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Linked Data 5-star linked open data Linked_Data > Linked open data > 5-star linked open data In 2010, Tim Berners-Lee suggested a 5-star scheme for grading the quality of open data on the web, for which the highest ranking is Linked Open Data: 1 star: data is openly available in some format. 2 stars: data is available in a structured format, such as Microsoft Excel file format (.xls). 3 stars: data is available in a non-proprietary structured format, such as Comma-separated values (.csv). 4 stars: data follows W3C standards, like using RDF and employing URIs. 5 stars: all of the others, plus links to other Linked Open Data sources.
Administrative data Open and linked administrative data Administrative_data > Open and linked administrative data Open administrative data allows transparency, participation, efficiency, and economic innovation. Linked administrative data allows for the creation of large data-sets and has become a vital tool for central and local governments conducting research. By linking sections of data individually, the online web of administrative data-sets are built. For example, opening public sector data in Europe increased users 1000%.
Non-canonical base pairing Summary Non-canonical_base_pairing Experimental evidences reveal that the nucleotide bases are also capable of forming a wide variety of pairing between bases in various geometries, having hydrogen bonding patterns different from those observed in canonical base pairs. These base pairs, which are generally referred to as Non-Canonical Base Pairs, are held together by multiple hydrogen bonds, and are mostly planar and stable. Most of these play very important roles in shaping the structure and function of different functional RNA molecules. In addition to their occurrences in several double stranded stem regions, most of the loops and bulges that appear in single-stranded RNA secondary structures form recurrent 3D motifs, where non-canonical base pairs play a central role. Non-canonical base pairs also play crucial roles in mediating the tertiary contacts in RNA 3D structures.
Microbial enhanced oil recovery pH Microbial_enhanced_oil_recovery > Environmental constraints > pH The acidity of alkalinity has an impact over several aspects in living and non living systems. For instance:
Universal hashing Hashing integers Universal_hashing > Constructions > Hashing integers Thus the collision probability is ⌊ ( p − 1 ) / m ⌋ / ( p − 1 ) ≤ ( ( p − 1 ) / m ) / ( p − 1 ) = 1 / m {\displaystyle \lfloor (p-1)/m\rfloor /(p-1)\leq ((p-1)/m)/(p-1)=1/m} .Another way to see H {\displaystyle H} is a universal family is via the notion of statistical distance. Write the difference h ( x ) − h ( y ) {\displaystyle h(x)-h(y)} as h ( x ) − h ( y ) ≡ ( a ( x − y ) mod p ) ( mod m ) {\displaystyle h(x)-h(y)\equiv (a(x-y)~{\bmod {~}}p){\pmod {m}}} .Since x − y {\displaystyle x-y} is nonzero and a {\displaystyle a} is uniformly distributed in { 1 , … , p − 1 } {\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,p-1\}} , it follows that a ( x − y ) {\displaystyle a(x-y)} modulo p {\displaystyle p} is also uniformly distributed in { 1 , … , p − 1 } {\displaystyle \{1,\dots ,p-1\}} . The distribution of ( h ( x ) − h ( y ) ) mod m {\displaystyle (h(x)-h(y))~{\bmod {~}}m} is thus almost uniform, up to a difference in probability of ± 1 / p {\displaystyle \pm 1/p} between the samples.
Atherosclerotic plaques Dietary Coronary_atherosclerosis > Risk factors > Dietary The relation between dietary fat and atherosclerosis is controversial. The USDA, in its food pyramid, promotes a diet of about 64% carbohydrates from total calories. The American Heart Association, the American Diabetes Association and the National Cholesterol Education Program make similar recommendations.
Hydrolyzed vegetable protein Enzymatic hydrolysis Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein > Manufacture > Enzymatic hydrolysis For the production process of enzymatic HVP, enzymes are used to break down the proteins. To break down the protein to amino acids, proteases are added to the mixture of defatted protein and water. Due to the sensitivity of enzymes to a specific pH, either an acid or a base is added to match the optimum pH.
Kolmogorov equivalence Operating with T0 spaces Kolmogorov_equivalence > Operating with T0 spaces Examples of topological space typically studied are T0. Indeed, when mathematicians in many fields, notably analysis, naturally run across non-T0 spaces, they usually replace them with T0 spaces, in a manner to be described below. To motivate the ideas involved, consider a well-known example. The space L2(R) is meant to be the space of all measurable functions f from the real line R to the complex plane C such that the Lebesgue integral of |f(x)|2 over the entire real line is finite.
Homology group Homology vs. homotopy Homology_theories > Homology vs. homotopy For instance, the homotopy groups of spheres are poorly understood and are not known in general, in contrast to the straightforward description given above for the homology groups. As an example, let X be the figure eight. Its first homotopy group π 1 ( X ) {\displaystyle \pi _{1}(X)} is the group of directed loops starting and ending at a predetermined point (e.g. its center).
Maternal hypothyroidism Overview Maternal_hypothyroidism > Overview In a study of induced hypothyroidism in pregnant rats they were able to find lower levels of growth hormone in both the blood and pituitary gland of the offspring. This study also looked at neural development in rats and found that maternal hypothyroidism in rat mothers is related to deterioration, damage, disorganization and malformation of neurons and dendrites in the pups, which may result from an impaired antioxidant defense system and high levels of oxidative stress. == References ==
Atomism Atomist renaissance Classical_atomism > History > Atomist renaissance He utilized a theory of atomism as a partial replacement, but he was never unequivocally committed to it. For example, his experiments with falling bodies and inclined planes led him to the concepts of circular inertial motion and accelerating free-fall. The current Aristotelian theories of impetus and terrestrial motion were inadequate to explain these.
Protein evolution The driving forces of evolution Protein_evolution > The driving forces of evolution Positive changes will be very rare, and so will not greatly contribute to DNA polymorphisms. Deleterious mutations do not contribute much to DNA diversity because they negatively affect fitness and so are removed from the gene pool before long. This theory provides a framework for the molecular clock.
Asymmetric Algorithms Summary Public_key_cryptosystem As long as the software publisher keeps the private key secret, even if a forger can distribute malicious updates to computers, they cannot convince the computers that any malicious updates are genuine. Public key algorithms are fundamental security primitives in modern cryptosystems, including applications and protocols which offer assurance of the confidentiality, authenticity and non-repudiability of electronic communications and data storage.
Non-structured programming Summary Non-structured_programming Non-structured programming is the historically earliest programming paradigm capable of creating Turing-complete algorithms. It is often contrasted with the structured programming paradigm, in particular with the use of unstructured control flow using goto statements or equivalent. The distinction was particularly stressed by the publication of the influential "Go To Statement Considered Harmful" open letter in 1968 by Dutch computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra, who coined the term "structured programming".Unstructured programming has been heavily criticized for producing hardly readable ("spaghetti") code. There are both high- and low-level programming languages that use non-structured programming. Some languages commonly cited as being non-structured include JOSS, FOCAL, TELCOMP, assembly languages, MS-DOS batch files, and early versions of BASIC, Fortran, COBOL, and MUMPS.
Charging station Renewable energy Recharging_station > Related technologies > Renewable energy Charging stations are typically connected to the grid, which in most jurisdictions relies on fossil-fuel power stations. However, renewable energy may be used to reduce the use of grid energy. Nidec Industrial Solutions has a system that can be powered by either the grid or renewable energy sources like PV. In 2009, SolarCity marketed its solar energy systems for charging installations.
Domain Model Overview Domain_Model > Overview A domain model leverages natural language of the domain. A domain model generally uses the vocabulary of the domain, thus allowing a representation of the model to be communicated to non-technical stakeholders. It should not refer to any technical implementations such as databases or software components that are being designed.
Legitimate power Informational power Reward_power > Bases of power > Informational power The ability for altered behavior initiated through information rather than a specific change agent is called socially independent change. In order to establish Information Power, an agent of influence would likely provide a baseline of information to a target of influence to lay the groundwork in order to be effective with future persuasion.
Industrial policy Summary Industrial_policies A country's industrial policy (IP) or industrial strategy is its official strategic effort to encourage the development and growth of all or part of the economy, often focused on all or part of the manufacturing sector. The government takes measures "aimed at improving the competitiveness and capabilities of domestic firms and promoting structural transformation". A country's infrastructure (including transportation, telecommunications and energy industry) is a major enabler of the wider economy and so often has a key role in IP.Industrial policies are interventionist measures typical of mixed economy countries. Many types of industrial policies contain common elements with other types of interventionist practices such as trade policy.
Java Platform, Standard Edition File system Java_Platform,_Standard_Edition > General purpose packages > java.io > File system The File class represents a file or directory path in a file system. File objects support the creation, deletion and renaming of files and directories and the manipulation of file attributes such as read-only and last modified timestamp. File objects that represent directories can be used to get a list of all the contained files and directories. The FileDescriptor class is a file descriptor that represents a source or sink (destination) of bytes.
Graphics calculator Programming Graphic_calculators > Programming The most common programming languages used for calculators are similar to keystroke-macro languages and variants of BASIC. The latter can have a large feature set—approaching that of BASIC as found in computers—including character and string manipulation, advanced conditional and branching statements, sound, graphics, and more including, of course, the huge spectrum of mathematical, string, bit-manipulation, number base, I/O, and graphics functions built into the machine. Languages for programming calculators fall into all of the main groups, i.e. machine code, low-level, mid-level, high-level languages for systems and application programming, scripting, macro, and glue languages, procedural, functional, imperative &.
Chemotactic agent Behavior Chemotactic_factor > Bacterial chemotaxis—general characteristics > Behavior The protein structure that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is conserved among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor (TLR5) designed to recognize this conserved protein.
Ramp function Laplace transform Ramp_function > Analytic properties > Laplace transform The single-sided Laplace transform of R(x) is given as follows,
High Energy Physics Subatomic particles Particle_Physics > Subatomic particles Modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic particles, including atomic constituents, such as electrons, protons, and neutrons (protons and neutrons are composite particles called baryons, made of quarks), that are produced by radioactive and scattering processes; such particles are photons, neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide range of exotic particles. All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by the Standard Model.Dynamics of particles are also governed by quantum mechanics; they exhibit wave–particle duality, displaying particle-like behaviour under certain experimental conditions and wave-like behaviour in others. In more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. Following the convention of particle physicists, the term elementary particles is applied to those particles that are, according to current understanding, presumed to be indivisible and not composed of other particles.
Agricultural experiment station Mockern Experiment Station Agricultural_experiment_station > History > Germany > Mockern Experiment Station Analysis of plant fodder and its effects on animal products. Meteorological observations. Cultivation and valuation of rare plants. Agricultural technology testing of implements and machines. Research and creation of agricultural metrics, such as relative values of fodder.
Genetic engineering in agriculture Applications Genetic_engineering_in_agriculture > Applications Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria, the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines. Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.
List of aqueous ions by element Periodic table distribution List_of_aqueous_ions_by_element > Periodic table distribution The occurrence of the different kinds of ions of the elements is shown in this periodic table:
Isomorphic categories Examples Isomorphic_categories > Examples Every ring can be viewed as a preadditive category with a single object. The functor category of all additive functors from this category to the category of abelian groups is isomorphic to the category of left modules over the ring. Another isomorphism of categories arises in the theory of Boolean algebras: the category of Boolean algebras is isomorphic to the category of Boolean rings.
Calciphylaxis Pharmacotherapy Calciphylaxis > Treatment > Pharmacotherapy Vitamin K supplementation has also been shown to slow development of calcification in coronary arteries and the aortic valve in older patients. The ability of vitamin K supplementation to slow calcification of blood vessels in calciphylaxis is not well-studied.
Arginine deiminase Summary Arginine_deiminase In enzymology, an arginine deiminase (EC 3.5.3.6) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction L-arginine + H2O ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } L-citrulline + NH3Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are L-arginine and H2O, whereas its two products are L-citrulline and NH3. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in linear amidines. The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-arginine iminohydrolase. Other names in common use include arginine dihydrolase, citrulline iminase, and L-arginine deiminase.
Open Systems Interconnection Definitions Open_Systems_Interconnection > Definitions It is then passed to layer N−2. The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device. At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
Consistency model Quorum-based protocols Consistency_model > Consistency and replication > Consistency protocols > Replicated-write protocols > Quorum-based protocols Voting can be another approach in replicated-write protocols. In this approach, a client requests and receives permission from multiple servers in order to read and write a replicated data. As an example, suppose in a distributed file system, a file is replicated on N servers. To update a file, a client must send a request to at least N/2 + 1 in order to make their agreement to perform an update.
Morse potential Potential energy function Morse_potential > Potential energy function The Morse potential energy function is of the form V ( r ) = D e ( 1 − e − a ( r − r e ) ) 2 {\displaystyle V(r)=D_{e}(1-e^{-a(r-r_{e})})^{2}} Here r {\displaystyle r} is the distance between the atoms, r e {\displaystyle r_{e}} is the equilibrium bond distance, D e {\displaystyle D_{e}} is the well depth (defined relative to the dissociated atoms), and a {\displaystyle a} controls the 'width' of the potential (the smaller a {\displaystyle a} is, the larger the well). The dissociation energy of the bond can be calculated by subtracting the zero point energy E 0 {\displaystyle E_{0}} from the depth of the well. The force constant (stiffness) of the bond can be found by Taylor expansion of V ′ ( r ) {\displaystyle V'(r)} around r = r e {\displaystyle r=r_{e}} to the second derivative of the potential energy function, from which it can be shown that the parameter, a {\displaystyle a} , is a = k e / 2 D e , {\displaystyle a={\sqrt {k_{e}/2D_{e}}},} where k e {\displaystyle k_{e}} is the force constant at the minimum of the well. Since the zero of potential energy is arbitrary, the equation for the Morse potential can be rewritten any number of ways by adding or subtracting a constant value.
List of electrical phenomena Summary Electrical_activity Thermoelectric effect — the Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect, and the Thomson effect. Thunderstorm — also electrical storm, form of weather characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere known as thunder. Triboelectric effect — Type of contact electrification in which objects become electrically charged after coming into contact and are then separated. A Van de Graaff generator is based on this principle. Whistlers — Very low frequency radio wave generated by lightning.
Load factor (aeronautics) Load factor and lift Load_factor_(aerodynamics) > Load factor and lift In the definition of load factor, the lift is not simply that one generated by the aircraft's wing, instead it is the vector sum of the lift generated by the wing, the fuselage and the tailplane,: 395 or in other words it is the component perpendicular to the airflow of the sum of all aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft. The lift in the load factor is also intended as having a sign, which is positive if the lift vector points in, or near the same direction as the aircraft's vertical axis, or negative if it points in, or near the opposite direction.
Taylor polynomials Comparison with Fourier series Taylor_coefficient > Comparison with Fourier series In particular, the function could be nowhere differentiable. (For example, f (x) could be a Weierstrass function.) The convergence of both series has very different properties.
Ice cream headache Cause and frequency Ice_cream_headache > Cause and frequency Brain-freeze pain may last from a few seconds to a few minutes. Research suggests that the same vascular mechanism and nerve implicated in "brain freeze" cause the aura (sensory disturbance) and pulsatile (throbbing pain) phases of migraines.It is possible to have a cold-stimulus headache in both hot and cold weather, because the effect relies upon the temperature of the food being consumed rather than that of the environment. Other causes that may mimic the sensation of cold-stimulus headache include that produced when high speed drilling is performed through the inner table of the skull in people undergoing such a procedure in an awake or sedated state.
List of mathematical spaces Measurable, measure, and probability spaces Mathematical_space > Types of spaces > Measurable, measure, and probability spaces Waiving distances and angles while retaining volumes (of geometric bodies) one reaches measure theory. Besides the volume, a measure generalizes the notions of area, length, mass (or charge) distribution, and also probability distribution, according to Andrey Kolmogorov's approach to probability theory. A "geometric body" of classical mathematics is much more regular than just a set of points. The boundary of the body is of zero volume.
Thermoelectric power source Uses Thermoelectric_generator > Uses Several patents about the use of thermoelectric devices in parallel or cascade configuration with solar cells have been filed. The idea is to increase the efficiency of the combined solar/thermoelectric system to convert solar radiation into useful electricity. Thermoelectric generators are primarily used as remote and off-grid power generators for unmanned sites.
Reaction rates Formal definition Rate_of_reactions > Formal definition For a single reaction in a closed system of varying volume the so-called rate of conversion can be used, in order to avoid handling concentrations. It is defined as the derivative of the extent of reaction with respect to time. Here νi is the stoichiometric coefficient for substance i, equal to a, b, p, and q in the typical reaction above.
Genetic mutation theory of aging Brain DNA_damage_theory_of_aging > Age-associated accumulation of DNA damage and changes in gene expression > Brain This led to the identification of a set of genes whose expression was altered after age 40. These genes play central roles in synaptic plasticity, vesicular transport and mitochondrial function. In the brain, promoters of genes with reduced expression have markedly increased DNA damage. In cultured human neurons, these gene promoters are selectively damaged by oxidative stress. Thus Lu et al. concluded that DNA damage may reduce the expression of selectively vulnerable genes involved in learning, memory and neuronal survival, initiating a program of brain aging that starts early in adult life.
Cognitive load theory Poverty Cognitive_load_theory > Sub-population studies > Poverty As of 2013 it has been theorized that an impoverished environment can contribute to cognitive load. Regardless of the task at hand, or the processes used in solving the task, people who experience poverty also experience higher cognitive load. A number of factors contribute to the cognitive load in people with lower socioeconomic status that are not present in middle and upper-class people.
North Pacific Gyre Subtropical circulation in the North Pacific North_Pacific_Gyre > Physical oceanography > Subtropical circulation in the North Pacific Like all subtropical gyre systems, the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is an anticyclone meaning the circulation is in a clockwise direction around its high pressure at the center because of its placement in the Northern Hemisphere. This circulation is also associated with equatorward Sverdrup transport and Ekman downwelling. Ekman transport causes water to flow toward the center of the gyre, creating a sloped sea-surface, and initiating geostrophic flow. Harald Sverdrup applied Ekman transport while including pressure gradient forces to develop a theory for Sverdrup transport.The Kuroshio Current is the narrow, strong westward boundary current of the subtropical circulation.
Construction drawing Line styles and types Construction_drawing > Common features > Line styles and types phantom – (not shown) are alternately long- and double short-dashed thin lines used to represent a feature or component that is not part of the specified part or assembly. E.g. billet ends that may be used for testing, or the machined product that is the focus of a tooling drawing.Lines can also be classified by a letter classification in which each line is given a letter. Type A lines show the outline of the feature of an object.
Analysis of Variance Characteristics Analysis_of_Variance > Characteristics So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of data coding.
Nonstructural estimation Other sources Nonstructural_estimation > Other sources Darnell, Adrian C. and J. Lynne Evans. (1990) The Limits of Econometrics. Aldershot: Edward Elgar. Davis, George C.
Air drag Velocity of a falling object Fluid_friction > At high velocity > Velocity of a falling object The velocity as a function of time for an object falling through a non-dense medium, and released at zero relative-velocity v = 0 at time t = 0, is roughly given by a function involving a hyperbolic tangent (tanh): The hyperbolic tangent has a limit value of one, for large time t. In other words, velocity asymptotically approaches a maximum value called the terminal velocity vt: For an object falling and released at relative-velocity v = vi at time t = 0, with vi < vt, is also defined in terms of the hyperbolic tangent function: For vi > vt, the velocity function is defined in terms of the hyperbolic cotangent function: The hyperbolic cotangent has also a limit value of one, for large time t. Velocity asymptotically tends to the terminal velocity vt, strictly from above vt. For vi = vt, the velocity is constant: Actually, these functions are defined by the solution of the following differential equation: Or, more generically (where F(v) are the forces acting on the object beyond drag): For a potato-shaped object of average diameter d and of density ρobj, terminal velocity is about For objects of water-like density (raindrops, hail, live objects—mammals, birds, insects, etc.) falling in air near Earth's surface at sea level, the terminal velocity is roughly equal to with d in metre and vt in m/s. For example, for a human body ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.6 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈70 m/s, for a small animal like a cat ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.2 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈40 m/s, for a small bird ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.05 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈20 m/s, for an insect ( d {\displaystyle d} ≈0.01 m) v t {\displaystyle v_{t}} ≈9 m/s, and so on. Terminal velocity for very small objects (pollen, etc.) at low Reynolds numbers is determined by Stokes law.
International Ultraviolet Explorer Motivation International_Ultraviolet_Explorer > History > Motivation This makes it impossible to observe UV emission from astronomical objects from the ground. Many types of object emit copious quantities of UV radiation, though: the hottest and most massive stars in the universe can have surface temperatures high enough that the vast majority of their light is emitted in the UV. Active Galactic Nuclei, accretion disks, and supernovae all emit UV radiation strongly, and many chemical elements have strong absorption lines in the UV, so that UV absorption by the interstellar medium provides a powerful tool for studying its composition.
Covariant differential Informal definition using an embedding into Euclidean space Intrinsic_derivative > Informal definition using an embedding into Euclidean space Roll this sheet of paper into a cylinder. Now the (Euclidean) derivative of your velocity has a component that sometimes points inward toward the axis of the cylinder depending on whether you're near a solstice or an equinox. (At the point of the circle when you are moving parallel to the axis, there is no inward acceleration.
Chromosome pair Function Chromosome_pair > Function At the meiotic metaphase I, the cytoskeleton puts the bivalents under tension by pulling each homolog in opposite direction (contrary to mitotic division where the forces are exerted on each chromatid). The anchorage of the cytoskeleton to the chromosomes takes place at the centromere thanks to a protein complex called kinetochore. This tension results in the alignment of the bivalent at the center of the cell, the chiasmata and the distal cohesion of the sister chromatids being the anchor point sustaining the force exerted on the whole structure. Impressively, human female primary oocytes remains in this tension state for decades (from the establishment of the oocyte in metaphase I during embryonic development, to the ovulation event in adulthood that resume the meiotic division), highlighting the robustness of the chiasma and the cohesion that hold the bivalents together.
Materials strength Design terms Material_strength > Design terms Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it breaks or weakens. For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is 440 MPa. In Imperial units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in² or pounds-force per square inch.
Sister-chromatid exchange Summary Sister_chromatid_exchange The reason for the (SCE) is not known but it is required and used as a mutagenic testing of many products. Four to five sister chromatid exchanges per chromosome pair, per mitosis is in the normal distribution, while 14–100 exchanges is not normal and presents a danger to the organism.
Bicycle gearing Usable gears Bicycle_gearing > General considerations > Usable gears Instead it provides 3 overlapping ranges of 7, 8, and 7 gear ratios. The outer ranges only have 7 ratios rather than 8 because the extreme combinations (largest chainring to largest rear sprocket, smallest chainring to smallest rear sprocket) result in a very diagonal chain alignment which is inefficient and causes excessive chain wear.
Dust collector Summary Filter_bag A dust collector is a system used to enhance the quality of air released from industrial and commercial processes by collecting dust and other impurities from air or gas. Designed to handle high-volume dust loads, a dust collector system consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. It is distinguished from air purifiers, which use disposable filters to remove dust.
Blockbuster drug Summary Therapeutic_agents A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management. Drugs are classified in many ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant, or qualified nurse) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves).
Jeremy Butterfield Research Jeremy_Butterfield > Research More recently, he has appealed to tensor calculus, and its use in much of contemporary physics, to argue against the popular view (propounded by David Lewis) that the world may be described in terms of 'local matters of fact'; i.e. in terms of chiefly intrinsic properties instantiated at spatial or spatio-temporal points. In the philosophy of classical mechanics, Butterfield has investigated the elimination of descriptively redundant formal elements through symplectic reduction, and the interdependence between conserved quantities and conservation laws. He has also made several appeals in his work, on classical mechanics and other physical theories, to the importance of an appreciation of modality in physics.
Off-target effects of genome editing Nuclease mutation Off-target_effects_of_genome_editing > Improvements > Methods to increase specificity > Nuclease mutation A D1135E mutant appears to alter PAM specificities. The D1135E mutant reduces off-target effects and increases the specificity of SpCas9.
Tellurium Thermoelectric material Tellurium > Applications > Thermoelectric material The BiTe-based TE material can achieve a conversion efficiency of 8%, an average zT value of 1.05 for p-type and 0.84 for n-type bismuth telluride alloys. Lanthanum telluride can be potentially used in deep space as a thermoelectric generator due to the huge temperature difference in space. The zT value reaches to a maximum of ~1.0 for a La3-xTe4 system with x near 0.2. This composition also allows other chemical substitution which may enhance the TE performance. The addition of Yb, for example, may increase the zT value from 1.0 to 1.2 at 1275K, which is greater than the current SiGe power system.
Experimental psychology Experiments Experimental_psychologist > Research in Experimental Psychology > Experiments Field experiments differ from field studies in that some part of the environment (field) is manipulated in a controlled way (for example, researchers give different kinds of toys to two different groups of children in a nursery school). Control is typically more lax than it would be in a laboratory setting.Other methods of research such as case study, interview, opinion polls and naturalistic observation, are often used by psychologists. These are not experimental methods, as they lack such aspects as well-defined, controlled variables, randomization, and isolation from unwanted variables.
De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas Creation De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas > Creation To conclude, we may justly reckon that to belong to the Analytic Art, by the help of which the Areas and Lengths, etc. of Curves may be exactly and geometrically determined. Newton The explication was written to remedy apparent weaknesses in the logarithmic series , that had become republished due to Nicolaus Mercator, or through the encouragement of Isaac Barrow in 1669, to ascertain the knowing of the prior authorship of a general method of infinite series.
History of scientific method Summary History_of_scientific_method Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of generalisations made from observations of nature. Some of the most important debates in the history of scientific method center on: rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes; inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers; and hypothetico-deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was central to discussions of scientific method as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century some prominent philosophers argued against any universal rules of science at all.
Quantum Bayesianism Technical developments and reconstructing quantum theory Quantum_Bayesianism > Technical developments and reconstructing quantum theory The Born rule then takes the role of relating one valid probability distribution to another, rather than of deriving probabilities from something apparently more fundamental. Fuchs, Schack, and others have taken to calling this restatement of the Born rule the urgleichung, from the German for "primal equation" (see Ur- prefix), because of the central role it plays in their reconstruction of quantum theory.The following discussion presumes some familiarity with the mathematics of quantum information theory, and in particular, the modeling of measurement procedures by POVMs. Consider a quantum system to which is associated a d {\textstyle d} -dimensional Hilbert space.
Parity (physics) Odd P_symmetry > Effect of spatial inversion on some variables of classical physics > Odd Classical variables whose signs flip when inverted in space inversion are predominantly vectors. They include:
Electric power systems Summary Mains_power_systems Mains electricity by country includes a list of countries and territories, with the plugs, voltages and frequencies they commonly use for providing electrical power to low voltage appliances, equipment, and lighting typically found in homes and offices. (For industrial machinery, see industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets.) Some countries have more than one voltage available. For example, in North America the supply to most premises is split-phase, with 240 volts between phases and 120 volts between either phase and neutral.
Table lookup Limitations Look-up_table > Limitations Although the performance of a LUT is a guaranteed O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} for a lookup operation, no two entities or values can have the same key k {\displaystyle k} . When the size of universe ∪ {\displaystyle \cup } —where the keys are drawn—is large, it might be impractical or impossible to be stored in memory. Hence, in this case, a hash table would be a preferable alternative. : 468
Physical dimension Conceptualization and generalization Size > Conceptualization and generalization The concept of size is often applied to ideas that have no physical reality. In mathematics, magnitude is the size of a mathematical object, which is an abstract object with no concrete existence. Magnitude is a property by which the object can be compared as larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind. More formally, an object's magnitude is an ordering (or ranking) of the class of objects to which it belongs.
Major interval Major and minor Major_interval > Interval number and quality > Quality > Major and minor As shown in the table, a diatonic scale defines seven intervals for each interval number, each starting from a different note (seven unisons, seven seconds, etc.). The intervals formed by the notes of a diatonic scale are called diatonic. Except for unisons and octaves, the diatonic intervals with a given interval number always occur in two sizes, which differ by one semitone.
Ole Rømer Summary Ole_Rømer Ole Christensen Rømer (Danish: ; 25 September 1644 – 19 September 1710) was a Danish astronomer who, in 1676, made the first measurement of the speed of light and discovery that light travels at a finite speed. Rømer also invented the modern thermometer showing the temperature between two fixed points, namely the points at which water respectively boils and freezes. Rømer measured the speed of light to be approximately 220,000 kilometers per second while working at the Royal Observatory in Paris.
Control strategy Stability Closed_loop_control > Topics in control theory > Stability These include graphical systems like the root locus, Bode plots or the Nyquist plots. Mechanical changes can make equipment (and control systems) more stable. Sailors add ballast to improve the stability of ships. Cruise ships use antiroll fins that extend transversely from the side of the ship for perhaps 30 feet (10 m) and are continuously rotated about their axes to develop forces that oppose the roll.
Cache control instruction Prefetch Cache_control_instruction > Examples > Prefetch Also termed data cache block touch, the effect is to request loading the cache line associated with a given address. This is performed by the PREFETCH instruction in the x86 instruction set. Some variants bypass higher levels of the cache hierarchy, which is useful in a 'streaming' context for data that is traversed once, rather than held in the working set. The prefetch should occur sufficiently far ahead in time to mitigate the latency of memory access, for example in a loop traversing memory linearly. The GNU Compiler Collection intrinsic function __builtin_prefetch can be used to invoke this in the programming languages C or C++.
Gastric secretion Surgery Fundic_stomach > Clinical significance > Surgery In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be placed around the cardia area, which can adjust to limit intake. The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely. Surgical removal of the stomach is called a gastrectomy, and removal of the cardia area is a called a cardiectomy.
Vitelline envelope Summary Vitelline_envelope The insect vitelline envelope is the outer proteinaceous layer outside the oocyte and egg. The vitelline envelope, not being a cellular structure, is commonly referred to as a membrane. However, this is a technical misnomer as the structure is composed of protein and is not a cellular component. It varies in thickness between different insects and even varies at different parts of the egg.
Edward Bernays Books Edward_Bernays > Publications > Books An Outline of Careers: A Practical Guide to Achievement by Thirty-Eight Eminent Americans (1927). Verdict of Public Opinion on Propaganda (1927). Propaganda.
Equivalence test Summary Equivalence_test Equivalence tests are a variety of hypothesis tests used to draw statistical inferences from observed data. In these tests, the null hypothesis is defined as an effect large enough to be deemed interesting, specified by an equivalence bound. The alternative hypothesis is any effect that is less extreme than said equivalence bound. The observed data are statistically compared against the equivalence bounds.
Consumer choice theory Summary Consumer_choice_theory In the second case, a producer has different motives to the consumer in that they are focussed on the profit they make. This is explained further by producer theory. The models that make up consumer theory are used to represent prospectively observable demand patterns for an individual buyer on the hypothesis of constrained optimization.
Electron Transport Chain Photosynthetic Electron_Transport_System > Photosynthetic In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from an electron donor such as NADH to an acceptor such as O2 through an electron transport chain, releasing energy. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high-energy electron donor which can subsequently reduce oxidized components and couple to ATP synthesis via proton translocation by the electron transport chain.Photosynthetic electron transport chains, like the mitochondrial chain, can be considered as a special case of the bacterial systems. They use mobile, lipid-soluble quinone carriers (phylloquinone and plastoquinone) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes).
Astronomical Units Development of unit definition Astronomical_Units > Development of unit definition Subsequent explorations of the Solar System by space probes made it possible to obtain precise measurements of the relative positions of the inner planets and other objects by means of radar and telemetry. As with all radar measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for photons to be reflected from an object. Because all photons move at the speed of light in vacuum, a fundamental constant of the universe, the distance of an object from the probe is calculated as the product of the speed of light and the measured time.
Rectangular diagonal matrix Summary Scalar_matrix An identity matrix of any size, or any multiple of it (a scalar matrix), is a diagonal matrix. A diagonal matrix is sometimes called a scaling matrix, since matrix multiplication with it results in changing scale (size). Its determinant is the product of its diagonal values.
Temperature-compensated balance wheel Addition of balance spring Balance_wheels > History > Addition of balance spring The addition of the spring made the balance wheel a harmonic oscillator, the basis of every modern clock. This means the wheel vibrated at a natural resonant frequency or ‘beat’ and resisted changes in its vibration rate caused by friction or changing drive force. This crucial innovation greatly increased the accuracy of watches, from several hours per day to perhaps 10 minutes per day, changing them from expensive novelties into useful timekeepers.
Mononitrogen monosulfide Electronic structure of Fe(S2CNMe2)2(NS) Mononitrogen_monosulfide > Reactivity > Electronic structure of Fe(S2CNMe2)2(NS) The electronic structures of Fe(S2CNMe2)2(NE), where E=O, S, or Se were calculated using Density Functional Theory methods. It was found that the large Mulliken spin density remained concentrated on the Fe(NE) core and Fe-N distances experienced little change from the chalcogen atom used. The HOMO of both nitrosyl and thionitrosyl complexes retained 1a1 (dz2) character. The small changes in the energies of the spin orbitals of the complexes, particularly the decreased energetic gap between 2b2 and 1b1 and 2b1 and 1b1 orbitals is attributed to NS being a weaker π-acceptor than NO.
Cognitive Biology Overview Cognitive_Biology > Overview While cognitive science endeavors to explain human thought and the conscious mind, the work of cognitive biology is focused on the most fundamental process of cognition for any organism. In the past several decades, biologists have investigated cognition in organisms large and small, both plant and animal. “Mounting evidence suggests that even bacteria grapple with problems long familiar to cognitive scientists, including: integrating information from multiple sensory channels to marshal an effective response to fluctuating conditions; making decisions under conditions of uncertainty; communicating with conspecifics and others (honestly and deceptively); and coordinating collective behaviour to increase the chances of survival.” Without thinking or perceiving as humans would have it, an act of basic cognition is arguably a simple step-by-step process through which an organism senses a stimulus, then finds an appropriate response in its repertoire and enacts the response.
Combination chemotherapy Nitrosoureas Combination_chemotherapy > Drug discovery at the NCI and elsewhere > Nitrosoureas A second group with an NCI contract, led by John Montgomery at the Southern Research Institute, synthesized nitrosoureas, an alkylating agent which cross-links DNA. Fludarabine phosphate, a purine analogue which has become a mainstay in treatment of patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, was another similar development by Montgomery.
Linkage studies Variation of recombination frequency Lod_score_method > Variation of recombination frequency While recombination of chromosomes is an essential process during meiosis, there is a large range of frequency of cross overs across organisms and within species. Sexually dimorphic rates of recombination are termed heterochiasmy, and are observed more often than a common rate between male and females. In mammals, females often have a higher rate of recombination compared to males. It is theorised that there are unique selections acting or meiotic drivers which influence the difference in rates. The difference in rates may also reflect the vastly different environments and conditions of meiosis in oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
Organizational analysis Rational model Organizational_analysis > Organizational analysis models > Rational model The rational model stems from the Frederick W. Taylor's (1911) Structural Perspective. Taylor was the father of time-and-motion studies and founded an approach he called "scientific management." It was Taylor's stance that organisations should be as mechanistic and efficient as possible. These Scientific Management principles served a valuable purpose for the Ford Motor Company, where the first American, mass-produced automobiles were being created. The rational model views organizations as a mechanism that is made up of various parts that can be modified in order to create an output in the shortest amount of time and without deviation.
False conviction Prevalence False_conviction > Prevalence There are two main methods for estimating the prevalence of wrongful convictions.
Ising spin model Low dimensions – block spins Ising_lattice > Four dimensions and above > Low dimensions – block spins Historically, this approach is due to Leo Kadanoff and predated the perturbative ε expansion. The idea is to integrate out lattice spins iteratively, generating a flow in couplings. But now the couplings are lattice energy coefficients. The fact that a continuum description exists guarantees that this iteration will converge to a fixed point when the temperature is tuned to criticality.
Archimedes' constant Gaussian integrals Pi > Role and characterizations in mathematics > Gaussian integrals The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution. The Gaussian function, which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ, naturally contains π: The factor of 1 2 π {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}} makes the area under the graph of f equal to one, as is required for a probability distribution. This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral: which says that the area under the basic bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of π. The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions, and thus of π, in probability and statistics.
Bekić's theorem Summary Bekić's_theorem In computability theory, Bekić's theorem or Bekić's lemma is a theorem about fixed-points which allows splitting a mutual recursion into recursions on one variable at a time. It was created by Austrian Hans Bekić (1936-1982) in 1969, and published posthumously in a book by Cliff Jones in 1984.The theorem is set up as follows. Consider two operators f: P × Q → P {\displaystyle f:P\times Q\to P} and g: P × Q → Q {\displaystyle g:P\times Q\to Q} on pointed directed-complete partial orders P {\displaystyle P} and Q {\displaystyle Q} , continuous in each component. Then define the operator ( f , g ) ( x , y ) = ( f ( x , y ) , g ( x , y ) ) {\displaystyle (f,g)(x,y)=(f(x,y),g(x,y))} .
Planned obsolescence Contrived durability Planned_obsolescence > Variants > Contrived durability A possible method of limiting a product's durability is to use inferior materials in critical areas, or suboptimal component layouts which cause excessive wear. Using soft metal in screws and cheap plastic instead of metal in stress-bearing components will increase the speed at which a product will become inoperable through normal usage and make it prone to breakage from even minor forms of abnormal usage. For example, small, brittle plastic gears in toys are extremely prone to damage if the toy is played with roughly, which can easily destroy key functions of the toy and force the purchase of a replacement. The short life expectancy of smartphones and other handheld electronics is a result of constant usage, fragile batteries, and the ability to easily damage them.
Chronic lower respiratory disease Shortness of breath Chronic_lower_respiratory_disease > Signs and symptoms > Shortness of breath A cardinal symptom of COPD is the chronic and progressive shortness of breath which is most characteristic of the condition. Shortness of breath (breathlessness) is often the most distressing symptom responsible for the associated anxiety and level of disability experienced. Symptoms of wheezing and chest tightness associated with breathlessness can be variable over the course of a day or between days and are not always present. Chest tightness often follows exertion.
Amplification of DNA Eukaryotes Initiation_of_DNA_replication > Regulation > Eukaryotes Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA. After passing through the G1/S checkpoint, DNA must be replicated only once in each cell cycle.
Process variable Summary Process_variable In control theory, a process variable (PV; also process value or process parameter) is the current measured value of a particular part of a process which is being monitored or controlled. An example of this would be the temperature of a furnace. The current temperature is the process variable, while the desired temperature is known as the set-point (SP).
Markov spectrum Summary Markov_spectrum In mathematics, the Markov spectrum devised by Andrey Markov is a complicated set of real numbers arising in Markov Diophantine equation and also in the theory of Diophantine approximation.
Gittins index Terminology Gittins_index > Terminology He then moves on to the "Multi–armed bandit problem" where each pull on a "one armed bandit" lever is allocated a reward function for a successful pull, and a zero reward for an unsuccessful pull. The sequence of successes forms a Bernoulli process and has an unknown probability of success. There are multiple "bandits" and the distribution of successful pulls is calculated and different for each machine. Gittins states that the problem here is "to decide which arm to pull next at each stage so as to maximize the total expected reward from an infinite sequence of pulls. "Gittins says that "Both the problems described above involve a sequence of decisions, each of which is based on more information than its predecessors, and these both problems may be tackled by dynamic allocation indices."
Strong artificial intelligence Criticisms of simulation-based approaches Strong_artificial_intelligence > Brain simulation > Criticisms of simulation-based approaches To simulate a bee brain, it may be necessary to simulate the body, and the environment. The Extended Mind thesis formalises this philosophical concept, and research into cephalopods demonstrated clear examples of a decentralized system.In addition, the scale of the human brain is not currently well-constrained. One estimate puts the human brain at about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses. Another estimate is 86 billion neurons of which 16.3 billion are in the cerebral cortex and 69 billion in the cerebellum. Glial cell synapses are currently unquantified but are known to be extremely numerous.
Higher organisms Selection for simplicity and complexity Evolution_of_complexity > Selection for simplicity and complexity Usually organisms that have a higher rate of reproduction than their competitors have an evolutionary advantage. Consequently, organisms can evolve to become simpler and thus multiply faster and produce more offspring, as they require fewer resources to reproduce. A good example are parasites such as Plasmodium – the parasite responsible for malaria – and mycoplasma; these organisms often dispense with traits that are made unnecessary through parasitism on a host.A lineage can also dispense with complexity when a particular complex trait merely provides no selective advantage in a particular environment. Loss of this trait need not necessarily confer a selective advantage, but may be lost due to the accumulation of mutations if its loss does not confer an immediate selective disadvantage.
High-level language Execution modes High-level_programming_languages > Execution modes See assembly language. Intermediate representations When code written in a language is compiled to an intermediate representation, that representation can be optimized or saved for later execution without the need to re-read the source file. When the intermediate representation is saved, it may be in a form such as bytecode.
Integration Platform as a service Description Integration_Platform_as_a_service > Description B2B integration was serviced through EDI gateways or value-added network (VAN). The advent of SaaS applications created a new kind of demand which was met through cloud-based integration. Since their emergence, many such services have also developed the capability to integrate legacy or on-premises applications, as well as function as EDI gateways. The following essential features were proposed by one marketing company: Deployed on a multi-tenant, elastic cloud infrastructure Subscription model pricing (operating expense, not capital expenditure) No software development (required connectors should already be available) Users do not perform deployment or manage the platform itself Presence of integration management and monitoring featuresThe emergence of this sector led to new cloud-based business process management tools that do not need to build integration layers - since those are now a separate service. Drivers of growth include the need to integrate mobile app capabilities with proliferating API publishing resources and the growth in demand for the Internet of things functionalities as more 'things' connect to the Internet.
P53 Isoforms Tumor_suppressor_protein_p53 > Isoforms It is required among others for p53 mediated apoptosis. Some isoforms lack the proline rich domain, such as Δ133p53β,γ and Δ160p53α,β,γ; hence some isoforms of p53 are not mediating apoptosis, emphasizing the diversifying roles of the TP53 gene. Afterwards there is the DNA binding domain (DBD), which enables the proteins to sequence specific binding.
Muscular system Skeletal Muscular_system > Types > Skeletal The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Within the sarcomere, actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin filaments have club-shaped myosin heads that project toward the actin filaments, and provide attachment points on binding sites for the actin filaments.
Homogeneous equation Summary Homogeneous_system_of_linear_equations Very often, and in this article, the coefficients of the equations are real or complex numbers and the solutions are searched in the same set of numbers, but the theory and the algorithms apply for coefficients and solutions in any field. For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other algebraic structures, other theories have been developed, see Linear equation over a ring. Integer linear programming is a collection of methods for finding the "best" integer solution (when there are many). Gröbner basis theory provides algorithms when coefficients and unknowns are polynomials. Also tropical geometry is an example of linear algebra in a more exotic structure.