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Smoothing filter Rectifier output smoothing Electrolytic_rectifier > Rectifier output smoothing In its simplest form this can be just a capacitor (functioning as both a smoothing capacitor as well as a reservoir, buffer or bulk capacitor), choke, resistor, Zener diode and resistor, or voltage regulator placed at the output of the rectifier. In practice, most smoothing filters utilize multiple components to efficiently reduce ripple voltage to a level tolerable by the circuit. The filter capacitor releases its stored energy during the part of the AC cycle when the AC source does not supply any power, that is, when the AC source changes its direction of flow of current.
Population change Population trends Population_change > Population trends The change in total population over a period is equal to the number of births, minus the number of deaths, plus or minus the net amount of migration in a population. The number of births can be projected as the number of females at each relevant age multiplied by the assumed fertility rate. The number of deaths can be projected as the sum of the numbers of each age and sex in the population multiplied by their respective mortality rates. For many centuries, the overall population of the world changed relatively slowly: very broadly, the numbers of births were balanced by numbers of deaths (including high rates of infant immortality).
Mathematics of artificial neural networks Neural networks as functions Mathematics_of_artificial_neural_networks > Neural networks as functions The first view is the functional view: the input x {\displaystyle \textstyle x} is transformed into a 3-dimensional vector h {\displaystyle \textstyle h} , which is then transformed into a 2-dimensional vector g {\displaystyle \textstyle g} , which is finally transformed into f {\displaystyle \textstyle f} . This view is most commonly encountered in the context of optimization. The second view is the probabilistic view: the random variable F = f ( G ) {\displaystyle \textstyle F=f(G)} depends upon the random variable G = g ( H ) {\displaystyle \textstyle G=g(H)} , which depends upon H = h ( X ) {\displaystyle \textstyle H=h(X)} , which depends upon the random variable X {\displaystyle \textstyle X} .
Karl Popper Falsifiability and the problem of demarcation Karl_Popper > Philosophy > Philosophy of science > Falsifiability and the problem of demarcation Alan Chalmers gives "The brick fell upward when released" as an example of an imaginary observation that shows that Newton's law of gravitation is falsifiable.In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge—that is, how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time. This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified. With only falsifications being possible logically, how can we explain the growth of knowledge?
Biomechanics Continuum biomechanics Biofluid_mechanics > Subfields > Continuum biomechanics Mechanical deformation of hard tissues (like wood, shell and bone) may be analysed with the theory of linear elasticity. On the other hand, soft tissues (like skin, tendon, muscle and cartilage) usually undergo large deformations and thus their analysis rely on the finite strain theory and computer simulations. The interest in continuum biomechanics is spurred by the need for realism in the development of medical simulation. : 568
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) Design and construction Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge_(1940) > Design and construction They showed that the stiffness of the main cables (via the suspenders) would absorb up to one-half of the static wind pressure pushing a suspended structure laterally. This energy would then be transmitted to the anchorages and towers.
Regularity problem Summary Regularity_problem Regularity is a property of elliptic partial differential equations such as Laplace's equation. Hilbert's nineteenth problem was concerned with this concept. == References ==
Temporal gauge An illustration Feynman_gauge > Gauge freedom > An illustration Almost any line is a valid gauge fixing, i.e., there is a large gauge freedom. In summary, to tell whether the rod is twisted, the gauge must be known. Physical quantities, such as the energy of the torsion, do not depend on the gauge, i.e., they are gauge invariant.
Sierpinski curve Uses of the curve Sierpiński_curve > Uses of the curve The Sierpiński curve is useful in several practical applications because it is more symmetrical than other commonly studied space-filling curves. For example, it has been used as a basis for the rapid construction of an approximate solution to the Travelling Salesman Problem (which asks for the shortest sequence of a given set of points): The heuristic is simply to visit the points in the same sequence as they appear on the Sierpiński curve. To do this requires two steps: First compute an inverse image of each point to be visited; then sort the values. This idea has been used to build routing systems for commercial vehicles based only on Rolodex card files.A space-filling curve is a continuous map of the unit interval onto a unit square and so a (pseudo) inverse maps the unit square to the unit interval.
Chemical Thermodynamics Chemical affinity Chemical_energetics > Chemical reactions > Chemical affinity The expressions above are equal to zero at thermodynamic equilibrium, while they are negative when chemical reactions proceed at a finite rate, producing entropy. This can be made even more explicit by introducing the reaction rates dξj/dt. For every physically independent process (Prigogine & Defay, p.
Easy Programming Language Summary Easy_Programming_Language Easy Programming Language (EPL, Chinese: 易语言) is a visual compiled multilingual proprietary programming language. EPL is somewhat popular in China because it features a full Chinese environment. (The language has traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, English and Japanese variants.) In addition, it is cross-platform, as it currently supports both Microsoft Windows and Linux. It is object-oriented and structured.
Codd's cellular automaton Summary Codd's_cellular_automaton Codd's cellular automaton is a cellular automaton (CA) devised by the British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd in 1968. It was designed to recreate the computation- and construction-universality of von Neumann's CA but with fewer states: 8 instead of 29. Codd showed that it was possible to make a self-reproducing machine in his CA, in a similar way to von Neumann's universal constructor, but never gave a complete implementation.
Move semantics Rvalue references and move constructors C++11 > Extensions to the C++ core language > Core language runtime performance enhancements > Rvalue references and move constructors Hence, the operation not only forgoes the expense of a deep copy, but is safe and invisible. Rvalue references can provide performance benefits to existing code without needing to make any changes outside the standard library.
Magnetic surveys Overview Magnetic_survey_(archaeology) > Overview Environmental processes such as repeated vegetation fires and redox reactions caused by wetting and drying of the soil convert iron compounds to oxide maghemite (y-Fe2O3). Associated anthropogenic activities such as lighting fires or irrigated farming accentuate this effect. Magnetometry is therefore useful for finding pits and ditches which have been backfilled with topsoil, with a higher magnetic susceptibility than the surroundings. Roads and structures are also visible from magnetic surveys since they can be detected because the susceptibility of the subsoil material used in their construction is lower than the surrounding topsoil.
Molybdenum ditelluride Crystal form Molybdenum(IV)_telluride > Physical properties > Crystal form At temperatures above 900 °C MoTe2 crystallises in the monoclinic 1T form (β–MoTe2), with space group P21/m with unit cell sizes of a=6.33 Å b=3.469 Å and c=13.86 Å with the angle β=93°55′. The high-temperature form has rod shaped crystals. The measured density of this polymorph is 7.5 g·cm−3, but in theory it should be 7.67 g·cm−3.
Kepler-40b Summary Kepler-40b Kepler-40b, formerly known as KOI-428b, is a hot Jupiter discovered in orbit around the star Kepler-40, which is about to become a red giant. The planet was first noted as a transit event by NASA's Kepler spacecraft. The Kepler team made data collected by its satellite publicly available, including data on Kepler-40; French and Swiss astronomers used the equivalent to one night of measurements on the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph to collect all the data needed to show that a planet was producing the periodic dimming of Kepler-40. The planet, Kepler-40b, is twice the mass of Jupiter and slightly larger than it in size, making it as dense as Neptune. The planet is also nearly thirteen times hotter than Jupiter and orbits five times closer to its star than Mercury is from the Sun.
Ring class field Summary Ring_class_field In mathematics, a ring class field is the abelian extension of an algebraic number field K associated by class field theory to the ring class group of some order O of the ring of integers of K.
Piezoelectric accelerometer Manufacturing Piezoelectric_accelerometer > Manufacturing There are two common methods used to manufacture accelerometers. One is based upon the principles of piezoresistance and the other is based on the principles of piezoelectricity. Both methods ensure that unwanted orthogonal acceleration vectors are excluded from detection.
G force Measurement using an accelerometer G-force > Measurement using an accelerometer An accelerometer, in its simplest form, is a damped mass on the end of a spring, with some way of measuring how far the mass has moved on the spring in a particular direction, called an 'axis'. Accelerometers are often calibrated to measure g-force along one or more axes. If a stationary, single-axis accelerometer is oriented so that its measuring axis is horizontal, its output will be 0 g, and it will continue to be 0 g if mounted in an automobile traveling at a constant velocity on a level road. When the driver presses on the brake or gas pedal, the accelerometer will register positive or negative acceleration.
Schema matching Approaches Schema_matching > Schema matching > Approaches Constraint based matchers exploit constraints often contained in schemas. Such constraints are used to define data types and value ranges, uniqueness, optionality, relationship types and cardinalities, etc. Constraints in two input schemas are matched to determine the similarity of the schema elements. Instance-level matchers use instance-level data to gather important insight into the contents and meaning of the schema elements.
Pedestrian motion Biomechanics Pedestrian_motion > Biomechanics The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. While walking, the muscles of the calf contract, raising the body's center of mass, while this muscle is contracted potential energy is stored. Then gravity pulls the body forward and down onto the other leg and the potential energy is then transformed into kinetic energy.
The problem of infinities Two-point correlation function Quantum_theory_of_fields > Principles > Two-point correlation function }}\phi _{I}(x)^{4}} ,: 84 and the expansion of the two-point correlator in terms of λ {\displaystyle \lambda } becomesThis perturbation expansion expresses the interacting two-point function in terms of quantities ⟨ 0 | ⋯ | 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 0|\cdots |0\rangle } that are evaluated in the free theory. In the path integral formulation, the two-point correlation function can be written: 284 ⟨ Ω | T { ϕ ( x ) ϕ ( y ) } | Ω ⟩ = lim T → ∞ ( 1 − i ϵ ) ∫ D ϕ ϕ ( x ) ϕ ( y ) exp ⁡ ∫ D ϕ exp ⁡ , {\displaystyle \langle \Omega |T\{\phi (x)\phi (y)\}|\Omega \rangle =\lim _{T\to \infty (1-i\epsilon )}{\frac {\int {\mathcal {D}}\phi \,\phi (x)\phi (y)\exp \left}{\int {\mathcal {D}}\phi \,\exp \left}},} where L {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}} is the Lagrangian density. As in the previous paragraph, the exponential can be expanded as a series in λ, reducing the interacting two-point function to quantities in the free theory.
Cingulate cortex Inputs of the anterior cingulate gyrus Cingulate_cortex > Structure > Inputs of the anterior cingulate gyrus A retrograde tracing experiment on macaque monkeys revealed that the ventral anterior nucleus (VA) and the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) of the thalamus are connected with motor areas of the cingulate sulcus. The retrosplenial region (Brodmann's area 26, 29 and 30) of cingulate gyrus can be divided into three parts: i.e., retrosplenial granular cortex A, retrosplenial granular cortex B and retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The hippocampal formation sends dense projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A and B and fewer projections to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The postsubiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A and B and to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex. The dorsal subiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex B, while ventral subiculum sends projections to retrosplenial granular cortex A. Entorhinal cortex – caudal parts – sends projections to the retrosplenial dysgranular cortex.
Earthquake location Epicentral distance Earthquake_location > Epicentral distance This distance is called the epicentral distance, commonly measured in ° (degrees) and denoted as Δ (delta) in seismology. The Láska's empirical rule provides an approximation of epicentral distance in the range of 2 000 − 10 000 km. Once distances from the epicenter have been calculated from at least three seismographic measuring stations, the point can be located, using trilateration. Epicentral distance is also used in calculating seismic magnitudes as developed by Richter and Gutenberg.
History of speciation Biogeographic influence History_of_speciation > Biogeographic influence Mayr's 1942 publication, influenced heavily by the ideas of Karl Jordan and Poulton, was regarded as the authoritative review of speciation for over 20 years—and is still valuable today.A major focus of Mayr's works was on the importance of geography in facilitating speciation; with islands often acting as a central theme to many of the speciation concepts put forth. One of which was the concept of peripatric speciation, a variant of allopatric speciation (he has since distinguished the two modes by referring to them as peripatric and dichopatric). This concept arose by an interpretation of Wagner's Separationstheorie as a form of founder effect speciation that focused on small geographically isolated species. This model was later expanded and modified to incorporate sexual selection by Kenneth Y. Kaneshiro in 1976 and 1980.
Vitamin B3 Mechanism of action Vitamin_B3 > Mechanism of action Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), along with its phosphorylated variant nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), are utilized in transfer reactions within DNA repair and calcium mobilization. NAD also plays a critical role in human metabolism, acting as a coenzyme in both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
Semiconservative replication Summary Semiconservative_replication Semiconservative replication describe the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells. DNA replication occurs on multiple origins of replication along the DNA template strands. As the DNA double helix is unwound by helicase, replication occurs separately on each template strand in antiparallel directions. This process is known as semi-conservative replication because two copies of the original DNA molecule are produced, each copy conserving (replicating) the information from one half of the original DNA molecule.
Supply and Demand Equilibrium Supply_and_Demand > Microeconomics > Equilibrium The quantity demanded at each price is the same as before the supply shift, reflecting the fact that the demand curve has not shifted. But due to the change (shift) in supply, the equilibrium quantity and price have changed. The movement of the supply curve in response to a change in a non-price determinant of supply is caused by a change in the y-intercept, the constant term of the supply equation. The supply curve shifts up and down the y axis as non-price determinants of demand change.
Foundations of statistics Grounds of disagreement Foundations_of_statistics > Fisher's "significance testing" vs. Neyman–Pearson "hypothesis testing" > Grounds of disagreement These arguments occurred 15 years after textbooks began teaching a hybrid theory of statistical testing. Fisher and Neyman held different perspectives on the foundations of statistics (though they both opposed the Bayesian viewpoint): The interpretation of probability The disagreement between Fisher's inductive reasoning and Neyman's inductive behavior reflected the Bayesian-Frequentist divide. Fisher was willing to revise his opinion (reaching a provisional conclusion) based on calculated probability, while Neyman was more inclined to adjust his observable behavior (making a decision) based on computed costs.
Ethereum Summary Ethereum_Virtual_Machine Ethereum allows anyone to deploy permanent and immutable decentralized applications onto it, with which users can interact. Decentralized finance (DeFi) applications provide financial instruments which do not directly rely on financial intermediaries like brokerages, exchanges, or banks. This facilitates borrowing against cryptocurrency holdings or lending them out for interest.
Units of mass Phenomena Unit_of_mass > Phenomena If a first body of mass mA is placed at a distance r (center of mass to center of mass) from a second body of mass mB, each body is subject to an attractive force Fg = GmAmB/r2, where G = 6.67×10−11 N⋅kg−2⋅m2 is the "universal gravitational constant". This is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. Repeated experiments since the 17th century have demonstrated that inertial and gravitational mass are identical; since 1915, this observation has been incorporated a priori in the equivalence principle of general relativity.
Vitamin B12-binding domain Summary Vitamin_B12-binding_domain The replacement of dimethylbenzimidazole by histidine allows switching between the catalytic and activation cycles. In methionine synthase the cobalamin cofactor is sandwiched between the cobalamin-binding domain and an approximately 90 residues N-terminal domain forming a helical bundle comprising two pairs of antiparallel helices. This N-terminal domain forms a 4-helical bundle cap, in the conversion to the active conformation of this enzyme, the 4-helical cap rotates to allow the cobalamin cofactor to bind the activation domain. == References ==
Self-control Prefrontal cortex Self-control > Brain regions involved > Prefrontal cortex The prefrontal cortex is located in the most anterior portion of the frontal lobe in the brain. It forms a larger portion of the cortex in humans. The dendrites in the prefrontal cortex contain up to 16 times as many dendritic spines as neurons in other cortical areas.
Exclusion of the null hypothesis History of statistical tests Null_hypothesis > History of statistical tests The history of the null and alternative hypotheses is embedded in the history of statistical tests. Before 1925: There are occasional transient traces of statistical tests for centuries in the past, which provide early examples of null hypotheses. In the late 19th century statistical significance was defined. In the early 20th century important probability distributions were defined.
URI scheme URLs and URNs Uniform_Resource_Identifier > Design > URLs and URNs As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term "URL" remains widely used. Additionally, the term "web address" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the http or https schemes.
Grid connection Frequency Electric_grid > Functionalities > Frequency For timekeeping purposes, the nominal frequency will be allowed to vary in the short term, but is adjusted to prevent line-operated clocks from gaining or losing significant time over the course of a whole 24 hour period. An entire synchronous grid runs at the same frequency, neighbouring grids would not be synchronised even if they run at the same nominal frequency. High-voltage direct current lines or variable-frequency transformers can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area synchronous grid map of Europe with the map of HVDC lines.