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RNA-directed DNA methylation Biological functions RNA-directed_DNA_methylation > Biological functions RdDM is involved in a number of biological processes in the plant, including stress responses, cell-to-cell communication, and the maintenance of genome stability through TE silencing.
ISO 31-8 Annex C: pH ISO_31-8 > Normative annexes > Annex C: pH pH is defined operationally as follows. For a solution X, first measure the electromotive force EX of the galvanic cell reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl | solution X | H2 | Ptand then also measure the electromotive force ES of a galvanic cell that differs from the above one only by the replacement of the solution X of unknown pH, pH(X), by a solution S of a known standard pH, pH(S). Then obtain the pH of X as pH(X) = pH(S) + (ES − EX) F / (RT ln 10)where F is the Faraday constant; R is the molar gas constant; T is the thermodynamic temperature.Defined this way, pH is a quantity of dimension 1, that is it has no unit. Values pH(S) for a range of standard solutions S are listed in Definitions of pH scales, standard reference values, measurement of pH, and related terminology.
Loop spaces Summary Loop_functor As a functor, the free loop space construction is right adjoint to cartesian product with the circle, while the loop space construction is right adjoint to the reduced suspension. This adjunction accounts for much of the importance of loop spaces in stable homotopy theory. (A related phenomenon in computer science is currying, where the cartesian product is adjoint to the hom functor.) Informally this is referred to as Eckmann–Hilton duality.
Applied electromagnetics Summary Electromagnetic_theory Electromagnetism has been studied since ancient times. Many ancient civilizations, including the Greeks and the Mayans created wide-ranging theories to explain lightning, static electricity, and the attraction between magnetized pieces of iron ore. However, it wasn't until the late 18th century that scientists began to develop a mathematical basis for understanding the nature of electromagnetic interactions.
Mole (architecture) Summary Mole_(architecture) A mole is a massive structure, usually of stone, used as a pier, breakwater, or a causeway separating two bodies of water. A mole may have a wooden structure built on top of it that resembles a wooden pier. The defining feature of a mole, however, is that water cannot freely flow underneath it, unlike a true pier.
Unified Science Summary Unified_Science Unified Science has been a consistent thread since the 1940s in Howard T. Odum's systems ecology and the associated Emergy Synthesis, modeling the "ecosystem": the geochemical, biochemical, and thermodynamic processes of the lithosphere and biosphere. Modeling such earthly processes in this manner requires a science uniting geology, physics, biology, and chemistry (H.T.Odum 1995). With this in mind, Odum developed a common language of science based on electronic schematics, with applications to ecology economic systems in mind (H.T.Odum 1994).
Gift-exchange game Critique Gift-exchange_game > Critique This has important consequence for empirical implementation. Gary Charness, Guillaume R. Frechette, and John H. kagel’s experiment, 'How Robust is Laboratory Gift Exchange?
Glossary of computer science F Glossary_of_computer_science > F field Data that has several parts, known as a record, can be divided into fields. Relational databases arrange data as sets of database records, so called rows. Each record consists of several fields; the fields of all records form the columns.
Language Log Contributors Language_Log > Contributors In addition to Liberman and Pullum, a number of other linguists contribute to Language Log: Adam Albright, a morphologist, phonologist, and assistant professor of linguistics at MIT Eric Baković, a phonologist and associate professor of linguistics at the University of California, San Diego. David Beaver, a semanticist and professor of linguistics at University of Texas at Austin Steven Bird, a computational linguist and associate professor of computer science at the University of Melbourne Lila Gleitman, a professor of linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania who specializes in psycholinguistics Daniel Jurafsky, an associate professor of linguistics at Stanford University who specializes in statistical models of human and machine language processing Victor H. Mair, an Indo-Europeanist, Sinologist and professor of Chinese language and Chinese literature at the University of Pennsylvania Norma Mendoza-Denton, a sociolinguist and assistant professor of anthropology at the University of Arizona John McWhorter, a fellow at the Manhattan Institute and former associate professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, specializing in creole languages Geoffrey Nunberg, chair of the American Heritage Dictionary usage panel and a professor at the UC Berkeley School of Information Barbara Partee, a semanticist and Professor Emerita at University of Massachusetts Amherst Bill Poser, a phonologist and adjunct professor of linguistics at the University of British Columbia Chris Potts, an associate professor of linguistics at Stanford University who specializes in semantics, pragmatics, and syntax Philip Resnik, a computational linguist and professor of linguistics at the University of Maryland, College Park Roger Shuy, Distinguished Research Professor of Linguistics, Emeritus of Georgetown University and a specialist in language and law. Sally Thomason, a professor of linguistics at the University of Michigan who specializes in contact-induced language change and Salishan linguistics Benjamin Zimmer, research associate at the Institute for Research in Cognitive Science at the University of Pennsylvania and consultant to the Oxford English Dictionary Arnold Zwicky, visiting professor of linguistics at Stanford University and emeritus professor of linguistics at Ohio State University
Biotic Ligand Model History Biotic_Ligand_Model > History Once these parameters are obtained, the next step is to calculate the speciation of the metals in the water sample. Then look at the competitive interaction factor (CIF) and the effective toxicant concentration (ETC) of the metals—then effective toxicant concentration is compared to laboratory observations. The limitations of the FIAM and GSIM were important in the genesis of the BLM and both the FIAM and the GSIM led to the development of the biotic ligand model.
Brain Summary Brain A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of neurons in the cerebellum is 55–70 billion.
Application sharing Granting access Application_sharing > Granting access One example of software that features application sharing in this manner is MSN Messenger. 3. The shared content (being an application or entire desktop) can be accessed using a permission based software approach. This technique helps to ensure that the application or desktop being controlled cannot be accessed without direct live approval, helping to eliminate the security risk of taking control of a desktop when the user is not present.
Privatization (computer programming) Privatization Privatization_(computer_programming) > Description > Privatization See § Example 1. When the variable is read before it is written by the same task. The difference here is that the value the task is trying to read is one from a prior computing step in another task.
GNU C++ Summary GNU_C_Compiler It has played an important role in the growth of free software, as both a tool and an example. When it was first released in 1987 by Richard Stallman, GCC 1.0 was named the GNU C Compiler since it only handled the C programming language. It was extended to compile C++ in December of that year.
Structure constant Summary Structure_constants In mathematics, the structure constants or structure coefficients of an algebra over a field are the coefficients of the basis expansion (into linear combination of basis vectors) of the products of basis vectors. Because the product operation in the algebra is bilinear, by linearity knowing the product of basis vectors allows to compute the product of any elements (just like a matrix allows to compute the action of the linear operator on any vector by providing the action of the operator on basis vectors). Therefore, the structure constants can be used to specify the product operation of the algebra (just like a matrix defines a linear operator).
Permeability constant Summary Vacuum_permeability The vacuum magnetic permeability (variously vacuum permeability, permeability of free space, permeability of vacuum), also known as the magnetic constant, is the magnetic permeability in a classical vacuum. It is a physical constant, conventionally written as μ0 (pronounced "mu nought" or "mu zero"). Its purpose is to quantify the strength of the magnetic field emitted by an electric current. Expressed in terms of SI base units, it has the unit kg⋅m⋅s−2·A−2.
Bathing suit Summary Competitive_swimwear The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear.
Vitamin K reaction Dermatological reactions Vitamin_K_reaction > Dermatological reactions There are two patterns of injection site reactions, (1) a reaction may occur several days to 2 weeks after injection with skin lesions that are pruritic, red patches and plaques that can deep-seated, involving the dermis and subcutaneous tissue, or (2) with subcutaneous sclerosis with or without fasciitis, that appears at the site of injection many months after treatment. : 123 The latter reaction is known as Texier's disease and lasts several years. : 123 Vitamin K reactions can occur on the skin but due to its varying presentation, healthcare providers have a difficult time diagnosing it. After Vitamin K injection is administered there are two potential cutaneous effects that can occur.
GNU make Example makefiles GNU_make > Example makefiles Many systems come with predefined Make rules and macros to specify common tasks such as compilation based on file suffix. This lets users omit the actual (often unportable) instructions of how to generate the target from the source(s). On such a system the makefile above could be modified as follows: That "helloworld.o" depends on "helloworld.c" is now automatically handled by Make.
ScanIP Reverse engineering ScanIP > Application areas > Reverse engineering With ScanIP, it is possible to reverse engineer legacy parts and other geometries that cannot be accurately created in CAD. Scans of objects can be visualised and processed in ScanIP to learn more about their original design, and exported as FE and CFD models for simulation of physical properties. The software has applications in aerospace, automotive and other fields needing to generate accurate 3D models from scans. Other applications include being able to reverse engineer consumer products in order to analyse their properties, or study how they interact with the human body without the need for invasive testing.
Penicillin Antistaphylococcal antibiotics Penicillin-class_antibacterial > Types > Antibiotics created from 6-APA > Antistaphylococcal antibiotics Cloxacillin (by mouth or by injection) Dicloxacillin (by mouth or by injection) Flucloxacillin (by mouth or by injection) Methicillin (injection only) Nafcillin (injection only) Oxacillin (by mouth or by injection)Antistaphylococcal antibiotics are so-called because they are resistant to being broken down by staphylococcal penicillinase. They are also, therefore, referred to as being penicillinase-resistant.
Global digital divide Institutional access Global_digital_divide > Obstacles to a solution > Institutional access In illustrating institutional access, Wilson states "the numbers of users are greatly affected by whether access is offered only through individual homes or whether it is offered through schools, community centers, religious institutions, cybercafés, or post offices, especially in poor countries where computer access at work or home is highly limited". : 303
Monte Carlo analysis Philosophy Monte-Carlo_methods > Use in mathematics > Philosophy Popular exposition of the Monte Carlo Method was conducted by McCracken. The method's general philosophy was discussed by Elishakoff and Grüne-Yanoff and Weirich.
Use of force Summary Use_of_force The use of force, in the context of law enforcement, may be defined as the "amount of effort required by police to compel compliance by an unwilling subject".Use of force doctrines can be employed by law enforcement officers and military personnel on guard duty. The aim of such doctrines is to balance the needs of security with ethical concerns for the rights and well-being of intruders or suspects. Injuries to civilians tend to focus attention on self-defense as a justification and, in the event of death, the notion of justifiable homicide.
Protein domain Methods Protein_domains > Domain definition from structural co-ordinates > Methods The method RIBFIND developed by Pandurangan and Topf identifies rigid bodies in protein structures by performing spacial clustering of secondary structural elements in proteins. The RIBFIND rigid bodies have been used to flexibly fit protein structures into cryo electron microscopy density maps.A general method to identify dynamical domains, that is protein regions that behave approximately as rigid units in the course of structural fluctuations, has been introduced by Potestio et al. and, among other applications was also used to compare the consistency of the dynamics-based domain subdivisions with standard structure-based ones. The method, termed PiSQRD, is publicly available in the form of a webserver. The latter allows users to optimally subdivide single-chain or multimeric proteins into quasi-rigid domains based on the collective modes of fluctuation of the system. By default the latter are calculated through an elastic network model; alternatively pre-calculated essential dynamical spaces can be uploaded by the user.
Tachistoscope Applications Tachistoscope > Applications Before computers became universal, tachistoscopes were used extensively in psychological research to present visual stimuli for controlled durations. Some experiments employed pairs of tachistoscopes so that an experimental participant could be given different stimulation in each visual field. Tachistoscopes were used during the late 1960s in public schools as an aid to increased reading comprehension for speed reading. There were two types: the student would look through a lens similar to an aircraft bombsight viewfinder and read letters, words and phrases using manually advanced slide film.
Eugene Koonin Selected bibliography Eugene_Koonin > Selected bibliography Makarova, Kira S.; Wolf, Yuri I.; Alkhnbashi, Omer S.; Costa, Fabrizio; Shah, Shiraz A.; Saunders, Sita J.; Barrangou, Rodolphe; Brouns, Stan J. J.; Charpentier, Emmanuelle; Haft, Daniel H.; Horvath, Philippe; Moineau, Sylvain; Mojica, Francisco J. M.; Terns, Rebecca M.; Terns, Michael P.; White, Malcolm F.; Yakunin, Alexander F.; Garrett, Roger A.; van der Oost, John; Backofen, Rolf; Koonin, Eugene V. (2015-09-28). "An updated evolutionary classification of CRISPR–Cas systems".
Elasticity Coefficient Calculating elasticity coefficients Elasticity_Coefficient > Calculating elasticity coefficients Elasticity coefficients can be calculated either algebraically or by numerical means.
Animal architecture Thermoregulation Animal_architecture > Functions > Thermoregulation Temperature extremes harm animals irrespective of whether they are endothermic or ectothermic. In endothermic animals, construction of shelters, coupled with behavioural patterns, reduces the quantity and energy cost of thermoregulation, as in the case of the Arctic ground squirrels.In ectothermic animals, moderation of temperature, along with architectural modifications to absorb, trap or dissipate energy, maximises the rate of development, as in the case of the communal silk nests of the small eggar moth Eriogaster lanestris. The primary sources of energy for an animal are the sun and its metabolism. The dynamics of heat in animal shelters is influenced by the construction material which may act as a barrier, as a heat sink or to dissipate heat.
Bombing Nuclear fission Briefcase_bomb > Types > Nuclear fission Nuclear fission type atomic bombs utilize the energy present in very heavy atomic nuclei, such as U-235 or Pu-239. In order to release this energy rapidly, a certain amount of the fissile material must be very rapidly consolidated while being exposed to a neutron source. If consolidation occurs slowly, repulsive forces drive the material apart before a significant explosion can occur. Under the right circumstances, rapid consolidation can provoke a chain reaction that can proliferate and intensify by many orders of magnitude within microseconds. The energy released by a nuclear fission bomb may be tens of thousands of times greater than a chemical bomb of the same mass.
Noise pollution Impacts on communication Noise_pollution > Impacts > Impacts on communication Research has found that this species of grasshopper changes its mating call in response to loud traffic noise. Lampe and Schmoll (2012) found that male grasshoppers from quiet habitats have a local frequency maximum of about 7319 Hz.In contrast, male grasshoppers exposed to loud traffic noise can create signals with a higher local frequency maximum of 7622 Hz.
Linear code Definition and parameters Non-linear_code > Definition and parameters The size of a code is the number of codewords and equals qk. The weight of a codeword is the number of its elements that are nonzero and the distance between two codewords is the Hamming distance between them, that is, the number of elements in which they differ. The distance d of the linear code is the minimum weight of its nonzero codewords, or equivalently, the minimum distance between distinct codewords.
Snow line Background Snow_line > Background The term "orographic snow line" is used to describe the snow boundary on surfaces other than glaciers. The term "regional snow line" is used to describe large areas. The "permanent snow line" is the level above which snow will lie all year.
Relative time The train-and-platform Relative_time > Thought experiments > The train-and-platform For the observer standing on the platform, on the other hand, the rear of the traincar is moving (catching up) toward the point at which the flash was given off, and the front of the traincar is moving away from it. As the speed of light is finite and the same in all directions for all observers, the light headed for the back of the train will have less distance to cover than the light headed for the front. Thus, the flashes of light will strike the ends of the traincar at different times.
Renal System Diagnosis Human_kidney > Clinical significance > Diagnosis Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed medical history, and physical examination. The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease. Kidney function is tested by using blood tests and urine tests. The most common blood tests are creatinine, urea and electrolytes.
Resolution by Proxy Background and Rationale Resolution_by_Proxy > Background and Rationale Other NMR structures have very few constraints, poor geometry or poor structure quality and very loose ensembles (RMSDs > 3 Å). However, there is no simple mapping between NMR RMSD values and X-ray resolution values. That is, an NMR ensemble with 1 Å RMSD does not correspond in quality or precision to an X-ray structure with 1 Å resolution.
Solar panels on spacecraft Uses Solar_panels_on_spacecraft > Uses Solar panels on spacecraft supply power for two main uses: Power to run the sensors, active heating, cooling and telemetry. Power for electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, sometimes called electric propulsion or solar-electric propulsion.For both uses, a key figure of merit of the solar panels is the specific power (watts generated divided by solar array mass), which indicates on a relative basis how much power one array will generate for a given launch mass relative to another. Another key metric is stowed packing efficiency (deployed watts produced divided by stowed volume), which indicates how easily the array will fit into a launch vehicle. Yet another key metric is cost (dollars per watt).To increase the specific power, typical solar panels on spacecraft use close-packed solar cell rectangles that cover nearly 100% of the Sun-visible area of the solar panels, rather than the solar wafer circles which, even though close-packed, cover about 90% of the Sun-visible area of typical solar panels on Earth. However, some solar panels on spacecraft have solar cells that cover only 30% of the Sun-visible area.
Psoriasis Cardiovascular complications Intertriginous_psoriasis > Co-morbidities > Cardiovascular complications There is 2.2 times increased risk of cardiovascular complications in people with psoriasis. Also, people with psoriasis are more susceptible to myocardial infarction (heart attack) and stroke. It has been speculated that there is systemic inflammation in psoriasis, which drives “psoriatic march” and can cause other inflammatory complications including cardiovascular complications. A study used fluorodeoxyglucose F-18 positron emission tomography computed tomography (FDG PET/CT) to measure aortic vascular inflammation in psoriasis patients, and found increased coronary artery disease indices, including total plaque burden, luminal stenosis, and high-risk plaques in people with psoriasis. Similarly, it was found that there is 11% reduction in aortic vascular inflammation when there is 75% reduction in PASI score.
258 (number) In mathematics 258_(number) > In mathematics 258 is: a sphenic number a nontotient the sum of four consecutive prime numbers because 258 = 59 + 61 + 67 + 71 63 + 62 + 6 an Ulam number == References ==
Memory improvement Techniques to improve memory: visual memory Memory_improvement > Strategies > Personal Application & Intellectual Conception > Techniques to improve memory: visual memory For example, using the location of a driving route to work is more effective than using a room within a home because items in a room can be moved around while a route to work is more constant without items being moved around. There are limitations when using method of loci, it is difficult to recall any given item without working your way through the list sequence, which can be time consuming. Another limitation is that it is not useful when an individual is trying to learn and remember the real world. This mnemonic technique plus others are effective because they allow the learner to apply their own knowledge to enhance their memory recall.
Basic ferric acetate Summary Basic_ferric_acetate Ferric acetate is the acetate salt of the coordination complex + (OAc− is CH3CO2−). Commonly the salt is known as "basic iron acetate". The formation of the red-brown complex was once used as a test for ferric ions.
Multidimensional Scaling Procedure Multi_dimensional_scaling_(in_marketing) > Procedure How the dimensions of the embedding actually correspond to dimensions of system behavior, however, are not necessarily obvious. Here, a subjective judgment about the correspondence can be made (see perceptual mapping). Test the results for reliability and validity – Compute R-squared to determine what proportion of variance of the scaled data can be accounted for by the MDS procedure.
Eyring equation Summary Eyring_equation The Eyring equation (occasionally also known as Eyring–Polanyi equation) is an equation used in chemical kinetics to describe changes in the rate of a chemical reaction against temperature. It was developed almost simultaneously in 1935 by Henry Eyring, Meredith Gwynne Evans and Michael Polanyi. The equation follows from the transition state theory, also known as activated-complex theory. If one assumes a constant enthalpy of activation and constant entropy of activation, the Eyring equation is similar to the empirical Arrhenius equation, despite the Arrhenius equation being empirical and the Eyring equation based on statistical mechanical justification.
Carbon accounting Limitations Carbon_emissions_reporting > Limitations Lack of high-quality data can also affect the accuracy of Scope 3 estimates for particular categories of upstream and downstream sources that influence Scope 3 estimates. Companies may neglect to include key Scope 3 categories when reporting to organizations such as CDP. As of 2020, only 18% of the constituents of MSCI's global security index reported Scope 3 emissions.
Karl Kunisch Life and work Karl_Kunisch > Life and work Kunisch was invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Hyderabad, 2010. In 2015, he received an Advanced Grant of the European Research Council on the topic of From Open to Closed Loop Control. Since 2017, he is a SIAM Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). He was awarded the W. T. and Idalia Reid Prize 2021.
Epidemiology of schizophrenia By age and gender Epidemiology_of_schizophrenia > By age and gender As a result, the lower social classes are more likely to be living with their illness untreated.It is generally accepted that women tend to present with schizophrenia anywhere between 4–10 years after their male counterparts. However, using broad criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia shows that males have a bimodal age of onset, with peaks at 21.4 years and 39.2 years old, while females have a trimodal age of onset with peaks at 22.4, 36.6, and 61.5 years old.This additional post-menopausal peak of late-onset schizophrenia in women calls into question the etiology of the disease and raises a debate about "subtypes" of schizophrenia, with men and women being susceptible to different types (see causes of schizophrenia). This is further supported by the variability in presentation of the disease between the genders.Other theories that may explain this difference include protective or predisposing factors in men or women that may render them more (or less) susceptible to the disease at different points in life. For example, estrogen may be a protective factor for women, as estradiol has been found to be effective in treating schizophrenia when added to antipsychotic therapy.
Quantized gauge theories An example: Electrodynamics Gauge_transformations > Classical gauge theory > An example: Electrodynamics The gauge principle is therefore seen to naturally introduce the so-called minimal coupling of the electromagnetic field to the electron field. Adding a Lagrangian for the gauge field A μ ( x ) {\displaystyle A_{\mu }(x)} in terms of the field strength tensor exactly as in electrodynamics, one obtains the Lagrangian used as the starting point in quantum electrodynamics. L QED = ψ ¯ ( i ℏ c γ μ D μ − m c 2 ) ψ − 1 4 μ 0 F μ ν F μ ν {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{QED}}={\bar {\psi }}\left(i\hbar c\,\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }-mc^{2}\right)\psi -{\frac {1}{4\mu _{0}}}F_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }}
Map–territory relation Relationship Map–territory_relation > Relationship With this quotation of Josiah Royce, Borges describes a further conundrum of when the map is contained within the territory, infinite regress: The inventions of philosophy are no less fantastic than those of art: Josiah Royce, in the first volume of his work The World and the Individual (1899), has formulated the following: 'Let us imagine that a portion of the soil of England has been levelled off perfectly and that on it a cartographer traces a map of England. The job is perfect; there is no detail of the soil of England, no matter how minute, that is not registered on the map; everything has there its correspondence. This map, in such a case, should contain a map of the map, which should contain a map of the map of the map, and so on to infinity.'
Modern quantum theory The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom Modern_quantum_theory > Old quantum theory > The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory, orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second. A second, related puzzle was the emission spectrum of atoms. When a gas is heated, it gives off light only at discrete frequencies.
Involute gear Summary Involute_gear The tangent at any point of the curve is perpendicular to the generating line irrespective of the mounting distance of the gears. Thus the line of the force follows the generating line, and is thus tangent to the two base circles, and is known as the line of action (also called pressure line or line of contact). When this is true, the gears obey the fundamental law of gearing: The angular velocity ratio between two gears of a gearset must remain constant throughout the mesh.
Symmetric polynomials Schur polynomials Symmetric_polynomials > Special kinds of symmetric polynomials > Schur polynomials Another class of symmetric polynomials is that of the Schur polynomials, which are of fundamental importance in the applications of symmetric polynomials to representation theory. They are however not as easy to describe as the other kinds of special symmetric polynomials; see the main article for details.
Regularization (mathematics) Classification Regularization_(machine_learning) > Classification From a Bayesian point of view, many regularization techniques correspond to imposing certain prior distributions on model parameters.Regularization can serve multiple purposes, including learning simpler models, inducing models to be sparse and introducing group structure into the learning problem. The same idea arose in many fields of science. A simple form of regularization applied to integral equations (Tikhonov regularization) is essentially a trade-off between fitting the data and reducing a norm of the solution. More recently, non-linear regularization methods, including total variation regularization, have become popular.
Bias–variance tradeoff In regression Bias–variance_tradeoff > Applications > In regression The bias–variance decomposition forms the conceptual basis for regression regularization methods such as Lasso and ridge regression. Regularization methods introduce bias into the regression solution that can reduce variance considerably relative to the ordinary least squares (OLS) solution. Although the OLS solution provides non-biased regression estimates, the lower variance solutions produced by regularization techniques provide superior MSE performance.
Case based reasoning History Case_based_reasoning > History CBR has been used extensively in applications such as the Compaq SMART system and has found a major application area in the health sciences, as well as in structural safety management. There is recent work that develops CBR within a statistical framework and formalizes case-based inference as a specific type of probabilistic inference. Thus, it becomes possible to produce case-based predictions equipped with a certain level of confidence. One description of the difference between CBR and induction from instances is that statistical inference aims to find what tends to make cases similar while CBR aims to encode what suffices to claim similarly.
Cylindrical multipole moments Interior cylindrical multipole moments Cylindrical_multipole_moments > Interior cylindrical multipole moments Similarly, the interior cylindrical multipole expansion has the functional form where the moments are defined
Tesla coils Excitation Magnifying_Transmitter > Types > Excitation The rapid separation speed of the electrodes quenches the spark quickly, allowing "first notch" quenching, making possible higher voltages. The wheel is usually driven by a synchronous motor, so the sparks are synchronized with the AC line frequency, the spark occurring at the same point on the AC waveform on each cycle, so the primary pulses are repeatable. Switched or Solid State Tesla Coil (SSTC): These use power semiconductor devices, usually thyristors or transistors such as MOSFETs or IGBTs, triggered by a solid state oscillator circuit to switch pulses of voltage from a DC power supply through the primary winding.
Sina Weibo Features Sina_Weibo > Features Sina Weibo users interact more than Twitter users do, and while many topics that go viral on Weibo also originate from the platform itself, Twitter topics often come from outside news or events.During the outbreak of the COVID-19, Weibo was also a data collecting station to collect and detect the spread of the coronavirus.Trending topics Sina Weibo's "trending topics" is a list of current popular topics based partly on tracking user participation and partly on the preference of Weibo staff. Once a topic is trending, it often becomes a heated issue and can have wide-ranging social influence. As such, the list has reshaped how Chinese people relate to the news media.
Semi-deterministic Büchi automaton L(A) ⊆ L(A') Semi-deterministic_Büchi_automaton > Transformation from a Büchi automaton > L(A) ⊆ L(A') A contradiction has been derived. Hence, ρ' is an accepting run and w ∈ L(A'). == References ==
Forced vital capacity Summary Forced_vital_capacity Spirometry (meaning the measuring of breath) is the most common of the pulmonary function tests (PFTs). It measures lung function, specifically the amount (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. Spirometry is helpful in assessing breathing patterns that identify conditions such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and COPD. It is also helpful as part of a system of health surveillance, in which breathing patterns are measured over time.Spirometry generates pneumotachographs, which are charts that plot the volume and flow of air coming in and out of the lungs from one inhalation and one exhalation.
Prisoner's Dilemma Coordination games Prisoners'_dilemma > Related games > Coordination games In coordination games, players must coordinate their strategies for a good outcome. An example is two cars that abruptly meet in a blizzard; each must choose whether to swerve left or right. If both swerve left, or both right, the cars do not collide. The local left- and right-hand traffic convention helps to co-ordinate their actions. Symmetrical co-ordination games include Stag hunt and Bach or Stravinsky.
Parkinsonian tremor Other Parkinson_disease > Signs and symptoms > Other Sleep disorders occur with PD and can be worsened by medications. Symptoms can manifest as daytime drowsiness (including sudden sleep attacks resembling narcolepsy), disturbances in Rapid eye movement sleep, or insomnia. REM behavior disorder may begin years before the development of motor or cognitive elements of PD or dementia with Lewy bodies.Alterations in the autonomic nervous system can lead to orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure on standing), oily skin, excessive sweating, urinary incontinence, and altered sexual function.Changes in perception may include an impaired sense of smell, disturbed vision, pain, and paresthesia (tingling and numbness). These symptoms can occur years before diagnosis of the disease.
Velocity vs. time graph Summary Motion_graphs_and_derivatives This slope therefore defines the average acceleration over the interval, and reducing the interval infinitesimally gives d v d t {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\frac {dv}{dt}}\end{matrix}}} , the instantaneous acceleration at time t {\displaystyle t} , or the derivative of the velocity with respect to time (or the second derivative of the position with respect to time). In SI, this slope or derivative is expressed in the units of meters per second per second ( m / s 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {m/s^{2}} } , usually termed "meters per second-squared"). Since the velocity of the object is the derivative of the position graph, the area under the line in the velocity vs. time graph is the displacement of the object.
Lie commutator History Lie_derivative > History In 1931, Władysław Ślebodziński introduced a new differential operator, later called by David van Dantzig that of Lie derivation, which can be applied to scalars, vectors, tensors and affine connections and which proved to be a powerful instrument in the study of groups of automorphisms. The Lie derivatives of general geometric objects (i.e., sections of natural fiber bundles) were studied by A. Nijenhuis, Y. Tashiro and K. Yano. For a quite long time, physicists had been using Lie derivatives, without reference to the work of mathematicians. In 1940, Léon Rosenfeld—and before him (in 1921) Wolfgang Pauli—introduced what he called a ‘local variation’ δ ∗ A {\displaystyle \delta ^{\ast }A} of a geometric object A {\displaystyle A\,} induced by an infinitesimal transformation of coordinates generated by a vector field X {\displaystyle X\,} . One can easily prove that his δ ∗ A {\displaystyle \delta ^{\ast }A} is − L X ( A ) {\displaystyle -{\mathcal {L}}_{X}(A)\,} .
Phi bond Summary Phi_bond In chemistry, phi bonds (φ bonds) are covalent chemical bonds, where six lobes of one involved atomic orbital overlap six lobes of the other involved atomic orbital. This overlap leads to the formation of a bonding molecular orbital with three nodal planes which contain the internuclear axis and go through both atoms. The Greek letter φ in their name refers to f orbitals, since the orbital symmetry of the φ bond is the same as that of the usual (6-lobed) type of f orbital when seen down the bond axis. There was one possible candidate known in 2005 of a molecule with phi bonding (a U−U bond, in the molecule U2).
K. S. Chandrasekharan Selected works K._S._Chandrasekharan > Selected works with Salomon Bochner: Fourier Transforms. Princeton University Press. 1949. with S. Minakshisundaram: Typical means. Oxford University Press.
Construction and management simulation Business simulation and tycoon games Construction_and_management_simulation_games > Subgenres > Business simulation and tycoon games The closest example of a 'pure' economic simulation may be Capitalism, the goal of which is to build an industrial and financial empire. At a smaller and more concrete scale, a business simulation may put the player in charge of a business or commercial facility, designing its layouts, hiring staff, and implementing policies to manage the flow of customers and orders as the business grows. Such business simulations include Theme Hospital, Sim Tower, and Game Dev Story.
Euclidean point Points in Euclidean geometry Euclidean_point > Points in Euclidean geometry Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment, and other related concepts. A line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment.In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, that any two points can be connected by a straight line.
Paternal bond Summary Paternal_bond A paternal bond is the human bond between a father and his child.
Mathematical equations Algebraic and transcendental numbers Mathematical_equation > Number theory > Algebraic and transcendental numbers An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients). Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.
C Language C as an intermediate language C_program > Uses > C as an intermediate language C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code. However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C--. Also, contemporary major compilers GCC and LLVM both feature an intermediate representation that is not C, and those compilers support front ends for many languages including C.
Fermi contact interaction Use in magnetic resonance spectroscopy Fermi_contact_interaction > Use in magnetic resonance spectroscopy Roughly, the magnitude of A indicates the extent to which the unpaired spin resides on the nucleus. Thus, knowledge of the A values allows one to map the singly occupied molecular orbital.
Neurogenomics Personalized neurobiology Neurogenomics > Neuropharmacology > Personalized neurobiology Thus, the interpretation of family-specific genetic mutations and/or network-level disruptions in the onset of a rare psychiatric disorder requires careful consideration of the motivations of participants included in the study. That said, these issues can be addressed by effective education and counseling, and collection of genomic data from patients with psychiatric disorders should not be disqualified solely on this basis. The data itself serves as a dynamic health resource and can significantly further our understanding of the genomic basis of several psychiatric disorders.
Stochastic differential Terminology Stochastic_differential_equation > Background > Terminology The most common form of SDEs in the literature is an ordinary differential equation with the right hand side perturbed by a term dependent on a white noise variable. In most cases, SDEs are understood as continuous time limit of the corresponding stochastic difference equations. This understanding of SDEs is ambiguous and must be complemented by a proper mathematical definition of the corresponding integral. Such a mathematical definition was first proposed by Kiyosi Itô in the 1940s, leading to what is known today as the Itô calculus.
Glossary of chemistry terms E Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > E electrochemical cell A device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions, in which case it is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell, or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions, in which case it is known as an electrolytic cell. For example, a battery contains one or more galvanic cells, each of which consists of two electrodes arranged such that an oxidation–reduction reaction produces an electromotive force. electrochemistry A branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change, as understood through either the chemical reactions accompanying the passage of an electric current or the potential difference that results from a particular chemical reaction.
Landau–Zener transition Multistate problem Landau–Zener_formula > Multistate problem The model describes coupling of two (or one in the degenerate case limit) levels to a set of otherwise noninteracting diabatic states that cross at a single point. Driven Tavis–Cummings model describes interaction of N spins-½ with a bosonic mode in a linearly time-dependent magnetic field. This is the richest known solved system.
Glossary of environmental science L Glossary_of_environmental_science > L It is a flexible material and usually used as film for packaging or as bags. low entropy energy - to high-quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. Electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy (i.e. highest quality) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90%. In contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25% (cars) to 50 percent (modern power plants). The chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality.
Turing's proof Details of the third proof Turing's_proof > Summary of the proofs > Details of the third proof p. 17) Thus a "sentence" is a string of symbols, and a theorem is a string of strings of symbols. Turing is confronted with the following task: to convert a Universal Turing machine "program", and the numerical symbols on the tape (Turing's "figures", symbols "1" and "0"), into a "theorem"—that is, a (monstrously long) string of sentences that define the successive actions of the machine, (all) the figures of the tape, and the location of the "tape head".
Theoretical computer scientist Programming language theory and program semantics Theoretical_computer_scientist > Topics > Programming language theory and program semantics In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically legal strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically illegal strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will execute on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation.
System of units Non-standard units Systems_of_units > Non-standard units Non-standard measurement units also found in books, newspapers etc., include:
Present perfect continuous Active and passive voice Past_perfect_progressive > Active and passive voice For example: This room is tidied regularly. (simple present passive) It had already been accepted. (past perfect passive) Dinner is being cooked right now.
HTTP PUT Technical overview HTTP_request > Technical overview HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them, whenever possible, to reduce network traffic.
Rubber elasticity History Rubber_elasticity > History It is the network that gives rise to the elastic properties. Because of the enormous economic and technological importance of rubber, predicting how a molecular network responds to mechanical strains has been of enduring interest to scientists and engineers. To understand the elastic properties of rubber, theoretically, it is necessary to know both the physical mechanisms that occur at the molecular level and how the random-walk nature of the polymer chain defines the network. The physical mechanisms that occur within short sections of the polymer chains produce the elastic forces and the network morphology determines how these forces combine to produce the macroscopic stress that we observe when a rubber sample is deformed, e.g. subjected to tensile strain.
Extended release formulation Diffusion systems Time_release_technology > Methods > Diffusion systems Diffusion systems' rate release is dependent on the rate at which the drug dissolves through a barrier which is usually a type of polymer. Diffusion systems can be broken into two subcategories, reservoir devices and matrix devices. Reservoir devices coat the drug with polymers and in order for the reservoir devices to have sustained-release effects, the polymer must not dissolve and let the drug be released through diffusion. The rate of reservoir devices can be altered by changing the polymer and is possible be made to have zero-order release; however, drugs with higher molecular weight have difficulty diffusing through the membrane.
Neural architecture search One-shot models Neural_architecture_search > One-shot models RL or evolution-based NAS require thousands of GPU-days of searching/training to achieve state-of-the-art computer vision results as described in the NASNet, mNASNet and MobileNetV3 papers.To reduce computational cost, many recent NAS methods rely on the weight-sharing idea. In this approach a single overparameterized supernetwork (also known as the one-shot model) is defined. A supernetwork is a very large Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) whose subgraphs are different candidate neural networks.Thus in a supernetwork the weights are shared among a large number of different sub-architectures that have edges in common, each of which is considered as a path within the supernet. The essential idea is to train one supernetwork that spans many options for the final design rather than generating and training thousands of networks independently.
Polynomial functional calculus Spectral projections Polynomial_functional_calculus > Spectral considerations > Spectral projections Since P = P(K;T) is bounded and commutes with T it enables T to be expressed in the form U ⊕ V where U = T|PX and V = T|(1−P)X. Both PX and (1 − P)X are invariant subspaces of T moreover σ(U) = K and σ(V) = σ(T) \ K. A key property is mutual orthogonality. If L is another open and closed set in the subspace topology on σ(T) then P(K;T)P(L;T) = P(L;T)P(K;T) = P(K ∩ L;T) which is zero whenever K and L are disjoint. Spectral projections have numerous applications.
Co-adaptation Bacteria and bacteriophage Co-adaptation > Genes and Protein Complexes > Bacteria and bacteriophage Gene blocks in bacterial genomes are sequences of genes, co-located on the chromosome, that are evolutionarily conserved across numerous taxa. Some conserved blocks are operons, where the genes are cotranscribed to polycistronic mRNA, and such operons are often associated with a single function such as a metabolic pathway or a protein complex. The co-location of genes with related function and the preservation of these relationships over evolutionary time indicates that natural selection has been operating to maintain a co-adaptive benefit.
Lorentz invariance in loop quantum gravity Lie algebras and loop quantum gravity Lorentz_invariance_in_loop_quantum_gravity > Lie algebras and loop quantum gravity The physical interpretation of the Lie algebra is that of infinitesimally small group transformations, and gauge bosons (such as the graviton) are Lie algebra representations, not Lie group representations. What this means for the Lorentz group is that, for sufficiently small velocity parameters, all four complexified Lie groups are indistinguishable in the absence of matter fields. To make matters more complicated, it can be shown that a positive cosmological constant can be realized in LQG by replacing the Lorentz group with the corresponding quantum group.
Bloom filters Summary Bloom_filters The high level idea is to map elements x∈X to values y=h(x)∈Y using a hash function h, and then test for membership of x' in X by checking whether y'=h(x')∈Y, and do that using multiple hash functions h. Bloom proposed the technique for applications where the amount of source data would require an impractically large amount of memory if "conventional" error-free hashing techniques were applied. He gave the example of a hyphenation algorithm for a dictionary of 500,000 words, out of which 90% follow simple hyphenation rules, but the remaining 10% require expensive disk accesses to retrieve specific hyphenation patterns. With sufficient core memory, an error-free hash could be used to eliminate all unnecessary disk accesses; on the other hand, with limited core memory, Bloom's technique uses a smaller hash area but still eliminates most unnecessary accesses. For example, a hash area only 15% of the size needed by an ideal error-free hash still eliminates 85% of the disk accesses.More generally, fewer than 10 bits per element are required for a 1% false positive probability, independent of the size or number of elements in the set.
Time measurement Dilation Physical_time > Physical definition > Dilation Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion.
Complete orthonormal basis Summary Complete_orthogonal_system In mathematics, particularly linear algebra, an orthonormal basis for an inner product space V with finite dimension is a basis for V {\displaystyle V} whose vectors are orthonormal, that is, they are all unit vectors and orthogonal to each other. For example, the standard basis for a Euclidean space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} is an orthonormal basis, where the relevant inner product is the dot product of vectors. The image of the standard basis under a rotation or reflection (or any orthogonal transformation) is also orthonormal, and every orthonormal basis for R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} arises in this fashion. For a general inner product space V , {\displaystyle V,} an orthonormal basis can be used to define normalized orthogonal coordinates on V .
Peniche (fluid dynamics) Summary Peniche_(fluid_dynamics) The blocking of the peniche in the flow field leads to further displacement of the flow, which in turn leads to higher flow speeds and local angles of attack. How strong of an effect the peniche has is a function of the angle of attack, with the effect present at all angles. == References ==
HP RTR Special Characteristics HP_RTR > Special Characteristics RTR was one of the first OLTP middleware services that provided the following features (in addition of the usual ones), viz. Concurrent servers (a service could be offered by multiple entities, either as multiple threads within the same process, or as independent processes) Standby servers (a set of services that is capable of offering the services, if required, but not currently being asked to do so) Shadow servers (a set of services currently processing an identical set of requests as the primary servers)Additionally, RTR guarantees the data equivalence of the repositories behind the primary and shadow servers, by enforcing a deduced "dependency relationship" among the set of concurrent transactions being shadowed. This allows RTR to process multiple transactions on the shadow without compromising dependency violations.
Ohm's Law Microscopic origins Ohm's_Law > Microscopic origins The dependence of the current density on the applied electric field is essentially quantum mechanical in nature; (see Classical and quantum conductivity.) A qualitative description leading to Ohm's law can be based upon classical mechanics using the Drude model developed by Paul Drude in 1900.The Drude model treats electrons (or other charge carriers) like pinballs bouncing among the ions that make up the structure of the material. Electrons will be accelerated in the opposite direction to the electric field by the average electric field at their location. With each collision, though, the electron is deflected in a random direction with a velocity that is much larger than the velocity gained by the electric field.
Experimenter's regress Summary Experimenter's_regress as a result. The theory is the answer the scientist creates using logic and reason to explain the phenomenon. The scientist then focuses on how to conduct experiments to test the theory incrementally and the theory is either proven to be true or false through repeatable and legitimate experimentation.
Continuous-time Markov process Definition Continuous-time_Markov_process > Definition We say Q {\displaystyle Q} is irregular to mean Q {\displaystyle Q} is not regular. If S {\displaystyle S} is finite, then there is exactly one solution, namely P = ( e t Q ) t ∈ T , {\displaystyle P=(e^{tQ})_{t\in T},} and hence Q {\displaystyle Q} is regular. Otherwise, S {\displaystyle S} is infinite, and there exist irregular transition rate matrices on S {\displaystyle S} .
Pseudo-covariance matrix Covariance mapping Variance-covariance_matrix > Applications > Covariance mapping Unfortunately, this map is overwhelmed by uninteresting, common-mode correlations induced by laser intensity fluctuating from shot to shot. To suppress such correlations the laser intensity I j {\displaystyle I_{j}} is recorded at every shot, put into I {\displaystyle \mathbf {I} } and pcov ⁡ ( X , Y ∣ I ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {pcov} (\mathbf {X} ,\mathbf {Y} \mid \mathbf {I} )} is calculated as panels d and e show. The suppression of the uninteresting correlations is, however, imperfect because there are other sources of common-mode fluctuations than the laser intensity and in principle all these sources should be monitored in vector I {\displaystyle \mathbf {I} } . Yet in practice it is often sufficient to overcompensate the partial covariance correction as panel f shows, where interesting correlations of ion momenta are now clearly visible as straight lines centred on ionisation stages of atomic nitrogen.
Multidimensional discrete convolution Filtering on a helix Multidimensional_discrete_convolution > The helix transform > Filtering on a helix . . , 0 , − 1 , 0 , .
Metalloprotein Coordination chemistry principles Metalloprotein > Coordination chemistry principles The peptide backbone also provides donor groups; these include deprotonated amides and the amide carbonyl oxygen centers. Lead(II) binding in natural and artificial proteins has been reviewed.In addition to donor groups that are provided by amino acid residues, many organic cofactors function as ligands. Perhaps most famous are the tetradentate N4 macrocyclic ligands incorporated into the heme protein. Inorganic ligands such as sulfide and oxide are also common.
Trinity (The Matrix) The Matrix Revolutions Trinity_(The_Matrix) > Role in the films > The Matrix Revolutions In The Matrix Revolutions, the third installment of the Matrix series, Trinity helps rescue Neo from a cut-off segment of the Matrix, where he is being held by a program in the employ of the Merovingian. In the real world, Trinity goes with Neo to the Machine City in an attempt to negotiate with the Machines. While attempting to evade Machine pursuers, their hovercraft crashes, and Trinity is fatally impaled by a piece of rebar. She dies in Neo's arms, and he negotiates a truce with the Machines to enter the Matrix and wipe out the Agent Smith infection. Afterward, the Architect meets with the Oracle and promises that any humans wishing to leave the Matrix will be freed.
Vector rejection Vector projection Vector_projection > Definitions based on angle θ > Vector projection The vector projection of a on b is a vector whose magnitude is the scalar projection of a on b with the same direction as b. Namely, it is defined as where a 1 {\displaystyle a_{1}} is the corresponding scalar projection, as defined above, and b ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {b}} } is the unit vector with the same direction as b: