughout the brain. Viewing these pathways through differing gene expression as well as functional imaging techniques permits researchers to correlate between gene expression, cell types, and pathway function in relation to behaviors or phenotypes.
Allen Brain Atlas	Contributions to neuroscience	Even though the majority of research has been done in mice, 90% of genes in mice have a counterpart in humans. This makes the Atlas particularly useful for modeling neurological diseases. The gene expression patterns in normal individuals provide a standard for comparing and understanding altered phenotypes. Extending information learned from mouse diseases will help better the understanding of human neurological disorders. The atlas can show which genes and particular areas are effected in neurological disorders; the action of a gene in a disease can be evaluated in conjunction with general expression patterns and this data could shed light on the role of the particular gene in the disorder.
Allen Brain Atlas	Brain explorer	The Allen Brain Atlas website contains a downloadable 3-D interactive Brain explorer. The explorer is essentially a search engine for locations of gene expression; this is particularly useful in finding regions that express similar genes. Users can delineate networks and pathways using this application by connecting regions that co-express a certain gene. The explorer uses a multicolor scale and contains multiple planes of the brain that let viewers see differences in density and expression level. The images are a composite of many averaged samples so it is useful when comparing to individuals with abnormally low gene expression.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	Mouse Brain The Allen Mouse Brain Atlas is a comprehensive genome-wide map of the adult mouse brain that reveals where each gene is expressed. The mouse brain atlas was the original project of the Allen Brain Atlas and was finished in 2006. The purpose of the atlas is to aid in the development of neuroscience research. The hope of the project is that it will allow scientists to gain a better understanding of brain diseases and disorders such as autism and depression.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	Human Brain The Allen Human Brain Atlas was made public in May 2010. It was the first anatomically and genomically comprehensive three-dimensional human brain map. The atlas was created to enhance research in many neuroscience research fields including neuropharmacology, human brain imaging, human genetics, neuroanatomy, genomics and more. The atlas is also geared toward furthering research into mental health disorders and brain injuries such as Alzheimer's disease, autism, schizophrenia and drug addiction.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	Developing Mouse Brain The Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas is an atlas which tracks gene expression throughout the development of a C57BL/6 mouse brain. The project began in 2008 and is currently ongoing. The atlas is based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It traces the growth, white matter, connectivity, and development of the C57BL/6 mouse brain from embryonic day 12 to postnatal day 80.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	This atlas enhances the ability of neuroscientists to study how pollutants and genetic mutations effect the development of the brain. Thus, the atlas may be used to determine what toxins pose special threats to children and pregnant mothers.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	Mouse Brain Connectivity The Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas was launched in November 2011. Unlike other atlases from the Allen Institute, this atlas focuses on the identification of neural circuitry that govern behavior and brain function. This neural circuitry is responsible for functions like behavior and perception. This map will allow scientists to further understand how the brain works and what causes brain diseases and disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and depression.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	Mouse Spinal Cord Unveiled in July 2008, the Allen Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas was the first genome-wide map of the mouse spinal cord ever constructed. The spinal cord atlas is a map of genome wide gene expression in the spinal cord of adult and juvenile C57 black mice. The initial unveiling included data for 2,000 genes and an anatomical reference section. A plan for the future includes expanding the amount of data to about 20,000 genes spanning the full length of the spinal cord.
Allen Brain Atlas	Atlases	The aim of the spinal cord atlas is to enhance research in the treatment of spinal cord injury, diseases, and disorders such as Lou Gehrig's diseases and spinal muscular atrophy. The project was funded by an array of donors including the Allen Research Institute, Paralyzed Veterans of America Research Foundation, the ALS Association, Wyeth Research, PEMCO Insurance, National Multiple Sclerosis Society, International Spinal Research Trust, and many other organizations, foundations, corporate and private donors.
Fruit	Fruit	In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.
Fruit	Fruit	Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other; in fact, humans and many other animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.
Fruit	Fruit	In common language usage, fruit normally means the seed-associated fleshy structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. In botanical usage, the term fruit also includes many structures that are not commonly called 'fruits' in everyday language, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.
Fruit	Botanical vs. culinary	Many common language terms used for fruit and seeds differ from botanical classifications. For example, in botany, a fruit is a ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, e.g., an apple, pomegranate, tomato or a pumpkin. A nut is a type of fruit (and not a seed), and a seed is a ripened ovule.In culinary language, a fruit is the sweet- or not sweet- (even sour-) tasting produce of a specific plant (e.g., a peach, pear or lemon); nuts are hard, oily, non-sweet plant produce in shells (hazelnut, acorn). Vegetables, so called, typically are savory or non-sweet produce (zucchini, lettuce, broccoli, and tomato); but some may be sweet-tasting (sweet potato).Examples of botanically classified fruit that are typically called vegetables include: cucumber, pumpkin, and squash (all are cucurbits); beans, peanuts, and peas (all legumes); corn, eggplant, bell pepper (or sweet pepper), and tomato. The spices chili pepper and allspice are fruits, botanically speaking. In contrast, rhubarb is often called a fruit when used in making pies, but the edible produce of rhubarb is actually the leaf stalk or petiole of the plant. Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., ginkgo nuts and pine nuts.
Fruit	Botanical vs. culinary	Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat is a kind of fruit (termed a caryopsis). However, the fruit wall is thin and fused to the seed coat, so almost all the edible grain-fruit is actually a seed.
Fruit	Structure	The outer layer, often edible, of most fruits is called the pericarp. Typically formed from the ovary, it surrounds the seeds; in some species, however, other structural tissues contribute to or form the edible portion. The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, i.e., the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked.
Fruit	Development	A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers. The gynoecium, which contains the stigma-style-ovary system, is centered in the flower-head, and it forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary(ies) are one or more ovules. Here begins a complex sequence called double fertilization: a female gametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization. (A female gametophyte is called a megagametophyte, and also called the embryo sac.) After double fertilization, the ovules will become seeds.
Fruit	Development	Ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma-style-ovary system within the flower-head. After pollination, a pollen tube grows from the (deposited) pollen through the stigma down the style into the ovary to the ovule. Two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte, one sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, while the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process. Later, the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.
Fruit	Development	As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or it may form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multi-seeded fruits, the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp typically is differentiated into two or three distinct layers; these are called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer).
Fruit	Development	In some fruits, the sepals, petals, stamens and/or the style of the flower fall away as the fleshy fruit ripens. However, for simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary – i.e., one that lies below the attachment of other floral parts – there are parts (including petals, sepals, and stamens) that fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. For such a case, when floral parts other than the ovary form a significant part of the fruit that develops, it is called an accessory fruit. Examples of accessory fruits include apple, rose hip, strawberry, and pineapple.
Fruit	Development	Because several parts of the flower besides the ovary may contribute to the structure of a fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three general modes of fruit development: Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower (while having one or more separate, unfused, carpels); they are the simple fruits. Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium (having two or more carpels fused together). Multiple fruits form from many flowers – i.e., an inflorescence of flowers.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Consistent with the three modes of fruit development, plant scientists have classified fruits into three main groups: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple (or composite) fruits. The groupings reflect how the ovary and other flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop, but they are not evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant taxa may be in the same group. While the section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body, fungi are members of the fungi kingdom and not of the plant kingdom.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Simple fruits Simple fruits are the result of the ripening-to-fruit of a simple or compound ovary in a single flower with a single pistil. In contrast, a single flower with numerous pistils typically produces an aggregate fruit; and the merging of several flowers, or a 'multiple' of flowers, results in a 'multiple' fruit. A simple fruit is further classified as either dry or fleshy.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	To distribute their seeds, dry fruits may split open and discharge their seeds to the winds, which is called dehiscence. Or the distribution process may rely upon the decay and degradation of the fruit to expose the seeds; or it may rely upon the eating of fruit and excreting of seeds by frugivores – both are called indehiscence. Fleshy fruits do not split open, but they also are indehiscent and they may also rely on frugivores for distribution of their seeds. Typically, the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Types of dry simple fruits, (with examples) include: Achene – most commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g., strawberry, see below). Capsule – (Brazil nut: botanically, it is not a nut). Caryopsis – (cereal grains, including wheat, rice, oats, barley). Cypsela – an achene-like fruit derived from the individual florets in a capitulum: (dandelion). Fibrous drupe – (coconut, walnut: botanically, neither is a true nut.). Follicle – follicles are formed from a single carpel, and opens by one suture: (milkweed); also commonly seen in aggregate fruits: (magnolia, peony). Legume – (bean, pea, peanut: botanically, the peanut is the seed of a legume, not a nut). Loment – a type of indehiscent legume: (sweet vetch or wild potato). Nut – (beechnut, hazelnut, acorn (of the oak): botanically, these are true nuts). Samara – (ash, elm, maple key). Schizocarp, see below – (carrot seed). Silique – (radish seed). Silicle – (shepherd's purse). Utricle – (beet, Rumex).Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are termed fleshy simple fruits. Types of fleshy simple fruits, (with examples) include: Berry – the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit. The entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible "pericarp", (see below). Stone fruit or drupe – the definitive characteristic of a drupe is the hard, "lignified" stone (sometimes called the "pit"). It is derived from the ovary wall of the flower: apricot, cherry, olive, peach, plum, mango. Pome – the pome fruits: apples, pears, rosehips, saskatoon berry, etc., are a syncarpous (fused) fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary. Pomes are of the family Rosaceae.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Berries Berries are a type of simple fleshy fruit that issue from a single ovary. (The ovary itself may be compound, with several carpels.) The botanical term true berry includes grapes, currants, cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines), tomatoes, chili peppers, and bananas, but excludes certain fruits that are called "-berry" by culinary custom or by common usage of the term – such as strawberries and raspberries. Berries may be formed from one or more carpels (i.e., from the simple or compound ovary) from the same, single flower. Seeds typically are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Examples include: Tomato – in culinary terms, the tomato is regarded as a vegetable, but it is botanically classified as a fruit and a berry. Banana – the fruit has been described as a "leathery berry". In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence. Pepo – berries with skin that is hardened: cucurbits, including gourds, squash, melons. Hesperidium – berries with a rind and a juicy interior: most citrus fruit.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Cranberry, gooseberry, redcurrant, grape.The strawberry, regardless of its appearance, is classified as a dry, not a fleshy fruit. Botanically, it is not a berry; it is an aggregate-accessory fruit, the latter term meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the receptacle that holds the ovaries. Numerous dry achenes are attached to the outside of the fruit-flesh; they appear to be seeds but each is actually an ovary of a flower, with a seed inside.Schizocarps are dry fruits, though some appear to be fleshy. They originate from syncarpous ovaries but do not actually dehisce; rather, they split into segments with one or more seeds. They include a number of different forms from a wide range of families, including carrot, parsnip, parsley, cumin.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Aggregate fruits An aggregate fruit is also called an aggregation, or etaerio; it develops from a single flower that presents numerous simple pistils. Each pistil contains one carpel; together, they form a fruitlet. The ultimate (fruiting) development of the aggregation of pistils is called an aggregate fruit, etaerio fruit, or simply an etaerio. Different types of aggregate fruits can produce different etaerios, such as achenes, drupelets, follicles, and berries. For example, the Ranunculaceae species, including Clematis and Ranunculus, produces an etaerio of achenes; Rubus species, including raspberry: an etaerio of drupelets; Calotropis species: an etaerio of follicles fruit; Annona species: an etaerio of berries.Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios (or aggregations) are: Teasel; fruit is an aggregation of cypselas. Tuliptree; fruit is an aggregation of samaras. Magnolia and peony; fruit is an aggregation of follicles. American sweet gum; fruit is an aggregation of capsules.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Sycamore; fruit is an aggregation of achenes.The pistils of the raspberry are called drupelets because each pistil is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits, such as blackberry, the receptacle, an accessory part, elongates and then develops as part of the fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit. The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, of which the seeds are contained in the achenes. Notably in all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower, with numerous pistils.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Multiple fruits A multiple fruit is formed from a cluster of flowers, (a 'multiple' of flowers) – also called an inflorescence. Each ('smallish') flower produces a single fruitlet, which, as all develop, all merge into one mass of fruit. Examples include pineapple, fig, mulberry, Osage orange, and breadfruit. An inflorescence (a cluster) of white flowers, called a head, is produced first. After fertilization, each flower in the cluster develops into a drupe; as the drupes expand, they develop as a connate organ, merging into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarp.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Progressive stages of multiple flowering and fruit development can be observed on a single branch of the Indian mulberry, or noni. During the sequence of development, a progression of second, third, and more inflorescences are initiated in turn at the head of the branch or stem.
Fruit	Classification of fruits	Accessory fruit forms Fruits may incorporate tissues derived from other floral parts besides the ovary, including the receptacle, hypanthium, petals, or sepals. Accessory fruits occur in all three classes of fruit development – simple, aggregate, and multiple. Accessory fruits are frequently designated by the hyphenated term showing both characters. For example, a pineapple is a multiple-accessory fruit, a blackberry is an aggregate-accessory fruit, and an apple is a simple-accessory fruit.
Fruit	Seedless fruits	Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially grapefruit, mandarin oranges, navel oranges), satsumas, table grapes, and of watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit-set may (or may not) require pollination, but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit. Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy, which requires normal pollination and fertilization.
Fruit	Seed dissemination	Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the modes of dispersal applied to their seeds. Dispersal is achieved by wind or water, by explosive dehiscence, and by interactions with animals.Some fruits present their outer skins or shells coated with spikes or hooked burrs; these evolved either to deter would-be foragers from feeding on them or to serve to attach themselves to the hair, feathers, legs, or clothing of animals, thereby using them as dispersal agents. These plants are termed zoochorous; common examples include cocklebur, unicorn plant, and beggarticks (or Spanish needle).By developments of mutual evolution, the fleshy produce of fruits typically appeals to hungry animals, such that the seeds contained within are taken in, carried away, and later deposited (i.e., defecated) at a distance from the parent plant. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts typically motivate birds and squirrels to hoard them, burying them in soil to retrieve later during the winter of scarcity; thereby, uneaten seeds are sown effectively under natural conditions to germinate and grow a new plant some distance away from the parent.Other fruits have evolved flattened and elongated wings or helicopter-like blades, e.g., elm, maple, and tuliptree. This mechanism increases dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny "parachutes", e.g., dandelion, milkweed, salsify.Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean, thereby spreading their seeds. Other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine.Some fruits have evolved propulsive mechanisms that fling seeds substantial distances – perhaps up to 100 m (330 ft) in the case of the sandbox tree – via explosive dehiscence or other such mechanisms (see impatiens and squirting cucumber).
Fruit	Food uses	A cornucopia of fruits – fleshy (simple) fruits from apples to berries to watermelon; dry (simple) fruits including beans and rice and coconuts; aggregate fruits including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pawpaw; and multiple fruits such as pineapple, fig, mulberries – are commercially valuable as human food. They are eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other fruit preserves. They are used extensively in manufactured and processed foods (cakes, cookies, baked goods, flavorings, ice cream, yogurt, canned vegetables, frozen vegetables and meals) and beverages such as fruit juices and alcoholic beverages (brandy, fruit beer, wine). Spices like vanilla, black pepper, paprika, and allspice are derived from berries. Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil and similar processing is applied to other oil-bearing fruits and vegetables. Some fruits are available all year round, while others (such as blackberries and apricots in the UK) are subject to seasonal availability.Fruits are also used for socializing and gift-giving in the form of fruit baskets and fruit bouquets.Typically, many botanical fruits – "vegetables" in culinary parlance – (including tomato, green beans, leaf greens, bell pepper, cucumber, eggplant, okra, pumpkin, squash, zucchini) are bought and sold daily in fresh produce markets and greengroceries and carried back to kitchens, at home or restaurant, for preparation of meals.
Fruit	Food uses	Storage All fruits benefit from proper post-harvest care, and in many fruits, the plant hormone ethylene causes ripening. Therefore, maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post-harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life.
Fruit	Food uses	Nutritional value Various culinary fruits provide significant amounts of fiber and water, and many are generally high in vitamin C. An overview of numerous studies showed that fruits (e.g., whole apples or whole oranges) are satisfying (filling) by simply eating and chewing them.The dietary fiber consumed in eating fruit promotes satiety, and may help to control body weight and aid reduction of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Fruit consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases. Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging.
Fruit	Food uses	Food safety For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected; at the store, they should not be damaged or bruised; and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice. All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage. Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs. All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness. Allergies Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food-related allergies.
Fruit	Nonfood uses	Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food. For example: Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles; Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements (e.g., annual honesty, cotoneaster, lotus, milkweed, unicorn plant, and wheat). Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including beautyberry, cotoneaster, holly, pyracantha, skimmia, and viburnum.
Fruit	Nonfood uses	Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium, which contains the drugs codeine and morphine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthesized. Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches. Many fruits provide natural dyes (e.g., cherry, mulberry, sumac, and walnut). Dried gourds are used as bird houses, cups, decorations, dishes, musical instruments, and water jugs. Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween. The fibrous core of the mature and dry Luffa fruit is used as a sponge. The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur inspired the invention of Velcro. Coir fiber from coconut shells is used for brushes, doormats, floor tiles, insulation, mattresses, sacking, and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make bird houses, bowls, cups, musical instruments, and souvenir heads. The hard and colorful grain fruits of Job's tears are used as decorative beads for jewelry, garments, and ritual objects. Fruit is often a subject of still life paintings.
Syringofibroadenoma	Syringofibroadenoma	Syringofibroadenoma is a cutaneous condition characterized by a hyperkeratotic nodule or plaque involving the extremities.: 668 It is considered of eccrine origin.
Heartbeat star	Heartbeat star	Heartbeat stars are pulsating variable binary star systems in eccentric orbits with vibrations caused by tidal forces. The name "heartbeat" comes from the similarity of the light curve of the star with what a heartbeat looks like through an electrocardiogram if their brightness was mapped over time. Many heartbeat stars have been discovered with the Kepler Space Telescope.
Heartbeat star	Orbital information	Heartbeat stars are binary star systems where each star travels in a highly elliptical orbit around the common mass center, and the distance between the two stars varies drastically as they orbit each other. Heartbeat stars can get as close as a few stellar radii to each other and as far as 100 times that distance during one orbit. As the star with the more elliptical orbit swings closer to its companion, gravity will stretch the star into a non-spherical shape, changing its apparent light output. At their closest point in orbit, the tidal forces cause the shape of the heartbeat stars to fluctuate rapidly. When the stars reach the point of their closest encounter, the mutual gravitational pull between the two stars will cause them to become slightly ellipsoidal in shape, which is one of the reasons for their observed brightness being so variable.
Heartbeat star	Discoveries	Heartbeat stars were studied for the first time on the basis of OGLE project observations. The Kepler Space Telescope with its long monitoring of the brightness off hundreds of thousands of stars enabled the discovery of many heartbeat stars. One of the first binary systems discovered to show the elliptical orbits, KOI-54, has been shown to increase in brightness every 41.8 days. A subsequent study in 2012 characterized 17 additional objects from the Kepler data and united them as a class of binary stars.A study which measured the rotation rate of star spots on the surface of heartbeat stars showed that most heartbeat stars rotate slower than expected. A study which measured the orbits of 19 heartbeat star systems, found that surveyed heartbeat stars tend to be both bigger and hotter than the Sun.The star HD 74423, discovered using NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, was found to be unusually teardrop-shaped, which causes the star to pulsate only on one side, the first known heartbeat star to do so.
Mortality forecasting	Mortality forecasting	Mortality forecasting refers to the art and science of determining likely future mortality rates. It is especially important in rich countries with a high proportion of aged people, since aged populations are expensive in terms of pensions (both public and private). It is a major topic in Ageing studies.
Karl Landsteiner Memorial Award	Karl Landsteiner Memorial Award	The Karl Landsteiner Memorial Award is a scientific award given by the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB) to scientists with "an international reputation in transfusion medicine or cellular therapies" "whose original research resulted in an important contribution to the body of scientific knowledge". Recipients give a lecture at the AABB Annual Meeting and receive a $7,500 honorarium. The prize was initiated in 1954 to honor Karl Landsteiner, whose research laid the foundation for modern blood transfusion therapy.
Karl Landsteiner Memorial Award	Recipients	1954 Reuben Ottenberg 1955 Richard Lewisohn 1956 Philip Levine, Alexander Solomon Wiener 1957 Ruth Sanger, Robert Russell Race 1958 Oswald Hope Robertson, Francis Peyton Rous, J. R. Turner 1959 Ernest Witebsky 1960 Patrick L. Mollison 1961 Robert R. A. Coombs 1962 William C. Boyd 1963 Fred H. Allen Jr., Louis K. Diamond 1964 J. J. van Loghem 1965 Ruggero Ceppellini 1966 Elvin A. Kabat 1967 Walter Morgan, Winifred Watkins 1968 Rodney R. Porter 1969 Vincent J. Freda, John G. Gorman, William Pollack 1970 Jean Dausset 1971 Bruce Chown, Marion Lewis 1972 Richard E. Rosenfield 1973 Arthur E. Mourant 1974 Manfred M. Mayer, Hans J. Müller-Eberhard 1975 Baruch S. Blumberg, Alfred M. Prince 1976 Marie Cutbush Crookston, Eloise R. Giblett 1977 Rose Payne, Jon van Rood 1978 Fred Stratton 1979 Nevin C. Hughes-Jones, Serafeim P. Masouredis 1980 Donald M. Marcus, James M. Stavely 1981 James F. Danielli, S. Jonathan Singer 1982 Georges J. F. Köhler, César Milstein 1983 Vincent T. Marchesi 1984 Oliver Smithies 1985 Saul Krugman 1986 Claes F. Högman, Grant R. Bartlett 1987 E. Donnall Thomas 1988 Charles P. Salmon 1989 George W. Bird 1990 Robert Gallo, Luc Montagnier 1991 Paul I. Terasaki 1992 Harvey J. Alter, Daniel W. Bradley, Qui-Lim Choo, Michael Houghton, George Kuo, Lacy Overby 1993 C. Paul Engelfriet 1994 Kenneth Brinkhous, Harold Roberts, Robert Wagner, Robert Langdell 1995 W. Laurence Marsh 1996 Eugene Goldwasser 1997 Wendell F. Rosse 1998 Richard H. Aster, Scott Murphy, Sherrill J. Slichter 1999 Kary B. Mullis 2000 Michael E. DeBakey 2001 John Bowman 2002 Hal E. Broxmeyer 2003 Victor A. McKusick 2004 Tibor Greenwalt 2005 Peter Agre 2006 James D. Watson 2007 Peter Issitt 2008 Ernest Beutler 2009 Curt I. Civin 2010 Steven A. Rosenberg 2011 David Weatherall, Yuet Wai Kan 2012 Kenneth Kaushansky 2013 Barry S. Coller 2014 Carl June 2015 Nancy C. Andrews 2016 Stuart Orkin 2017 Irving Weissman 2018 David A. Williams 2019 David Anstee, Jean-Pierre Cartron, Colvin Redman, Fumiichiro Yamamoto
Purple urine bag syndrome	Purple urine bag syndrome	Purple urine bag syndrome (PUBS) is a medical syndrome where purple discoloration of urine occurs in people with urinary catheters and co-existent urinary tract infection. Bacteria in the urine produce the enzyme indoxyl sulfatase. This converts indoxyl sulfate in the urine into the red and blue colored compounds indirubin and indigo. The most commonly implicated bacteria are Providencia stuartii, Providencia rettgeri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, Morganella morganii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Purple urine bag syndrome	Signs and symptoms	People with purple urine bag syndrome usually do not complain of any symptoms. Purple discoloration of urine bag is often the only finding, frequently noted by caregivers. It is usually considered a benign condition, although in the setting of recurrent or chronic urinary tract infection, it may be associated with drug-resistant bacteria.
Purple urine bag syndrome	Pathophysiology	Tryptophan in the diet is metabolized by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract to produce indole. Indole is absorbed into the blood by the intestine and passes to the liver. There, indole is converted to indoxyl sulfate, which is then excreted in the urine. In purple urine bag syndrome, bacteria that colonize the urinary catheter convert indoxyl sulfate to the colored compounds indirubin and indigo.
Purple urine bag syndrome	Diagnosis	Purple urine bag syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, the cause of which may be investigated using a variety of laboratory tests or imaging.
Purple urine bag syndrome	Treatment	Antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin should be administered and the catheter should be changed. If constipation is present, this should also be treated.
Purple urine bag syndrome	Epidemiology	Purple urine bag syndrome is more common in female nursing home residents. Other risk factors include alkaline urine, constipation, and polyvinyl chloride catheter use.
Purple urine bag syndrome	History	The syndrome was first described by Barlow and Dickson in 1978.
Spezzatino	Spezzatino	Spezzatino is an Italian stew, made from low-grade cuts of veal, beef, lamb or pork. There are many regional variants. For example, in Tuscany is prepared a famous variant made with beef, carrots, celery and onions., in Umbria are traditional the spezzatini di montone (mutton) and roe, in Nuoro wild boar spezzatino is traditional, whereas in Friuli Venezia Giulia spezzatino is served with aromatic herbs and dry white wine.
Sheet metal	Sheet metal	Sheet metal is metal formed into thin, flat pieces, usually by an industrial process. Sheet metal is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes. Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin sheets are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate, such as plate steel, a class of structural steel.
Sheet metal	Sheet metal	Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.
Sheet metal	Sheet metal	In most of the world, sheet metal thickness is consistently specified in millimeters. In the U.S., the thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 7 gauge. Gauge differs between ferrous (iron-based) metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper. Copper thickness, for example, is measured in ounces, representing the weight of copper contained in an area of one square foot. Parts manufactured from sheet metal must maintain a uniform thickness for ideal results.There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, some important sheet metals include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a catalyst).
Sheet metal	Sheet metal	Sheet metal is used in automobile and truck (lorry) bodies, major appliances, airplane fuselages and wings, tinplate for tin cans, roofing for buildings (architecture), and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications in transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in plate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses, including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.
Sheet metal	History	Hand-hammered metal sheets have been used since ancient times for architectural purposes. Water-powered rolling mills replaced the manual process in the late 17th century. The process of flattening metal sheets required large rotating iron cylinders which pressed metal pieces into sheets. The metals suited for this were lead, copper, zinc, iron and later steel. Tin was often used to coat iron and steel sheets to prevent it from rusting. This tin-coated sheet metal was called "tinplate." Sheet metals appeared in the United States in the 1870s, being used for shingle roofing, stamped ornamental ceilings, and exterior façades. Sheet metal ceilings were only popularly known as "tin ceilings" later as manufacturers of the period did not use the term. The popularity of both shingles and ceilings encouraged widespread production. With further advances of steel sheet metal production in the 1890s, the promise of being cheap, durable, easy to install, lightweight and fireproof gave the middle-class a significant appetite for sheet metal products. It was not until the 1930s and WWII that metals became scarce and the sheet metal industry began to collapse. However, some American companies, such as the W.F. Norman Corporation, were able to stay in business by making other products until Historic preservation projects aided the revival of ornamental sheet metal.
Sheet metal	Materials	Stainless steel Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion resistance while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4. Grade 303 is not available in sheet form.Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304. It is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used in cutlery. The only available finish is dull.Grade 430 is a popular grade, low-cost alternative to series 300's grades. This is used when high corrosion resistance is not a primary criterion. Common grade for appliance products, often with a brushed finish.
Sheet metal	Materials	Aluminum Aluminum, or aluminium in British English, is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and other properties. The four most common aluminium grades available as sheet metal are 1100-H14, 3003-H14, 5052-H32, and 6061-T6.Grade 1100-H14 is commercially pure aluminium, highly chemical and weather resistant. It is ductile enough for deep drawing and weldable, but has low strength. It is commonly used in chemical processing equipment, light reflectors, and jewelry.Grade 3003-H14 is stronger than 1100, while maintaining the same formability and low cost. It is corrosion resistant and weldable. It is often used in stampings, spun and drawn parts, mail boxes, cabinets, tanks, and fan blades.Grade 5052-H32 is much stronger than 3003 while still maintaining good formability. It maintains high corrosion resistance and weldability. Common applications include electronic chassis, tanks, and pressure vessels.Grade 6061-T6 is a common heat-treated structural aluminium alloy. It is weldable, corrosion resistant, and stronger than 5052, but not as formable. It loses some of its strength when welded. It is used in modern aircraft structures.
Sheet metal	Materials	Brass Brass is an alloy of copper, which is widely used as a sheet metal. It has more strength, corrosion resistance and formability when compared to copper while retaining its conductivity.
Sheet metal	Materials	In sheet hydroforming, variation in incoming sheet coil properties is a common problem for forming process, especially with materials for automotive applications. Even though incoming sheet coil may meet tensile test specifications, high rejection rate is often observed in production due to inconsistent material behavior. Thus there is a strong need for a discriminating method for testing incoming sheet material formability. The hydraulic sheet bulge test emulates biaxial deformation conditions commonly seen in production operations.
Sheet metal	Materials	For forming limit curves of materials aluminium, mild steel and brass. Theoretical analysis is carried out by deriving governing equations for determining of equivalent stress and equivalent strain based on the bulging to be spherical and Tresca's yield criterion with the associated flow rule. For experimentation circular grid analysis is one of the most effective methods.
Sheet metal	Gauge	Use of gauge numbers to designate sheet metal thickness is discouraged by numerous international standards organizations. For example, ASTM states in specification ASTM A480-10a: "The use of gauge number is discouraged as being an archaic term of limited usefulness not having general agreement on meaning."Manufacturers' Standard Gauge for Sheet Steel is based on an average density of 41.82 lb per square foot per inch thick, equivalent to 501.84 pounds per cubic foot (8,038.7 kg/m3). Gauge is defined differently for ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals (e.g. aluminium and brass).
Sheet metal	Gauge	The gauge thicknesses shown in column 2 (U.S. standard sheet and plate iron and steel decimal inch (mm)) seem somewhat arbitrary. The progression of thicknesses is clear in column 3 (U.S. standard for sheet and plate iron and steel 64ths inch (delta)). The thicknesses vary first by 1⁄32 inch in higher thicknesses and then step down to increments of 1⁄64 inch, then 1⁄128 inch, with the final increments at decimal fractions of 1⁄64 inch. Some steel tubes are manufactured by folding a single steel sheet into a square/circle and welding the seam together. Their wall thickness has a similar (but distinct) gauge to the thickness of steel sheets.
Sheet metal	Gauge	Tolerances During the rolling process the rollers bow slightly, which results in the sheets being thinner on the edges. The tolerances in the table and attachments reflect current manufacturing practices and commercial standards and are not representative of the Manufacturer's Standard Gauge, which has no inherent tolerances.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Bending The equation for estimating the maximum bending force is, max =kTLt2W where k is a factor taking into account several parameters including friction. T is the ultimate tensile strength of the metal. L and t are the length and thickness of the sheet metal, respectively. The variable W is the open width of a V-die or wiping die. Curling The curling process is used to form an edge on a ring. This process is used to remove sharp edges. It also increases the moment of inertia near the curled end. The flare/burr should be turned away from the die. It is used to curl a material of specific thickness. Tool steel is generally used due to the amount of wear done by operation. Decambering It is a metal working process of removing camber, the horizontal bend, from a strip shaped material. It may be done to a finite length section or coils. It resembles flattening of leveling process, but on a deformed edge.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Deep drawing Drawing is a forming process in which the metal is stretched over a form or die. In deep drawing the depth of the part being made is more than half its diameter. Deep drawing is used for making automotive fuel tanks, kitchen sinks, two-piece aluminum cans, etc. Deep drawing is generally done in multiple steps called draw reductions. The greater the depth, the more reductions are required. Deep drawing may also be accomplished with fewer reductions by heating the workpiece, for example in sink manufacture.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	In many cases, material is rolled at the mill in both directions to aid in deep drawing. This leads to a more uniform grain structure which limits tearing and is referred to as "draw quality" material.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Expanding Expanding is a process of cutting or stamping slits in alternating pattern much like the stretcher bond in brickwork and then stretching the sheet open in accordion-like fashion. It is used in applications where air and water flow are desired as well as when light weight is desired at cost of a solid flat surface. A similar process is used in other materials such as paper to create a low cost packing paper with better supportive properties than flat paper alone.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Hemming and seaming Hemming is a process of folding the edge of sheet metal onto itself to reinforce that edge. Seaming is a process of folding two sheets of metal together to form a joint.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Hydroforming Hydroforming is a process that is analogous to deep drawing, in that the part is formed by stretching the blank over a stationary die. The force required is generated by the direct application of extremely high hydrostatic pressure to the workpiece or to a bladder that is in contact with the workpiece, rather than by the movable part of a die in a mechanical or hydraulic press. Unlike deep drawing, hydroforming usually does not involve draw reductions—the piece is formed in a single step.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Incremental sheet forming Incremental sheet forming or ISF forming process is basically sheet metal working or sheet metal forming process. In this case, sheet is formed into final shape by a series of processes in which small incremental deformation can be done in each series. Ironing Ironing is a sheet metal working or sheet metal forming process. It uniformly thins the workpiece in a specific area. This is a very useful process. It is used to produce a uniform wall thickness part with a high height-to-diameter ratio. It is used in making aluminium beverage cans. Laser cutting Sheet metal can be cut in various ways, from hand tools called tin snips up to very large powered shears. With the advances in technology, sheet metal cutting has turned to computers for precise cutting. Many sheet metal cutting operations are based on computer numerically controlled (CNC) laser cutting or multi-tool CNC punch press.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin 1.2 mm (0.047 in) sheet can be as high as 25 m (82 ft) per minute. Most laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 µm; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Photochemical machining Photochemical machining, also known as photo etching, is a tightly controlled corrosion process which is used to produce complex metal parts from sheet metal with very fine detail. The photo etching process involves photo sensitive polymer being applied to a raw metal sheet. Using CAD designed photo-tools as stencils, the metal is exposed to UV light to leave a design pattern, which is developed and etched from the metal sheet.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Perforating Perforating is a cutting process that punches multiple small holes close together in a flat workpiece. Perforated sheet metal is used to make a wide variety of surface cutting tools, such as the surform.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Press brake forming This is a form of bending used to produce long, thin sheet metal parts. The machine that bends the metal is called a press brake. The lower part of the press contains a V-shaped groove called the die. The upper part of the press contains a punch that presses the sheet metal down into the v-shaped die, causing it to bend. There are several techniques used, but the most common modern method is "air bending". Here, the die has a sharper angle than the required bend (typically 85 degrees for a 90 degree bend) and the upper tool is precisely controlled in its stroke to push the metal down the required amount to bend it through 90 degrees. Typically, a general purpose machine has an available bending force of around 25 tons per meter of length. The opening width of the lower die is typically 8 to 10 times the thickness of the metal to be bent (for example, 5 mm material could be bent in a 40 mm die). The inner radius of the bend formed in the metal is determined not by the radius of the upper tool, but by the lower die width. Typically, the inner radius is equal to 1/6 of the V-width used in the forming process.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	The press usually has some sort of back gauge to position depth of the bend along the workpiece. The backgauge can be computer controlled to allow the operator to make a series of bends in a component to a high degree of accuracy. Simple machines control only the backstop, more advanced machines control the position and angle of the stop, its height and the position of the two reference pegs used to locate the material. The machine can also record the exact position and pressure required for each bending operation to allow the operator to achieve a perfect 90 degree bend across a variety of operations on the part.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Punching Punching is performed by placing the sheet of metal stock between a punch and a die mounted in a press. The punch and die are made of hardened steel and are the same shape. The punch is sized to be a very close fit in the die. The press pushes the punch against and into the die with enough force to cut a hole in the stock. In some cases the punch and die "nest" together to create a depression in the stock. In progressive stamping, a coil of stock is fed into a long die/punch set with many stages. Multiple simple shaped holes may be produced in one stage, but complex holes are created in multiple stages. In the final stage, the part is punched free from the "web".
Sheet metal	Forming processes	A typical CNC turret punch has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be rotated to bring any tool to the punching position. A simple shape (e.g. a square, circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut out by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting compound shapes, but faster for repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). A CNC punch can achieve 600 strokes per minute.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	A typical component (such as the side of a computer case) can be cut to high precision from a blank sheet in under 15 seconds by either a press or a laser CNC machine. Roll forming A continuous bending operation for producing open profiles or welded tubes with long lengths or in large quantities. Rolling Rolling is metal working or metal forming process. In this method, stock passes through one or more pair of rolls to reduce thickness. It is used to make thickness uniform. It is classified according to its temperature of rolling: Hot rolling: in this temperature is above recrystallisation temperature. Cold rolling: In this temperature is below recrystallisation temperature. Warm rolling: In this temperature is used is in between Hot rolling and cold rolling. Spinning Spinning is used to make tubular (axis-symmetric) parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form (mandrel). Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it until the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen funnels. Stamping Stamping includes a variety of operations such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes can be formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs are low. Alternatively, the related techniques repoussé and chasing have low tooling and equipment costs, but high labor costs. Water jet cutting A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet, is a tool capable of a controlled erosion into metal or other materials using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture of water and an abrasive substance.
Sheet metal	Forming processes	Wheeling The process of using an English wheel is called wheeling. It is basically a metal working or metal forming process. An English wheel is used by a craftsperson to form compound curves from a flat sheet of metal of aluminium or steel. It is costly, as highly skilled labour is required. It can produce different panels by the same method. A stamping press is used for high numbers in production.
Sheet metal	Fasteners	Fasteners that are commonly used on sheet metal include: clecos, rivets, and sheet metal screws.
Trophic function	Trophic function	A trophic function was first introduced in the differential equations of the Kolmogorov predator–prey model. It generalizes the linear case of predator–prey interaction firstly described by Volterra and Lotka in the Lotka–Volterra equation. A trophic function represents the consumption of prey assuming a given number of predators. The trophic function (also referred to as the functional response) was widely applied in chemical kinetics, biophysics, mathematical physics and economics. In economics, "predator" and "prey" become various economic parameters such as prices and outputs of goods in various linked sectors such as processing and supply. These relationships, in turn, were found to behave similarly to the magnitudes in chemical kinetics, where the molecular analogues of predators and prey react chemically with each other.
Trophic function	Trophic function	These inter-disciplinary findings suggest the universal character of trophic functions and the predator–prey models in which they appear. They give general principles for the dynamic interactions of objects of different natures, so that the mathematical models worked out in one science may be applied to another. Trophic functions have proven useful in forecasting temporarily stable conditions (limit cycles and/or attractors) of the coupled dynamics of predator and prey. The Pontryagin L.S. theorem on the inflection points of trophic functions guarantees the existence of a limit cycle in these systems.
Trophic function	Trophic function	Trophic functions are especially important in situations of chaos, when one has numerous interacting magnitudes and objects, as is particularly true in global economics. To define and forecast the dynamics in this case is scarcely possible with linear methods, but non-linear dynamic analysis involving trophic functions leads to the discovery of limit cycles or attractors. Since in nature there exist only temporarily stable objects, such limit cycles and attractors must exist in the dynamics of observed natural objects (chemistry, flora and fauna, economics, cosmology). The general theory suggests as-yet-unknown regularities in the dynamics of the various systems surrounding us.
Trophic function	Trophic function	Despite the success already achieved in research on trophic functions, the field still has great further theoretical potential and practical importance. Global economics, for instance, needs tools to forecast the dynamics of outputs and prices over a scale of at least 3–5 years so as to maintain stable demand and not over-produce, and to prevent crises such as that of 2008.
Program compatibility date range	Program compatibility date range	The Program Compatibility Date Range (PCDR) of a computer determines the date range of programs it can run. Windows XP is widely recognized for its expansive PCDR, which covers games from as old as the 1980s. Windows Vista, however, wasn't so lucky, largely due to the addition of the Program Files (x86) file that outlawed the installation of, and therefore usage of DOS Programs from Vista. This contributed to Vista's intense negative reception, along with its overly-secure structure.
Bobby Burns (drink)	Bobby Burns (drink)	The Bobby Burns is a whisky cocktail composed of scotch, vermouth and Bénédictine liqueur. It is served in a 4.5 US fl oz cocktail glass. The drink is named for Robert Burns, the Scottish poet, but is not considered a national drink in the way the Rusty Nail is.
Bobby Burns (drink)	History	The original recipe comes from the 1900 edition of Fancy Drinks, published by Bishop & Babcock where it is called the "Baby Burns". The "Robert Burns" name appears in the 1908 Jack's Manual and 1914 Drinks made with Irish whiskey, vermouth and absinthe. In later publications it starts to be called by the more informal "Bobby Burns" name, with the original Irish whiskey recipe appearing in Recipes for Mixed Drinks (1917). The 1948 recipe from The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks replaced the Bénédictine with Drambuie (Scotch whisky) and bitters.
Free Journal Network	Free Journal Network	The Free Journal Network is an index of open access scholarly journals, specifically for those that do not charge article processing charges.
Free Journal Network	Criteria	The network founded in early 2018 in order to promote free, open access journals, a publishing model that is sometimes called diamond or platinum open access. Such journals are typically smaller than equivalent commercial journals (often supported by academic societies). Main criteria include: adherence to the Fair Open Access Principles that are publicly supported by many renowned scientists, publication of article titles and abstracts in English, clear publication ethics and quality assurance policies.

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