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Bacterial translocation Physiology Intestinal_permeability > Physiology First, it acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of harmful substances such as foreign antigens, toxins and microorganisms. Second, it acts as a selective filter which facilitates the uptake of dietary nutrients, electrolytes, water and various other beneficial substances from the intestinal lumen. Selective permeability is mediated via two major routes: Transepithelial or transcellular permeability.
MULTOS Memory management MULTOS > Technical overview > Memory management Each application resides with a rigorously enforced application memory space, which consists of the application code and data segments. This means that an application has full access rights to its own code and data, but can not directly access that of another application. If an application attempts to access an area outside its space, it results in an abnormal end to process
Cam engine Advantages Wobble_plate_engine > Advantages A modern cam can be manufactured with computer numerical control (CNC) technology so as to have a delayed mechanical advantage. The KamTech cam, for example, reaches significant advantage at 20°, permitting the ignition to start sooner in the rotation, and maximum advantage is moved to 90°, permitting a longer burn time before the exhaust is vented. This means the burn under high pressure takes place during 110° with a cam, rather than 60°, as happens when a crank is used.
Insulin Degradation Insulin > Function > Degradation Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action, it may be released back into the extracellular environment, or it may be degraded by the cell. The two primary sites for insulin clearance are the liver and the kidney. It is broken down by the enzyme, protein-disulfide reductase (glutathione), which breaks the disulphide bonds between the A and B chains.
Reinforced solid Optimization problem Reinforced_solid > Optimization problem (In case of reinforced concrete this assumption is necessary because the concrete has small shrinkage cracks.) Therefore, the principal stresses of the brittle material need to be compression. The principal stresses of a stress tensor are its eigenvalues.
Minimal perfect hash function Construction Perfect_hash_function > Construction A perfect hash function for a specific set S that can be evaluated in constant time, and with values in a small range, can be found by a randomized algorithm in a number of operations that is proportional to the size of S. The original construction of Fredman, Komlós & Szemerédi (1984) uses a two-level scheme to map a set S of n elements to a range of O(n) indices, and then map each index to a range of hash values. The first level of their construction chooses a large prime p (larger than the size of the universe from which S is drawn), and a parameter k, and maps each element x of S to the index g ( x ) = ( k x mod p ) mod n . {\displaystyle g(x)=(kx{\bmod {p}}){\bmod {n}}.}
Linear equations Equation of a line Linear_equations > Two variables > Equation of a line There are various ways of defining a line. In the following subsections, a linear equation of the line is given in each case.
Cryptographic hash functions Degree of difficulty Cryptographic_hash_functions > Properties > Degree of difficulty For messages selected from a limited set of messages, for example passwords or other short messages, it can be feasible to invert a hash by trying all possible messages in the set. Because cryptographic hash functions are typically designed to be computed quickly, special key derivation functions that require greater computing resources have been developed that make such brute-force attacks more difficult. In some theoretical analyses "difficult" has a specific mathematical meaning, such as "not solvable in asymptotic polynomial time".
HIV vaccines Animal model HIV_vaccine > Difficulties in development > Animal model The animal model can be extremely useful but at times controversial.There is a new animal model strongly resembling that of HIV in humans. Generalized immune activation as a direct result of activated CD4+ T cell killing - performed in mice allows new ways of testing HIV behaviour.NIAID-funded SIV research has shown that challenging monkeys with a cytomegalovirus (CMV)-based SIV vaccine results in containment of virus.
Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements IA-32 (x86) Popek_and_Goldberg_virtualization_requirements > Instruction sets of common architectures > IA-32 (x86) The IA-32 instruction set of the Pentium processor contains 18 sensitive, unprivileged instructions. They can be categorized in two groups: Sensitive register instructions: read or change sensitive registers or memory locations such as a clock register or interrupt registers: SGDT, SIDT, SLDT SMSW PUSHF, POPF Protection system instructions: reference the storage protection system, memory or address relocation system: LAR, LSL, VERR, VERW POP PUSH CALL FAR, JMP FAR, INT n, RETF STR MOV (segment registers)The introduction of the AMD-V and Intel VT-x instruction sets in 2005 allows x86 processors to meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements.
Animal industrial complex Definitions Animal_industrial_complex > Definitions ": 23 Twine also discusses the overlap between the AIC and other similar complexes, such as the prison–industrial complex, entertainment–industrial complex, and pharmaceutical–industrial complex. : 17–18 Sociologist David Nibert defines the animal–industrial complex as "a massive network that includes grain producers, ranching operations, slaughterhouse and packaging firms, fast food and chain restaurants, and the state," which he claims "has deep roots in world history. ": 197 The AIC essentially refers to the triple helix of influential, powerful systems that control knowledge systems about meat production, namely, the government, the corporate sphere, and the academy.
Bayes network Graphical model Belief_network > Graphical model Formally, Bayesian networks are directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) whose nodes represent variables in the Bayesian sense: they may be observable quantities, latent variables, unknown parameters or hypotheses. Edges represent conditional dependencies; nodes that are not connected (no path connects one node to another) represent variables that are conditionally independent of each other. Each node is associated with a probability function that takes, as input, a particular set of values for the node's parent variables, and gives (as output) the probability (or probability distribution, if applicable) of the variable represented by the node. For example, if m {\displaystyle m} parent nodes represent m {\displaystyle m} Boolean variables, then the probability function could be represented by a table of 2 m {\displaystyle 2^{m}} entries, one entry for each of the 2 m {\displaystyle 2^{m}} possible parent combinations. Similar ideas may be applied to undirected, and possibly cyclic, graphs such as Markov networks.
Image (mathematics) Inverse image Image_of_a_function > Inverse image {\displaystyle \{-2,2\}.} Again, if there is no risk of confusion, f − 1 {\displaystyle f^{-1}} can be denoted by f − 1 ( B ) , {\displaystyle f^{-1}(B),} and f − 1 {\displaystyle f^{-1}} can also be thought of as a function from the power set of Y {\displaystyle Y} to the power set of X . {\displaystyle X.} The notation f − 1 {\displaystyle f^{-1}} should not be confused with that for inverse function, although it coincides with the usual one for bijections in that the inverse image of B {\displaystyle B} under f {\displaystyle f} is the image of B {\displaystyle B} under f − 1 . {\displaystyle f^{-1}.}
Orbital data Approaches to many-body problems Orbit_(celestial_mechanics) > Newton's laws of motion > Approaches to many-body problems Therefore accelerations can be expressed in terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions and velocities from initial values of position and velocity corresponds to solving an initial value problem.
Parallel database Summary Parallel_database A parallel database system seeks to improve performance through parallelization of various operations, such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries. Although data may be stored in a distributed fashion, the distribution is governed solely by performance considerations. Parallel databases improve processing and input/output speeds by using multiple CPUs and disks in parallel.
CapROS Summary CapROS CapROS is an evolution of the Extremely Reliable Operating System (EROS). While EROS was purely a research system, CapROS is intended to be a stable system of commercial quality. CapROS currently runs on Intel IA-32 and ARM microprocessors. CapROS is being developed by Strawberry Development Group with funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and others. The primary developer is Charles Landau.
Linked list History Linked_list > History Linked lists were developed in 1955–1956, by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert A. Simon at RAND Corporation and Carnegie Mellon University as the primary data structure for their Information Processing Language (IPL). IPL was used by the authors to develop several early artificial intelligence programs, including the Logic Theory Machine, the General Problem Solver, and a computer chess program. Reports on their work appeared in IRE Transactions on Information Theory in 1956, and several conference proceedings from 1957 to 1959, including Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference in 1957 and 1958, and Information Processing (Proceedings of the first UNESCO International Conference on Information Processing) in 1959. The now-classic diagram consisting of blocks representing list nodes with arrows pointing to successive list nodes appears in "Programming the Logic Theory Machine" by Newell and Shaw in Proc.
Symmetric multiprocessor system Performance Symmetric_Multi-Processor > Performance When more than one program executes at the same time, an SMP system has considerably better performance than a uni-processor, because different programs can run on different CPUs simultaneously. Conversely, asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP) usually allows only one processor to run a program or task at a time. For example, AMP can be used in assigning specific tasks to CPU based to priority and importance of task completion.
Small nuclear RNA Classes Small_nuclear_RNA > Classes The modified 5′ cap is then required to import the snRNP back into the nucleus. All of these uridine-rich snRNA, with the exception of U7, form the core of the spliceosome. Splicing, or the removal of introns, is a major aspect of post-transcriptional modification, and takes place only in the nucleus of eukaryotes.
Information field theory Bayesian inference Information_field_theory > Concepts > Bayesian inference s ( x ) {\displaystyle s(x)} is a field value at a location x ∈ Ω {\displaystyle x\in \Omega } in a space Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } . The prior knowledge about the unknown signal field s {\displaystyle s} is encoded in the probability distribution P ( s ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(s)} . The data d {\displaystyle d} provides additional information on s {\displaystyle s} via the likelihood P ( d | s ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(d|s)} that gets incorporated into the posterior probabilityaccording to Bayes theorem.
Suspended structure Background Suspended_structure > Background Some of the first suspension structures were bridges. The first iron chain suspension bridge in the Western world was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California, is another example of a suspension structure. Much like the suspended building structure, towers hold the weight and cables support the bridge deck. In the case of suspension bridges, there is "tensional force" transferred to the columns.
Great Acceleration Summary Great_Acceleration The Great Acceleration is the dramatic, continuous and roughly simultaneous surge across a large range of measures of human activity, first recorded in the mid-20th century and continuing to this day. Within the concept of the proposed epoch of the Anthropocene, these measures are specifically those of humanity's impact on Earth's geology and its ecosystems. In the concept, the Great Acceleration can be variously classified as the only age of the epoch to date, one of many ages of the epoch – depending on the epoch's proposed start date – or a defining feature of the epoch that is thus not an age, as well as other classifications.Environmental historian J. R. McNeill has argued that the Great Acceleration is idiosyncratic of the current age and is set to halt in the near future; that it has never happened before and will never happen again. However, climate change scientist and chemist Will Steffen's team have found evidence to be inconclusive to either confirm or refute such a claim.
Mathematical reasoning Basic concepts Mathematical_reasoning > Basic concepts Some theorists distinguish between simple and complex arguments. A complex argument is made up of many sub-arguments. This way, a chain is formed in which the conclusions of earlier arguments act as premises for later arguments.
Electrocatalyst Background and theory Electrocatalyst > Background and theory In general, a catalyst is an agent that increases the speed of a chemical reaction without being consumed by a reaction. Thermodynamically, a catalyst lowers the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to take place. An electrocatalyst is a catalyst that affects the activation energy of an electrochemical reaction. Shown below is the activation energy of chemical reactions as it relates to the energies of products and reactants.
Mixed partial derivative Gradient Partial_derivative > Gradient An important example of a function of several variables is the case of a scalar-valued function f ( x 1 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})} on a domain in Euclidean space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} (e.g., on R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} or R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} ). In this case f has a partial derivative ∂ f / ∂ x j {\displaystyle \partial f/\partial x_{j}} with respect to each variable xj. At the point a, these partial derivatives define the vector This vector is called the gradient of f at a. If f is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the gradient is a vector-valued function ∇f which takes the point a to the vector ∇f(a). Consequently, the gradient produces a vector field. A common abuse of notation is to define the del operator (∇) as follows in three-dimensional Euclidean space R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} with unit vectors i ^ , j ^ , k ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {i} }},{\hat {\mathbf {j} }},{\hat {\mathbf {k} }}}: Or, more generally, for n-dimensional Euclidean space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} with coordinates x 1 , … , x n {\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}} and unit vectors e ^ 1 , … , e ^ n {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {e} }}_{1},\ldots ,{\hat {\mathbf {e} }}_{n}} :
Wholesale electricity market Centralized and decentralized markets Retail_electricity_market > Wholesale electricity market > Centralized and decentralized markets In the centralized market the TSO decides which plant should run and how much is it supposed to produce way before the delivery (during the "spot market" phase, or day-ahead operation). In a decentralized market the producer only commits to the delivery of electricity, but the means to do that are left to the producer itself (for example, it can enter the agreement with another producer to provide the actual energy). Centralized markets make it easier to accommodate non-convexities, while the decentralized allow intra-day trading to correct the possibly suboptimal decisions made day-ahead, for example, accommodating improved weather forecasts for renewables.
History of calculus Integrals History_of_calculus > Modern precursors > Integrals Johannes Kepler's work Stereometrica Doliorum published in 1615 formed the basis of integral calculus. Kepler developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii drawn from a focus of the ellipse.A significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods, published in 1635 by Bonaventura Cavalieri on his method of indivisibles. He argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimally thin cross-sections. He discovered Cavalieri's quadrature formula which gave the area under the curves xn of higher degree.
Rotational modes Effect of rotation on vibrational spectra Spherical_top > Overview > Effect of rotation on vibrational spectra Historically, the theory of rotational energy levels was developed to account for observations of vibration-rotation spectra of gases in infrared spectroscopy, which was used before microwave spectroscopy had become practical. To a first approximation, the rotation and vibration can be treated as separable, so the energy of rotation is added to the energy of vibration. For example, the rotational energy levels for linear molecules (in the rigid-rotor approximation) are E rot = h c B J ( J + 1 ) . {\displaystyle E_{\text{rot}}=hcBJ(J+1).}
Hans Benno Bernoulli Career Hans_Benno_Bernoulli > Career These houses are a garden city project, from the 1920s and were meant to be sold without profit to the workers. You will find the Bernoulli houses on Zürich tram lines no. 8 and 17 between the stations Bernoulli and Hardturm. 1919: Bernoullihäuser in Grenchen SO (Rebgasse 61–67) 1920–1923: residential area Im langen Loh in Basel 1920–1923: residential estate Wasserhaus in the sub-district Neue Welt in Münchenstein, developed in partnership with Wilhelm Eduard Brodtbeck. 1924–1934: Living and residential area Hirzbrunnenareal in BaselAfter the Second World War his main projects were in rebuilding the bombed and destroyed cities. Hans Benno Bernoulli died aged 83 in Basel.
Algorithm engineering Summary Algorithm_engineering Algorithm engineering focuses on the design, analysis, implementation, optimization, profiling and experimental evaluation of computer algorithms, bridging the gap between algorithm theory and practical applications of algorithms in software engineering. It is a general methodology for algorithmic research.
Linguistic Linked Open Data Definition and Development Linguistic_Linked_Open_Data > Definition and Development Ecosystem: Tools for RDF and linked data are widely available under open source licenses. Expressivity: Existing vocabularies help express linguistic resources. Semantics: Common links express what you mean. Dynamicity: Web data can be continuously improved.The home of the LLOD cloud diagram is under linguistic-lod.org
Glossary of set theory Summary Glossary_of_set_theory This is a glossary of set theory.
Three-dimensional space (mathematics) Cross product Euclidean_3-space > In linear algebra > Cross product The cross product or vector product is a binary operation on two vectors in three-dimensional space and is denoted by the symbol ×. The cross product A × B of the vectors A and B is a vector that is perpendicular to both and therefore normal to the plane containing them. It has many applications in mathematics, physics, and engineering. In function language, the cross product is a function ×: R 3 × R 3 → R 3 {\displaystyle \times :\mathbb {R} ^{3}\times \mathbb {R} ^{3}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{3}} .
Algorithm characterizations 1967 Rogers' characterization Algorithm_characterizations > 1967 Rogers' characterization Rogers requires "only that a computation terminate after some finite number of steps; we do not insist on an a priori ability to estimate this number." (p. 5).
Purely functional language Strict versus non-strict evaluation Pure_functional_programming > Properties of purely functional programming > Strict versus non-strict evaluation Each evaluation strategy which ends on a purely functional program returns the same result. In particular, it ensures that the programmer does not have to consider in which order programs are evaluated, since eager evaluation will return the same result as lazy evaluation. However, it is still possible that an eager evaluation may not terminate while the lazy evaluation of the same program halts. An advantage of this is that lazy evaluation can be implemented much more easily; as all expressions will return the same result at any moment (regardless of program state), their evaluation can be delayed as much as necessary.
Dynamic Programming Fibonacci sequence Dynamic_Programming > Examples: computer algorithms > Fibonacci sequence Using dynamic programming in the calculation of the nth member of the Fibonacci sequence improves its performance greatly. Here is a naïve implementation, based directly on the mathematical definition: function fib(n) if n <= 1 return n return fib(n − 1) + fib(n − 2) Notice that if we call, say, fib(5), we produce a call tree that calls the function on the same value many different times: fib(5) fib(4) + fib(3) (fib(3) + fib(2)) + (fib(2) + fib(1)) ((fib(2) + fib(1)) + (fib(1) + fib(0))) + ((fib(1) + fib(0)) + fib(1)) (((fib(1) + fib(0)) + fib(1)) + (fib(1) + fib(0))) + ((fib(1) + fib(0)) + fib(1))In particular, fib(2) was calculated three times from scratch. In larger examples, many more values of fib, or subproblems, are recalculated, leading to an exponential time algorithm. Now, suppose we have a simple map object, m, which maps each value of fib that has already been calculated to its result, and we modify our function to use it and update it.
Combination Number of k-combinations for all k Combination > Number of k-combinations for all k The number of k-combinations for all k is the number of subsets of a set of n elements. There are several ways to see that this number is 2n. In terms of combinations, ∑ 0 ≤ k ≤ n ( n k ) = 2 n {\textstyle \sum _{0\leq {k}\leq {n}}{\binom {n}{k}}=2^{n}} , which is the sum of the nth row (counting from 0) of the binomial coefficients in Pascal's triangle. These combinations (subsets) are enumerated by the 1 digits of the set of base 2 numbers counting from 0 to 2n − 1, where each digit position is an item from the set of n. Given 3 cards numbered 1 to 3, there are 8 distinct combinations (subsets), including the empty set: Representing these subsets (in the same order) as base 2 numerals: 0 – 000 1 – 001 2 – 010 3 – 011 4 – 100 5 – 101 6 – 110 7 – 111
Prion protein Nervous system Prion_protein > Function > Nervous system However, this effect is not a direct result of PrP's absence, and rather arises from increased Doppel gene expression. Other observed differences include reduced stress response and increased exploration of novel environments.Circadian rhythm is altered in null mice. Fatal familial insomnia is thought to be the result of a point mutation in PRNP at codon 178, which corroborates PrP's involvement in sleep-wake cycles. In addition, circadian regulation has been demonstrated in PrP mRNA, which cycles regularly with day-night.
Cramer rule Finding inverse matrix Cramer's_Rule > Finding inverse matrix This gives a formula for the inverse of A, provided det(A) ≠ 0. In fact, this formula works whenever F is a commutative ring, provided that det(A) is a unit. If det(A) is not a unit, then A is not invertible over the ring (it may be invertible over a larger ring in which some non-unit elements of F may be invertible).
First-class function Concepts Function_reference > Concepts In this section, we compare how particular programming idioms are handled in a functional language with first-class functions (Haskell) compared to an imperative language where functions are second-class citizens (C).
Determinant Exterior algebra Matrix_determinant > Abstract algebraic aspects > Exterior algebra This can be shown using the uniqueness of a multilinear alternating form on n {\displaystyle n} -tuples of vectors in R n {\displaystyle R^{n}} . For this reason, the highest non-zero exterior power ⋀ n V {\displaystyle \bigwedge ^{n}V} (as opposed to the determinant associated to an endomorphism) is sometimes also called the determinant of V {\displaystyle V} and similarly for more involved objects such as vector bundles or chain complexes of vector spaces. Minors of a matrix can also be cast in this setting, by considering lower alternating forms ⋀ k V {\displaystyle \bigwedge ^{k}V} with k < n {\displaystyle k
Business simulation Summary Business_simulation On the other hand, the word game can imply time wasting, not taking things too seriously and engaging in an exercise designed purely for fun. The concept of simulation gaming seems to offer the right combination and balance between the two. Simulation gaming is also the term that the educational gaming community has adopted.
Taylor column History Taylor_column > History Taylor columns were first observed by William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, in 1868. Taylor columns were featured in lecture demonstrations by Kelvin in 1881 and by John Perry in 1890. The phenomenon is explained via the Taylor–Proudman theorem, and it has been investigated by Taylor, Grace, Stewartson, and Maxworthy—among others.
Diffuse lung disease Summary Interstitial_lung_disease Interstitial lung disease (ILD), or diffuse parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), is a group of respiratory diseases affecting the interstitium (the tissue) and space around the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs. It concerns alveolar epithelium, pulmonary capillary endothelium, basement membrane, and perivascular and perilymphatic tissues. It may occur when an injury to the lungs triggers an abnormal healing response. Ordinarily, the body generates just the right amount of tissue to repair damage, but in interstitial lung disease, the repair process is disrupted, and the tissue around the air sacs (alveoli) becomes scarred and thickened.
AC/DC receiver design Transformer AC/DC_receiver_design > Applicability to early radio and television > Transformer Additionally, the use of a transformer allowed multiple independent power supplies from separate transformer windings for different stages. In an AC/DC design there was no transformer to isolate the equipment from the mains. Much equipment was built on a metal chassis which was connected to one side of the mains.
Attentional bias Mechanisms Attentional_bias > Mechanisms Conversely, others theorize that anxiety has little impact on initial detection of threats but has is more significant in modulating the maintenance of attention on the source of the threat. This can be explained by the alternative theory to the vigilance-avoidance pattern, which is that anxious individuals, once processing the threat, struggle to disengage attention from the threat stimuli due to reasons such as fear.Regardless of the opinions, there have been numerous studies which attempt to find the ultimate explanation. However, there have been results which support both theories, thus making the mechanisms of attention bias an uncertain topic.
Dichotomous thinking Summary Dichotomous_thinking In statistics, dichotomous thinking or binary thinking is the process of seeing a discontinuity in the possible values that a p-value can take during null hypothesis significance testing: it is either above the significance threshold (usually 0.05) or below. When applying dichotomous thinking, a first p-value of 0.0499 will be interpreted the same as a p-value of 0.0001 (the null hypothesis is rejected) while a second p-value of 0.0501 will be interpreted the same as a p-value of 0.7 (the null hypothesis is accepted). The fact that first and second p-values are mathematically very close is thus completely disregarded and values of p are not considered as continuous but are interpreted dichotomously with respect to the significance threshold. A common measure of dichotomous thinking is the cliff effect. A reason to avoid dichotomous thinking is that p-values and other statistics naturally change from study to study due to random variation alone; decisions about refutation or support of a scientific hypothesis based on a result from a single study are therefore not reliable.Dichotomous thinking is very often associated with p-value reading but it can also happen with other statistical tools such as interval estimates.
Weighted graph T Spanning_subgraph > T tour A closed trail, a walk that starts and ends at the same vertex and has no repeated edges. Euler tours are tours that use all of the graph edges; see Eulerian. tournament A tournament is an orientation of a complete graph; that is, it is a directed graph such that every two vertices are connected by exactly one directed edge (going in only one of the two directions between the two vertices).
Taleb distribution Summary Taleb_distribution In economics and finance, a Taleb distribution is the statistical profile of an investment which normally provides a payoff of small positive returns, while carrying a small but significant risk of catastrophic losses. The term was coined by journalist Martin Wolf and economist John Kay to describe investments with a "high probability of a modest gain and a low probability of huge losses in any period. "The concept is named after Nassim Nicholas Taleb, based on ideas outlined in his book Fooled by Randomness. According to Taleb in Silent Risk, the term should be called "payoff" to reflect the importance of the payoff function of the underlying probability distribution, rather than the distribution itself.
Tweaking Software Tweaking > Software Software tweaking is the process of improving the performance of an application or the quality of its output. There can be two ways of accomplishing this: manually (that is, if one is familiar with programming; though it may be irrelevant if the source of the application is closed, and there are no built-in means to adjust its performance) or using another piece of software specialized for that purpose. Tweaking of this kind generally increases usability, in terms of personal configuration preferences, rather than objective performance of the system overall). Some very precise applications need constant and thorough tweaking to stay up to date and deliver best possible results. One of the most obvious examples of such a fine tuning is LAME MP3 encoder, whose 3.9x branch is not only considered as the state-of-the-art MP3 encoder, but also continues to shape the boundaries of the MP3 codec and stay competitive with its successors.
Cognitive walkthrough Introduction Cognitive_walkthrough > Introduction Finally the software is redesigned to address the issues identified. The effectiveness of methods such as cognitive walkthroughs is hard to measure in applied settings, as there is very limited opportunity for controlled experiments while developing software. Typically measurements involve comparing the number of usability problems found by applying different methods. However, Gray and Salzman called into question the validity of those studies in their dramatic 1998 paper "Damaged Merchandise", demonstrating how very difficult it is to measure the effectiveness of usability inspection methods. The consensus in the usability community is that the cognitive walkthrough method works well in a variety of settings and applications.
Toxicodynamics Summary Toxicodynamics Toxicodynamics, termed pharmacodynamics in pharmacology, describes the dynamic interactions of a toxicant with a biological target and its biological effects. A biological target, also known as the site of action, can be binding proteins, ion channels, DNA, or a variety of other receptors. When a toxicant enters an organism, it can interact with these receptors and produce structural or functional alterations. The mechanism of action of the toxicant, as determined by a toxicant’s chemical properties, will determine what receptors are targeted and the overall toxic effect at the cellular level and organismal level.
Enzyme induction and inhibition Summary Enzyme_induction_and_inhibition These processes are particular forms of gene expression regulation. These terms are of particular interest to pharmacology, and more specifically to drug metabolism and drug interactions. They also apply to molecular biology.
Wishful thinking Cognition Wishful_thinking > Underlying mechanisms > Cognition This occurrence is called conceptual or cognitive penetrability. Research on conceptual penetrability utilize stimuli of conceptual-category pairs and measure the reaction time to determine if the category effect influenced visual processing, The category effect is the difference in reaction times within the pairs such as Bb to Bp. To test conceptual penetrability, there were simultaneous and sequential judgments of pairs.
Habitability of natural satellites Axial tilt and climate Habitable_moon > Presumed conditions > Tidal effects > Axial tilt and climate Provided gravitational interaction of a moon with other satellites can be neglected, moons tend to be tidally locked with their planets. In addition to the rotational locking mentioned above, there will also be a process termed 'tilt erosion', which has originally been coined for the tidal erosion of planetary obliquity against a planet's orbit around its host star. The final spin state of a moon then consists of a rotational period equal to its orbital period around the planet and a rotational axis that is perpendicular to the orbital plane. If the moon's mass is not too low compared to the planet, it may in turn stabilize the planet's axial tilt, i.e. its obliquity against the orbit around the star.
Geometric realization functor History and uses of simplicial sets Simplicial_homotopy_theory > History and uses of simplicial sets Simplicial sets were originally used to give precise and convenient descriptions of classifying spaces of groups. This idea was vastly extended by Grothendieck's idea of considering classifying spaces of categories, and in particular by Quillen's work of algebraic K-theory. In this work, which earned him a Fields Medal, Quillen developed surprisingly efficient methods for manipulating infinite simplicial sets. These methods were used in other areas on the border between algebraic geometry and topology.
Autoimmune limbic encephalitis Diagnosis Limbic_encephalitis > Diagnosis HHV-6 (human herpes virus 6) encephalitis is also clinically indistinguishable from limbic encephalitis.There are two sets of diagnostic criteria used. The oldest are those proposed by Gultekin et al. in 2000. A revised set of criteria were proposed by Graus and Saiz in 2005. The main distinction between the two sets of criteria is whether or not the detection of a paraneoplastic antibody is needed for diagnosis.
Handover Summary Handover In cellular telecommunications, handover, or handoff, is the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another channel. In satellite communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth station to another without loss or interruption of service.
Nephrotic syndrome Summary Nephrotic_syndrome It may also occur as a complication of diabetes or lupus. The underlying mechanism typically involves damage to the glomeruli of the kidney. Diagnosis is typically based on urine testing and sometimes a kidney biopsy.
Chiral symmetry An application in particle physics Left–right_symmetry > Chiral symmetry > An application in particle physics This then provides three sterile neutrinos which are perfectly consistent with current neutrino oscillation data. Within the seesaw mechanism, the sterile neutrinos become superheavy without affecting physics at low energies. Because the left-right symmetry is spontaneously broken, left-right models predict domain walls. This left-right symmetry idea first appeared in the Pati–Salam model (1974) and Mohapatra–Pati models (1975).
Fisheye lens Other applications Fish_eye_lens > Other applications Similarly, the IMAX Dome (previously 'OMNIMAX') motion-picture format involves photography through a circular fisheye lens, and projection through the same onto a hemispherical screen. Scientists and resource managers (e.g., biologists, foresters, and meteorologists) use fisheye lenses for hemispherical photography to calculate plant canopy indices and near-ground solar radiation. Applications include evaluation of forest health, characterization of monarch butterfly winter roosting sites, and management of vineyards.
Electron hole Detailed picture: A hole is the absence of a negative-mass electron Hole_(semiconductor) > Solid-state physics > Detailed picture: A hole is the absence of a negative-mass electron A localized electron is a wavepacket, and the motion of an electron is given by the formula for the group velocity of a wave. An electric field affects an electron by gradually shifting all the wavevectors in the wavepacket, and the electron accelerates when its wave group velocity changes. Therefore, again, the way an electron responds to forces is entirely determined by its dispersion relation.
Knowledge transfer Subtypes of knowledge transfer Knowledge_transfer > Subtypes of knowledge transfer Based on the number of sources and recipients, all types of knowledge transfer can be reduced to 3 subtypes, namely: linear, divergent, and convergent. Linear Knowledge Transfer occurs when there is one source and one recipient ( e.g. when one person explains a specific topic to someone else). Divergent Knowledge Transfer occurs when there is one source and multiple recipients (e.g. when a team leader outlines specific tasks for the team).
Mouse-Ear Cress Genetics Mouse-Ear_Cress > Use as a model organism > Genetics As the Ler collection of mutants is derived from this initial line, Ler-0 does not correspond to the Landsberg accessions, which designated La-0, La-1, etc. Trichome formation is initiated by the GLABROUS1 protein. Knockouts of the corresponding gene lead to glabrous plants. This phenotype has already been used in gene editing experiments and might be of interest as visual marker for plant research to improve gene editing methods such as CRISPR/Cas9.
Hydrogen-bridged cations Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy Hydrogen-bridged_cations > Characterization > Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy The most significant trait of bridging hydrogens in NMR spectra is their upfield shift. Due to the increased number of bonds that the hydrogen atom is part of, the higher electron density around hydrogen shields the 1H nucleus, causing its chemical shift to appear at negative ppm. Characterization of the dimethylcyclodecyl ion by Sorensen in 1978 relied on low-temperature NMR, as the ion slowly decomposes at above -70 °C, and showed the bridging hydrogen at δ -3.9. McMurry's characterization of the more stable in-bicyclo-tetradecyl cation showed two broad 12 proton peaks at δ 2.5 and 1.9, and a broad proton singlet at δ -3.46.
CPU Cache Tag RAM Instruction_cache > Cache hierarchy in a modern processor > Tag RAM In computer engineering, a tag RAM is used to specify which of the possible memory locations is currently stored in a CPU cache. For a simple, direct-mapped design fast SRAM can be used. Higher associative caches usually employ content-addressable memory.
Bell test experiments Experimental assumptions Bell_test_experiment > Experimental assumptions In addition to the theoretical assumptions made, there are practical ones. There may, for example, be a number of "accidental coincidences" in addition to those of interest. It is assumed that no bias is introduced by subtracting their estimated number before calculating S, but that this is true is not considered by some to be obvious. There may be synchronisation problems — ambiguity in recognising pairs because in practice they will not be detected at exactly the same time.
Ambigram Types Ambigram > Types Ambigrams are exercises in graphic design that play with optical illusions, symmetry and visual perception. Some ambigrams feature a relationship between their form and their content. Ambigrams usually fall into one of several categories.
Pulsating DC Difference from AC Pulsed_DC > Difference from AC Pulsating direct current has an average value equal to a constant (DC) along with a time-dependent pulsating component added to it, while the average value of alternating current is zero in steady state (or a constant if it has a DC offset, value of which will then be equal to that offset). Devices and circuits may respond differently to pulsating DC than they would to non-pulsating DC, such as a battery or regulated power supply and should be evaluated.
Memory coherence Summary Memory_coherence But as soon as one updates the location, the others might work on an out-of-date copy that, e.g., resides in their local cache. Consequently, some scheme is required to notify all the processing elements of changes to shared values; such a scheme is known as a memory coherence protocol, and if such a protocol is employed the system is said to have a coherent memory. The exact nature and meaning of the memory coherency is determined by the consistency model that the coherence protocol implements.
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis Summary Experimental_autoimmune_encephalomyelitis Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, sometimes experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), is an animal model of brain inflammation. It is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). It is mostly used with rodents and is widely studied as an animal model of the human CNS demyelinating diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM).
Autoimmmune response Pathogenesis of autoimmunity Epitope_spreading > Pathogenesis of autoimmunity The second category of cytokines, which include IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-β (to name a few), seem to have a role in prevention of exaggeration of pro-inflammatory immune responses. Dendritic cell apoptosis – immune system cells called dendritic cells present antigens to active lymphocytes. Dendritic cells that are defective in apoptosis can lead to inappropriate systemic lymphocyte activation and consequent decline in self-tolerance.
Conjugate acid Applications Conjugate_acid > Applications One use of conjugate acids and bases lies in buffering systems, which include a buffer solution. In a buffer, a weak acid and its conjugate base (in the form of a salt), or a weak base and its conjugate acid, are used in order to limit the pH change during a titration process. Buffers have both organic and non-organic chemical applications. For example, besides buffers being used in lab processes, human blood acts as a buffer to maintain pH.
Cutting speed Cutting speed Speeds_and_feeds > Cutting speed These include: Metal removal rate (finishing cuts that remove a small amount of material may be run at increased speeds) Full and constant flow of cutting fluid (adequate cooling and chip flushing) Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or chatter) Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining square section material in a lathe) Condition of material (mill scale, hard spots due to white cast iron forming in castings)The cutting speed is given as a set of constants that are available from the material manufacturer or supplier. The most common materials are available in reference books or charts, but will always be subject to adjustment depending on the cutting conditions.
Linked data structure Linked list versus arrays Linked_data_structure > Advantages and disadvantages > Linked list versus arrays If the structure has n nodes, and each node contains at most b links, there will be some nodes that cannot be reached in less than logb n steps, slowing down the process of accessing these nodes - this sometimes represents a considerable slowdown, especially in the case of structures containing large numbers of nodes. For many structures, some nodes may require worst case up to n−1 steps. In contrast, many array data structures allow access to any element with a constant number of operations, independent of the number of entries.
Experimental studies Natural experiments Experimental_research > Types > Natural experiments However, by observing various clouds of hydrogen in various states of collapse, and other implications of the hypothesis (for example, the presence of various spectral emissions from the light of stars), we can collect data we require to support the hypothesis. An early example of this type of experiment was the first verification in the 17th century that light does not travel from place to place instantaneously, but instead has a measurable speed. Observation of the appearance of the moons of Jupiter were slightly delayed when Jupiter was farther from Earth, as opposed to when Jupiter was closer to Earth; and this phenomenon was used to demonstrate that the difference in the time of appearance of the moons was consistent with a measurable speed.
Trapdoor permutation Summary Trapdoor_function Trapdoor functions came to prominence in cryptography in the mid-1970s with the publication of asymmetric (or public-key) encryption techniques by Diffie, Hellman, and Merkle. Indeed, Diffie & Hellman (1976) coined the term.
Reliability Centered Maintenance Context Reliability-centered_maintenance > Context 2. In what ways can it fail to provide the required functions?
Operational calculus Principle Operational_calculus > Principle The key element of the operational calculus is to consider differentiation as an operator p = d/dt acting on functions. Linear differential equations can then be recast in the form of "functions" F(p) of the operator p acting on the unknown function equaling the known function. Here, F is defining something that takes in an operator p and returns another operator F(p). Solutions are then obtained by making the inverse operator of F act on the known function.
Mobile Device Management For mobile security Device_Management > For mobile security An administrator can disable native browsers to force users to use the secure browser inside the MDM container. URL filtering can be enforced to add additional security measures. Secure app catalog: Organizations can distribute, manage, and upgrade applications on an employee's device using an App Catalog. This allows applications to be pushed onto the user's device directly from the App Store or push an enterprise developed private application through the App Catalog. This provides an option for the organization to deploy devices in Kiosk Mode or Lock-Down Mode.
Dilution of precision (GPS) Introduction Dilution_of_precision_(GPS) > Introduction The concept of dilution of precision (DOP) originated with users of the Loran-C navigation system. The idea of geometric DOP is to state how errors in the measurement will affect the final state estimation. This can be defined as: GDOP = Δ ( output location ) Δ ( measured data ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GDOP} ={\frac {\Delta ({\text{output location}})}{\Delta ({\text{measured data}})}}} Conceptually you can geometrically imagine errors on a measurement resulting in the Δ ( measured data ) {\displaystyle \Delta ({\text{measured data}})} term changing. Ideally small changes in the measured data will not result in large changes in output location.
Gas exchange Pulmonary circulation Gas_exchange > Mammals > Pulmonary circulation Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a P C O 2 {\displaystyle P_{{\mathrm {CO} }_{2}}} of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli. The changes brought about by these net flows of individual gases into and out of the functional residual capacity necessitate the replacement of about 15% of the alveolar air with ambient air every 5 seconds or so. This is very tightly controlled by the continuous monitoring of the arterial blood gas tensions (which accurately reflect partial pressures of the respiratory gases in the alveolar air) by the aortic bodies, the carotid bodies, and the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain.
Social affordance Social affordances in human-robot interaction Social_affordance > Social affordances in human-robot interaction Social affordance in the context of human-robot interaction refers to the action possibilities offered by the presence of a set of social agents. Though not frequently used in the human-robot interaction community, except for Uyanik et al. (2013), Shu et al. (2016), and Shu et al. (2017), social affordance pertains to the many human-robot interaction problems and studies.
Spectral theory Spectral theory briefly Spectral_theory > Spectral theory briefly A function f is described by a ket as |f ⟩. The function f(x) defined on the coordinates ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , … ) {\displaystyle (x_{1},x_{2},x_{3},\dots )} is denoted as f ( x ) = ⟨ x , f ⟩ {\displaystyle f(x)=\langle x,f\rangle } and the magnitude of f by ‖ f ‖ 2 = ⟨ f , f ⟩ = ∫ ⟨ f , x ⟩ ⟨ x , f ⟩ d x = ∫ f ∗ ( x ) f ( x ) d x {\displaystyle \|f\|^{2}=\langle f,f\rangle =\int \langle f,x\rangle \langle x,f\rangle \,dx=\int f^{*}(x)f(x)\,dx} where the notation (*) denotes a complex conjugate. This inner product choice defines a very specific inner product space, restricting the generality of the arguments that follow.The effect of L upon a function f is then described as: L | f ⟩ = | k 1 ⟩ ⟨ b 1 | f ⟩ {\displaystyle L|f\rangle =|k_{1}\rangle \langle b_{1}|f\rangle } expressing the result that the effect of L on f is to produce a new function | k 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |k_{1}\rangle } multiplied by the inner product represented by ⟨ b 1 | f ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle b_{1}|f\rangle } .
Power literacy Abusive power and control Power_literacy > Psychological research > Abusive power and control One can regard power as evil or unjust; however, power can also be seen as good and as something inherited or given for exercising humanistic objectives that will help, move, and empower others as well. In general, power derives from the factors of interdependence between two entities and the environment. The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force (coercion). An example of using power without oppression is the concept "soft power" (as compared to hard power).
Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins Acute response Surface_modification_of_biomaterials_with_proteins > Biological response > Acute response The blood vessels dilate and become leaky, producing the redness and swelling associated with acute inflammation. The activated endothelium allows extravasation of blood plasma and white blood cells including macrophages which transmigrate to the implant and recognize it as non-biologic. Macrophages release oxidants to combat the foreign body. If antioxidants fail to destroy the foreign body, chronic inflammation begins.
Pulmonary embolus Anticoagulation Pulmonary_embolism > Treatment > Anticoagulation Two of these (rivaroxaban and apixaban) do not require initial heparin or fondaparinux treatment, whereas dabigatran and edoxaban do. A Cochrane review found that there is no evidence of a difference between oral DTIs (dabigatran, rivaroxaban, edoxaban, apixaban) and standard anticoagulation in the prevention of recurrent pulmonary embolism.In people with cancer who develop pulmonary embolism, therapy with a course of LMWH is favored over warfarin or other oral anticoagulants. Similarly, pregnant women are treated with low molecular weight heparin until after delivery to avoid the known teratogenic effects of warfarin, especially in the early stages of pregnancy, but it can be used while breastfeeding.Anticoagulation therapy is usually continued for 3–6 months, or "lifelong" if there have been previous DVTs or PEs, or none of the usual transient risk factors is present. In those without a known cause that can be reversed 2 years of treatment may be better than 6 months. For those with small PEs (known as subsegmental PEs) the effects of anticoagulation is unknown as it has not been properly studied as of 2020.
Diboronic acid Protonolysis Borate_salts > Organic chemistry applications > Protonolysis Protodeboronation is a chemical reaction involving the protonolysis of a boronic acid (or other organoborane compound) in which a carbon-boron bond is broken and replaced with a carbon-hydrogen bond. Protodeboronation is a well-known undesired side reaction, and frequently associated with metal-catalysed coupling reactions that utilise boronic acids (see Suzuki reaction). For a given boronic acid, the propensity to undergo protodeboronation is highly variable and dependent on various factors, such as the reaction conditions employed and the organic substituent of the boronic acid:
Cancer of unknown primary Summary Cancer_of_unknown_primary Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP) is a cancer that is determined to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified. A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture consistent with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a tumor cancer CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances. The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.
Naomi Leonard Awards Naomi_Leonard > Awards 1995 National Science Foundation CAREER Award 2004 MacArthur Fellows Program 2007 IEEE Fellow 2011 ASME Fellow 2012 Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics 2014 Fellow of the International Federation of Automatic Control
Existential forgery Total break Digital_signature_forgery > Types > Total break More general than the following attacks, there is also a total break: when adversary can recover the private information and keys used by the signer, they can create any possible signature on any message.
Lesional demyelinations of the central nervous system Confluent demyelination Lesional_demyelinations_of_the_central_nervous_system > Lesions produced by CNS Inflammatory Demyelinating diseases (IDS) > Confluent demyelination The demyelination around a vein is normally called "plaque". In MS plaques are reported to appear by coalescence of several confluent smaller demyelinations.
Serotonin receptor agonist Non-selective agonists Serotonin_receptor_agonist > Non-selective agonists Serotonergic psychedelics such as tryptamines (e.g., psilocybin, psilocin, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin), lysergamides (e.g., LSD, ergine (LSA)), phenethylamines (e.g., mescaline, 2C-B, 25I-NBOMe), and amphetamines (e.g., MDA, DOM) are non-selective agonists of serotonin receptors. Their hallucinogenic effects are specifically mediated by activation of the 5-HT2A receptor. Drugs that increase extracellular serotonin levels such as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine, venlafaxine), serotonin releasing agents (e.g., fenfluramine, MDMA), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine, moclobemide) are indirect non-selective serotonin receptor agonists. They are used variously as antidepressants, anxiolytics, antiobsessionals, appetite suppressants, and entactogens.
Planckian distribution Physics Planck_radiator > Physics Planck's law describes the unique and characteristic spectral distribution for electromagnetic radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium, when there is no net flow of matter or energy. Its physics is most easily understood by considering the radiation in a cavity with rigid opaque walls. Motion of the walls can affect the radiation. If the walls are not opaque, then the thermodynamic equilibrium is not isolated.
Energy is conserved Mechanical equivalent of heat Energy_conservation_(physics) > History > Mechanical equivalent of heat In 1847, drawing on the earlier work of Joule, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron, Hermann von Helmholtz arrived at conclusions similar to Grove's and published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft (On the Conservation of Force, 1847). The general modern acceptance of the principle stems from this publication. In 1850, William Rankine first used the phrase the law of the conservation of energy for the principle.In 1877, Peter Guthrie Tait claimed that the principle originated with Sir Isaac Newton, based on a creative reading of propositions 40 and 41 of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is now regarded as an example of Whig history.
Vaccine Types Vaccine_design > Types Vaccines typically contain attenuated, inactivated or dead organisms or purified products derived from them. There are several types of vaccines in use. These represent different strategies used to try to reduce the risk of illness while retaining the ability to induce a beneficial immune response.
Bredon cohomology Summary Bredon_cohomology The Bredon cohomology, introduced by Glen E. Bredon, is a type of equivariant cohomology that is a contravariant functor from the category of G-complex with equivariant homotopy maps to the category of abelian groups together with the connecting homomorphism satisfying some conditions.
Federated learning Decentralized federated learning Federated_learning > Definition > Decentralized federated learning In the decentralized federated learning setting, the nodes are able to coordinate themselves to obtain the global model. This setup prevents single point failures as the model updates are exchanged only between interconnected nodes without the orchestration of the central server. Nevertheless, the specific network topology may affect the performances of the learning process. See blockchain-based federated learning and the references therein.
Invert level Summary Invert_level In civil engineering, the invert level is the base interior level of a pipe, trench or tunnel; it can be considered the "floor" level. The invert is an important datum for determining the functioning or flowline of a piping system. For example, the invert of a street sewer connection could affect the feasibility of adding a toilet in the basement of a house. Conversely, the obvert level is the highest interior level, and can be considered the "ceiling" level, being the highest level of that sewer.
Automation Master History Automation_Master > History So, they build a custom simulator which attached to the guided vehicle system controller and pretended to be the factory floor. The activity of the guided vehicles was displayed on a color graphic display. The software could be debugged on their desks and with finished and debugged taken to the field and installed with minimum effort.