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On May 4, 1971, computer scientist/mathematician Steve Cook introduced the P vs. NP problem to the world in his paper, "The Complexity of Theorem Proving Procedures." More than 50 years later, the world is still trying to solve it. In fact, I addressed the subject 12 years ago in a Communications article, "The Status of the P versus NP Problem."13
The P vs. NP problem, and the theory behind it, has not changed dramatically since that 2009 article, but the world of computing most certainly has. The growth of cloud computing has helped to empower social networks, smartphones, the gig economy, fintech, spatial computing, online education, and, perhaps most importantly, the rise of data science and machine learning. In 2009, the top 10 companies by market cap included a single Big Tech company: Microsoft. As of September 2020, the first seven are Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Alphabet (Google), Alibaba, Facebook, and Tencent.38 The number of computer science (CS) graduates in the U.S. more than tripled8 and does not come close to meeting demand.
Rather than simply revise or update the 2009 survey, I have chosen to view advances in computing, optimization, and machine learning through a P vs. NP lens. I look at how these advances bring us closer to a world in which P = NP, the limitations still presented by P vs. NP, and the new opportunities of study which have been created. In particular, I look at how we are heading toward a world I call "Optiland," where we can almost miraculously gain many of the advantages of P = NP while avoiding some of the disadvantages, such as breaking cryptography.
As an open mathematical problem, P vs. NP remains one of the most important; it is listed on the Clay Mathematical Institute's Millennium Problems21 (the organization offers a million-dollar bounty for the solution). I close the article by describing some new theoretical computer science results that, while not getting us closer to solving the P vs. NP question, show us that thinking about P vs. NP still drives much of the important research in the area.
Are there 300 Facebook users who are all friends with each other? How would you go about answering that question? Let's assume you work at Facebook. You have access to the entire Facebook graph and can see which users are friends. You now need to write an algorithm to find that large clique of friends. You could try all groups of 300, but there are far too many to search them all. You could try something smarter, perhaps starting with small groups and merging them into bigger groups, but nothing you do seems to work. In fact, nobody knows of a significantly faster solution than to try all the groups, but neither do we know that no such solution exists.
This is basically the P vs. NP question. NP represents problems that have solutions you can check efficiently. If I tell you which 300 people might form a clique, you can check relatively quickly that the 44,850 pairs of users are all friends. Clique is an NP problem. P represents problems where you can find those solutions efficiently. We don't know whether the clique problem is in P. Perhaps, surprisingly, Clique has a property called NP-complete—that is, we can efficiently solve the Clique problem quickly if and only if P = NP. Many other problems have this property, including 3-Coloring (can a map be colored using only three colors so that no two neighboring countries have the same color?), Traveling Salesman (find the shortest route through a list of cities, visiting every city and returning to the starting place), and tens to hundreds of thousands of others.
Formally, P stands for "polynomial time," the class of problems that one can solve in time bounded by a fixed polynomial in the length of the input. NP stands for "nondeterministic polynomial time," where one can use a nondeterministic machine that can magically choose the best answer. For the purposes of this survey, it is best to think of P and NP simply as efficiently computable and efficiently checkable.
For those who want a longer informal discussion on the importance of the P vs. NP problem, see the 2009 survey13 or the popular science book based on that survey.14 For a more technical introduction, the 1979 book by Michael Garey and David Johnson16 has held up surprisingly well and remains an invaluable reference for those who need to understand which problems are NP-complete.
On that Tuesday afternoon in 1971, when Cook presented his paper to ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computing attendees at the Stouffer's Somerset Inn in Shaker Heights, OH, he proved that Satisfiability is NP-complete and Tautology is NP-hard.10 The theorems suggest that Tautology is a good candidate for an interesting set not in [P], and I feel it is worth spending considerable effort trying to prove this conjecture. Such a proof would represent a major breakthrough in complexity theory.
Dating a mathematical concept is almost always a challenge, and there are many other possible times where we can start the P vs. NP clock. The basic notions of algorithms and proofs date back to at least the ancient Greeks, but as far as we know they never considered a general problem such as P vs. NP. The basics of efficient computation and nondeterminism were developed in the 1960s. The P vs. NP question was formulated earlier than that, we just didn't know it.
The P vs. NP problem, and the theory behind it, has not changed dramatically, but the world of computing most certainly has.
Kurt Gödel wrote a letter17 in 1956 to John von Neumann that essentially described the P vs. NP problem. It is not clear if von Neumann, then suffering from cancer, ever read the letter, which was not discovered and widely distributed until 1988. The P vs. NP question didn't really become a phenomenon until Richard Karp published his 1972 paper23 showing that a large number of well-known combinatorial problems were NP-complete, including Clique, 3-Coloring, and Traveling Salesman. In 1973, Leonid Levin, then in Russia, published a paper based on his independent 1971 research that defined the P vs. NP problem.27 By the time Levin's paper reached the west, P vs. NP had already established itself as computing's most important question.
Russell Impagliazzo, in a classic 1995 paper,20 described five worlds with varying degrees of possibilities for the P vs. NP problem:
These worlds are purposely not formally defined but rather suggest the unknown possibilities given our knowledge of the P vs. NP problem. The general belief, though not universal, is that we live in Cryptomania.
Impagliazzo draws upon a "you can't have it all" from P vs. NP theory. You can either solve hard NP problems or have cryptography, but you can't have both (you can have neither). Perhaps, though, we are heading to a de facto Optiland. Advances in machine learning and optimization in both software and hardware are allowing us to make progress on problems long thought difficult or impossible—from voice recognition to protein folding—and yet, for the most part, our cryptographic protocols remain secure.
In a section called "What if P=NP?" from the 2009 survey,13 I wrote, "Learning becomes easy by using the principle of Occam's razor—we simply find the smallest program consistent with the data. Near-perfect vision recognition, language comprehension and translation, and all other learning tasks become trivial. We will also have much better predictions of weather and earthquakes and other natural phenomenon."
Today, you can use face-scanning to unlock your smartphone, talk to the device to ask it a question and often get a reasonable answer, or have your question translated into a different language. Your phone receives alerts about weather and other climatic events, with far better predictions than we would have thought possible just a dozen years ago. Meanwhile, cryptography has gone mostly unscathed beyond brute-force-like attacks on small key lengths. Now let's look at how recent advances in computing, optimization, and learning are leading us to Optiland.
In 2016, Bill Cook (no relation to Steve) and his colleagues decided to tackle the following challenge:9 How do you visit every pub in the U.K. in the shortest distance possible? They made a list of 24,727 pubs and created the ultimate pub crawl, a walking trip that spanned 45,495,239 meters—approximately 28,269 miles—a bit longer than walking around the earth.
Cook had cheated a bit, eliminating some pubs to keep the size reasonable. After some press coverage in the U.K.,7 many complained about missing their favorite watering holes. Cook and company went back to work, building up the list to 49,687 pubs. The new tour length would be 63,739,687 meters, or about 39,606 miles (see Figure). One needs just a 40% longer walk to reach more than twice as many pubs. The pub crawl is just a traveling salesman problem, one of the most famous of the NP-complete problems. The number of possible tours through all the 49,687 pubs is roughly three followed by 211,761 zeros. Of course, Cook's computers don't search the whole set of tours but use a variety of optimization techniques. Even more impressive, the tour comes with a proof of optimality based on linear program duality.
Figure. Shortest route through 49,687 U.K. pubs. Used by permission. (http://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/tsp/uk).
Taking on a larger task, Cook and company aimed to find the shortest tour through more than two million stars where distances could be computed. Their tour of 28,884,456 parsecs is within a mere 683 parsecs of optimal.
Beyond Traveling Salesman, we have seen major advances in solving satisfiability and mixed-integer programming—a variation of linear programming where some, but not necessarily all, of the variables are required to be integers. Using highly refined heuristics, fast processors, specialized hardware, and distributed cloud computing, one can often solve problems that arise in practice with tens of thousands of variables and hundreds of thousands or even millions of constraints.
Faced with an NP problem to solve, one can often formulate the problem as a satisfiability or mixed-integer programming question and throw it at one of the top solvers. These tools have been used successfully in verification and automated testing of circuits and code, computational biology, system security, product and packaging design, financial trading, and even to solve some difficult mathematical problems.
Any reader of Communications and most everyone else cannot dismiss the transformative effects of machine learning, particularly learning by neural nets. The notion of modeling computation by artificial neurons—basically objects that compute weighted threshold functions—goes back to the work of Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts in the 1940s.28 In the 1990s, Yoshua Bengio, Geoffrey Hinton, and Yann LeCun26 developed the basic algorithms that would power the learning of neural nets, a circuit of these neurons several layers deep. Faster and more distributed computing, specialized hardware, and enormous amounts of data helped propel machine learning to the point where it can accomplish many human-oriented tasks surprisingly well. ACM recognized the incredible impact the work of Bengio, Hinton, and LeCun has had in our society with the 2018 A.M. Turing Award.
How does machine learning mesh with P vs. NP? In this section, when we talk about P = NP, it will be in the very strong sense of all problems in NP having efficient algorithms in practice. Occam's razor states that "entities should not be multiplied without necessity" or, informally, that the simplest explanation is likely to be the right one. If P = NP, we can use this idea to create a strong learning algorithm: Find the smallest circuit consistent with the data. Even though we likely don't have P = NP, machine learning can approximate this approach, which led to its surprising power. Nevertheless, the neural net is unlikely to be the "smallest" possible circuit. A neural net trained by today's deep-learning techniques is typically fixed in structure with parameters that are only on the weights on the wires. To allow sufficient expressibility, there are often millions or more such weights. This limits the power of neural nets. They can do very well with face recognition, but they can't learn to multiply based on examples.
Universal distribution and GPT-3. Consider distributions on the infinite set of binary strings. You can't have a uniform distribution, but you could create distributions where every string of the same length has the same probability. However, some strings are simply more important than others. For example, the first million digits of π have more meaning than just a million digits generated at random. You might want to put a higher probability on the more meaningful strings. There are many ways to do this, but in fact there is a universal distribution that gets close to any other computable distribution (see Kirchherr et al.25) This distribution has great connections to learning—for example, any algorithm that learns with small error to this distribution will learn for all computable distributions. The catch is that this distribution is horribly non-computable even if P = NP. If P = NP, we still get something useful by creating an efficiently computable distribution universal to other efficiently computable distributions.
What do we get out of machine learning? Consider the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT), particularly GPT-3 released in 2020.5 GPT-3 has 175 billion parameters trained on 410 billion tokens taken from as much of the written corpus as could be made available. It can answer questions, write essays given a prompt, and even do some coding. Though it has a long way to go, GPT-3 has drawn rave reviews for its ability to generate material that looks human-produced. One can view GPT-3 in some sense like a distribution, where we can look at the probability of outputs generated by the algorithm, a weak version of a universal distribution. If we restrict a universal distribution to have a given prefix, that provides a random sample prompted by that prefix. GPT-3 can also build on such prompts, handling a surprisingly wide range of domain knowledge without further training. As this line of research progresses, we will get closer to a universal metric from which one can perform built-in learning: Generate a random example from a given context.
Science and medicine. In science, we have made advances by doing large-scale simulations to understand, for example, exploring nuclear fusion reactions. Researchers can then apply a form of the scientific method: Create a hypothesis for a physical system; use that model to make a prediction; and then, instead of attempting to create an actual reaction, use an experimental simulation to test that prediction. If the answer is not as predicted, then change or throw away the model and start again.
After we have a strong model, we can then make that expensive test in a physical reactor. If P = NP, we could, as mentioned above, use an Occam's Razor approach to create hypotheses—find the smallest circuits that are consistent with the data. Machine-learning techniques can work along these lines, automating the hypothesis creation. Given data—whether generated by simulations, experiments, or sensors—machine learning can create models that match the data. We can use these models to make predictions and then test those predictions as before.
While these techniques allow us to find hypotheses and models that might have been missed, they can also lead to false positives. We generally accept a hypothesis with a 95% confidence level, meaning that one out of 20 bad hypotheses might pass. Machine-learning and data science tools can allow us to generate hypotheses that will run the risk of publishing results not grounded in truth. Medical researchers, particularly those trying to tackle diseases such as cancer, often hit upon hard algorithmic barriers. Biological systems are incredibly complex structures. We know that our DNA forms a code that describes how our bodies are formed and the functions they perform, but we have only a very limited understanding on how these processes work.
On November 30, 2020, Google's DeepMind announced AlphaFold, a new algorithm that predicts the shape of a protein based on its amino acid sequence.22 AlphaFold's predictions nearly reach the accuracy of experimentally building the amino acid sequence and measuring the shape of the protein that forms. There is some controversy as to whether DeepMind has actually "solved" protein folding and it is far too early to gauge its impact, but in the long run this could give us a new digital tool to study proteins, understand how they interact, and learn how to design them to fight disease.
Beyond P vs. NP: chess and go. NP is like solving a puzzle. Sudoku, on an arbitrarily sized board, is NP-complete to solve from a given initial setting of numbers in some of the squares. But what about games with two players who take alternate turns, such as chess and go, when we ask about who wins from a given initial setting of the pieces? Even if we have P = NP, it wouldn't necessarily give us a perfect chess program. You would have to ask if there is a move for white such that for every move of black, there is a move for white such that for every move of black … white wins. You just can't do all those alternations of white and black on P = NP alone. Games like these tend to be wha is called PSPACE-hard, hard for computation that uses a reasonable amount of memory without any limit on time. Chess and go could even be harder depending on the precise formulation of the rules (see Demaine and Hearn.11)
This doesn't mean you can't get a good chess program if P = NP. You could find an efficient computer program of one size that beats all efficient programs of slightly smaller sizes, if that's possible. Meanwhile, even without P = NP, computers have gotten very strong at chess and go. In 1997, IBM's Deep Blue defeated Gary Kasparov, chess world champion at the time, but go programs struggled against even strong amateurs. Machine learning has made dramatic improvements to computer game playing. While there is a lengthy history, let me jump to AlphaZero, developed in 2017 by Google's DeepMind.35
AlphaZero uses a technique known as Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) that randomly makes moves for both players to determine the best course of action. AlphaZero uses deep learning to predict the best distributions for the game positions to optimize the chances to win using MCTS. While AlphaZero is not the first program to use MCTS, it does not have any built-in strategy or access to a previous game database. AlphaZero assumes nothing more than the rules of the game. This allows AlphaZero to excel at both chess and go, two very different games that share little other than alternating moves and a fixed-size board. DeepMind recently went even further with MuZero,33 which doesn't even get the full rules, just some representation of board position, a list of legal moves, and whether the position is a win, lose, or draw. Now we've come to the point that pure machine learning easily beats any human or other algorithm in chess or go. Human intervention only gets in the way. For games such as chess and go, machine learning can achieve success where P = NP wouldn't be enough.
Machine learning may not do well when faced with tasks that are not from the distribution in which it was trained.
Explainable AI. Many machine-learning algorithms seem to work very well but we don't know why. If you look at a neural net trained for voice recognition, it's often very hard to understand why it makes the choices it makes. Why should we care? Here are a few of several reasons.
Would we get a better scenario if P = NP? If you had a quick algorithm for NP-complete problems, you could use it to find the smallest possible circuit for matching or Traveling Salesman, but you would not know why that circuit works. On the other hand, the reason you might want an explainable algorithm is so you can understand its properties, but we could use P = NP to derive those properties directly. Whole conferences have cropped up studying explainable AI, such as the ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Trust.
Limits of machine learning. While machine learning has shown many surprising results in the last decade, these systems are far from perfect and, in most applications, can still be bested by humans. We will continue to improve machine-learning capability through new and optimized algorithms, data collection, and specialized hardware. Machine learning does seem to have its limits. As we've seen above, machine learning will give us a taste of P = NP, but it will never substitute for it. Machine learning makes little progress on breaking cryptography, which we will see later in the article.
Machine learning seems to fail learning simple arithmetic—for example, summing up a large collection of numbers or multiplying large numbers. One could imagine combining machine learning with symbolic mathematical tools. While we've seen some impressive advances in theorem provers,19 we sit a long way from my dream task of taking one of my research papers, with its informal proofs, and having an AI system fill in the details and verify the proof.
Again, P = NP would make these tasks easy or at least tractable. Machine learning may not do well when faced with tasks that are not from the distribution in which it was trained. That could be low-probability edge cases, such as face recognition from a race not well represented in the training data, or even an adversarial attempt to force a different output by making a small change in the input—for example, changing a few pixels of a stop sign to force an algorithm to interpret it as a speed limit sign.12 Deep neural-net algorithms can have millions of parameters, so they may not generalize well off distribution. If P = NP, one can produce minimum-sized models that would hopefully do a better job of generalizing, but without the experiment we can't perform, we will never know.
As impressive as machine learning is, we have not achieved anything close to artificial general intelligence, a term that refer to something like true comprehension of a topic or to an artificial system that achieves true consciousness or self-awareness. Defining these terms can be tricky, controversial, or even impossible. Personally, I've never seen a formal definition of consciousness that captures my intuitive notion of the concept. I suspect we will never achieve artificial general intelligence in the strong sense, even if P = NP.
While we have seen much progress in attacking NP problems, cryptography in its many forms, including one-way functions, secure hashes, and public-key cryptography, seems to have survived intact. An efficient algorithm for NP, were it to exist, would break all cryptosystems save those that are information-theoretically safe, such as one-time pads and some based on quantum physics. We have seen many successful cybersecurity attacks, but usually they stem from bad implementations, weak random number generators, or human error, but rarely if ever from breaking the cryptography.
Most CPU chips now have AES built in, so once we've used public-key cryptography to set up a private key, we can send encrypted data as easily as plain text. Encryption powers blockchain and cryptocurrencies, meaning people trust cryptography enough to exchange money for bits. Michael Kearns and Leslie Valiant24 showed in 1994 that learning the smallest circuit, even learning the smallest bounded-layer neural net, could be used to factor numbers and break public-key crypto-systems. So far, machine-learning algorithms have not been successfully used to break cryptographic protocols nor are they ever expected to.
I suspect we will never achieve artificial general intelligence in the strong sense, even if P = NP.
Why does encryption do so well when we've made progress on many other NP problems? In cryptography, we can choose the problem, specifically designed to be hard to compute and well tested by the community. Other NP problems generally come to us from applications or nature. They tend to not be the hardest cases and are more amenable to current technologies.
Quantum computing seems to threaten current public-key protocols that secure our Internet transactions. Shor's algorithm34 can factor numbers and other related number-theory computations. This concern can be tempered in a few ways. Despite some impressive advances in quantum computing, we are still decades if not centuries away from developing quantum machines that can handle enough entangled bits to implement Shor's algorithm on a scale that can break today's codes. Also, researchers have made good progress toward developing public-key cryptosystems that appear resistant to quantum attacks.31 We will dwell more on quantum computing later in this article.
Factoring is not known to be NP-complete, and it is certainly possible that a mathematical breakthrough could lead to efficient algorithms even if we don't have large-scale quantum computers. Having multiple approaches to public-key systems may come in handy no matter your view of quantum's future.
What advantages can we get from computational hardness? Cryptography comes to mind. But perhaps the universe made computation difficult for a reason, not unlike friction. In the physical world, overcoming friction usually comes at the cost of energy, but we can't walk without it. In the computational world, complexity can often slow progress, but if it didn't exist, we could have many other problems. P = NP would allow us to, in many cases, eliminate this friction.
Recent advances in computing show us that eliminating friction can sometimes have negative consequences. For instance, no one can read our minds, only see the actions that we take. Economists have a term, "preference revelation," which attempts to determine our desires based on our actions. For most of history, the lack of data and computing power made this at best a highly imprecise art.
Today, we've collected a considerable amount of information about people from their web searches, their photos and videos, the purchases they make, the places they visit (virtual and real), their social media activity, and much more. Moreover, machine learning can process this information and make eerily accurate predictions about people's behavior. Computers often know more about us than we know about ourselves.
We have the technological capability to wear glasses that would allow you to learn the name, interests and hobbies, and even the political persuasion of the person you are looking at. Complexity no longer affords us privacy. We need to preserve privacy with laws and corporate responsibility.
Computational friction can go beyond privacy. The U.S. government deregulated airline pricing in 1978 but finding the best price for a route required making phone calls to several airlines or working through a travel agent, who wasn't always incentivized to find the lowest price. Airlines worked on reputation, some for great service and others for lower prices. Today, we can easily find the cheapest airline flights, so airlines have put considerable effort into competing on this single dimension of price and have used computation to optimize pricing and fill their planes, at the expense of the whole flying experience.
Friction helped clamp down on cheating by students. Calculus questions I had to answer as a college student in the 1980s can now be tackled easy by Mathematica. For my introductory theory courses, I have trouble creating homework and exam questions whose answers and solutions cannot be found online. With GPT-3 and its successors, even essay and coding questions can be automatically generated. How do we motivate students when GPT and the like can answer even their most complex questions?
Stock trading used to happen in big pits, where traders used hand signals to match prices. Now, trading algorithms automatically adjust to new pricing, occasionally leading to "flash crashes." Machine-learning techniques have led to decision-making systems or face recognition, matching social media content to users and judicial sentencing often at scale. These decision systems have done some good but have also led to significant challenges, such as amplifying biases and political polarization.30 There are no easy answers here.
These are just a few of many such possible scenarios. Our goal, as computer scientists, is to make computation as efficient and simple as possible, but we must keep the costs of reducing friction on our minds.
As the limits of Moore's law have become more apparent, computer researchers have looked toward non-traditional computation models to make the next breakthroughs, leading to large growth in the research and application of quantum computing. Major tech companies, such as Google, Microsoft, and IBM—not to mention a raft of startups—have thrown considerable resources at developing quantum computers. The U.S. has launched a National Quantum Initiative and other countries, notably China, have followed suit.
In 2019, Google announced1 it used a quantum computer with 53 qubits to achieve "quantum supremacy," solving a computational task that current traditional computation cannot. While some have questioned this claim, we certainly sit at the precipice of a new era in quantum computing. Nevertheless, we remain far away from having the tens of thousands of quantum bits required to run Peter Shor's algorithm34 to find prime factors of numbers that today's machines cannot factor. Often, quantum computing gets described as the number of states represented by the bits—for example, the 253 states of a 53-qubit machine. This might suggest that we could use quantum computing to solve NP-complete problems by creating enough states to, for instance, check all the potential cliques in a graph. Unfortunately, there are limits to how a quantum algorithm can manipulate these states, and all evidence suggests that quantum computers cannot solve NP-complete problems,3 beyond a quadratic improvement given by Grover's algorithm.18
Since the 2009 survey, we have seen several major advances in our understanding of the power of efficient computation. While these results do not make significant progress toward resolving P vs. NP, they still show how it continues to inspire great research.
Graph isomorphism. Some NP problems resist characterization as either in P (efficiently solvable) or NP-complete (as hard as the Clique problem). The most famous, integer factoring, which we discussed previously, still requires exponential time to solve. For another such problem, graph isomorphism, we have recently seen dramatic progress. Graph isomorphism asks whether two graphs are identical up to relabeling. Thinking in terms of Facebook, given two groups of 1,000 people, can we map names from one group onto the other in a way that preserves friendships?
Results related to interactive proofs in the 1980s offered strong evidence that graph isomorphism is not NP-complete,4 and even simple heuristics can generally solve such problems quickly in practice. Nevertheless, we still lack a polynomial-time algorithm for graph isomorphism that works in all instances. László Babai achieved a breakthrough result in 2016, presenting a quasipolynomial-time algorithm for graph isomorphism.2 The problems in P run in polynomial-time—that is, nk for some constant k, where n is the size of the input, such as the number of people in each group. A quasipolynomial-time algorithm runs in time n(logn)k, a bit worse than polynomial time but considerably better than the exponential time (2nε) that we expect NP-complete problems will need.
Babai's proof is a tour-de-force masterpiece combining combinatorics and group theory. Although getting the algorithm to run in polynomial-time would require several new breakthroughs, Babai provides a major theoretical result, making dramatic progress on one of the most important problems between P and NP-complete.
Circuits. If NP does not have small circuits over a complete basis (AND, OR, NOT) then P ≠ NP. While there were significant circuit complexity results in the 1980s, none get close to showing P ≠ NP. The 2009 survey remarked that there were no major results in circuit complexity in the 20 years prior. That lasted about one more year. In 1987, Razborov32 and Smolensky36 showed the impossibility of computing the majority function with constant-depth circuits of AND, OR, NOT, and Modp gates for some fixed prime p. We could prove little, though, for circuits with Mod6 gates. Even showing that NEXP, an exponential-time version of NP, could not be computed by small, constant-depth circuits of AND, OR, NOT, and Mod6 gates remained open for decades. Constant-depth circuits are believed to be computationally weak. The lack of results reflects the paltry progress we have had in showing the limits of computation models.
In 2010, Ryan Williams showed39 that NEXP indeed didn't have such small constant-depth circuits with Mod6 or any other Mod gate. He had created a new technique, applying satisfiability algorithms that do just slightly better than trying all assignments and drawing in several complexity tools to achieve the lower bounds. Later, Williams and his student Cody Murray strengthened29 the result to show that nondeterministic quasipolynomial-time doesn't have small constant-depth circuits with Modm gates for any fixed m. Nevertheless, showing that NP does not have small circuits of arbitrary depth—which is what you would need to show P ≠ NP—remains far out of reach.
All evidence suggests that quantum computers cannot solve NP-complete problems, beyond a quadratic improvement given by Grover's algorithm.
Complexity strikes back? In a section of the 2009 survey titled, "A New Hope?"13 we discussed a new geometric-complexity-theory approach to attacking P vs. NP based on algebraic geometry and representation theory developed by Ketan Mulmuley and Milind Sohoni. In short, Mulmuley and Sohoni sought to create high-dimension polygons capturing the power of a problem in an algebraic version of NP and show that it had different properties than any such polygon corresponding to an algebraic property of P. One of their conjectures considered the property that the polygons contained a certain representation-theoretic object. In 2016, Peter Bürgisser, Christian Ikenmeyer, and Greta Panova6 showed that this approach cannot succeed.
While the Bürgisser-Ikenmeyer-Panova result deals a blow to the GCT approach to separating P vs. NP, it does not count it out. One could still potentially create polygons that differ based on the number of these representation-theoretic objects. Nevertheless, we shouldn't expect the GCT approach to settle the P vs. NP problem anytime in the near future.
As we reflect on P vs. NP, we see the question having many different meanings. There is P vs. NP the mathematical question—formally defined, stubbornly open, and still with a million-dollar bounty on its head. There were times when we could see a way forward toward settling P vs. NP through tools of computability theory, circuits, proofs, and algebraic geometry. At the moment, we don't have a strong way forward to solving the P vs. NP problem. In some sense, we are further from solving it than we ever were.
There are also the NP problems we just want or need to solve. In the classic 1976 text, Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness,16 Garey and Johnson give an example of a hapless employee asked to solve an NP-complete optimization problem. Ultimately, the employee goes to the boss and says, "I can't find an efficient algorithm, but neither can all these famous people," indicating that the boss shouldn't fire the employee since no other hire could solve the problem.
In those early days of P vs. NP, we saw NP-completeness as a barrier—these were problems that we just couldn't solve. As computers and algorithms evolved, we found we could make progress on many NP problems through a combination of heuristics, approximation, and brute-force computing. In the Garey and Johnson story, if I were the boss, I might not fire the employee but advise trying mixed-integer programming, machine learning, or a brute-force search. We are well past the time that NP-complete means impossible. It just means there is likely no algorithm that will always work and scale.
In my 2013 book on P vs. NP,14 I have a chapter titled, "A Beautiful World," where I imagine an idealized world in which a Czech mathematician proves P = NP, leading to a very efficient algorithm for all NP problems. While we do not and likely will not ever live in this ideal world—with medical advances, virtual worlds indistinguishable from reality, and learning algorithms that generate new works of art—the wonderful (and not so wonderful) consequences of P = NP no longer seem out of reach, but rather an eventual consequence of our further advances in computing.
We are truly on our way to nearly completely reversing the meaning of the P vs. NP problems. Instead of representing a barrier, think of P vs. NP opening doors, presenting us with new directions, and showing us the possibility of the impossible.
Thanks to Josh Grochow for helpful discussions on the GCT problem and to Bill Cook for allowing us to use the picture in Figure 1. I also thank Josh and the anonymous reviewers for helping to improve the exhibition. Some material in this article is adapted from the author's blog.15
Figure. Watch the author discuss this work in the exclusive Communications video. https://cacm.acm.org/videos/fifty-years-of-p-vs-np
1. Arute, F., Arya, K., Babbus, R., Bacon, D., Bardin, J.C., Barends, R., Biswas, R., Boxio, S., Brandao, F.G.S.L., Buell, D.A., et al. Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor. Nature 574, 7779 (2019), 505–510. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1666-5
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Biometric popularity, or just Biometrics, is a speedily evolving box with functions starting from gaining access to one's computing device to gaining access right into a nation. Biometric platforms depend on using actual or behavioral qualities, akin to fingerprints, face, voice and hand geometry, to set up the id of anyone.
Download PDF by Cleanthes A. Nicolaides, Erkki Brändas and John R. Sabin: Advances in Quantum Chemistry
Advances in Quantum Chemistry provides surveys of present issues during this swiftly constructing box that has emerged on the move part of the traditionally proven components of arithmetic, physics, chemistry, and biology. It positive factors precise experiences written via top overseas researchers. This sequence presents a one-stop source for following growth during this interdisciplinary region.
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Research, overview, and information administration are center capabilities for operation study analysts. This quantity addresses a couple of concerns and built tools for making improvements to these abilities. it truly is an outgrowth of a convention held in April 2013 on the Hellenic army Academy, and brings jointly a wide number of mathematical equipment and theories with a number of functions.
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The ebook consists of 2 sections: the first is on classical computation and the second one part is on quantum computation. within the first part, we introduce the elemental rules of computation, illustration and challenge fixing. within the moment part, we introduce the foundations of quantum computation and their relation to the center principles of artificial intelligence, resembling seek and challenge fixing.
- Foundations of Quantum Programming
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Extra info for Complexity Theory: Exploring the Limits of Efficient Algorithms
Sample text
Proof. EP ⊆ ZPP(1/2): If a problem belongs to EP, then there is a randomized algorithm that correctly solves this problem and for every input of length n has an expected runtime that is bounded by a polynomial p(n). 9) says that the probability of a runtime bounded by 2 · p(n) is at least 1/2. So we will stop the algorithm if it has not halted on its own after 2 · p(n) steps. If the algorithm stops on its own (which it does with probability at least 1/2), then it computes a correct result. ”. By definition, this modified algorithm is a ZPP(1/2) algorithm.
Analogously, A, A is (0, 1|0). The combined algorithm (A, A) has three possible results (since (1, 1) is impossible). These results are evaluated as follows: • (1, 0): Since A(x) = 1, x must be in L. ) So we accept x. • (0, 1): Since A(x) = 1, x must be in L. ) So we reject x. ”. The new algorithm is error-free. If x ∈ L, then A(x) = 0 with certainty, and A(x) = 1 with probability at least 1/2, so the new algorithm accepts x with probability at least 1/2. If x ∈ / L, then it follows in an analogous way that the new algorithm rejects with probability at least 1/2.
So we denote by co-RP(ε(n)) the class of languages L for which L ∈ RP(ε(n)). In more detail, this is the class of decision problems that have randomized algorithms with polynomially bounded worst-case runtime that accept every input that should be accepted, and for inputs of length n that should be rejected, have an error-probability bounded by ε(n) < 1. Of course, we can only use algorithms that fail or make errors when the failure- or error-probability is small enough. For time critical applications, we may also require that the worst-case runtime is small. | http://itsallinthebox.com/kindle/complexity-theory-exploring-the-limits-of-efficient-algorithms |
In one word: Researchers at China’s Tsinghua University believe they have discovered a quantum algorithm capable of breaking today’s most complex encryption standards. The team claims that the algorithm can also be run using currently available quantum technologies. If true, the lifespan of current encryption could be drastically reduced to nothing in a few years.
Tsinghua University professor Long Guili and his team claim to have developed a new qubit-saving factorization algorithm that could spell trouble for cryptographic security standards in the not-too-distant future. The algorithm, called sublinear resource quantum integer factorization (SQIF), aims to optimize the quantum computation process by reducing the number of qubits needed to perform the codebreaking calculations. The work is based on an algorithm developed in 2013 by the German researcher Claus Schnorr.
What does that mean for someone who isn’t too familiar with quantum computing? If successful, the algorithm could reduce the chances of breaking today’s strongest encryption using currently available quantum technologies much sooner than originally expected.
Must Read: We Can’t Live Without Crypto!
Created by the National Security Agency (NSA) in 2001, SHA-256 is a cryptographic hashing function that transforms data into a 256-character encrypted string. The encrypted output is unreadable unless a recipient has the proper key to decrypt the message.
These decryption keys are also made up of complex mathematical strings related to the SHA-256 hash, making an encrypted message extremely difficult to crack without the proper keys. For example, the time to crack an RSA-2048 bit encryption key using today’s most powerful traditional computing resources is estimated to be about 300 trillion years.
300 trillion sounds like a nice and safe number that no one should worry about. That is, at least until quantum computers are included in the equation. According to cryptography and quantum experts, a quantum computer of the right size could complete the same algorithm-breaking operation in just under eight hours. This is where Guili’s equation sets off alarm bells.
If the SQIF algorithm effectively scales up and reduces the quantum computing resources required to run the computations, then the wait for quantum technology to mature enough to run the computations could be reduced from a few decades to a few years.
IBM’s Osprey is currently the world’s largest quantum processor, weighing in at 433 qubits. The company’s quantum roadmap outlines plans to pursue larger processors ranging from 1,100 qubits in 2023 to more than 4,100 qubits in 2025. By comparison, the SQIF algorithm claims to reduce the required practical scale of a quantum computer to 372 qubits.
Currently, the Tsinghua team has not yet demonstrated the ability to break the 2048-bit encryption barrier. However, they have successfully demonstrated the feasibility of SQIF by cracking a 48-bit long encryption key with a small 10-qubit superconducting quantum computer. Although the breakthrough may not be cause for concern just yet, it is definitely a development that security and cryptography experts will continue to monitor. | https://techdigipro.com/tech/researchers-have-created-a-new-and-potentially-dangerous-quantum-algorithm-to-break-encryption/ |
15 Mistakes People Make With Cobot Safety
Even collaborative robots can have safety problems, but only if you make a mistake. Here are 15 common mistakes that people make with cobot safety.
Safety around robots: you need to get it right. When safety procedures aren't followed, people have been known to die.
Thankfully, collaborative robots have reduced a lot of the hazards involved with robots working alongside humans. However, they are not inherently safe in all situations. When you make mistakes, even cobots can be dangerous.
Here are 15 common mistakes that people make with cobot safety. Avoid these and you'll be fine.
An operator using Robotiq's path recording at Saint-Gobain Factory in Northern France
1. Assuming that cobots are inherently safe
Yes, cobots are a safe alternative to traditional industrial robots. They are designed to operate around humans with no need for additional precautions. However, this doesn't mean that they are inherently safe. You need to assess them on a case-by-case basis.
Some people mistakenly assume that cobots are safe in all situations. As a result, they can end up performing dangerous actions with the robot without even realizing.
2. Not doing a risk assessment
The key to being safe with cobots is to do a good risk assessment. You need to properly assess all aspects of the task and judge its overall safety.
We have an eBook devoted to this: How to Perform a Risk Assessment for Collaborative Robots.
Unfortunately, some people think that they can bypass the risk assessment when it comes to cobots. This is not a good idea.
3. Over-simplifying the risk assessment
One of the most common pitfalls we see with cobots is to over-simplify the risk assessment. Some people roughly outline the task but don't go into enough detail to identify the potential safety issues.
This is not just a problem with cobots. If you treat "filling out a form" as a risk assessment, it can be an issue in any situation.
4. Over-complicating the risk assessment
The other common pitfall that we see is the exact opposite: over-complicating the risk assessment. Some people try to specify every tiny detail of the task and end up not being able to "see the wood for the trees."
Include only as much detail as necessary but not too much.
5. Only considering risk from one activity
Robot applications include many different steps. All of these can affect the safety of the overall task. It can be easy to forget about the potential risks caused when, for example, the robot is moving between tasks. You need consider risks in all activities the robot will perform and movements it will make.
6. Only considering expected operation
Safety problems often occur when something unexpected happens. For example, when a human worker drops a tool into the safeguarded space of the robot and reaches inside to pick it up. Nobody expected this to happen, but suddenly the person is at risk.
Consider both expected and unexpected events when doing your risk assessment.
7. Failing to account for end effectors
The safety limits of collaborative robots only apply to the manipulator itself. However, the end effector you choose can hugely impact the safety of the robot. If you don't account for it, there could be serious safety implications.
An extreme example would be a welding end effector. Obviously, you would not want anyone to be near the robot when the welder was active.
8. Failing to account for objects
It's easy to forget that any objects held by the robot will also affect the safety. Jeff Burnstein of A3 talked about this in his keynote at our Robotiq User Conference this year. He used the example of a collaborative robot holding a knife. Even though the robot itself is safe, the knife certainly is not.
Safety issues can also arise when the robot holds long objects — which reach outside its workspace — and heavy objects — which could fall and cause damage.
9. Not involving the team
Safety is only possible when everyone who will be using the robot is involved. If a risk assessment is created by one person in a far-away office, it won't be much use to anyone. The members of your team have a unique perspective on the task and should be included at all stages.
10. Using a risk assessment to justify a decision
A risk assessment should be an objective look at the activity from the perspective of safety. Unfortunately, sometimes people use them to justify decisions which have already been made.
For example, a person might have decided they don't want to pay for expensive safety sensors so they use the risk assessment to show that one is not needed. The problem with using risk assessments in this way is that it stops you from thinking clearly and makes it likely that you will miss some unsafe behavior.
11. Not considering ALARA
Sometimes, people find one or two potential risks, implement some risk controls, and then just leave it at that. Because they have found a few risks, they don't look for more.
ALARA stands for "As Low As Reasonably Achievable." It's a core concept of safety which means that you should reduce the risk of an activity as much as you can. This means that you should consider all of the risks of a robot application, not just one or two.
12. Using "reverse ALARA" arguments
This is related to the previous two mistakes. A "reverse ALARA" argument is one which uses risk assessment (or some other analysis, e.g. cost-benefit analysis) to show that safety measures should be reduced. Usually the justification is that the system still conforms to legal safety values.
The problem with this is that it directly goes against the principle of ALARA, hence the name.
13. Not linking hazards with controls
A good risk assessment identifies which parts of the robot task are most likely to cause hazards. However, this is not the end of the risk assessment. You also need to say how you will mitigate these hazards with controls.
Then — and this is a part people sometimes forget — you need to link each hazard to a control. If you don't do this, it's very difficult to tell if all your hazards have been addressed.
14. Not keeping risk assessment up to date
Risk assessments are only useful if they apply to the real robotic system as it is now. If your risk assessment was written 2 years ago, it's likely that the robot has changed in that time and it is no longer up to date.
Collaborative robots change all the time. It's easy to reprogram them, add extra end effectors, and move them to a completely new task. As a result, your risk assessment should be regularly updated.
15. Telling nobody about the proposed measures
Safety measures are useless if you don't tell anyone about them. Too often, risk assessments are compiled, printed out, put into a drawer, and forgotten.
Make sure that your risk assessment is available to everyone and that everyone is aware of the safety measures. Read our eBook How to Perform a Risk Assessment for Collaborative Robots for more information.
What mistakes have you seen people making with robot safety? Tell us in the comments below or join the discussion on LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook or the DoF professional robotics community. | https://blog.robotiq.com/15-mistakes-people-make-with-cobot-safety |
The UK’s Royal Society has just released a report on “greenhouse gas removal” (GGR)—a diverse set of technologies and practices for removing greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere and sequestering them. GGR is also sometimes called “carbon dioxide removal” or “negative emissions.” This report, written in conjunction with the Royal Academy of Engineering, comes nearly a decade after the Royal Society’s seminal 2009 report on climate engineering, Geoengineering the Climate, which considered both GGR and solar geoengineering methods.
In this post, I will attempt to summarize the key conclusions of the report, and then briefly discuss a number of outstanding issues that should be addressed in future analyses of GGR options.
The large-scale deployment of GGR options will likely prove to be critical in meeting the Paris Agreement’s objective of reaching net-zero emissions as well as its temperature objectives: holding temperatures to 2°C above pre-industrial levels will likely require removing several hundred gigatons of carbon dioxide, as illustrated in the figure above, which comes from the new report; holding temperatures to 1.5°C would take “close to a thousand” gigatons.
Many parties to the Paris Agreement have already incorporated forest initiatives in their Nationally Determined Contributions, representing a full quarter of mitigation pledges to date.
Restoration programs can yield important co-benefits, such protection from storm surges. However, there are also risks associated with implementation, such as decreasing surface albedo, and thus potentially increasing warming in some regions, and release of non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.
While there are efforts in place currently to enhance soil carbon sequestration, such as the “4 Per 1000 Initiative,” there are major challenges to scaling up such initiatives, including a lack of financial incentives, and limited knowledge of the benefits of such programs among farmers and land managers.
Policy and social concerns include potential negative perceptions about the facilities used to produce biochar (“incineration in disguise”), and regulatory constraints on the amount of biochar that can be applied to soils.
Substantial regulatory requirements for BECCS include crediting national emissions inventories should bioenergy feedstocks be exported and the integrity of carbon dioxide storage.
Ocean iron fertilization (OIF) entails placement of nutrients (such as iron or nitrate/phosphate) in oceans to stimulate production of phytoplankton that can take up carbon dioxide. Some of this carbon dioxide can be stored in the deep ocean when phytoplankton die and sink to the bottom in a process known as “the biological pump. The estimated potential of OIF is 3.7 GtCO2/yr., with a total ocean sequestration capacity until the end of this century of 70 to 300 GtCO2.
OIF risk factors could include potential ecosystem impacts of unpredictable new assemblages of plankton, toxic algal blooms, and production of methane and nitrous oxide.
Basalt addition to croplands can increase food production and improve soil health. However, there are also a number of risks to human health and the environment with this process, including negative environment impacts associated with mining and processing of rocks, as well as the potential for silicosis if inhaled, decreases in water clarity.
Major challenges to large-scale deployment of DACCS include potentially very large energy requirements, which might preclude viability unless met by renewable sources, and high costs (perhaps as high as $600/ton, though at least one company is seeking to bring this down to $100/ton).
The report also discusses several other options, including ocean alkalinity, marine BECCS, enhancement of ocean upwelling to promote phytoplankton production, and approaches that could sequester greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide, including methane and nitrous oxide.
The report outlines a global scenario in which 810 GtCO2 could be sequestered by 2100. This includes large-scale deployment of forest and soil sequestration options, BECCS, DACCS, Biochar (with substantial deployment more likely at scale at the dawn of the next century), and enhanced terrestrial weathering. Some options, such as ocean alkalinity are characterized as “uncertain,” while ocean iron fertilization is deemed to be “unlikely to prove useful at scale” (because of inefficiencies of net removal to the deep ocean). Many challenges, however, are also discussed, including questions of saturation and permanence of many land-based options, which will necessitate continual management and monitoring, environmental concerns, and potential impacts on food prices in the case of forestation and BECCS.
Establish an international science-based standard for monitoring, reporting and verification of GGR options.
While the report focuses on legal efforts at the national level to effectuate assessment and regulation of GGR options, it largely ignores the important role that many international treaty regimes might play, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in the context of marine-based options; treaties for transboundary impact assessment, such as the Espoo Convention, pertinent international treaties in the context of land-use and forests, the potential role of human rights conventions in cases where GGR options could threaten the rights to food, water and subsistence.
Dr. Wil Burns is a Founding Co-Executive Director of FCEA and is based in Berkeley, California. He also serves as a non-residential scholar at American University’s School of International Service, a Fellow at the Center for Science, Technology and Medicine in Society at the University of California-Berkeley, and a Senior Scholar at the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI) in Canada. He also serves as the Co-Chair of the International Environmental Law Committee of the American Branch of the International Law Association. | http://ceassessment.org/the-royal-societys-new-report-on-greenhouse-gas-removal/ |
The UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of targets for achieving a more sustainable world.
Robotics and autonomous systems are increasingly being developed and deployed in various settings. While these technologies hold great promise, some significant risks they bring with them also need to be considered.
Some of these threats are pretty direct and really need to be thought about. At the same time, the upside potential is great, so finding the right balance is key.
In this article, we'll take a deep dive into how robotics and autonomous systems can help or hinder the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Threats That Emerged
With as many as 102 experts globally being involved in these development goals, here are the findings regarding robotics and autonomous systems in relation to the UN SDGs.
Here are the threats that could hinder all the improvements made.
Reinforcing inequalities
One of the critical risks associated with robotics and autonomous systems is that they could reinforce existing inequalities.
For example, if these technologies are used to automate tasks that low-skilled workers carry out, this could lead to increased unemployment and inequality.
In addition, if these technologies are only accessible to those who can afford them, this could further widen the gap between the haves and the have-nots.
Exacerbating environmental change
Another critical risk is that robotics and autonomous systems could exacerbate existing environmental problems.
If these technologies are used to increase agricultural productivity, this could lead to higher levels of deforestation and soil degradation.
Diverting resources from tried-and-tested solutions
A further risk is that robotics and autonomous systems could divert resources from more proven and practical solutions.
For example, money spent on agricultural robotics could be better spent on initiatives such as reforestation or more efficient irrigation systems.
Benefits of Sustainable Development
With the above threats in mind, there are also numerous potential benefits that robotics and autonomous systems could bring about regarding sustainable development.
Replacing dangerous activities done by humans
One of the most apparent benefits is that these technologies can be used to replace humans in activities that are dangerous or unhealthy.
For example, robots could carry out hazardous tasks such as cleaning up nuclear sites or defusing bombs.
Supporting human activities
Robotics and autonomous systems can also be used to support human activities.
For example, they can be used to assist people with physical disabilities or to provide assistance in hazardous environments.
Fostering innovation
Another potential benefit is that robotics and autonomous systems could foster various kinds of innovation.
By providing new platforms for research and development, these technologies could create new products and services that could help achieve the SDGs.
Enhancing access
Robotics and autonomous systems could also enhance access to essential goods and services.
They could be used to provide healthcare in remote or difficult-to-reach areas. They could also be used to deliver food and other supplies to people in disaster zones.
Monitoring for decision making
Finally, robotics and autonomous systems could be used to monitor environmental conditions and provide data that could be used for decision-making purposes.
Tracking data collected by robots could help assess the impact of climate change or monitor air quality. This information could be used to decide how best to protect the environment.
What Does the Future Hold?
As of right now, there is insufficient progress being made on the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.
Robotics and autonomous systems could help close this gap, but only if their development, deployment and governance consider the potential risks and challenges identified in this study.
With careful consideration, robotics and autonomous systems could play a transformative role in achieving sustainable development. But without proper planning and oversight, they could also exacerbate existing problems or create new ones.
To sum it all up, we must learn from past mistakes with other technologies and plan for a sustainable future with robotics and autonomous systems. Otherwise, we risk squandering the upsides of such tech and dooming future generations to an even more difficult task of achieving sustainable development. | https://www.miigle.com/story/a-deep-dive-into-how-robotics-can-help-us-achieve-sustainable-development |
There is at present no single unified governance framework to manage risks associated with solar geoengineering, nor is there a set of interrelated elements from different governance frameworks which, together, would be able to comprehensively manage the risk. More importantly, there are no frameworks at national or international levels where the risks of solar geoengineering could be addressed together with those of other climate interventions, such as mitigation, adaptation and carbon removal, as well as the risks of non-action, such as continued high emissions of greenhouse gases.
For solar geoengineering most of the governance elements have transboundary and intergenerational dimensions, thus international and multilateral arrangements will be key1. Who will decide whether or not to deploy solar geoengineering, and when should such decision be made? What institution will control the global thermostat and ensure sustained deployment without sudden termination?
Two cases of existing governance at international levels are relevant to geoengineering: the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the London Protocol of the London Convention (LC/LP). Both can provide bases on which further governance can evolve.
A series of decisions taken by the Parties to the CBD provide broad guidance for addressing geoengineering. Building on a 2008 decision (IX/16 C) that limited use of ocean fertilization, CBD parties established a non-legally binding agreement in 2010 that provides guidance to Parties in limiting all large-scale climate engineering activities that may affect biodiversity until such time that science-based, global, transparent, and effective global governance mechanisms are developed (decision X/33). This decision was reconfirmed in 2016 at the Cancun meeting of the Conference of the Parties in decision (XIII/14), which specifically added the application of a precautionary approach and suggested the need for cross-institutional and transdisciplinary research and knowledge-sharing.
"Risks associated to geoengineering have not yet been broadly adopted in international forums or civil society, to the same extent that climate change has."
In parallel, the London Protocol to the London Convention on Ocean Dumping was amended in 2013 to create non-legally binding guidelines to assess proposals for geoengineering research in the ocean. The amendments provide criteria for assessment of such proposals and set up a stringent and detailed risk assessment framework. This framework could also be used to address some aspects of solar geoengineering.
Decisions of Parties to conventions like the CBD or the LC/LP are non-legally binding on the Parties that have ratified the convention. There are usual reporting requirements under each of the treaties, and implementation is monitored through the regular reports prepared by the Parties. There are, however, no sanctions for lack of compliance.
Risks associated to geoengineering have not yet been broadly adopted in international forums or civil society to the same extent that climate change has, although some researchers have been developing voluntary codes of conduct for research, such as, the Geoengineering Research Governance Project at the University of Calgary2. It is, however, still unclear what exact formats the global governance of geoengineering risk will take.
In the meantime, it is necessary that different intergovernmental fora begin or intensify their work to address the governance of solar geoengineering according to their respective mandates, in particular the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA), the UNFCCC, the CBD and the UN General Assembly. It is essential that nation states agree not to deploy solar geoengineering unless the risks and potential benefits are sufficiently known and the necessary governance frameworks are agreed upon. This, however, would require considerable learning processes, including society-wide discussions on the risks and potential benefits – which have not yet taken place.
At present, the majority of international civil society organizations focusing on climate have not addressed the issue of solar geoengineering out of concern for the perceived moral hazard that doing so might weaken political will for the emission reductions that are the essential first step for any credible response to climate change. This situation may change as climate impacts continue to mount and the serious insufficiency of existing emission reduction efforts becomes ever clearer. | https://globalchallenges.org/global-risks/solar-geoengineering/governance-of-solar-geoengineering/ |
The ever evolving threat landscape in our ecosystem demands that we put some thought into the security controls that we use to ensure we keep the bad guys away from our data. This is where software development lifecycle (SDLC) security comes into play. Organizations need to ensure that beyond providing their customers with innovative products ahead of the competition, their security is on point every step of the way throughout the SDLC.
In order to keep this important process secure, we need to make sure that we are taking a number of important yet often overlooked measures, and using the right tools for the job along the way.
Over the past years, attacks to the application layer have become more and more common, with OWASP estimating that nearly a third of web applications contain security vulnerabilities, and WhiteHat Security’s “2015 Website Security Statistics Report” topping that figure with a whopping 86%. Attackers easily exploit those very security vulnerabilities to gain access to an organization's network and wreak havoc.
While we read about the disastrous consequences of these breaches, Equifax being a recent and notorious example, many organizations are still slow in implementing a comprehensive strategy to secure their SDLC.
How Can We Make Our SDLC Secure?
One of the basic principles of the secure SDLC is shifting security left.
This means incorporating security practices and tools throughout the software development lifecycle, starting from the earliest phases. This shift will save organizations a lot of time and money later on, since the cost of remediating a security vulnerability in post production is so much higher compared to addressing it in the earlier stages of the SDLC.
Each step in the SDLC requires its own security enforcements and tools. Throughout all phases, automated detection and remediation tools can be integrated with your team’s IDEs, code repositories, build servers, and bug tracking tools to address potential risks as soon as they arise.
In the first phase, when planning, developers and security experts need to think about which common risks might require attention during development, and prepare for it.
In the second phase of the SDLC, requirements and analysis, decisions regarding the technology, frameworks and languages that will be used, experts should consider which vulnerabilities might threaten the security of the chosen tools in order to make the appropriate security decisions throughout design and development.
In the architecture and design phase, teams should follow the architecture and design guidelines to address the risks that were already considered and analyzed during the previous stages. When vulnerabilities are addressed early in the design phase, you can successfully ensure they won’t damage your software in the development stage. Processes like threat modelling and architecture risk analysis during this phase will make your development process that much smoother and more secure.
During the development phase, teams need to make sure they use secure coding standards. While performing the usual code review to ensure the project has the specified features and functions, developers need to also pay attention to any security vulnerabilities in the code.
The testing phase should include security testing, using automated DevSecOps tools like SAST and DAST to improve application security.
Don’t stop security testing at the deployment and implementation stage. While your teams might have been extremely thorough during testing, real life is never the same as the testing environment. Be prepared to address previously undetected errors or risks, and ensure that configuration is performed properly.
Even after deployment and implementation, security practices need to be followed throughout software maintenance. Products need to be continuously updated to ensure it is secure from new vulnerabilities and compatible with any new tools you may decide to adopt.
Another risk that needs to be addressed to ensure a secure SDLC is that of open source components with known vulnerabilities. Since today's software products contain between 60%-80% open source code, it’s important to pay attention to open source security management throughout the SDLC. Automated continuous tools that are dedicated specifically to tracking open source usage can alert developers to any open source risks that arise in their code, and even provide actionable solutions.
Putting the right security practices and tools in place, starting at the earliest stages of your organization’s software development practices and embedded throughout all phases of the development life cycle, will help you to offer your customers secure products and services, while keeping up with the sprints and aggressive deadlines. Testing sooner and testing often is the best way to make sure that your products and SDLC are secure from the get go.
SDLC security should be a top priority nowadays as attacks are directed to the application layer more than ever before and the call for more secure apps for customers strengthens. | https://resources.whitesourcesoftware.com/security/how-to-secure-your-sdlc-the-right-way |
A Look at Artificial Intelligence in Europe
Antoine Guilmain and Alice Hourquebie, "A Look at Artificial Intelligence in Europe", Bulletin Fasken, May 2017.
In February 2017, the European Parliament issued a resolution « with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics » (PDF – available in French only) (the « Resolution »). This relatively unprecedented initiative is intended to define the guidelines that will guide the European Commission in establishing European rules on robotics. In more basic terms, it expresses a clear desire to encourage the creation of standards that will preserve a fair balance between the need to fully explore the economic potential of artificial intelligence and the need for a high level of security and the protection of privacy rights.
In fact, this Resolution is the echo of a growing global awareness of both the potential and the risks of artificial intelligence, which is also felt in Canada, where significant expertise is being developed in this area (particularly in Montréal). Canadian observers must therefore look beyond their own borders to prepare for the future. Such is the purpose of this report, which focuses on the European approach. As such, we will present the highlights of this initiative, by reviewing the general and ethical issues (1), challenges relating to intellectual property and privacy rights (2), specific rules in robotics (3), and the liability system (4).
1. General and Ethical Principles
First of all, the European Parliament underscores that it is important for the European Union to adopt a position on the issues raised by artificial intelligence in order to avoid being later subjected to rules imposed by other countries. At the forefront are ideas about harmonizing European positions, as well as cross-border rules and rules concerning investments in innovation. Recommendations include defining a new legal framework, along with the creation of a « Robotics Charter » and ethics committees, all under the aegis of a new European agency. These committees would be designed to define the rules regarding (i) the robotics engineers’ behaviour, (ii) the researchers’ ethics; and (iii) licenses for creators and users.
A series of definitions and classifications for the different categories of « intelligent robots » is recommended, as is the setting up of a general registration system based on robot types throughout the European Union.
The Resolution also highlights that « the development of robot technology should focus on complementing human capabilities and not on replacing them. » This is why such technology should be developed with a view towards ensuring that humans have control over intelligent machines at all times. The use of « black boxes » is therefore recommended. These devices would, indeed, record « the data on every operation realized by the machine, including the logic that would have led to the decisions. »
2. Intellectual Property and Privacy Rights
The European Parliament also considers that it is necessary to review the legal framework for the protection of personal information, due to new types of « communication of applications and devices interacting with one another and without human intervention ». Certain types of robots are more specifically targeted, because they « represent a significant threat to confidentiality » in their ability « to extract and send personal sensitive data » and « because of « their placement in traditionally protected and private spaces. » Therefore, a balance must be stricken between the free flow of information, which is indispensable for technological development, and a high level of security and protection of privacy rights.
The new rules applicable to robotics should therefore be consistent « with the general rule on the protection of data and with the principles of necessity and proportionality. » It should also be noted that European regulations respecting the protection of personal data and the protection of privacy rights are fully applicable and should be complied with. Therefore, « transparent control mechanisms and appropriate remedies » must be provided for the application of rules with respect to data protection. The European Parliament also provides for the liability of creators of robotics and artificial intelligence, while highlighting the importance of high levels of security for internal data systems and data flows.
Finally, the issue of interoperability between robots is considered « crucial » with respect to future competition, which is why the European Commission is encouraged to pursue its efforts in promoting the international harmonization of technical standards. Lawful reverse engineering must be required, as well as open rules, to ensure that robots can communicate with one another. In this respect, it is recommended that special technical committees be created, such as the International Standards Organization’s ISO/TC 299 Robotics Committee.
3. Specific Rules for Certain Types of Robots
The Resolution specifically addresses the subject of robotics in automated transport and their ensuing legal and societal consequences. Generalized rules for the automotive sector must be created, while encouraging cross-border development for self-driving vehicles within an international framework. Keeping in mind that the transition towards automated vehicles will have significant repercussions on a wide range of areas (including liability, road safety, personal information and employment), « substantial investments » should be made in roads, energy, as well as ICT infrastructure.
Similarly, emphasis is placed on the importance of creating a legal framework for drones within the European Union. The European Commission is invited to set up security regulations, as proposed in a previous resolution specifically for the safe use of drones.
The use of robots in the field of healthcare is also addressed, both with regard to personal care and medical robots. The European Parliament stresses that human contact is essential, underscoring the need to avoid the dehumanization of personal care. As for medical robots, the Resolution recommends that medical personnel be given access to appropriate training and preparation, in compliance with « the principle of the supervised autonomy of robots. » Thus, » both the initial planning of treatment and the ultimate decision will always rest with the surgeon. »
Ethics committees should be created with respect to the repair and enhancement of the human body. The European Parliament draws attention to the risks of hacking or of technological failure, which could endanger human health or even human life. Finally, the Resolution highlights « the importance of guaranteeing equal access for all people to such technological innovations, tools and interventions. »
4. Liability
The Parliament also addresses the issue of strict liability, requesting that the European Commission submit a new legal instrument within 10 to 15 years. This legal instrument’s main guidelines should provide the following; under no circumstances should a limit apply to the type or extent of damages to be compensated, nor should it limit « the form of compensation, on the sole grounds that damage is caused by a non-human agent. » The European Commission is given the option of a strict liability (fault, damage and causal link) or a risk management approach (focused on the person who is able to minimise risks and handle any negative impacts).
In addition, the principle of proportionality must be applied, based on the actual instructions given to the robot or its degree of autonomy. This means that the longer a robot’s training and the higher its degree of autonomy, the more the liability rests with its creator. Finally, as things stand today, the liability must lie with a human.
Essentially, the Parliament is proposing two other approaches: a compulsory insurance regime that would take into account the liability of all actors in the production chain; or, eventually, the creation of a specific legal status for robots, where they would own property and would make good on any damage caused to a third party.
Conclusion
This Resolution therefore represents an important step in the development of artificial intelligence in Europe, but above all it is a wake-up call for the business community in Canada which must not be ignored. In fact, there is every reason to believe that Canadian economic growth over the next few years will depend on artificial intelligence and innovation in robotics. With this in mind, the greatest advantage will be gained by staying ahead of the curve, which will mean taking full advantage of the potential of these new tools as well as mitigating the risks involved. In the words of Antoine de Saint-Exupery, « Your task is not to foresee the future, but to enable it. »
Ce contenu a été mis à jour le 7 avril 2018 à 18 h 00 min. | https://antoineguilmain.openum.ca/publications/a-look-at-artificial-intelligence-in-europe/ |
People who work with heavy equipment, or oversee employees who do, know there are inherent risks with the associated tasks. However, understanding the threats and taking the appropriate precautions to minimize them can keep people safe. Here are five of the biggest dangers and the related preventive measures.
1. Operating a Machine Without Guards in Place
Machine guards cover potentially dangerous parts of a machine to shield workers from the components that pose elevated risks to them. However, some employees find the guarding interferes with the machine’s functionality and remove it. Alternatively, they may not know how to check that the guards are present on the equipment before working with it.
Workers can stay safe by understanding how the guards work and knowing how to verify they are working as expected. Employees should also notify supervisors if they notice that a piece of equipment does not have guards but should. It is possible a maintenance worker removed them and forgot to put them back.
2. Getting Crushed or Run Over
The weight, size and power of heavy equipment pose risks to people who could get crushed between moving parts or run over by a machine. Awareness and visibility help reduce the chances of both types of accidents. For example, educating a person about behaving safely around a machine goes a long way, as does ensuring the workforce has the appropriate high-visibility workwear.
Efforts are also occurring that involve robots and automation to keep people out of harm’s way. Experts have begun establishing associated principles and regulations, such as that robots must be safe and secure before working around humans. Some robots are also specially designed to do dangerous jobs that put people at above-average risk.
Emerging technologies include heavy equipment that operators move with remote controls. Those options keep them farther from the danger zone.
3. Being Involved in Equipment Transport Accidents
It is often necessary to move heavy equipment between locations. Unfortunately, accidents can occur for those involved in the transit or individuals nearby if people do not take the required steps to prevent them. Having a well-balanced load is crucial. More specifically, make sure the cargo rests between the trailer’s wheels and is properly centered to avoid tipping.
People should also plan the travel route before departing. Road features like narrow bridges, underpasses and unfinished surfaces can all cause unwanted but preventable challenges. The same is true for ongoing roadwork. Knowing what a route entails beforehand lets people prepare accordingly to remain safe.
4. Failing to Learn the Associated Risks of Machinery
Coverage of the most common violations of OSHA standards highlighted a focus on reducing employee exposure to risks that are most likely to cause serious injury or death. One of the most commonly cited general industry violations concerned a failure to have a written hazard communications program.
Practicing effective hazard communications involves implementing specific processes and procedures to tell people about the risks present in a task before people engage in it. However, safety managers can help people stay safe by making them aware of the threats by using understandable language and real-world examples.
5. Using Equipment Before Receiving Adequate Training
All employees need the right amount of training from a qualified provider before operating heavy equipment. However, one of the associated challenges is that there are different state-specific educational requirements for workers.
For example, all construction workers in Nevada must complete 10 hours of OSHA training. However, superintendents, forepersons and supervisors need 30 hours. Construction workers are not the only employees who are likely to work around heavy equipment, of course. However, this example shows the importance of ensuring the workforce gets the necessary coursework done or verifying that people have the training completed before getting hired.
Improved Safety Starts with Risk Awareness
It’s impossible to eliminate the threats associated with heavy equipment. However, knowing the most significant dangers helps all workers and safety personnel change their behaviors accordingly and adjust training content when applicable.
In case you missed it, OSHA recently initiated an enforcement program to identify employers who fail to electronically submit Form 300A recordkeeping data to the agency. When it comes to OSHA recordkeeping, there are always questions regarding the requirements and ins and outs. This guide is here to help! We’ll explain reporting, recording, and online reporting requirements in detail.
If your organization has experienced an incident resulting in a fatality, injury, illness, environmental exposure, property damage, or even a quality issue, it’s important to perform an incident investigation to determine how this happened and learn what you can do to prevent similar incidents from happening in the future. In this guide, we’ll walk you through the steps of performing an incident investigation.
Lone workers exist in every industry and include individuals such as contractors, self-employed people, and those who work off-site or outside normal hours. These employees are at increased risk for unaddressed workplace accidents or emergencies, inadequate rest and breaks, physical violence, and more. To learn more about lone worker risks and solutions, download this informative guide.
This guide includes details on how to conduct a thorough Job Hazard Analysis, and it's based directly on an OSHA publication for conducting JHAs. Download the guide to learn how to identify potential hazards associated with each task of a job and set controls to mitigate hazard risks.
Without a proper incident investigation, it becomes difficult to take preventative measures and implement corrective actions. Watch this on-demand webinar for a step-by-step process of a basic incident investigation, how to document your incident investigation findings and analyze incident data, and more.
Episode 177
Featuring: | https://ohsonline.com/articles/2021/08/12/5-dangers-of-working-around-heavy-equipment-and-how-to-stay-safe.aspx |
This introduction to the volume gives an overview of foundational issues in AI and robotics, looking into AI’s computational basis, brain–AI comparisons, and conflicting positions on AI and consciousness. AI and robotics are changing the future of society in areas such as work, education, industry, farming, and mobility, as well as services like banking. Another important concern addressed in this volume are the impacts of AI and robotics on poor people and on inequality. These implications are being reviewed, including how to respond to challenges and how to build on the opportunities afforded by AI and robotics. An important area of new risks is robotics and AI implications for militarized conflicts. Throughout this introductory chapter and in the volume, AI/robot-human interactions, as well as the ethical and religious implications, are considered. Approaches for fruitfully managing the coexistence of humans and robots are evaluated. New forms of regulating AI and robotics are called for which serve the public good but also ensure proper data protection and personal privacy.
Keywords
- Artificial intelligence
- Robotics
- Consciousness
- Labor markets
- Services
- Poverty
- Agriculture
- Militarized conflicts
- Regulation
Introduction
The conclusions in this section partly draw on the Concluding Statement from a Conference on “Robotics, AI and Humanity, Science, Ethics and Policy“, organized jointly by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (PAS) and the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences (PASS), 16–17 May 2019, Casina Pio IV, Vatican City. The statement is available at http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/events/2019/robotics/statementrobotics.html including a list of participants provided via the same link. Their contributions to the statement are acknowledged.
Advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics are accelerating. They already significantly affect the functioning of societies and economies, and they have prompted widespread debate over the benefits and drawbacks for humanity. This fast-moving field of science and technology requires our careful attention. The emergent technologies have, for instance, implications for medicine and health care, employment, transport, manufacturing, agriculture, and armed conflict. Privacy rights and the intrusion of states into personal life is a major concern (Stanley 2019). While considerable attention has been devoted to AI/robotics applications in each of these domains, this volume aims to provide a fuller picture of their connections and the possible consequences for our shared humanity. In addition to examining the current research frontiers in AI/robotics, the contributors of this volume address the likely impacts on societal well-being, the risks for peace and sustainable development as well as the attendant ethical and religious dimensions of these technologies. Attention to ethics is called for, especially as there are also long-term scenarios in AI/robotics with consequences that may ultimately challenge the place of humans in society.
AI/robotics hold much potential to address some of our most intractable social, economic, and environmental problems, thereby helping to achieve the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including the reduction of climate change. However, the implications of AI/robotics for equity, for poor and marginalized people, are unclear. Of growing concern are risks of AI/robotics for peace due to their enabling new forms of warfare such as cyber-attacks or autonomous weapons, thus calling for new international security regulations. Ethical and legal aspects of AI/robotics need clarification in order to inform regulatory policies on applications and the future development of these technologies.
The volume is structured in the following four sections:
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Foundational issues in AI and robotics, looking into AI’s computational basis, brain–AI comparisons as well as AI and consciousness.
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AI and robotics potentially changing the future of society in areas such as employment, education, industry, farming, mobility, and services like banking. This section also addresses the impacts of AI and robotics on poor people and inequality.
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Robotics and AI implications for militarized conflicts and related risks.
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AI/robot–human interactions and ethical and religious implications: Here approaches for managing the coexistence of humans and robots are evaluated, legal issues are addressed, and policies that can assure the regulation of AI/robotics for the good of humanity are discussed.
Foundational Issues in AI and Robotics
Overview on Perspectives
The field of AI has developed a rich variety of theoretical approaches and frameworks on the one hand, and increasingly impressive practical applications on the other. AI has the potential to bring about advances in every area of science and society. It may help us overcome some of our cognitive limitations and solve complex problems.
In health, for instance, combinations of AI/robotics with brain–computer interfaces already bring unique support to patients with sensory or motor deficits and facilitate caretaking of patients with disabilities. By providing novel tools for knowledge acquisition, AI may bring about dramatic changes in education and facilitate access to knowledge. There may also be synergies arising from robot-to-robot interaction and possible synergies of humans and robots jointly working on tasks.
While vast amounts of data present a challenge to human cognitive abilities, Big Data presents unprecedented opportunities for science and the humanities. The translational potential of Big Data is considerable, for instance in medicine, public health, education, and the management of complex systems in general (biosphere, geosphere, economy). However, the science based on Big Data as such remains empiricist and challenges us to discover the underlying causal mechanisms for generating patterns. Moreover, questions remain whether the emphasis on AI’s supra-human capacities for computation and compilation mask manifold limitations of current artificial systems. Moreover, there are unresolved issues of data ownership to be tackled by transparent institutional arrangements.
In the first section of this volume (Chaps. 2–5), basic concepts of AI/robotics and of cognition are addressed from different and partly conflicting perspectives. Importantly, Singer (Chap. 2) explores the difference between natural and artificial cognitive systems. Computational foundations of AI are presented by Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3). Thereafter the question “could robots be conscious?” is addressed from the perspective of cognitive neuro-science of consciousness by Dehaene et al., and from a philosophical perspective by Gabriel (Chaps. 4 and 5).
Among the foundational issues of AI/robotics is the question whether machines may hypothetically attain capabilities such as consciousness. This is currently debated from the contrasting perspectives of natural science, social theory, and philosophy; as such it remains an unresolved issue, in large measure because there are many diverse definitions of “consciousness.” It should not come as a surprise that the contributors of this volume are neither presenting a unanimous position on this basic issue of robot consciousness nor on a robotic form of personhood (also see Russell 2019). The concept of this volume rather is to bring the different positions together. Most contributors maintain that robots cannot be considered persons, for which reason robots will not and should not be free agents or possess rights. Some, however, argue that “command and control” conceptions may not be appropriate to human–robotic relations, and others even ask if something like “electronic citizenship” should be considered.
Christian philosophy and theology maintain that the human soul is “Imago Dei” (Sánchez Sorondo, Chap. 14). This is the metaphysical foundation according to which human persons are free and capable of ethical awareness. Although rooted in matter, human beings are also spiritual subjects whose nature transcends corporeality. In this respect, they are imperishable (“incorruptible” or “immortal” in the language of theology) and are called to a completion in God that goes beyond what the material universe can offer. Understood in this manner, neither AI nor robots can be considered persons, so robots will not and should not possess human freedom; they are unable to possess a spiritual soul and cannot be considered “images of God.” They may, however, be “images of human beings” as they are created by humans to be their instruments for the good of human society. These issues are elaborated in Sect. AI/robot--Human interactions of the volume from religious, social science, legal, and philosophical perspectives by Sánchez Sorondo (Chap. 14), Archer (Chap. 15), and Schröder (Chap. 16).
Intelligent Agents
Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3) emphasize the tremendous progress of AI in recent years and explain the conceptual foundations. They focus on the problem of induction, i.e., extracting rules from examples, which leads to the question: What set of possible models of the data generating process should a learning agent consider? To answer this question, they argue, “it is necessary to explore the notion of all possible models from a mathematical and computational point of view.” Moreover, Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3) are convinced that effective universal induction can play an important role in causal learning by identifying generators of observed data.
Within machine-learning research, there is a line of development that aims to identify foundational justifications for the design of cognitive agents. Such justifications would enable the derivation of theorems characterizing the possibilities and limitations of intelligent agents, as Zimmermann and Cremers elaborate (Chap. 3). Cognitive agents act within an open, partially or completely unknown environment in order to achieve goals. Key concepts for a foundational framework for AI include agents, environments, rewards, local scores, global scores, the exact model of interaction between agents and environments, and a specification of the available computational resources of agents and environments. Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3) define an intelligent agent as an agent that can achieve goals in a wide range of environments.Footnote 1
A central aspect of learning from experience is the representation and processing of uncertain knowledge. In the absence of deterministic assumptions about the world, there is no nontrivial logical conclusion that can be drawn from the past for any future event. Accordingly, it is of interest to analyze the structure of uncertainty as a question in its own right.Footnote 2 Some recent results establish a tight connection between learnability and provability, thus reducing the question of what can be effectively learned to the foundational questions of mathematics with regard to set existence axioms. Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3) also point to results of “reverse mathematics,” a branch of mathematical logic analyzing theorems with reference to the set of existence axioms necessary to prove them, to illustrate the implications of machine learning frameworks. They stress that artificial intelligence has advanced to a state where ethical questions and the impact on society become pressing issues, and point to the need for algorithmic transparency, accountability, and unbiasedness. Until recently, basic mathematical science had few (if any) ethical issues on its agenda. However, given that mathematicians and software designers are central to the development of AI, it is essential that they consider the ethical implications of their work.Footnote 3 In light of the questions that are increasingly raised about the trustworthiness of autonomous systems, AI developers have a responsibility—that ideally should become a legal obligation—to create trustworthy and controllable robot systems.
Consciousness
Singer (Chap. 2) benchmarks robots against brains and points out that organisms and robots both need to possess an internal model of the restricted environment in which they act and both need to adjust their actions to the conditions of the respective environment in order to accomplish their tasks. Thus, they may appear to have similar challenges but—Singer stresses—the computational strategies to cope with these challenges are different for natural and artificial systems. He finds it premature to enter discussions as to whether artificial systems can acquire functions that we consider intentional and conscious or whether artificial agents can be considered moral agents with responsibility for their actions (Singer, Chap. 2).
Dehaene et al. (Chap. 4) take a different position from Singer and argue that the controversial question whether machines may ever be conscious must be based on considerations of how consciousness arises in the human brain. They suggest that the word “consciousness” conflates two different types of information-processing computations in the brain: first, the selection of information for global broadcasting (consciousness in the first sense), and second, the self-monitoring of those computations, leading to a subjective sense of certainty or error (consciousness in the second sense). They argue that current AI/robotics mostly implements computations similar to unconscious processing in the human brain. They however contend that a machine endowed with consciousness in the first and second sense as defined above would behave as if it were conscious. They acknowledge that such a functional definition of consciousness may leave some unsatisfied and note in closing, “Although centuries of philosophical dualism have led us to consider consciousness as unreducible to physical interactions, the empirical evidence is compatible with the possibility that consciousness arises from nothing more than specific computations.” (Dehaene et al., Chap. 4, pp.…).
It may actually be the diverse concepts and definitions of consciousness that make the position taken by Dehaene et al. appear different from the concepts outlined by Singer (Chap. 2) and controversial to others like Gabriel (Chap. 5), Sánchez Sorondo (Chap. 14), and Schröder (Chap. 16). At the same time, the long-run expectations regarding machines’ causal learning abilities and cognition as considered by Zimmermann and Cremers (Chap. 3) and the differently based position of Archer (Chap. 15) both seem compatible with the functional consciousness definitions of Dehaene et al. (Chap. 4). This does not apply to Gabriel (Chap. 5) who is inclined to answer the question “could a robot be conscious?” with a clear “no,” drawing his lessons selectively from philosophy. He argues that the human being is the indispensable locus of ethical discovery. “Questions concerning what we ought to do as morally equipped agents subject to normative guidance largely depend on our synchronically and diachronically varying answers to the question of “who we are.” ” He argues that robots are not conscious and could not be conscious “… if consciousness is what I take it to be: a systemic feature of the animal-environment relationship.” (Gabriel, Chap. 5, pp.…).
AI and Robotics Changing the Future of Society
In the second section of this volume, AI applications (and related emergent technologies) in health, manufacturing, services, and agriculture are reviewed. Major opportunities for advances in productivity are noted for the applications of AI/robotics in each of these sectors. However, a sectorial perspective on AI and robotics has limitations. It seems necessary to obtain a more comprehensive picture of the connections between the applications and a focus on public policies that facilitates overall fairness, inclusivity, and equity enhancement through AI/robotics.
The growing role of robotics in industries and consequences for employment are addressed (De Backer and DeStefano, Chap. 6). Von Braun and Baumüller (Chap. 7) explore the implications of AI/robotics for poverty and marginalization, including links to public health. Opportunities of AI/robotics for sustainable crop production and food security are reported by Torero (Chap. 8). The hopes and threats of including robotics in education are considered by Léna (Chap. 9), and the risks and opportunities of AI in financial services, wherein humans are increasingly replaced and even judged by machines, are critically reviewed by Pasquale (Chap. 10). The five chapters in this section of the volume are closely connected as they all draw on current and fast emerging applications of AI/robotics, but the balance of opportunities and risks for society differ greatly among these domains of AI/robotics applications and penetrations.
Work
Unless channeled for public benefit, AI may raise important concerns for the economy and the stability of society. Jobs may be lost to computerized devices in manufacturing, with a resulting increase in income disparity and knowledge gaps. Advances in automation and increased supplies of artificial labor particularly in the agricultural and industrial sectors can significantly reduce employment in emerging economies. Through linkages within global value chains, workers in low-income countries may be affected by growing reliance of industries and services in higher-income countries on robotics, which could reduce the need for outsourcing routine jobs to low-wage regions. However, robot use could also increase the demand for labor by reducing the cost of production, leading to industrial expansion. Reliable estimates of jobs lost or new jobs created in industries by robots are currently lacking. This uncertainty creates fears, and it is thus not surprising that the employment and work implications of robotics are a major public policy issue (Baldwin 2019). Policies should aim at providing the necessary social security measures for affected workers while investing in the development of the necessary skills to take advantage of the new jobs created.
The state might consider to redistribute the profits that are earned from the work carried out by robots. Such redistribution could, for instance, pay for the retraining of affected individuals so that they can remain within the work force. In this context, it is important to remember that many of these new technological innovations are being achieved with support from public funding. Robots, AI, and digital capital in general can be considered as a tax base. Currently this is not the case; human labor is directly taxed through income tax of workers, but robot labor is not. In this way, robotic systems are indirectly subsidized, if companies can offset them in their accounting systems, thus reducing corporate taxation. Such distortions should be carefully analyzed and, where there is disfavoring of human workers while favoring investment in robots, this should be reversed.
Returning to economy-wide AI/robotic effects including employment, De Backer and DeStefano (Chap. 6) note that the growing investment in robotics is an important aspect of the increasing digitalization of economy. They note that while economic research has recently begun to consider the role of robotics in modern economies, the empirical analysis remains overall too limited, except for the potential employment effects of robots. So far, the empirical evidence on effects of robotics on employment is mixed, as shown in the review by De Backer and DeStefano (Chap. 6). They also stress that the effects of robots on economies go further than employment effects, as they identify increasing impacts on the organization of production in global value chains. These change the division of labor between richer and poorer economies. An important finding of De Backer and DeStefano is the negative effect that robotics may have on the offshoring of activities from developed economies, which means that robotics seem to decrease the incentives for relocating production activities and jobs toward emerging economies. As a consequence, corporations and governments in emerging economies have also identified robotics as a determinant of their future economic success. Thereby, global spreading of automation with AI/robotics can lead to faster deindustrialization in the growth and development process. Low-cost jobs in manufacturing may increasingly be conducted by robots such that fewer jobs than expected may be on offer for humans even if industries were to grow in emerging economies.
AI/Robotics: Poverty and Welfare
Attention to robot rights seems overrated in comparison to attention to implications of robotics and AI for the poorer segments of societies, according to von Braun and Baumüller (Chap. 7). Opportunities and risks of AI/robotics for sustainable development and people suffering from poverty need more attention in research and in policy (Birhane and van Dijk 2020). Especially implications for low-income countries, marginalized population groups, and women need study and consideration in programs and policies. Outcomes of AI/robotics depend upon actual designs and applications. Some examples demonstrate this crosscutting issue:
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Big Data-based algorithms drawing patterns from past occurrences can perpetuate discrimination in business practices—or can detect such discrimination and provide a basis for corrective policy actions, depending on their application and the attention given to this issue. For instance, new financial systems (fintech) can be designed to include or to exclude (Chap. 10).
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AI/robotics-aided teaching resources offer opportunities in many low-income regions, but the potential of these resources greatly depends on both the teaching content and teachers’ qualifications (Léna, Chap. 9).
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As a large proportion of the poor live on small farms, particularly in Africa and South and East Asia, it matters whether or not they get access to meaningful digital technologies and AI. Examples are land ownership certification through blockchain technology, precision technologies in land and crop management, and many more (Chaps. 7 and 8).
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Direct and indirect environmental impacts of AI/robotics should receive more attention. Monitoring through smart remote sensing in terrestrial and aquatic systems can be much enhanced to assess change in biodiversity and impacts of interventions. However, there is also the issue of pollution through electronic waste dumped by industrialized countries in low-income countries. This issue needs attention as does the carbon footprint of AI/robotics.
Effects of robotics and AI for such structural changes in economies and for jobs will not be neutral for people suffering from poverty and marginalization. Extreme poverty is on the decline worldwide, and robotics and AI are potential game changers for accelerated or decelerated poverty reduction. Information on how AI/robotics may affect the poor is scarce. Von Braun and Baumüller (Chap. 7) address this gap. They establish a framework that depicts AI/robotics impact pathways on poverty and marginality conditions, health, education, public services, work, and farming as well as on the voice and empowerment of the poor. The framework identifies points of entry of AI/robotics and is complemented by a more detailed discussion of the pathways in which changes through AI/robotics in these areas may relate positively or negatively to the livelihoods of the poor. They conclude that the context of countries and societies play an important role in determining the consequences of AI/robotics for the diverse population groups at risk of falling into poverty. Without a clear focus on the characteristics and endowments of people, innovations in AI/robotics may not only bypass them but adversely impact them directly or indirectly through markets and services of relevance to their communities. Empirical scenario building and modelling is called for to better understand the components in AI/robotics innovations and to identify how they can best support livelihoods of households and communities suffering from poverty. Von Braun and Baumüller (Chap. 7) note that outcomes much depend on policies accompanying AI and robotics. Lee points to solutions with new government initiatives that finance care and creativity (Chap. 22).
Food and Agriculture
Closely related to poverty is the influence of AI/robotics on food security and agriculture. The global poor predominantly work in agriculture, and due to their low levels of income they spend a large shares of their income on food. Torero (Chap. 8) addresses AI/robotics in the food systems and points out that agricultural production—while under climate stress—still must increase while minimizing the negative impacts on ecosystems, such as the current decline in biodiversity. An interesting example is the case of autonomous robots for farm operations. Robotics are becoming increasingly scale neutral, which could benefit small farmers via wage and price effects (Fabregas et al. 2019). AI and robotics play a growing role in all elements of food value chains, where automation is driven by labor costs as well as by demands for hygiene and food safety in processing.
Torero (Chap. 8) outlines the opportunities of new technologies for smallholder households. Small-size mechanization offers possibilities for remote areas, steep slopes or soft soil areas. Previously marginal areas could be productive again. Precision farming could be introduced to farmers that have little capital thus allowing them to adopt climate-smart practices. Farmers can be providers and consumers of data, as they link to cloud technologies using their smartphones, connecting to risk management instruments and track crop damage in real time.
Economic context may change with technologies. Buying new machinery may no longer mean getting oneself into debt thanks to better access to credit and leasing options. The reduced scale of efficient production would mean higher profitability for smallholders. Robots in the field also represent opportunities for income diversification for farmers and their family members as the need to use family labor for low productivity tasks is reduced and time can be allocated for more profit-generating activities. Additionally, robots can operate 24/7, allowing more precision on timing of harvest, especially for high-value commodities like grapes or strawberries.
Education
Besides health and caregiving, where innovations in AI/robotics have had a strong impact, in education and finance this impact is also likely to increase in the future. In education—be it in the classroom or in distance-learning systems, focused on children or on training and retraining of adults—robotics is already having an impact (Léna, Chap. 9). With the addition of AI, robotics offers to expand the reach of teaching in exciting new ways. At the same time, there are also concerns about new dependencies and unknown effects of these technologies on minds. Léna sees child education as a special case, due to it involving emotions as well as knowledge communicated between children and adults. He examines some of the modalities of teacher substitution by AI/robotic resources and discusses their ethical aspects. He emphasizes positive aspects of computer-aided education in contexts in which teachers are lacking. The technical possibilities combining artificial intelligence and teaching may be large, but the costs need consideration too. The ethical questions raised by these developments need attention, since children are extremely vulnerable human beings. As the need to develop education worldwide are so pressing, any reasonable solution which benefits from these technological advances can become helpful, especially in the area of computer-aided education.
Finance, Insurance, and Other Services
Turning to important service domains like finance and insurance, and real estate, some opportunities but also worrisome trends of applications of AI-based algorithms relying on Big Data are quickly emerging. In these domains, humans are increasingly assessed and judged by machines. Pasquale (Chap. 10) looks into the financial technology (Fintech) landscape, which ranges from automation of office procedures to new approaches of storing and transferring value, and granting credit. For instance, new services—e.g., insurance sold by the hour—are emerging, and investments on stock exchanges are conducted increasingly by AI systems, instead of by traders. These innovations in AI, other than industrial robotics, are probably already changing and reducing employment of (former) high-skill/high-income segments, but not routine tasks in manufacturing. A basis for some of the Fintech operations by established finance institutions and start-ups is the use of data sources from social media with algorithms to assess credit risk. Another area is financial institutions adopting distributed ledger technologies. Pasquale (Chap. 10) divides the Fintech landscape into two spheres, “incrementalist Fintech” and “futurist Fintech.” Incrementalist Fintech uses new data, algorithms, and software to perform traditional tasks of existing financial institutions. Emerging AI/robotics do not change the underlying nature of underwriting, payment processing, or lending of the financial sector. Regulators still cover these institutions, and their adherence to rules accordingly assures that long-standing principles of financial regulation persist. Yet, futurist Fintech claims to disrupt financial markets in ways that supersede regulation or even render it obsolete. If blockchain memorializing of transactions is actually “immutable,” the need for regulatory interventions to promote security or prevent modification of records may no longer be needed.
Pasquale (Chap. 10) sees large issues with futurist Fintech, which engages in detailed surveillance in order to get access to services. These can become predatory, creepy, and objectionable on diverse grounds, including that they subordinate inclusion, when they allow persons to compete for advantage in financial markets in ways that undermine their financial health, dignity, and political power (Pasquale, Chap. 10). Algorithmic accountability has become an important concern for reasons of discriminating against women for lower-paying jobs, discriminating against the aged, and stimulating consumers into buying things by sophisticated social psychology and individualized advertising based on “Phishing.”Footnote 4 Pistor (2019) describes networks of obligation that even states find exceptionally difficult to break. Capital has imbricated into international legal orders that hide wealth and income from regulators and tax authorities. Cryptocurrency may become a tool for deflecting legal demands and serve the rich. Golumbia (2009) points at the potential destabilizing effects of cryptocurrencies for financial regulation and monetary policy. Pasquale (Chap. 10) stresses that both incrementalist and futurist Fintech expose the hidden costs of digital efforts to circumvent or co-opt state monetary authorities.
In some areas of innovations in AI/robotics, their future trajectories already seem quite clear. For example, robotics are fast expanding in space exploration and satellite systems observing earth,Footnote 5 in surgery and other forms of medical technology,Footnote 6 and in monitoring processes of change in the Anthropocene, for instance related to crop developments at small scales.Footnote 7 Paradigmatic for many application scenarios not just in industry but also in care and health are robotic hand-arm systems for which the challenges of precision, sensitivity, and robustness come along with safe grasping requirements. Promising applications are evolving in tele-manipulation systems in a variety of areas such as healthcare, factory production, and mobility. Depending on each of these areas, sound IP standards and/or open-source innovation systems should be explored systematically, in order to shape optimal innovation pathways. This is a promising area of economic, technological, legal, and political science research.
Robotics/AI and Militarized Conflict
Robotics and AI in militarized conflicts raise new challenges for building and strengthening peace among nations and for the prevention of war and militarized conflict in general. New political and legal principles and arrangements are needed but are evolving too slowly.
Within militarized conflict, AI-based systems (including robots) can serve a variety of purposes, inter alia, extracting wounded personnel, monitoring compliance with laws of war/rules of engagement, improving situational awareness/battlefield planning, and making targeting decisions. While it is the last category that raises the most challenging moral issues, in all cases the implications of lowered barriers of warfare, escalatory dangers, as well as systemic risks must be carefully examined before AI is implemented in battlefield settings.
Worries about falling behind in the race to develop new AI military applications must not become an excuse for short-circuiting safety research, testing, and adequate training. Because weapon design is trending away from large-scale infrastructure toward autonomous, decentralized, and miniaturized systems, the destructive effects may be magnified compared to most systems operative today (Danzig 2018). AI-based technologies should be designed so they enhance (and do not detract from) the exercise of sound moral judgment by military personnel, which need not only more but also very different types of training under the changed circumstances. Whatever military advantages might accrue from the use of AI, human agents—political and military—must continue to assume responsibility for actions carried out in wartime.
International standards are urgently needed. Ideally, these would regulate the use of AI with respect to military planning (where AI risks to encourage pre-emptive strategies), cyberattack/defense as well as the kinetic battlefields of land, air, sea, undersea, and outer space. With respect to lethal autonomous weapon systems, given the present state of technical competence (and for the foreseeable future), no systems should be deployed that function in unsupervised mode. Whatever the battlefield—cyber or kinetic—human accountability must be maintained, so that adherence to internationally recognized laws of war can be assured and violations sanctioned.
Robots are increasingly utilized on the battlefield for a variety of tasks (Swett et al., Chap. 11). Human-piloted, remote-controlled fielded systems currently predominate. These include unmanned aerial vehicles (often called “drones”), unmanned ground, surface, and underwater vehicles as well as integrated air-defense and smart weapons. The authors recognize, however, that an arms race is currently underway to operate these robotic platforms as AI-enabled weapon systems. Some of these systems are being designed to act autonomously, i.e., without the direct intervention of a human operator for making targeting decisions. Motivating this drive toward AI-based autonomous targeting systems (Lethal Autonomous Weapons, or LAWS) brings about several factors, such as increasing the speed of decision-making, expanding the volume of information necessary for complex decisions, or carrying out operations in settings where the segments of the electromagnetic spectrum needed for secure communications are contested. Significant developments are also underway within the field of human–machine interaction, where the goal is to augment the abilities of military personnel in battlefield settings, providing, for instance, enhanced situational awareness or delegating to an AI-guided machine some aspect of a joint mission. This is the concept of human–AI “teaming” that is gaining ground in military planning. On this understanding, humans and AI function as tightly coordinated parts of a multi-agent team, requiring novel modes of communication and trust. The limitations of AI must be properly understood by system designers and military personnel if AI applications are to promote more, not less, adherence to norms of armed conflict.
It has long been recognized that the battlefield is an especially challenging domain for ethical assessment. It involves the infliction of the worst sorts of harm: killing, maiming, destruction of property, and devastation of the natural environment. Decision-making in war is carried out under conditions of urgency and disorder. This Clausewitz famously termed the “fog of war.” Showing how ethics are realistically applicable in such a setting has long taxed philosophers, lawyers, and military ethicists. The advent of AI has added a new layer of complexity. Hopes have been kindled for smarter targeting on the battlefield, fewer combatants, and hence less bloodshed; simultaneously, warnings have been issued on the new arms race in “killer robots,” as well as the risks associated with delegating lethal decisions to increasingly complex and autonomous machines. Because LAWS are designed to make targeting decisions without the direct intervention of human agents (who are “out of the killing loop”), considerable debate has arisen on whether this mode of autonomous targeting should be deemed morally permissible. Surveying the contours of this debate, Reichberg and Syse (Chap. 12) first present a prominent ethical argument that has been advanced in favor of LAWS, namely, that AI-directed robotic combatants would have an advantage over their human counterparts, insofar as the former would operate solely on the basis of rational assessment, while the latter are often swayed by emotions that conduce to poor judgment. Several counter arguments are then presented, inter alia, (i) that emotions have a positive influence on moral judgment and are indispensable to it; (ii) that it is a violation of human dignity to be killed by a machine, as opposed to being killed by a human being; and (iii) that the honor of the military profession hinges on maintaining an equality of risk between combatants, an equality that would be removed if one side delegates its fighting to robots. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the moral challenges posed by human–AI teaming in battlefield settings, and on how virtue ethics provide a valuable framework for addressing these challenges.
Nuclear deterrence is an integral aspect of the current security architecture and the question has arisen whether adoption of AI will enhance the stability of this architecture or weaken it. The stakes are very high. Akiyama (Chap. 13) examines the specific case of nuclear deterrence, namely, the possession of nuclear weapons, not specifically for battlefield use but to dissuade others from mounting a nuclear or conventional attack. Stable deterrence depends on a complex web of risk perceptions. All sorts of distortions and errors are possible, especially in moments of crisis. AI might contribute toward reinforcing the rationality of decision-making under these conditions (easily affected by the emotional disturbances and fallacious inferences to which human beings are prone), thereby preventing an accidental launch or unintended escalation. Conversely, judgments about what does or does not fit the “national interest” are not well suited to AI (at least in its current state of development). A purely logical reasoning process based on the wrong values could have disastrous consequences, which would clearly be the case if an AI-based machine were allowed to make the launch decision (which virtually all experts would emphatically exclude), but grave problems could similarly arise if a human actor relied too heavily on AI input.
Implications for Ethics and Policies
Major research is underway in areas that define us as humans, such as language, symbol processing, one-shot learning, self-evaluation, confidence judgment, program induction, conceiving goals, and integrating existing modules into an overarching, multi-purpose intelligent architecture (Zimmermann and Cremers, Chap. 3). Computational agents trained by reinforcement learning and deep learning frameworks demonstrate outstanding performance in tasks previously thought intractable. While a thorough foundation for a general theory of computational cognitive agents is still missing, the conceptual and practical advance of AI has reached a state in which ethical and safety questions and the impact on society overall become pressing issues. For example, AI-based inferences of persons’ feelings derived from face recognition data are such an issue.
AI/Robotics: Human and Social Relations
The spread of robotics profoundly modifies human and social relations in many spheres of society, in the family as well as in the workplace and in the public sphere. These modifications can take on the character of hybridization processes between the human characteristics of relationships and the artificial ones, hence between analogical and virtual reality. Therefore, it is necessary to increase scientific research on issues concerning the social effects that derive from delegating relevant aspects of social organization to AI and robots. An aim of such research should be to understand how it is possible to govern the relevant processes of change and produce those relational goods that realize a virtuous human fulfillment within a sustainable and fair societal development.
We noted above that fast progress in robotics engineering is transforming whole industries (industry 4.0). The evolution of the internet of things (IoT) with communication among machines and inter-connected machine learning results in major changes for services such as banking and finance as reviewed above. Robot–robot and human–robot interactions are increasingly intensive; yet, AI systems are hard to test and validate. This raises issues of trust in AI and robots, and issues of regulation and ownership of data, assignment of responsibilities, and transparency of algorithms are arising and require legitimate institutional arrangements.
We can distinguish between mechanical robots, designed to accomplish routine tasks in production, and AI/robotics capacities to assist in social care, medical procedures, safe and energy efficient mobility systems, educational tasks, and scientific research. While intelligent assistants may benefit adults and children alike, they also carry risks because their impact on the developing brain is unknown, and because people may lose motivation in areas where AI appears superior.
Basically robots are instruments in the perspective of Sánchez Sorondo (Chap. 14) with the term “instrument” being used in various senses. “The primary sense is clearly that of not being a cause of itself or not existing by itself.” Aristotle defines being free as the one that is a cause of himself or exists on its own and for himself, i.e., one who is cause of himself (causa sui or causa sui ipsius).” From the Christian perspective, “…for a being to be free and a cause of himself, it is necessary that he/she be a person endowed with a spiritual soul, on which his or her cognitive and volitional activity is based” (Sánchez Sorondo, Chap. 14, p. 173). An artificially intelligent robotic entity does not meet this standard. As an artifact and not a natural reality, the AI/robotic entity is invented by human beings to fulfill a purpose imposed by human beings. It can become a perfect entity that performs operations in quantity and quality more precisely than a human being, but it cannot choose for itself a different purpose from what was programmed in it for by a human being. As such, the artificially intelligent robot is a means at the service of humans.
The majority of social scientists have subscribed to a similar conclusion as the above. Philosophically, as distinct from theologically, this entails some version of “human essentialism” and “species-ism” that far from all would endorse in other contexts (e.g., social constructionists). The result is to reinforce Robophobia and the supposed need to protect humankind. Margaret S. Archer (Chap. 15) seeks to put the case for potential Robophilia based upon the positive properties and powers deriving from humans and AI co-working together in synergy. Hence, Archer asks “Can Human Beings and AI Robots be Friends?” She stresses the need to foreground social change (given this is increasingly morphogenetic rather than morphostatic) for structure, culture, and agency. Because of the central role the social sciences assign to agents and their “agency” this is crucial as we humans are continually “enhanced” and have since long increased their height and longevity. Human enhancement speeded up with medical advances from ear trumpets, to spectacles, to artificial insertions in the body, transplants, and genetic modification. In short, the constitution of most adult human bodies is no longer wholly organic. In consequence, the definition of “being human” is carried further away from naturalism and human essentialism. The old bifurcation into the “wet” and the “dry” is no longer a simple binary one. If the classical distinguishing feature of humankind was held to be possession of a “soul,” this was never considered to be a biological organ. Today, she argues, with the growing capacities of AI robots, the tables are turned and implicitly pose the question, “so are they not persons too?” The paradox is that the public admires the AI who defeated Chess and Go world champions. They are content with AI roles in care of the elderly, with autistic children, and in surgical interventions, none of which are purely computational feats, but the fear of artificially intelligent robots “taking over” remains and repeats Asimov’s (1950) protective laws. Perceiving this as a threat alone owes much to the influence of the Arts, especially sci-fi; Robophobia dominates Robophilia in popular imagination and academia. With AI capacities now including “error-detection,” “self-elaboration of their pre-programming,” and “adaptation to their environment,” they have the potential for active collaboration with humankind, in research, therapy, and care. This would entail synergy or co-working between humans and AI beings.
Wolfgang Schröder (Chap. 16) also addresses robot–human interaction issues, but from positions in legal philosophy and ethics. He asks what normative conditions should apply to the use of robots in human society, and ranks the controversies about the moral and legal status of robots and of humanoid robots in particular among the top debates in recent practical philosophy and legal theory. As robots become increasingly sophisticated, and engineers make them combine properties of tools with seemingly psychological capacities that were thought to be reserved for humans, such considerations become pressing. While some are inclined to view humanoid robots as more than just tools, discussions are dominated by a clear divide: What some find appealing, others deem appalling, i.e., “robot rights” and “legal personhood” for AI systems. Obviously, we need to organize human–robot interactions according to ethical and juridical principles that optimize benefit and minimize mutual harm. Schröder concludes, based on a careful consideration of legal and philosophical positions, that, even the most human-like behaving robot will not lose its ontological machine character merely by being open to “humanizing” interpretations. However, even if they do not present an anthropological challenge, they certainly present an ethical one, because both AI and ethical frameworks are artifacts of our societies—and therefore subject to human choice and human control, Schröder argues. The latter holds for the moral status of robots and other AI systems, too. This status remains a choice, not a necessity. Schröder suggests that there should be no context of action where a complete absence of human respect for the integrity of other beings (natural or artificial) would be morally allowed or even encouraged. Avoiding disrespectful treatment of robots is ultimately for the sake of the humans, not for the sake of the robots. Maybe this insight can contribute to inspire an “overlapping consensus” as conceptualized by John Rawls (1987) in further discussions on responsibly coordinating human-robot interactions.
Human–robot interactions and affective computing’s ethical implications are elaborated by Devillers (Chap. 17). The field of social robotics is fast developing and will have wide implications especially within health care, where much progress has been made toward the development of “companion robots.” Such robots provide therapeutic or monitoring assistance to patients with a range of disabilities over a long timeframe. Preliminary results show that such robots may be particularly beneficial for use with individuals who suffer from neurodegenerative pathologies. Treatment can be accorded around the clock and with a level of patience rarely found among human healthcare workers. Several elements are requisite for the effective deployment of companion robots: They must be able to detect human emotions and in turn mimic human emotional reactions as well as having an outward appearance that corresponds to human expectations about their caregiving role. Devillers’ chapter presents laboratory findings on AI-systems that enable robots to recognize specific emotions and adapt their behavior accordingly. Emotional perception by humans (how language and gestures are interpreted by us to grasp the emotional states of others) is being studied as a guide to programing robots so they can simulate emotions in their interactions with humans. Some of the relevant ethical issues are examined, particularly the use of “nudges,” whereby detection of a human subject’s cognitive biases enables the robot to initiate, through verbal or nonverbal cues, remedial measures to affect the subject’s behavior in a beneficial direction. Whether this constitutes manipulation and is open to potential abuse merits closer study.
Taking the encyclical Laudato si’ and its call for an “integral ecology” as its starting point, Donati (Chap. 18) examines how the processes of human enhancement that have been brought about by the digital revolution (including AI and robotics) have given rise to new social relationships. A central question consists in asking how the Digital Technological Mix, a hybridization of the human and nonhuman that issues from AI and related technologies, can promote human dignity. Hybridization is defined here as entanglements and interchanges between digital machines, their ways of operating, and human elements in social practices. The issue is not whether AI or robots can assume human-like characteristics, but how they interact with humans and affect their social relationships, thereby generating a new kind of society.
Advocating for the positive coexistence of humans and AI, Lee (Chap. 22) shares Donati’s vision of a system that provides for all members of society, but one that also uses the wealth generated by AI to build a society that is more compassionate, loving, and ultimately human. Lee believes it is incumbent on us to use the economic abundance of the AI age to foster the values of volunteers who devote their time and energy toward making their communities more caring. As a practical measure, they propose to explore the creation not of a universal basic income to protect against AI/robotics’ labor saving and job cutting effects, but a “social investment stipend.” The stipend would be given to those who invest their time and energy in those activities that promote a kind, compassionate, and creative society, i.e., care work, community service, and education. It would put the economic bounty generated by AI to work in building a better society, rather than just numbing the pain of AI-induced job losses.
Joint action in the sphere of human–human interrelations may be a model for human–robot interactions. Human–human interrelations are only possible when several prerequisites are met (Clodic and Alami, Chap. 19), inter alia: (i) that each agent has a representation within itself of its distinction from the other so that their respective tasks can be coordinated; (ii) each agent attends to the same object, is aware of that fact, and the two sets of “attentions” are causally connected; and (iii) each agent understands the other’s action as intentional, namely one where means are selected in view of a goal so that each is able to make an action-to-goal prediction about the other. The authors explain how human–robot interaction must follow the same threefold pattern. In this context, two key problems emerge. First, how can a robot be programed to recognize its distinction from a human subject in the same space, to detect when a human agent is attending to something, and make judgments about the goal-directedness of the other’s actions such that the appropriate predictions can be made? Second, what must humans learn about robots so they are able to interact reliably with them in view of a shared goal? This dual process (robot perception of its human counterpart and human perception of the robot) is here examined by reference to the laboratory case of a human and a robot who team up in building a stack with four blocks.
Robots are increasingly prevalent in human life and their place is expected to grow exponentially in the coming years (van Wynsberghe, Chap. 20). Whether their impact is positive or negative will depend not only on how they are used, but also and especially on how they have been designed. If ethical use is to be made of robots, an ethical perspective must be made integral to their design and production. Today this approach goes by the name “responsible robotics,” the parameters of which are laid out in the present chapter. Identifying lines of responsibility among the actors involved in a robot’s development and implementation, as well as establishing procedures to track these responsibilities as they impact the robot’s future use, constitutes the “responsibility attribution framework” for responsible robotics. Whereas Asimov’s (1950) famous “three laws of robotics” focused on the behavior of the robot, current “responsible robotics” redirects our attention to the human actors, designers, and producers, who are involved in the development chain of robots. The robotics sector has become highly complex, with a wide network of actors engaged in various phases of development and production of a multitude of applications. Understanding the different sorts of responsibility—moral, legal, backward- and forward-looking, individual and collective—that are relevant within this space, enables the articulation of an adequate attribution framework of responsibility for the robotics industry.
Regulating for Good National and International Governance
An awareness that AI-based technologies have far outpaced the existing regulatory frameworks has raised challenging questions about how to set limits on the most dangerous developments (lethal autonomous weapons or surveillance bots, for instance). Under the assumption that the robotics industry cannot be relied on to regulate itself, calls for government intervention within the regulatory space—national and international—have multiplied (Kane, Chap. 21). The author recognizes how AI technologies offer a special difficulty to any regulatory authority, given their complexity (not easily understood by nonspecialists) and their rapid pace of development (a specific application will often be obsolete by the time needed untill regulations are finally established). The various approaches to regulating AI fall into two main categories. A sectoral approach looks to identify the societal risks posed by individual technologies, so that preventive or mitigating strategies can be implemented, on the assumption that the rules applicable to AI, in say the financial industry, would be very different from those relevant to heath care providers. A cross-sectoral approach, by contrast, involves the formulation of rules (whether norms adopted by industrial consensus or laws set down by governmental authority) that, as the name implies, would have application to AI-based technologies in their generality. After surveying some domestic and international initiatives that typify the two approaches, the chapter concludes with a list of 15 recommendations to guide reflection on the promotion of societally beneficial AI.
Toward Global AI Frameworks
Over the past two decades, the field of AI/robotics has spurred a multitude of applications for novel services. A particularly fast and enthusiastic development of AI/Robotics occurred in the first and second decades of the century around industrial applications and financial services. Whether or not the current decade will see continued fast innovation and expansion of AI-based commercial and public services is an open question. An important issue is and will become even more so, how the AI innovation fields are being dominated by national strategies especially in the USA and China, or if some global arrangement for standard setting and openness can be contemplated to serve the global common good along with justifiable protection of intellectual property (IP) and fair competition in the private sector. This will require numerous rounds of negotiation concerning AI/Robotics, comparable with the development of rules on trade and foreign direct investment. The United Nations could provide the framework. The European Union would have a strong interest in engaging in such a venture, too. Civil society may play key roles from the perspective of protection of privacy.
Whether AI may serve good governance or bad governance depends, inter alia, on the corresponding regulatory environment. Risks of manipulative applications of AI for shaping public opinion and electoral interference need attention, and national and international controls are called for. The identification and prevention of illegal transactions, for instance money received from criminal activities such as drug trafficking, human trafficking or illegal transplants, may serve positively, but when AI is in the hands of oppressive governments or unethically operating companies, AI/robotics may be used for political gain, exploitation, and undermining of political freedom. The new technologies must not become instruments to enslave people or further marginalize the people suffering already from poverty.
Efforts of publicly supported development of intelligent machines should be directed to the common good. The impact on public goods and services, as well as health, education, and sustainability, must be paramount. AI may have unexpected biases or inhuman consequences including segmentation of society and racial and gender bias. These need to be addressed within different regulatory instances—both governmental and nongovernmental—before they occur. These are national and global issues and the latter need further attention from the United Nations.
The war-related risks of AI/robotics need to be addressed. States should agree on concrete steps to reduce the risk of AI-facilitated and possibly escalated wars and aim for mechanisms that heighten rather than lower the barriers of development or use of autonomous weapons, and fostering the understanding that war is to be prevented in general. With respect to lethal autonomous weapon systems, no systems should be deployed that function in an unsupervised mode. Human accountability must be maintained so that adherence to internationally recognized laws of war can be assured and violations sanctioned.
Protecting People’s and Individual Human Rights and Privacy
AI/robotics offer great opportunities and entail risks; therefore, regulations should be appropriately designed by legitimate public institutions, not hampering opportunities, but also not stimulating excessive risk-taking and bias. This requires a framework in which inclusive public societal discourse is informed by scientific inquiry within different disciplines. All segments of society should participate in the needed dialogue. New forms of regulating the digital economy are called for that ensure proper data protection and personal privacy. Moreover, deontic values such as “permitted,” “obligatory,” and “forbidden” need to be strengthened to navigate the web and interact with robots. Human rights need to be protected from intrusive AI.
Regarding privacy, access to new knowledge, and information rights, the poor are particularly threatened because of their current lack of power and voice. AI and robotics need to be accompanied by more empowerment of the poor through information, education, and investment in skills. Policies should aim for sharing the benefits of productivity growth through a combination of profit-sharing, not by subsidizing robots but through considering (digital) capital taxation, and a reduction of working time spent on routine tasks.
Developing Corporate Standards
The private sector generates many innovations in AI/robotics. It needs to establish sound rules and standards framed by public policy. Companies, including the large corporations developing and using AI, should create ethical and safety boards, and join with nonprofit organizations that aim to establish best practices and standards for the beneficial deployment of AI/ robotics. Appropriate protocols for AI/robotics’ safety need to be developed, such as duplicated checking by independent design teams. The passing of ethical and safety tests, evaluating for instance the social impact or covert racial prejudice, should become a prerequisite for the release of new AI software. External civil boards performing recurrent and transparent evaluation of all technologies, including in the military, should be considered. Scientists and engineers, as the designers of AI and robot devices, have a responsibility to ensure that their inventions and innovations are safe and can be used for moral purposes (Gibney 2020). In this context, Pope Francis has called for the elaboration of ethical guidelines for the design of algorithms, namely an “algorethics.” To this he adds that “it is not enough simply to trust in the moral sense of researchers and developers of devices and algorithms. There is a need to create intermediate social bodies that can incorporate and express the ethical sensibilities of users and educators.” (Pope Francis 2020). Developing and setting such standards would help in mutual learning and innovation with international spillover effects. Standards for protecting people’s rights for choices and privacy also apply and may be viewed differently around the world. The general standards, however, are defined for human dignity in the UN Human Rights codex.
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Probability-based reasoning was extended to AI by Pearl (1988).
- 3.
The ethical impact of mathematics on technology was groundbreakingly presented by Wiener (1960).
- 4.
Relevant for insights in these issues are the analyses by Akerlof and Shiller (2015) in their book on “Phishing for Phools: The Economics of Manipulation and Deception.”
- 5.
See for instance Martin Sweeting’s (2020) review of opportunities of small satellites for earth observation.
- 6.
For a review on AI and robotics in health see for instance Erwin Loh (2018).
- 7.
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von Braun, J., Archer, M.S., Reichberg, G.M., Sánchez Sorondo, M. (2021). AI, Robotics, and Humanity: Opportunities, Risks, and Implications for Ethics and Policy. In: von Braun, J., S. Archer, M., Reichberg, G.M., Sánchez Sorondo, M. (eds) Robotics, AI, and Humanity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54173-6_1
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Robots are having a growing influence on organisational practices and this dynamic is of great interest to internal auditors and compliance professionals who examine the impact of these technologies on organisational objectives, risks and controls. But they are also of interest because there is a growing concern that the jobs of auditors and compliance professionals are at risk as the work is being replaced by machines. In fact, the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) found in a study that the work of accountants and auditors has a 94 percent probability of computerisation. Is there still a role for humans? Can we still add value?
While looking recently at the COSO Internal Control-Integrated Framework (IC-IF) I wondered if machines could “reasonably” use the Framework to assess organisations, or if human involvement will be required for the foreseeable future to perform these reviews.
So, there are two overarching questions:
- Which aspects of COSO IC-IF will robots be most adept at replacing humans? and
- Are robots at a certain disadvantage when attempting to replace humans?
It is widely agreed that robots are faster and more accurate than humans when it comes to performing mathematical calculations, identifying gaps, finding outliers, and spotting trends in data sets. After humans prepare key performance indicators (KPIs) and key risk indicators (KRIs), computers can calculate those and identify anomalies much faster than any human can.
But how might robots perform if they had to assess an organisation using the COSO IC-IF Framework?
Let’s examine each component and see how robots might do compared to humans.
Control Environment
This is where as humans we have the best chance of beating the robots and preserving our jobs. There are many cultural and soft-skills elements required to effectively assess this component and determine if the measures in place are achieving the goals of demonstrating commitment to integrity and proper values, enforcing accountability, ensuring competence, and making sure there is proper oversight. Also, embedded in this component is the review of the appropriateness of the organisational structure and the assignment of authority and responsibility. These are topics that robots may struggle with for a while as they are laden with subjective elements. In general, the Control Environment depends heavily on governance, context, organisational maturity and employees’ perceptions and opinions that help to give shape to corporate culture, all of which are difficult topics for machines to grapple with.
Risk Assessment
The board and management set the objectives for the organisation and identify the risks to those objectives, so these are purely human tasks. But once established, robots can take over quantifying and analysing the degree to which goals are being achieved and the risks that threaten the achievement of these goals. Machines clearly win at data analytics. But when it comes to the qualitative aspects of risk assessments, humans are needed for that. There is probably a tie when it comes to assessing the risk of fraud, because it takes a human (thinking like a fraudster), to identify schemes that can be researched. But artificial intelligence (AI) and machine language (ML) are quickly becoming capable of identifying the anomalies that raise red flags. By crunching massive amounts of data, machines are already demonstrating they are a formidable threat, and helper, of auditors and compliance professionals. Lastly, when it comes to identifying and analysing significant changes affecting people, processes and systems, robots still depend on humans for instruction and guidance.
Control Activities
Computers execute control activities based on instructions programmed into them, but humans are the ones that develop, select, and implement all manual and automated controls. When it comes to policies and procedures, some ML and AI tools are now collating and generating news feeds, writing articles, correcting papers and it is relatively easy to search databases for samples of policies and procedures that organisations need and can implement. So, machines can now technically “write” policies and procedures themselves. However, humans still need to map those documents to the reality on the ground where the work gets done. The result is that computers can produce semi-finished policies and procedures related to Travel and Entertainment (T&E), Accounts Receivable (AR), Accounts Payable (AP), Inventory, Fixed Assets (FA), Purchasing, Shipping, Contracting, Payroll, among many others. As business process automation (BPA) takes over more activities in organisations, the design part of control activities will remain with management and the board, but programmers and machine learning algorithms will make sure robots do the work in increasingly automated ways. So, for control activities, machines are rapidly taking over the task of regulating processes.
Information and Communication
We already have an abundance, if not an excess of data. The term Big Data comes to mind. The challenge is making data relevant and transforming it into useful information to guide the organisation so it can correct its course when needed and verify that stated objectives are being achieved. Sifting through volumes of data is one thing computers are very good at, so once they’re told what is important and what is not, they beat humans easily. Management sets authorisation levels, timelines and deadlines for dissemination, and formats for the presentation of the information, but after that is done, computers will compile, organise, draw and disseminate the information internally and externally. When we add the role of exception reports and process-flow routing triggers, computers can even determine what is to be displayed, who should see what, make recommendations, and even make changes. Imagine for example the links between forecasting, purchasing, inventory management and warehousing, sales and shipping. Many aspects of these activities can be linked and automated through information flows, communication parameters and resupply triggers. So, for Information and Communication, machines are also capable of replacing a large percentage of human involvement.
Monitoring Activities
Emerging technologies are a real threat to traditional internal audit and compliance activities. RPA, AI and ML will replace many activities currently performed by people, but humans will be needed for a while longer to review key aspects and perform a comprehensive COSO-based assessment of organisations. We will be able to add value but must remain vigilant and update our technical skills to leverage computing power appropriately while we provide the service and support that machines cannot provide. The COSO IC-IF provides a good illustration of how internal auditors and compliance professionals can continue to add value in an increasingly automated world but must adapt to this new reality. | https://misti.co.uk/internal-audit-insights/how-to-beat-robots-when-performing-coso-based-reviews |
On September 27, we reached our second milestone and demonstrated the core abilities of the ILIAD system live to invited industry representatives at the National Centre for Food Manufacturing in Holbeach, UK.
In the set of demonstrations, we showcased the current implementation of core components for deployment and operation – from when the first ILIAD robot is unpacked at a new site, to fleet coordination and object detection.
The first action when deploying a self-driving warehouse robot should be to calibrate its sensors. The robots in ILIAD do not use any pre-installed guides or markers, but rather use on-board sensors to construct a map of the environment, which is used for localisation and planning. However, in order to do so, each robot must know precisely the position and orientation of its cameras and other sensors. If, for example, a sensor has been shifted from its factory-default mounting during transport, that would affect the reliability and precision of the robot’s operation. Therefore, the first task should be to carefully calibrate the sensors on the robot.
In ILIAD, we have implemented a self-calibration routine, which saves considerable time and work during deployment, compared to tedious procedure of standard calibration using custom-made calibration targets. A user only has to walk around with the robot for a few seconds (as seen on the right) while the calibration software is running, in order to precisely determine the positions of the sensors. The process is visualised in the video below, which shows a top-down view of the hall where the robot is first deployed. What we first see in this video the outline of the walls and floor, as seen by the laser range scanner on the robot. When the robot starts moving, without knowing where its sensors are, the room looks very blurry. At 16 seconds into the video, the algorithm finds the correct calibration of the sensor position, after which the image clears up again, even while the robot is still moving.
Once the calibration is complete, the next step is to construct a consistent map. Traditionally, truck localisation is achieved by first installing specific markers in the environment, then manually surveying them, after which they can be used as references to compute the relative position of the truck. In contrast, the robots in ILIAD are walked through the environment once, during which they record the shape of the environment, and accurately compensate for any drift that occurs while driving, and at the same time automatically removing moving obstacles from the map, so that only the stationary structures remain in the map.
Given an annotation of the map, assigning positions where each product is stored, the fleet is now ready for orders. As of now, the assignment of places is done manually, but automatic methods to assist in this process are planned for the end of the project.
Assuming that the fleet is connected to a warehouse management system that maintains orders, for each new order, tasks are assigned to the fleet. The video below shows a list of orders, for objects to be put on a pallet. Given information about the shapes and weights of each type of package, the system plans how each box should be stacked on the pallet.
Now that each robot knows in which order to put objects on the pallet, the system plans how the fleet of robots should move in order to fulfill the order. The video below shows an example with a fleet of two robots. Given the map created during the deployment phase, the robots plan and coordinate their paths on the fly, without the need to manually design paths or traffic rules. This on-line motion planning and coordination further cuts deployment effort of the system and adds to the flexibility, as it makes it possible for robots to replan – in case of unexpected obstacles, for example.
In this milestone demonstration, we also showed picking of multiple types of objects with a dual-arm manipulator. The arms are not currently integrated with the truck platforms. Instead, the picking was demonstrated via video link from the University of Pisa. Once a robot truck with arms reaches a picking location, this is how it will pick objects and place it on the pallet of the current order.
One of the key aspects of ILIAD (in addition to facilitating automatic deployment and adaptation to changing environments) is safe operation among people. One of the cornerstones of this capability is to reliably detect persons in the surroundings of the robot. We demonstrated people detection and tracking software.
Finally, we demonstrated the present version of our object detection module, spefically its performance when it comes to detecting pallets.
In conclusion, this milestone demonstration showed the integration of functional prototypes of some of the most central capabilities of the ILIAD system. In October 2019, at the Milestone 3 demo, we will demonstrate the integration also of the more long-term aspects of ILIAD, this time at a real-world warehouse of food manufacturer Orkla Foods. | http://iliad-project.eu/second-milestone-demonstration/ |
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Belzile, Bruno et St-Onge, David.
2022.
« Safety first: On the safe deployment of robotic systems ».
In
Foundations of Robotics: A Multidisciplinary Approach with Python and ROS.
pp. 415-439. Singapore : Springer Nature Singapore.
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Abstract
ABSTRACT: The deployment of robotic systems always brings several challenges. Among them, safety is of uttermost importance, as these robots share their environment with humans at a certain degree. In this chapter, you will get an overlook of some standards relevant to robotic systems, pertaining mostly to their scope and the organizations issuing them. These standards and others documents such as technical specifications are relevant to conduct the risk assessment of a new system and mitigation of the identified hazards, two critical steps in the deployment of robot cells, mobile manipulators, etc. While we will first focus on conventional industrial robots, we will then move to collaborative robots (cobots), with which human operators’ safety is even more critical considering the intrinsic close proximity, as well as mobile robots. It is important to understand that the information presented in this chapter is only a brief introduction to the process leading to the safe deployment of a robotic system, whether it is a conventional industrial robot, a cobot or a mobile robot. You will need to refer to existing standards, technical specifications, guidelines and other documents that are yet to be released, as it is a field constantly adapting to new technologies. Moreover, a safe deployment goes beyond any written document, as a thorough analysis is critical, which includes elements that may not be considered by any standard. Learning objectives: The objective at the end of this chapter is to be able to: • recognize the different standard organization and their publications; • conduct a risk-assessment procedure on a robotic system and propose risk mitigation measures; • know the difference between an industrial robot and a cobot as well as their respective potential hazards; • differentiate the types of collaborative operation methods; • conduct a risk assessment on a mobile robotic system. | https://espace2.etsmtl.ca/id/eprint/25418/ |
Wallix’s CISO shares his thoughts on the growth of tech regulation and explains that going back to basics is worthwhile in security.
Pascal Fortier-Beaulieu is the chief information security officer at European cybersecurity company Wallix, having worked in the sector for more than 15 years. He comes from an engineering background and his experience spans the retail, energy, banking, pharma and transport industries, focusing on technology stacks in infrastructure.
As Wallix’s CISO, his main responsibilities are to ensure that information risks are identified, properly assessed and addressed at the right level.
“Fundamentally, CISOs need to have the ability to assess what risks are critical, what threats the organisation should fight and what risks need to be accepted – managing IT risk is a fundamental component of an IT strategy,” he told SiliconRepublic.com.
“The type of risks can be completely heterogeneous – it’s important to understand that risks are part of life and many often come with opportunities. Ultimately, all CISOs need to understand their threats to address them properly.”
‘It’s important to remember that basic is not a negative thing [in security]’
– PASCAL FORTIER-BEAULIEU
What are some of the biggest challenges you’re facing in the current IT landscape?
One of the biggest challenges in the current IT landscape is being able to deliver consistency in a space that has a lot of noise and forces at play. This is a huge challenge, and of course there are plenty of technical topics and emerging technologies that need to be considered by security professionals – not to mention avoiding future crises and learning from recent and notorious disruptions like Log4Shell and WannaCry.
What’s more, security leaders need to consider increased innovation, ensure compliance and understand how things like compliance and security can impact on business agility.
For CISOs to operate at their best capacity, they need to action high-level and operational tasks all day long, and the biggest challenge of the CISO role is to combine all their tasks to achieve consistent objectives that are shared with the rest of the executive board.
Not everyone at C-level has a technical background and CISOs need to translate the different security issues and risks that are currently facing the business.
What are your thoughts on digital transformation?
With digitalisation, more tools and processes are becoming embedded in business processes across all industries and because of this, additional risks and potential security gaps are created. These risks won’t disappear – digitalisation is a goal for almost all organisations and many, if not all, require support on their transformation journey.
Multiple challenges need to be addressed, starting with multi-technology use including the uptake of operational technology (OT), cloud computing and SaaS applications to name a few. Then, risk must be mitigated and emerging threats facing organisations need to be identified before a potential disaster strikes.
It’s also difficult for companies to manage all their technologies and processes all at once, however there are solutions available to manage things like user access while securing endpoints efficiently, without hindering user experiences.
How can sustainability be addressed from an IT perspective?
We have a lot of trouble with energy use in technology. It’s a huge cost for customers and end-users alike, and for cloud providers it’s a big, costly issue.
Energy usage has pushed executives to rationalise the IT resources we use, and one trend I can see emerging are businesses taking the opportunity to integrate reduced electricity consumption in their technological design.
It’s a strong opportunity to become more sustainable and conscious of how we use electricity. Look at OT for example. OT is being used everywhere and measuring energy usage is a strong opportunity to optimise electricity costs. This is an example of digitalisation being beneficial from a sustainable point of view.
What big tech trends do you believe are changing the world?
The trend I’m excited to see develop is businesses started to become more focused on risk and less about executing tasks. Tech is becoming increasingly important in our daily lives and so are security issues.
There has been a significant increase of regulations being set up including compliance, and this has resulted in some constraints in tech. I think we need to change our mindset, focusing more on purpose and less on strict and basic alignment with regulatory standards and norms.
Of course, it’s good to have regulation. When monitoring the safety of transport, like aeroplanes and cars, regulation is needed to make sure that the vehicle doesn’t crash.
However, regulation presents the idea of what best practices are and these practices can become commonplace. We need to preserve the identity and purpose of different companies.
A big mistake for organisations would be to let compliance define and drive company strategy. Compliance must be addressed, but it cannot be the purpose.
How can we address the security challenges currently facing your industry?
The world is more competitive than ever and now the factor of success is agility. You need maturity to be agile, and it’s not necessarily being fast at executing or wholly focused on the technology.
The more heterogenous technologies used, the more efficient organisations need to be when building the technology and operating it. It requires governance, a mobilised and trained team of professionals, and carefully selected tooling. Companies need to focus on their purpose and specific needs, not just the technology that’s required.
Organisations must also be natural about the way they work so they can accelerate efficiently, going back to basics. Whenever I’m feeling lost, I always go back to the basics, looking at basic security methods and solutions like access controls, configuration management, privilege access management and so on.
‘Keep it simple, stupid’ always rings true in security and, in fact, this is a mantra I live by in the daily life. Whenever I face a challenge, I need to organise things clearly starting with the basics. Once clear with the basics, everything else is not as difficult because it’s likely that the problem has already been solved.
To me, it’s impossible for an organisation to build good security without being able to manage their accesses, privileges and credentials in endpoints, the data centre or the cloud environment.
It’s important to remember that basic is not a negative thing. It’s a first step – a strong first step is good for the rest.
10 things you need to know direct to your inbox every weekday. Sign up for the Daily Brief, Silicon Republic’s digest of essential sci-tech news. | https://www.siliconrepublic.com/enterprise/information-security-wallix-cybersecurity |
Environmental, social and governance (ESG) factors are influencing where investors put their money, how consumers are spending and how other stakeholders are making decisions about how they engage—or don’t engage—with companies. What is the role of the board in ESG? We gathered nominating and governance chairs in October 2019 to ask them about sustainability metrics, risks and opportunities and how to communicate about ESG. Several themes emerged:
1. Your acronym of choice matters.
CSR and ESG mean different things. Corporate Social Responsibility is internally driven with a focus on an organization’s commitment to give back to local communities in which they operate (e.g., volunteer hours, sponsorship of community events, etc.). ESG is broader, drilling down on material issues companies must confront to be able to identify and mitigate risks, and the road map for handling these risks comes from the CEO and board.
2. Boards don’t need to tackle every ESG-related issue.
But they do need to be clear on which issues to prioritize based on their impact—or potential impact—to the company. Given the broad swath of areas ESG encompasses, it’s likely your organization is already addressing some of them. What companies need to be clear on is which risks (or opportunities) would have the biggest impact on them, how the issues will be addressed and in what timeframe. As companies think about these risks, it’s important to also consider the risks to employees and customers.
3. What do you measure and how do you measure it?
There is a lack of consistency in metrics used by proxy advisors and institutional investors on ESG. Once companies are clear on priority ESG issues, those are the ones they must assign metrics to. However, companies must be careful not to homogenize and reduce complex ESG matters into ‘simple’ metrics. Any reporting should be individualized and give the full context of the industry and organization so that a more holistic picture can be formed.
4. Companies must tell their ESG story.
Once you have your metrics, now you need to communicate them. Getting external recognition for the identification, tracking and solutions in place for ESG matters helps a company position itself well for proxy advisor ratings and also for institutional investors who measure these factors. As these external firms start to pay more attention to ESG issues—and even demand that they be tracked when making an investment decision—it is even more imperative for the management team and Board to communicate how it is being addressed and that the information released is investor-grade information. (Highly regulated industries tend to be the furthest along in their reporting practices. For example, food and beverage companies must disclose their ingredients and Industrial companies also must report key metrics as a regulatory requirement.)
5. Define the role of the board (and management).
Some companies have added specific board committees dedicated to ESG and sustainability, and others allow the management team to take the lead and bring matters to the board for review. There were differing views from the nominating chairs in attendance.
ESG is not just one more agenda item to add to a lengthy list of oversight duties boards are already grappling with; it bleeds into every strategic conversation about risk that the board and management is having. The material issues tied into ESG have far-reaching implications for how companies are operating today—and tomorrow—and a proactive approach to identifying, prioritizing and evaluating these risks will be essential for the sustainability of any company. | https://www.egonzehnder.com/what-we-do/board-advisory/insights/how-boards-are-handling-esg |
The European Commission estimates that 80% of the processing and analysis of data happens in data centres and centralised computing facilities, and 20% in smart connected objects. Over the next five years, 75% or more of the processing and analytics will move to the edge of the network.
Recognising this trend, the Commission is calling for organisations to take advantage of the decentralisation trends through IoT and edge computing capabilities, and leverage the expertise of its communities in the physical, industrial world and in digital world to bring the best of both worlds towards Europe’s next-generation IoT and edge computing infrastructure.
IDC says the IoT market in Asia/Pacific (excluding Japan) will continue to grow in 2022 by 9.1%, accelerating from 6.9% in 2021. Headwinds such as semiconductor shortages and supply chain disruption caused by geopolitical tensions have limited the growth in 2022 to single digits, and rising inflation may dampen growth.
However, rising demand for remote operations, better network coverage, and the deployment of commercial 5G and testbeds are driving IoT adoption in the region. IDC expects spending on IoT to reach $436 billion in 2026, with a CAGR of 11.8% for the period 2021-2026.
IDC’s research director for Asia-Pacific, Bill Rojas, says the ongoing deployment and expansion of 5G will drive the growth of connectivity use cases that utilize massive narrowband IoT as well as wideband/broadband IoT such as 4K IP cameras.
“Low Earth Satellites including nanosatellites and next-generation Very High Throughput Satellites will enable a wide range of remote connectivity uses cases relating to smart cities, environmental and sustainability monitoring, transportation infrastructure, energy and resources, and utilities.”Bill Rojas
FutureIoT reached out to Kenny Ng, head of worldwide market development, network business division at Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise for his take on where IoT is headed in Asia.
Do you think a decoupling of IoT hardware from software would further accelerate the adoption of IoT in the enterprise or is this a case of a solution looking for a problem to solve?
Kenny Ng: IoT adoption requires a holistic approach to meeting business needs in the digital transformation process. It will require a solution-based approach rather than approaching it from the decoupling of hardware and software.
However, there are a few challenges to surmount for enterprises in the IoT sector, including having a short time to market, airtight security, a versatile update mechanism for hardware and software and mastering device management.
Businesses need to evaluate hardware and software IoT choices pragmatically for their needs, but finding a cost-effective product that satisfies all requirements can be difficult.
For IoT-related projects, knowing the specific use case is essential to identifying the most applicable hardware. Careful software selection is also important, centring around ease of integration and maintenance.
What business problems/customer expectations are ideally suited for IoT?
Kenny Ng: IoT serves as a critical foundation and enabler for digital business processes. It also offers enormous value to businesses undergoing digital transformation. The connectivity provides also benefits enterprises that rely on collecting and processing large amounts of real-time data.
In a world where efficiency is key, IoT is best suited to enable enterprises to harness the data available at their fingertips to derive value-driven insights that can optimise workflows for better outcomes and accelerate business transformation.
As the pandemic boosted the digital transformation and sprouted the number of devices connected through IoT everywhere, the public sector saw an opportunity to leverage IoT capabilities to meet customer expectations and enhance processes and efficiency in everyday life.
IoT has the capability to transform the public sector, by significantly reshaping how governments keep track of data and information and harnessing mobility, automation and data analytics.
For you, what would constitute next-generation (next-gen) IoT?
Kenny Ng: Next-generation IoT would need to be holistic and enable organisations to scale up their digitalisation efforts securely with ease to welcome the age of digital networking. According to IoT analytics, there will be 30.9 billion IoT devices by 2030, making 75% of total devices.
With the growth of mobility and IoT, security is skyrocketing to become a top priority as networks become even more exposed to potential bad actors. And, with cyber-attacks increasing in volume and in complexity, unregulated devices can introduce security risks and chew up bandwidth unbeknownst to network operators.
With the sheer number of devices in a connected network, configuring and managing so many individual devices is unrealistic. Approaches like IoT containment must thus become more commonplace, where devices can be efficiently and safely onboarded via automation.
The ability to rapidly identify and classify every object connected to the network and automatically provision a configuration associated with a specific device, alongside virtual segmentation, are also crucial characteristics that must be present in next-gen IoT. Monitoring the objects is vital so that immediate action can be taken if there is unusual activity on the network, thus containing the impact and scale of a potential cyberattack.
Do you think culture and mindset are mature enough to accept these next-gen IoT solutions/technologies to realise real business value today?
Kenny Ng: While next-generation IoT does pose a complex challenge for enterprises, it offers massive versatility in the automation and optimisation of business processes.
Particularly after COVID-19, digitalisation has been at the top of many organisational agendas and has become a widely recognised priority in industries across the board. Though risk-averse enterprises may hesitate to make the leap when it comes to emerging technologies, organisations with a disruptor and agile mindset will be able to effect change and realise these benefits. This change in mindset must start from the top, with business leaders and decision-makers leading by example before it can become a part of their corporate DNA.
Once culture and mindsets have matured, then can concrete actions be taken to enact definite change. To unlock the potential of next-gen IoT, time and resources must be invested into building a skilled IoT workforce, such that the technology can be fully and strategically harnessed to drive core business competencies.
For those who may be limited by budget or resource constraints, an intelligent network fabric tackles this pain point by automating various manual tasks to simplify a network’s design, deployment, and operations. Automation also reduces the risks of vulnerabilities associated with manual errors.
How do you create an environment that will encourage IoT adoption and innovation within an enterprise? Who needs to own it?
Kenny Ng: As mentioned, enterprises will need to have the mindset for accepting change and embracing innovation, and this needs to start with the leaders. They will also need to invest in training a robust IT team to aid the secure operation and maintenance of IoT deployments.
The responsibility will lie with the senior leadership of the enterprises to instigate change from the top-down. IT leaders must transparently communicate both benefits and challenges of IoT adoption and push for ongoing education to overcome employees’ inertia towards change and help them understand the impact and implications of the organisation adopting IoT.
For instance, getting the message across that IoT help automate operations and streamline infrastructure, which in turn, can ease the workloads of employees may help to get their buy-ins.
The key also lies in cultivating an organisational culture and mentality that is comfortable with calculated risks. Every new technological adoption comes with its own sets of associated risks, but organisations that stay ready to mitigate risks will enhance their agility and responsiveness, and in turn their ability to compete.
Being comfortable with risk will also encourage new methods of trying out things, ultimately forming an enterprise environment that drives business innovation and constant evolution. | https://futureiot.tech/shaping-the-digital-future-with-the-next-gen-of-iot/ |
There has been much speculation that automation in high-income countries will lead to reshoring of production from lower-income countries or further reduce offshoring. Using rich data on Spanish manufacturing firms between 1990 and 2016, this column studies how automation in Spanish firms affected imports and multinational activity involving lower-income countries. It shows that, contrary to the typical assumption, the deployment of robots in Spanish manufacturing firms actually caused them to increase offshoring to lower-income countries. This effect was mainly caused by firms starting to newly offshore as a consequence of automation.
Katherine Stapleton, Michael Webb, 12 December 2020
Christopher Woodruff, 30 April 2020
Low-income countries lack the resources to replicate European-style income support programmes to alleviate the economic impact of COVID-19 lockdowns. In Bangladesh, a key challenge will be to support export-oriented production in the ready-made garment sector, which employs 4 million workers. Whether factories retain or lay off workers in response to government policies – and whether the health crisis escalates into a humanitarian crisis or not – depends crucially on decisions of foreign apparel buyers to honour or drop commitments to previously agreed orders.
Adnan Seric, Deborah Winkler, 28 April 2020
The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerabilities of global value chains. In response to supply chain risks, global lead firms have relied on Industry 4.0 technologies as well as reshoring parts of production. This column explores the potential impacts of these developments on the breadth and depth of global value chains. Automation and reshoring allow for more flexible adjustment to changing demand and the mitigation of supply-side risks. Ultimately, the implications of automation on development will depend on both the types of foreign inputs sourced as well as the relationship between robots and labour. | https://voxeu.org/taxonomy/term/11052 |
Note: Sample below may appear distorted but all corresponding word document files contain proper formattingExcerpt from Essay:
Gay marriage is a topical and controversial issue, as evidenced by the subject's coverage in the media, presence on ballot initiatives and the high visibility of the controversy in general. There are a few different ethical issues where gay marriage is concerned. To opponents, the primary ethical issue relates to concepts such as the sanctity of marriage and the survival of the species. For proponents, the ethical issues are greater, relating to human freedom and the limits of government (and religion's) role in the lives of citizens. Gay marriage does not need to be controversial, however. Using classical ethical theories, it is easy to determine that gay marriage is not an unethical act or concept. The arguments against gay marriage become unwound quickly when examined rationally, as this paper intends to show.
Ethical Tools
The world of philosophy facilitates the analysis of complex issues from a number of different frameworks. These frameworks -- consequentialism/utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics -- are sometimes competing and sometime complementary to each other. They provide a means of analyzing complex issues with consistency, and this allows for conclusions to be drawn with a relatively high degree of objectivity. There is always the risk in using these ethical systems that the conclusions will be drawn a priori, but the use of multiple tools makes it more difficult to do so while maintaining a consistent and coherent argument.
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is arguably the oldest of the three major forms of normative ethics, dating to Plato and Aristotle. Virtue ethics emphasizes the "virtue, or moral character, in contrast to" deontology or consequentialism (Hursthouse, 2007). Virtue ethics is also the most difficult to apply to a single issue, because a person's virtue or moral character is dependent on multiple acts -- a virtue being a character trait is should be repeatable. This does, however, provide a framework to understanding the issue of gay marriage.
Virtue ethics when applied to a broad social issue such as gay marriage can be understood as the consistent application of a set of actions. Gay marriage, therefore, must be viewed as one issue, and its interpretation under virtue ethics must be just one interpretation of many, on a multitude of issues. The controversy surrounding the issue of gay marriage can be understood as a conflict of virtues. Modern Western society is, by and large, structured around liberal concepts. These concepts begin with private property rights and have been extended over time to incorporate a number of personal freedoms (Gaus & Courtland, 2010). Underlying this liberalism is the idea that all humans should be free to do as they please, within certain limits. Any limits to freedom that are imposed should to give legal weight behind the implied social contract that we have. Liberal humans are not to "presuppose any particular conception of the good," and from this it flows that each individual should have respect for all other individuals, and "refrain from imposing our view of the good life on them" (Ibid). The majority of Western society, even in the United States, subscribes to liberal ideals and this frames the notion of virtue. A moral person is one who upholds the principles of liberalism that guide our society. We are not to unduly interfere in the lives of others, imposing our views upon them, as per the social contract that we have with each other as members of this liberal society. Gay marriage, therefore, is not the business of anybody in our society but the individuals in question. Not only is gay marriage itself a perfectly ethical behavior, but the enactment of laws to ban or curtail this behavior is an unreasonable imposition of external values on individuals who do not share those values.
Opponents of gay marriage, however, do not have a liberalist outlook. They take their view of morality from their societal cues, from whatever interpretation of whatever holy book they prefer. The conflict between religion and gay marriage is, it should be pointed out, not a red herring. A comprehensive survey by the Pew Research Center (2003) concluded that "religiosity is a clear factor in the recent rise in opposition to gay marriage." Their outlook on morality, therefore, derives from an entirely different tradition. This allows opponents to view gay marriage as an affront to their religious beliefs. Because humans are intended to live under the laws of God, and their interpretation of these laws forbids homosexuality, then it is moral to oppose gay marriage. A moral individual is one who upholds the will of God and His rules governing human behavior. Therefore a moral individual is one who stands in opposition to gay marriage.
These two opposing interpretations of the correct moral opinion on gay marriage illustrate the dilemma. For both parties, the views of the other side are evidence of that side's virtue. The willingness to impose one's views on other people -- especially in a situation such as this where those views equate to doing harm -- is considered an act devoid of virtue, and morally wrong, by the majority of our population. Yet opponents feel just as strongly about their interpretation of virtue. Part of virtue is that the person must be consistent in applying his or her concept of a virtuous act. The dispute gains no particular resolution here. Ignoring anecdotal evidence of random individuals violating their own sense of virtue, in general both communities are guided by their virtue.
There is one difference, however, that should be noted. Many in the religious community subscribe to liberalist ideals outside of specific issues that are promoted as ethical issues within their community. These individuals hold many liberalist views in part because those views are those of the dominant society -- to be an American one is almost expected to hold generally liberalist views. For some who oppose gay marriage, their propensity to pick and choose among ethical dilemmas to apply liberalist or religious viewpoints is their logical undoing. A virtue is habitual, a person of one's personality. If the person is inconsistent in applying virtue, this reduces the strength of that virtue. Not all opposed to gay marriage are inconsistent, but some are, and the same cannot be said of those who support gay marriage. On balance, this undermines the case against gay marriage -- it is less a matter of virtue and morality as it is a matter of selective and arbitrary application of virtue and morality.
Deontology
Whereas virtue ethics emphasizes moral character, deontology emphasizes rules as the basis of determining the ethical status of an act (Hurthouse, 2007). One of the reasons that gay marriage is an intense an ethical dilemma in our society is that there are no clear rules in most jurisdictions. In a few places, laws expressly allow it; and in some places laws expressly disallow it. As for most people in the West, allowed gay marriage would mean changing the laws, that implies that it would also change our understanding of right and wrong. There are few who approach the issue that way, but the tool is useful to study the issue. There are two ways to approach deontology -- agent-centered and patient-centered. Agent-centered situations require the agent to either do something or not do something (Alexander & Moore, 2007). While agent-centered theories only loosely apply to the gay marriage debate, the role of government comes into play here. For most Americans, there is no obligation to either do something or to do nothing -- the issue is not one where they must personally make a decision to take action or not. For the government, however, it is. The government, however, cannot choose on the basis of rules because it is being asked to make the rules. Opponents of gay marriage disagree, however, with this assessment, as many view those in government as being beholden to universal laws of their holy books. This gives rise to the argument that there is a moral right and wrong, and politicians within the government should act accordingly, and ban gay marriage. | http://www.paperdue.com/essay/gay-marriage-is-a-topical-and-controversial-52819 |
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Business school's should deal with what ethical matters?
Corporate social responsibility, governance, ethical corporate culture, and ethical decision making.
How is EDM designed to enhance ethical reasoning?
Insights into the identification and analysis of key issues to be considered and questions or challenges to be raised.
Approaches to combining and applying decision relevant factors into practical action.
A decision or action is considered ethical if it....
conforms to certain standards.
EDM framework assesses the ethicality of a decision or action by examining:
Consequences or well-offness
Rights and duties affected
Fairness involved
Motivation or virtues expected
The EDM consideration of well-offness ties to which philosophical theories?
Consequentialism, utilitarianism, and theology.
The EDM consideration of respect for the rights of stakeholders ties to which philosophical theories?
Deontology
The EDM consideration of fairness among stakeholders ties to which philosophical theories?
Categorical Imperative, and justice as impartiality.
The EDM consideration of expectations for character traits and virtues ties to which philosophical theories?
Virtue
Consequentialists are intent on...
Maximizing the utility produced by a decision. Rightness of an act depends on its consequences.
Debates involving consequentialism:
Which consequences should be counted?
How they should be counted
Who deserves to be included in the set of affected stakeholders to be considered?
Classic utilitarianism
Concerned with overall utility.
Deontology focuses on...
The obligations or duties motivating a decision or actions.
Categorical Imperative
Always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become a universal law. Meaning that if everyone would not follow the same decision rule it is not a moral one.
Enlighten self-interest
The interest's of individual are taken into account in decisions.
Virtue ethics is concerned with...
the motivating aspects of moral character demonstrated by decision makers.
Actus reus
Guilty act
Mens rea
Guilty mind
Criticisms of virtue ethics use in EDM
The interpretation of a virtue is culture-sensitive
As is the interpretation of what is justifiable or right
One's perception of what is right is influenced by self-interest.
Sniff test
Check a decision in a quick, preliminary manner.
Golden rule
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
Disclosure rule
If you are comfortable with an action after asking yourself whether you would mind if all your associates, friends, and family were aware of it, then you should act.
The Intuition Ethic
Do what your gut feeling tells you to do.
The Professional Ethic
Do only what can be explained before a committee of your professional peers.
The Utilitarian Principle
Do the greatest good for the greatest number
The Virtue Principle
Do what demonstrated the virtues expected.
How has the traditional view of corporate accountability recently changed?
The assumption that all shareholders want to maximize only short-term profits appears too narrow a focus.
The rights and claims of many non-shareholder groups are being accorded status in corporate decision making.
Fundamental stakeholder interests
Interests should be better off as a result of the decision (Well-offness) (Consequentialism)
The decision should result in a fair distribution of benefits and burdens (Fairness) (Deontology)
The decision should not offend any of the rights of any stakeholder (Right) (Deontology)
The resulting behavior should demonstrate duties owed as virtuously as expected (Virtuosity) (Virtue ethics)
Externalities
Costs not included in the determination of profit.
Surrogates
Mirror image alternatives used to measure impacts indirectly.
How many of the fundamental stakeholder interests must be satisfied for a decision to be considered ethical?
All four.
Expected values are a combination of...
Value and a probability of its occurrence.
Mitchell, Agle, and Wood suggest that stakeholders and their interests be evaluated on three dimensions:
Legitimacy
or legal and/or moral right to influence the organization
Power
to influence the organization
Urgency
of the issues arising
Approaches to the measurement of quantifiable impacts of proposed decisions:
1. Profit or loss only
2. 1 plus externalities
3. 2 plus probabilities of outcomes
4. Cost-benefit analysis or risk-benefit analysis plus ranking of stakeholders
Stakeholder rights:
Life
Health and safety
Fair treatment
Exercise of conscience
Dignity and privacy
Freedom of speech
5-Questions approach
Ask is the decision:
1. Profitable
2. Legal
3. Fair
4. Right
5. Going to further sustainable development (Optional)
Attempt to revise if any negative responses.
Moral Standards Approach
Develop questions based on three moral standards. More broad than the 5-Questions approach and better suited to considerations of decisions that have impacts outside the corporation.
Three moral standards of the Moral Standard Approach
Utilitarian - maximize net benefit to society as a whole
Individual rights - respect and protect
Justice - fair distribution of benefits and burdens
Pastin Approach
Analyze a decision based on four key aspects.
Key aspects of the Pastin Approach
Ground rule ethics
End-point ethics
Rule ethics
Social contract ethics
Ground rule ethics
Individuals and organizations have ground rules that govern their behavior. Purpose is to illuminate an organizations/individuals rules and values.
End-point ethics
Purpose is to determine the greatest net good for all concerned.
Rule ethics
Purpose is to determine what boundaries a person/organization should take into account according the ethical principles.
Social contract ethics
Incorporates the concept of fairness. Purpose is to determine how to move the boundaries to remove concerns or conflict.
What do all of the stakeholder analysis approaches have in common?
They do not specifically incorporate a thorough review of the motivation for the decisions involved, or the virtues or character traits expected.
Comprehensive Approach to EDM considerations
Well-offness or Consequentalism
Rights, duty or Deontology
Fairness or Justice
Virtue expectations or Virtue Ethics
All four must be satisfied for a decision to be ethical
Commons Problem
Inadvertent or knowing overuse of jointly owned assets or resources.
Ethical decision pitfalls: | https://www.freezingblue.com/flashcards/print_preview.cgi?cardsetID=76206 |
[NURS103] - Final Exam Guide - Everything you need to know! (71 pages long)
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U of A
NURS103
FINAL EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
NURS 103 Nursing ethics
•Ethics - aiming at the “good life” and for others in just institution
•what it means to be a good person to have a good life
•includes things like relationships and duties
•responsibilities (we that right comes responsibility)
What does it mean to be a nurse?
agency - means having capacity and power to act as a moral agent (responsibility to do good)
we’re practicing how to be a good nurse
Health professions act
-governs health professions
-also says what a college has to do (ex. enforce CARNA)
-applicable rules to all health professions
-we all have our set of regulations
-develop practice standards for regulated members:
-1. Responsibility and accountability
-2. knowledge-based practice
-3. ethical practice
-4. service to the public
-5. self-regulation
self-regulation - public trusts us
Virtue Ethics
-An approach that situates the agent at the core of moral life. (Aristotle)
-the way to be virtue, is to look at a virtue person
-virtues are role models
-aiming to be an ethic person
Trustworthiness
Open-mindedness (evidence-based practice) - understand that theres a big picture
Arne Vetlesen: (don’t let our emotions get in the way)
Preconditions of Moral Performance
•Perception
•Empathy (
•Judgement
Don’t use go with going with how you feel
Or being dugged into cognitive….
your perception or response is from your emotions
find more resources at oneclass.com
find more resources at oneclass.com
Approaches to Ethical Judgements
-Human rights (they are our rights because of who we are)
-Deontology (emphasizes rules, lying is wrong, stealing is wrong, do not kill anyone, this is a
rule based approach)
-Utilitarianism (concerned with the effects of actions, you figure out what to do and how to help
the most people most of the time, should you kill someone to save 100 people?)
-Principlism (ruled based approach, common approach to modern ethics, helps with
importance of context, like looking out whats in front of you)
-Casuistry
-Feminist ethics and ethics of care (moral valuing of caring for a person)
-Relational ethics
Principalism (moving away from specifically ruled but still keeping it structured)
Principles
•Beneficence
•Autonomy
•Justice
•Nonmalefience (not causing harm)
Moral knowledge is conceived as:
•Impartial and impersonal
•rational and logical
•Universal (applies across settings)
•Consisting of propositions/codes
Relational ethics
-development of ethics is like a coral reef
-concerned with how we are with each other (not just what we do)
-situated action, its an action ethic
-takes into account that we are connected with people (make decisions with others)
-have to step away and apply practice situations
-fitting response —> trying to find the most fitting thing to do (sometimes all options are bad)
Embodiment
-how we do know its real? | https://oneclass.com/study-guides/ca/u-of-alberta/nurs/nurs103/1478171-nurs103-final-exam-guide-everything-you-need-to-know-71.en.html |
Integrity is the practice of being honest and showing a consistent and uncompromising adherence to strong moral and ethical principles and values. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can stand in opposition to hypocrisy, in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word integrity evolved from the Latin adjective integer , meaning whole or complete. In this context, integrity is the inner sense of "wholeness" deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency of character. As such, one may judge that others "have integrity" to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold.
In ethics when discussing behavior and morality, an individual is said to possess the virtue of integrity if the individual's actions are based upon an internally consistent framework of principles. These principles should uniformly adhere to sound logical axioms or postulates. One can describe a person as having ethical integrity to the extent that the individual's actions, beliefs, methods, measures, and principles all derive from a single core group of values. An individual must, therefore, be flexible and willing to adjust these values to maintain consistency when these values are challenged—such as when an expected test result is not congruent with all observed outcomes. Because such flexibility is a form of accountability, it is regarded as a moral responsibility as well as a virtue.
An individual value system provides a framework within which the individual acts in ways that are consistent and expected. Integrity can be seen as the state or condition of having such a framework and acting congruently within the given framework.
One essential aspect of a consistent framework is its avoidance of any unwarranted (arbitrary) exceptions for a particular person or group—especially the person or group that holds the framework. In law, this principle of universal application requires that even those in positions of official power can be subjected to the same laws as pertain to their fellow citizens. In personal ethics, this principle requires that one should not act according to any rule that one would not wish to see universally followed. For example, one should not steal unless one would want to live in a world in which everyone was a thief. The philosopher Immanuel Kant formally described the principle of universal application in his categorical imperative.
The concept of integrity implies a wholeness, a comprehensive corpus of beliefs often referred to as a worldview. This concept of wholeness emphasizes honesty and authenticity, requiring that one act at all times in accordance with the individual's chosen worldview.
Ethical integrity is not synonymous with the good, as Zuckert and Zuckert show about Ted Bundy:
When caught, he defended his actions in terms of the fact-value distinction. He scoffed at those, like the professors from whom he learned the fact-value distinction, who still lived their lives as if there were truth-value to value claims. He thought they were fools and that he was one of the few who had the courage and integrity to live a consistent life in light of the truth that value judgments, including the command "Thou shalt not kill," are merely subjective assertions. — Zuckert and Zuckert, The truth about Leo Strauss: political philosophy and American democracy
Integrity is important for politicians because they are chosen, appointed, or elected to serve society. To be able to serve, politicians are given power to make, execute, or control policy. They have the power to influence something or someone. There is, however, a risk that politicians will not use this power to serve society.[ citation needed ] Aristotle said that because rulers have power they will be tempted to use it for personal gain. In order to serve society, it is important that politicians withstand this temptation. In the context of integrity, however, regardless of whether or not they act for the good of society, politicians have integrity, so long as they act consistently with their values. As stated above, ethical integrity is not synonymous with the good.
In the book The Servant of the People, Muel Kaptein describes that integrity should start with politicians knowing what their position entails, because integrity is related to their position. Integrity also demands knowledge and compliance with both the letter and the spirit of the written and unwritten rules. Integrity is also acting consistently not only with what is generally accepted as moral, what others think, but primarily with what is ethical, what politicians should do based on reasonable arguments.
Furthermore, integrity is not just about why a politician acts in a certain way, but also about who the politician is. Questions about a person’s integrity cast doubt not only on their intentions but also on the source of those intentions, the person’s character. So integrity is about having the right ethical virtues that become visible in a pattern of behavior.[ citation needed ]
Important virtues of politicians are faithfulness, humility. and accountability. Furthermore, they should be authentic and a role model. Aristotle identified Dignity (megalopsuchia, variously translated as proper pride, greatness of soul and magnanimity) as the crown of the virtues, distinguishing it from vanity, temperance, and humility.
Dworkin argues that moral principles that people hold dear are often wrong, even to the extent that certain crimes are acceptable if one's principles are skewed enough. To discover and apply these principles, courts interpret the legal data (legislation, cases etc.) with a view to articulating an interpretation that best explains and justifies past legal practice. All interpretation must follow, Dworkin argues, from the notion of "law as integrity" to make sense.
Out of the idea that law is 'interpretive' in this way, Dworkin argues that in every situation where people's legal rights are controversial, the best interpretation involves the right answer thesis, the thesis that there exists a right answer as a matter of law that the judge must discover. Dworkin opposes the notion that judges have a discretion in such difficult cases. The right answer is a ruling that is consistent with society's values (as society's values are codified in laws).
Dworkin's model of legal principles is also connected with Hart's notion of the Rule of Recognition. Dworkin rejects Hart's conception of a master rule in every legal system that identifies valid laws, on the basis that this would entail that the process of identifying law must be uncontroversial, whereas (Dworkin argues) people have legal rights even in cases where the correct legal outcome is open to reasonable dispute. Dworkin moves away from positivism's separation of law and morality, since constructive interpretation implicates moral judgments in every decision about what the law is.
The procedures known as "integrity tests" or (more confrontationally) as "honesty tests" aim to identify prospective employees who may hide perceived negative or derogatory aspects of their past, such as a criminal conviction, psychiatric treatment [ according to whom? ] or drug abuse. Identifying unsuitable candidates can save the employer from problems that might otherwise arise during their term of employment. Integrity tests make certain assumptions, specifically:
The claim that such tests can detect "fake" answers plays a crucial role in detecting people who have low integrity. Naive respondents really believe this pretense and behave accordingly, reporting some of their past deviance and their thoughts about the deviance of others, fearing that if they do not answer truthfully their untrue answers will reveal their "low integrity". These respondents believe that the more candid they are in their answers, the higher their "integrity score" will be. [ clarification needed ]
Disciplines and fields with an interest in integrity include philosophy of action, philosophy of medicine, mathematics, the mind, cognition, consciousness, materials science, structural engineering, and politics. Popular psychology identifies personal integrity, professional integrity, artistic integrity, and intellectual integrity.
For example, a scientific investigation shouldn't determine the outcome in advance of the actual results. As an example of a breach of this principle, Public Health England, a UK Government agency, recently stated that they upheld a line of government policy in advance of the outcome of a study that they had commissioned.
The concept of integrity may also feature in business contexts that go beyond the issues of employee/employer honesty and ethical behavior, notably in marketing or branding contexts. The "integrity" of a brand is regarded by some as a desirable outcome for companies seeking to maintain a consistent, unambiguous position in the mind of their audience. This integrity of brand includes consistent messaging and often includes using a set of graphics standards to maintain visual integrity in marketing communications. Kaptein and Wempe have developed a theory of corporate integrity including criteria for businesses dealing with moral dilemmas.
Another use of the term, "integrity" appears in the work of Michael Jensen and Werner Erhard in their academic paper, "Integrity: A Positive Model that Incorporates the Normative Phenomenon of Morality, Ethics, and Legality". In this paper the authors explore a new model of integrity as the state of being whole and complete, unbroken, unimpaired, sound, and in perfect condition. They posit a new model of integrity that provides access to increased performance for individuals, groups, organizations, and societies. Their model "reveals the causal link between integrity and increased performance, quality of life, and value-creation for all entities, and provides access to that causal link." According to Muel Kaptein, integrity is not a one-dimensional concept. In his book he presents a multifaceted perspective of integrity. Integrity relates to, for example, compliance to the rules as well as to social expectations, with morality as well as ethics, and with actions as well as attitude.
Electronic signals are said to have integrity when there is no corruption of information between one domain and another, such as from a disk drive to a computer display. Such integrity is a fundamental principle of information assurance. Corrupted information is untrustworthy, yet uncorrupted information is of value.
Integrity is a personal choice, an uncompromising and predictably consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual, and artistic values and principles.
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De schriftelijke integriteitstests zijn gemakkelijk af te nemen. Ze zijn gebaseerd op enkele aannamen, die er duidelijk in zijn terug te vinden: Minder eerlijke personen: (1)rapporteren een grotere mate van oneerlijk gedrag. (2) zijn geneigd eerder oneerlijk gedrag te verontschuldigen. (3) zijn geneigd meer excuses of redenen voor diefstal aan te voeren. (4) denken vaker over diefstal. (5) zien vaker oneerlijk gedrag als acceptabel. (6) zijn vaker implusief (7) zijn geneigd zichzelf en anderen zwaarder te straffen. [Translation: The written integrity tests are easy to perform. They are based on some assumptions, which are clearly found therein: Less honest persons: (1)They report a higher amount of dishonest behavior. (2)They are more prone to find excuses for dishonest behavior. (3)They are more prone to name excuses or reasons for theft. (4)They think often about theft. (5)They see often dishonest behavior as acceptable. (6)They are often impulsive. (7)They are prone to punish themselves and others severely.]
Integrity exists in a positive realm devoid of normative content. Integrity is thus not about good or bad, or right or wrong, or what should or should not be. [...] We assert that integrity (the condition of being whole and complete) is a necessary condition for workability, and that the resultant level of workability determines the available opportunity for performance.Cite journal requires
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|Look up integrity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
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Ethical egoism is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to act in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. Ethical egoism holds, therefore, that actions whose consequences will benefit the doer are ethical.
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.
Normative ethics is the study of ethical behaviour, and is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the questions that arise regarding how one ought to act, in a moral sense.
Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with "goodness" or "rightness".
Virtue is a moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. The opposite of virtue is vice. Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions as well as De.
Eudaimonia is a Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness' or 'welfare'; however, more accurate translations have been proposed to be 'human flourishing, prosperity' and 'blessedness'.
This Index of ethics articles puts articles relevant to well-known ethical debates and decisions in one place - including practical problems long known in philosophy, and the more abstract subjects in law, politics, and some professions and sciences. It lists also those core concepts essential to understanding ethics as applied in various religions, some movements derived from religions, and religions discussed as if they were a theory of ethics making no special claim to divine status.
Virtue ethics is a class of normative ethical theories which treat the concept of moral virtue as central to ethics. Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in normative ethics, consequentialism and deontology, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance of goodness of states of affairs or moral duties to ethics, it emphasizes moral virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like eudaimonia, to an extent that other theories do not.
Ronald Myles Dworkin was an American philosopher, jurist, and scholar of United States constitutional law. At the time of his death, he was Frank Henry Sommer Professor of Law and Philosophy at New York University and Professor of Jurisprudence at University College London. Dworkin had taught previously at Yale Law School and the University of Oxford, where he was the Professor of Jurisprudence, successor to renowned philosopher H. L. A. Hart. An influential contributor to both philosophy of law and political philosophy, Dworkin received the 2007 Holberg International Memorial Prize in the Humanities for "his pioneering scholarly work" of "worldwide impact." According to a survey in The Journal of Legal Studies, Dworkin was the second most-cited American legal scholar of the twentieth century. After his death, the Harvard legal scholar Cass Sunstein said Dworkin was "one of the most important legal philosophers of the last 100 years. He may well head the list."
The is–ought problem, as articulated by the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume, arises when one makes claims about what ought to be that are based solely on statements about what is. Hume found that there seems to be a significant difference between positive statements and prescriptive or normative statements, and that it is not obvious how one can coherently move from descriptive statements to prescriptive ones. Hume's law or Hume's guillotine is the thesis that, if a reasoner only has access to non-moral and non-evaluative factual premises, the reasoner cannot logically infer the truth of moral statements.
Phronesis is an ancient Greek word for a type of wisdom or intelligence relevant to practical action, implying both good judgement and excellence of character and habits. Sometimes referred to as "practical virtue", phronesis was a common topic of discussion in ancient Greek philosophy.
The Potter Box is a model for making ethical decisions, developed by Ralph B. Potter, Jr., professor of social ethics emeritus at Harvard Divinity School. It is commonly used by communication ethics scholars. According to this model, moral thinking should be a systematic process and how we come to decisions must be based in some reasoning.
Secular ethics is a branch of moral philosophy in which ethics is based solely on human faculties such as logic, empathy, reason or moral intuition, and not derived from belief in supernatural revelation or guidance—the source of ethics in many religions. Secular ethics refers to any ethical system that does not draw on the supernatural, and includes humanism, secularism and freethinking. A classical example of literature on secular ethics is the Kural text, authored by the ancient Tamil Indian philosopher Valluvar.
Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that is based on the notion that: "It is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good will." The theory was developed as a result of Enlightenment rationalism, stating that an action can only be good if its maxim—the principle behind it—is duty to the moral law, and arises from a sense of duty in the actor.
Principlism is an applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas that is based upon the application of certain ethical principles. This approach to ethical decision-making has been adopted enthusiastically in many different professional fields, largely because it sidesteps complex debates in moral philosophy at the theoretical level.
The honesty or integrity of individuals can be tested via pre-employment screening from employers. Employers may administer personnel selection tests within the scope of background checks that are used to assess the likelihood that behavior. Integrity tests are administered to assess whether the honesty of the potential candidate is acceptable in respect to theft and counterproductive work behavior. These tests may weigh in on the final personnel decisions.
Ethics in the public sector is a broad topic that is usually considered a branch of political ethics. In the public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a public administrator's duty as a "steward" to the public. In other words, it is the moral justification and consideration for decisions and actions made during the completion of daily duties when working to provide the general services of government and nonprofit organizations. Ethics is defined as, among others, the entirety of rules of proper moral conduct corresponding to the ideology of a particular society or organization (Eduard). Public sector ethics is a broad topic because values and morals vary between cultures. Despite the differences in ethical values, there is a growing common ground of what is considered good conduct and correct conduct with ethics. Ethics are an accountability standard by which the public will scrutinize the work being conducted by the members of these organizations. The question of ethics emerges in the public sector on account of its subordinate character.
The Methods of Ethics is a book on ethics first published in 1874 by the English philosopher Henry Sidgwick. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy indicates that The Methods of Ethics "in many ways marked the culmination of the classical utilitarian tradition." Noted moral and political philosopher John Rawls, writing in the Forward to the Hackett reprint of the 7th edition, says Methods of Ethics "is the clearest and most accessible formulation of ... 'the classical utilitarian doctrine'". Contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer has said that the Methods "is simply the best book on ethics ever written."
Matthew Henry Kramer is an American philosopher, currently Professor of Legal and Political Philosophy at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge. He writes mainly in the areas of metaethics, normative ethics, legal philosophy, and political philosophy. He is a leading proponent of legal positivism. He has been Director of the Cambridge Forum for Legal and Political Philosophy since 2000. He has been teaching at Cambridge University and at Churchill College since 1994.
Political ethics is the practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents. It covers two areas. The first is the ethics of process, which deals with public officials and the methods they use. The second area, the ethics of policy concerns judgments about policies and laws. | https://wikimili.com/en/Integrity |
How do you make your moral decisions? I’m not asking which things you think are good and which things you think are bad. I’m asking what factors do you consider, and what is the process by which you consider them, when you are trying to figure out what is right or wrong, good or bad?
The online comic Strong Female Protagonist stars a superhero like many others in a story unlike many others. For those who remember Concrete, SFP reminds me more of that book than any other super hero comic I know. Recently, the main character had to make some decisions that any real person would spend some time second guessing. She wondered if she made the right choices. She wondered if she could even be called a hero. And yet, she wasn’t certain that choosing anything else would have been any better. All this is good. All this is appropriate characterization. But these thoughts are thoughts that in other comics would have been dealt with, if at all, in a dramatic moment. Either the hero would mull ethics immediately after a battle while in the midst of unignorable devastation caused by the battle, or the ethics would be glossed over until the middle of the next big battle, when suddenly the hero would seize up and the drama wouldn’t be so much about the goodness of the character as the timing of the character breaking free of the paralysis.
But Strong Female Protagonist is not a typical super hero story. Our Hero ends up wrestling with these questions in the park, speaking to an old professor she ran into by happenstance. One of the themes you’ll see explored here on Pervert Justice will be meta-ethics: how do we make decisions about what is good and what is bad? The creators of SFP did an excellent job with the hero/professor conversation and so I thought I’d take the opportunity afforded by this story to begin a discussion on meta-ethics.
We’ll start just with this one story-page to get a glimpse of a number of major considerations one encounters when attempting to consciously craft a meta-ethics that works with one’s own values and perspectives and experiences. On this page, the hero’s old professor (black hair) is drawn coat-on to represent one side of an ethical debate while the professor is drawn coat-off to represent the other side of the same debate. Our Hero is drawn in the middle of this debate, focussed on listening:
This is one of the first questions we must solve in meta-ethics: will we consider results alone? Or will we consider other factors? Note that consequentialism and especially Utilitarianism (one instance of consequentialism) are not the only systems of ethical decision making that consider the results (or the ends) of an action. Deontology, which is made up of those ethical systems that prioritize following rules or adhering to duties, is frequently asserted to be a system of following rules instead of considering consequences. This, however, is a caricature. Not only are consequences considered at various points in deontic reasoning, but an appeal to consequences is frequently a justification for imposing duties in the first place.
How else would you describe the first argument on the page?
CoatOn: If the ends justify the means, then all is permitted! In the name of the Greater Good we may commit any atrocity we like.
CoatOn is arguing for considering factors other than results, but the argument is that if we fail to examine the means and not merely the results, then we will end up with bad results. This is a Deontic position, a position that ethics is best described as a set of duties and the relationship of individual decisions/actions to those duties. Yet it is not blind to consequences. Rather it asserts that we will get better consequences if we begin our ethical decision making already constrained by certain duties. These duties are different in different deontic systems. In some an important duty/value (often the most important duty/value) is obedience to some authority, typically a god. But not all deontic ethical systems are religious and not all religious ethical systems are deontic.
Consequentialism is typically seen in contrast to deontology. There are other ethical decision making systems to consider, but the most frequently debated today reside in one of these two camps. For now, it’s enough to distinguish deontology from consequentialism and to understand that deontologists don’t ignore consequences, but rather have a belief (sometimes presuppositional) that the best ethical decision making is a process that considers more than consequences alone. | https://freethoughtblogs.com/pervertjustice/2017/04/21/a-moral-caricature-deontology/ |
Talking to our students about racial/gender/class/disability/LGBTQ bias can feel like tiptoeing through a minefield. But when we “zoom out” from the individual feelings and reframe bias through a social lens, we can more successfully navigate these conversations and guide students towards a deeper and more complex understanding.
Beyond Implicit Bias Training
Many schools/workplaces have implemented some version of implicit bias training in recent years. The goal of these sessions is to help participants uncover hidden biases in themselves, and through that awareness, reduce the impact those biases have on their actions. The hope is that this reflective process will create a ripple effect across the school/workplace and result in a less biased and more equal culture. But, these types of initiatives rarely result in measurable transformation, and in fact, they may even inflame tensions among students/employees. Some common reactions to discussions about racial/gender/class/disability/LGBTQ bias are:
- an outright rejection, i.e., “I don’t have a bias against ____. This isn’t a real problem. Stop trying to divide us. This is offensive.”
- a polite dismissal, i.e., “Some people are biased against ____. But not me. And not anyone I know. Thanks, but this doesn’t apply to me.”
- a confused acceptance, i.e., “I am trying to recognize and unlearn my own biases against ______. But what should I do next? This is frustrating.”
Notice how each of these types of responses imagines bias as a personal characteristic. The basic takeaway of most implicit bias training is highly individualized, i.e., bias commonly operates in an unconscious way, impacting your actions without your awareness. When exposed to these ideas, for some, the response is immediate defensiveness. They are offended by the idea that they hold any bias at all and especially by the idea that their actions might be influenced by bias. Others accept the idea that we all hold deep-seated biases, but want desperately to know what we can do about it. The answer they usually receive is to “do the work”–through self reflection–to root out and reduce said biases. But that can feel very frustrating and defeating in its abstractness. It can feel like being stuck in a loop. Examine and acknowledge your biases, but then what? As long as we maintain an individualized understanding of bias, we are unlikely to go beyond these defensive or frustrated responses.
Biases as Social vs. Individual
Now let’s explore how we can use the sociological perspective to reframe how we talk about bias with our students and how we can reduce its negative impact.
First, when we reframe bias as a social creation, not an individual one, we are no longer talking about bias as a personal characteristic, we are talking about how our culture’s biases impact us. We do not invent biases on our own, in our own minds. Biased thinking comes from stereotypes and stereotypes are like polluted air. We breathe them in without realizing it. They are embedded in our cultural norms and because of that, they seem normal to many of us. Just like polluted air can look and smell like clean air, stereotypes can feel like common sense. However, just because stereotypes are all around us doesn’t mean they are natural. Like polluted air, humans create stereotypes. But, over time, they gain a life of their own, and become very difficult to eliminate. They impact our thoughts, feelings, and reactions in all kinds of situations, and most insidiously, they infect our law and policies so that even seemingly neutral institutions like schools and hospitals can actually function in biased ways.
So, when we reframe bias in a social way for our students, when we allow them to get some (metaphorical) distance from bias, we can more effectively navigate the feelings that spring up. Remind students that we are not individually to blame for the stereotypes that have infected us and created biases within us. That happens without our permission. But, they will wonder, if internalized biases can affect our actions without our awareness, “What are we supposed to do about it?”
This is where we can really put our zooming out skills into practice.
Social Problems, Social Solutions
If we take the lessons of implicit bias training to heart–that bias can operate in an unconscious way, and cause damage, even when people have no malicious intent–then we may be at a loss for how to help students see solutions. This is why we often default to individualized solutions. But, individual changes will never be enough to solve social problems. Social problems need social solutions. To reduce the impact of bias, we need changes on the structural level (laws, policies, practices), not simply on the individual level. What does this mean?
Let’s explore two examples.
(As you’ll see, these are both complicated issues. But, your students don’t need to be experts to practice zooming out and reimaging the world. The goal is to expand their frame of reference and help them practice thinking complex thoughts about complex issues. Remember, you do not need to provide all the answers. Your role can be to help them ask good questions.)
First, let’s say you wanted to explore with your students how gender bias operates. Have them imagine a male-dominated company in a male-dominated industry, like Google. In 2021, women are still vastly outnumbered at Google. If the CEO wanted to achieve equal gender representation at his company, what should he do? He may try to address the issue through anti-bias training. The goal would be to increase awareness of bias against women in the workplace culture. While this could certainly do some good, it’s not easy to change deep-seated beliefs like that. And awareness of a bias doesn’t automatically change its impact. The basic structure of the workplace–norms, policies, or hiring practices–stays the same. To instead take a social view of this issue would mean that the CEO would need to recognize the impact of biases and make changes on the structural level that would reduce the impact that biases can have. This may mean that the company sets a goal that women will hold at least 50% of positions within three years. Or, it may mean that hiring committees evaluate applications with the names hidden, so as to not trigger unconscious bias against female applicants.
Next, let’s say you are talking with your students about why neighborhoods in the US are still so segregated by race and ethnicity. Does this segregation exist because white homeowners living in more affluent neighborhoods are biased against families of color? Even this suggestion would offend or enrage many white homeowners. Most would argue vehemently that families of color are welcome in their neighborhood. Some might even hang “All Are Welcome Here” signs in their windows to make it entirely clear to passersby. And while those inclusive sentiments are positive, do they change the racial makeup of neighborhoods? Historically, they have not. Because the problem of segregation is much more complicated than individual bias. How, then, do we address this enduring segregation? When we look beyond the individual to the social, we would take historical context into account. And we would explore how cultural biases influenced our housing laws and policies and the legacy of those practices. We can then begin to imagine social policies that would reduce the impact that biases can have. This may mean addressing past discrimination by providing grants for historically disadvantaged groups to buy homes in segregated neighborhoods. This may mean increased oversight of mortgage companies to reduce racial discrimination in lending.
And, remember, being aware of the fact that biases are deeply embedded in us does not automatically reduce their impact on us. But reimagining how organizations function so as to reduce the impact those biases have can actually impact outcomes. Of course, structural changes are much more difficult and complex than individual changes. But when we can help students see the ways that bias is embedded into laws, policies, norms, and practices, when we can help them zoom out from the individual, the solutions will come into focus. The idea of structural change becomes less abstract for them (and us) when we practice thinking sociologically. And instead of defensiveness and frustration, we can help students feel empowered as they reimagine a path towards a more equitable society. | https://mackinlearning.com/reframing-the-conversation-on-implicit-bias-for-our-students-and-ourselves/ |
Racial Equity Foundations & Applications Overview
Facilitated by one of our DE&I experts, this interactive training session helps you learn about structural racism and make connections to inequities we see today, and offers the opportunity to dive deeper by customizing the focus of your session. Through discussion and exercises, our facilitator will encourage you to reflect on your own identity and biases, and develop a thoughtful strategy for practicing antiracism. After your training, you’ll be prepared to respond to and root out racism on an individual and institutional level.
Who this training is for: Individuals, small groups, and organizations who want a better understanding of how racism operates and how to incorporate anti-racist work into their daily lives.
What’s included:
- Terminology: The words we use, and how they reflect the values we uphold
- Key concepts:
- Three forms of racism: Individual, institutional, and structural
- Power dynamics: Identifying power and privilege, and their influence
- Racial equity: Understand the differences among equality, equity, and justice, and how
to avoid the pitfalls of “colorblindness”
- Implicit bias: How stereotypes and standards reinforce oppressive messages and norms
- History: How racism has informed centuries of American law and policy. This training includes the option to focus on specific issues and institutions, such as housing, policing, criminal justice, education, and healthcare
- Intersectionality: How the interconnectedness of social identities influence and inform systems of oppression or systemic oppression
- Practice: Actions, tools, and strategies to minimize harm through repair and reduction, and to intentionally practice anti-racism
- Resource guide: More information, recommendations, and concrete actions to continue your journey to social justice
This is a workshop, facilitated conversation. Please fill out our interest form so we can learn more about your needs. A member of our Social Justice team will be in touch.
If you have any questions, please contact: | https://www.ywcacolumbus.org/social-justice/diversity-equity-and-inclusion-training/racial-equity-foundations-applications/ |
The lack of diversity in engineering and perpetuation of inequities through engineering designs have motivated the rise of new curricula centred on the integration of traditional technical content with social aspects of technology. However, the ‘revolutionizing’ of curricula has primarily been spearheaded by junior faculty, women and faculty of colour. This article uses an autoethnographic approach to explore the development of social justice-oriented curricula within engineering from the perspectives of junior women and faculty of colour. Drawing on feminist and critical race theory, we discuss how power dynamics within the school, university and engineering more broadly have shaped the development and teaching of justice-oriented engineering. Through the lens of our experiences, we show that, despite the support from some institutional allies and administrators, stereotypes, hegemonic norms and microaggressions can undermine efforts for social and structural change in engineering education, even as such changes are supported and promoted by the institution. | https://anthropology.ku.dk/staff/professor-and-associate-professor/?pure=en%2Fpublications%2Fnavigating-equity-work-in-engineering(f7a4b6bf-b731-4053-a9be-78c02325b6f2).html |
An organization is only as good as its culture – building that culture is not only for HR, it’s everyone’s responsibility.
OUR PROGRAMS
Corporate Workshops
Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion Workshops
Ensuring equity is essential for improving staff mental health and well-being. unlearn.’s Workplace Equity Programs support organizations which are focused on cultivating cultures that embrace equity, inclusion and diversity.
Our interactive education programs and consulting services are designed to create a dialogue around discrimination, stereotypes and other important social issues. unlearn. workshops help participants explore their unconscious biases and examine how they can be reinforced by the media, their experiences and their relationships. Our aim is to educate participants and encourage them to develop an equity lens by examining stereotypes and challenging societal norms that marginalize others.
Focus Areas
We strive to challenge our thinking by using design to uncover our personal biases touching on the topics below. | https://unlearn.com/corporate/?gclid=Cj0KCQjw7MGJBhD-ARIsAMZ0eeuYf6Sx11B_s06SZbAvKo0ZLEp5lQYE_msyUzGfwKm2YuKdhjklX64aApESEALw_wcB |
Parent + Caregiver Programs
Parents and caregivers play a vital role in the development of safe school communities and are the most important influence in a child’s life outside of school. Caregivers play a key role in student success through the attitudes they help shape and the support they provide to students.
Harmony Movement’s workshops discuss the current challenges parents and caregivers are facing when creating safer school communities. Participants will learn more about equity and diversity in their school and work together to identify ways they can challenge discrimination and create thriving learning spaces for all members of the school community.
Harmony Movement customize all our programs in partnership with the school community to meet your needs. We have outlined some sample workshops below; however, we are happy to work with you to create custom programs on additional topics.
Recognizing + Unlearning Bias
In this workshop, participants will work with a Harmony Movement facilitator to identify, challenge and work towards unlearning biases they have. Participants will engage in activities and conversations that will support them in identifying preferences, biases and prejudiced ideas that they hold.
Learning goals:
- Understand the difference between bias, prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination
- Identify and unpack personal biases and reflect on how these biases impact our actions
- Engage in conversations to practice challenging your personal biases
How to be an Ally
In this workshop, we will explore the concept of allyship and how we can use the skills, resources and knowledge of the group to create positive social change in our school communities. Participants will think about their own categories of identity and consider their relationship to current social justice issues, and reflect on what kind of actions they can take to be in solidarity with oppressed and marginalized groups.
Learning goals: | https://harmony.ca/programs/parents/ |
Racial bias of staff at welfare institutions can result in negative outcomes for minority clients. Staff are not only professionals, but also individuals with personal beliefs and values. While the overriding organisational culture may be to give equal services to all clients, the attitude of staff and other work pressures might influence their approach with particularly migrant clients. Recent research recommends combining organisational theory and theory on racial attitudes to illuminate the issue e.g. that increased workload and stress can cause welfare professionals to fall back on perceived stereotypes of clients.
2019.10.31 |
Previous research shows that stereotypes about migrants may influence the welfare services that are provided to them. It is therefore important to consider in what ways welfare institutions possibly contribute to exclusionary processes that affect migrants negatively. Viewing welfare organisations not only as neutral bureaucratic structures but also as structural entities that produce, shape and interact with individual biases helps to unfold mechanisms of inequality by scrutinising how personal and organisational factors interplay. One way to do this is to combine organisational theory and theories on racial attitudes. These two theoretical strands are often treated separately, but recent scholarship has started to draw attention to the need to tie them together in order to better understand the social order to inequalities. This is particularly important in the context of western countries which are being increasingly marked by more diverse societies, such as Sweden.
Sweden has long been described as a universal welfare state and as the forerunner for equality and equal access to social benefits for the entire population, including migrants. Migrants with the right to reside in Sweden are integrated into the larger welfare system and access Swedish welfare institutions as service seekers. Migrants constitute a significant portion of the Swedish population. At the end of 2018, 24.9% of the Swedish population had a foreign background, and a considerable portion of this immigrant population is relatively recent arrivals.
In Sweden, the period after the Second World War was not only characterised by the survivors of the war coming to Sweden, but also by an increase in organised labour immigration from other European countries. This was to fulfil labour-market demands at that time, which demonstrates the close link between migration and labour market processes in Sweden. Due to a slowdown in the Swedish economy in the 1960s, restrictions on labour migration were introduced and, from the 1970s onwards, immigration in Sweden changed from receiving mostly labour migrants to receiving refugees who came mostly from countries outside Europe. Overall, immigration from countries like Finland, Iran, Iraq, Poland, and Somalia have dominated in the past few decades, in addition to recently arrived refugees from Syria. In 2015, Sweden experienced a short period of a substantially higher inflow of migration due to an increase in the number of asylum seekers. This influx led to an intensified debate on migration in which migration was portrayed as a societal and political challenge. This resulted in tangible changes in migration policies. The outcomes were more restrictive laws and measures like closed borders, temporary resident permits, and limited opportunities for family reunification.
Migrants with the right to reside in Sweden are integrated into the larger welfare system and access Swedish welfare institutions as service seekers. Prejudice (occurring unintentionally) might be more likely to influence service provision when professionals have a higher workload. Photo: colourbox.dk.
Professionals working in welfare institutions are in a powerful position since they are responsible for allocating resources to clients and making decisions on welfare programme placements. As organisational actors, they are socialised into organisational norms and practices. Their professional identity and attitudes are not only shaped by society at large but also through the organisation. In that way, they are both professionals and individuals with personal beliefs and values. Swedish welfare institutions are supposed to give equal services to all clients. Yet, welfare professionals’ attitudes might, despite organisational norms advocating for equality, influence their work with migrant clients. To illustrate the functioning of personal beliefs, one can imagine professionals’ personal attitudes as a backpack they carry to work. This backpack is not left outside the office in the morning, but stays with the professional throughout the working day and therefore can also influence their professional decision-making. Empirical research about Swedish welfare institutions shows that clients being perceived as stereotypically ‘Swedish’ have a higher likelihood of being recommended for labour market programmes, indicating that racial biases of welfare professionals can result in negative outcomes for minority clients.
Attitudes are not only shaped by societal or macro processes but also organisational conditions and especially by organisational constraints. Organisational forms and practices play a role in the production of values, but attention should also be paid to the intersection of racial biases and organisational constraints, like for example workload. A new line of research attempting to capture these intersections suggests, based on experimental evidence in the Danish context, that prejudice (defined as occurring unintentionally) might be more likely to influence service provision when professionals have a higher workload. This implies that organisational conditions are important ‘amplifiers’ or ‘reducers’ of existing biases that may influence welfare outcomes. The effect of racial prejudice might therefore be subject to change based on organisational conditions.
This line of research makes use of psychological reasoning when referring to the mechanisms linked to organisational conditions, which can be seen as coping mechanisms. Here, stereotypes are used to cope with limited time available to deal with complex client demands. A sociological perspective, however, would overlook the conditionality of the effects of racial biases on organisational conditions when scrutinising unequal treatment of migrant clients. Hereby, symbolic boundaries come into play that one can find in society at large and where professionals simply rely on ‘learned’ social categories in order to make sense of their work with migrant clients. Both ways of scrutinising inequalities in organisations need to be considered.
Neither solely organisational conditions nor personal attitudes shape the practical work with migrants in welfare institutions; it is the synthesised empirical knowledge across these two scholarly fields, and the combination of the different theoretical approaches that allows us to expand a more accurate understanding of a professional’s interactions in response to institutional imperatives. The interrelation between the micro, meso and macro level are crucial for understanding the dual dynamic between organisational and personal factors. The individual level is relational where stereotypes and prejudice express themselves through interactions. The process by which racial categories are created is in turn related to, first, the larger societal level and ‘learned’ social categories and, second, the organisational level where categories are shaped, inhabited and transformed through organisational processes. These organisational processes are marked by their own cultural rules and its own ordered reality with the power to shape social life. Therefore, seeing racial bias as being shaped by welfare institutions also gives a better understanding of the formation and everyday functioning of these organisations. Paying more attention to the organisational meso-level allows the various mechanisms leading to the (re)production of inequality to be further revealed.
The organisational context is a vital component in understanding attitude formation among professionals and this is valid beyond the welfare institutional context. The actions of professionals in organisations can be shaped by their attitudes. By intersecting organisational factors with personal ones (e.g. attitudes), we can learn more about how attitudes play out in certain contexts and under certain organisational conditions. Future research should focus on theory building that pays attention to the intersection of individual and organisational factors. | https://nordics.info/en/show/artikel/racial-attitudes-in-swedish-welfare-institutions/ |
Gender plays a critical role in the construction of corporate institutions and the regulatory infrastructure that governs them. The lack of women in executive positions and corporate boardrooms is a direct consequence of a male-dominated history, and so are the laws and norms guiding the institutions that hold immense power in society. This Chapter tackles difficult questions related to business and power through the lens of feminist legal theory, and provide an unapologetic and ambitious call to redesign existing power structures and internal power dynamics that are leading our world into environmental crises. It begins with a short primer on the social construction of gender, and how society continuously reinforces different behaviours from men and women. The Chapter then examines how gendered predispositions are imbued in the entrenched norms that dominate corporate law, and through implicit biases that prevent or slow the rise of women in the corporate world. These invisible power imbalances need to be widely recognized as they subvert the ability of women to attain meaningful positions of power that instigate change. A critical partnership must be forged between feminist legal theory and corporate sustainability to overcome the formidable challenges in attaining a greener future. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3179447 |
This volume addresses the role of communication in stereotype dynamics, while placing the phenomenon of social stereotypes appropriately in the socio-cultural context. Stereotype Dynamics assembles top researchers in the field to investigate stereotype formation, maintenance, and transformation through interpersonal facets of communication.
Section one presents meta-theoretical perspectives, strongly informed by theories and empirical research. Subsequent parts address the following research questions in the perspectives of language-based communication:
- What do the signs in a language mean, and how do the meanings of the signs shape stereotypes?
- How do people use those signs intentionally or unintentionally? Is language use biased in some way?
- How do language users' identities affect the meaning of a particular language use in social context?
- What are the social consequences of language-based communication? Does language-based communication provide a basis for the formation, maintenance, and transformation or social stereotypes?
This timely book is ideal for advanced students, scholars, and researchers in social psychology, and related disciplines such as human communications and sociolinguistics. It is also appropriate for use as a supplement in upper level courses on prejudice and stereotyping.
Table of Contents
Contents: Y. Kashima, K. Fiedler, P. Freytag, Stereotype Dynamics: An Introduction and Overview. Part I: Stereotype Dynamics. G. Semin, Stereotypes in the Wild. V. Yzerbyt, A. Carnaghi, Stereotype Change in the Social Context. A. Lyons, A. Clark, Y. Kashima, T. Kurz, Cultural Dynamics of Stereotyping. Part II: Symbolic Mediation and Stereotyping. K. Fiedler, M. Blümke, P. Freytag, S. Koch, C. Unkelbach, A Semiotic Approach to Understanding the Role of Communication in Stereotyping. A. Carnaghi, A. Maass, Derogatory Language in Intergroup Context: Are “Gay” and “Fag” Synonymous? S. Sczesny, J. Bosak, A.B. Diekman, J. Twenge, Dynamics of Sex Role Stereotypes. Part III: Stereotype and Language Use. C. Wenneker, D. Wigboldus, Interpersonal Consequences and Intrapersonal Underpinnings of the Linguistic Expectancy Bias. K.M. Douglas, R.M. Sutton, C. McGarty, Strategic Language Use in Interpersonal and Intergroup Communication. P. Freytag, Sender-Receiver-Constellations as a Moderator of Linguistic Abstraction Biases. Part IV: Stereotype Sharedness and Distinctiveness. M. Karasawa, S. Suga, Retention and Transmission of Socially Shared Beliefs: The Role of Linguistic Abstraction in Stereotypic Communication. O. Klein, S. Tindale, M. Brauer, The Consensualization of Stereotypes in Small Groups. F. Pratto, P.J. Hegarty, J.D. Korchmaros, How Communication Practices and Category Norms Lead People to Stereotype Particular People and Groups. Part V: Identity, Self-Regulation, and Stereotyping. M. Hornsey, Intergroup Sensitivity Effect: Responses to Criticisms of Groups. R.M. Sutton, K.M. Douglas, T.J. Elder, M. Tarrant, Social Identity and Social Convention in Responses to Criticisms of Groups. J. Keller, H. Bless, Communicating Stereotype Expectancies: The Interplay of Stereotype Threat and Regulatory Focus. | https://www.routledge.com/Stereotype-Dynamics-Language-Based-Approaches-to-the-Formation-Maintenance/Kashima-Fiedler-Freytag/p/book/9780805856781 |
Norms change both spontaneously and through concerted efforts to shift social perceptions about what actions and outcomes are legitimate. This plenary will cover the impact of changes in social norms on groups’ ability to create positive futures in the United States, West Africa, and Europe as well as the processes underlying these changes.
Dolores Albarracín is the Alexandra Heyman Nash University Professor at the University of Pennsylvania and studies attitudes, social cognition, and behavioral change. She is a fellow of the Society for Social and Personality Psychology, the American Psychological Association (Divisions 8, 9, and 38), the Association for Psychological Science, and the Society for Experimental Social Psychology, as well as the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Her research has been recognized with an award for Outstanding Mid-Career Contributions to the Psychology of Attitudes and Social Influence from the Society of Social and Personality Psychology in 2018 and the Diener Award to Outstanding Mid-Career Contributions to Social Psychology from the same society in 2020. She has published six books and is the President of SPSP for 2023. She was the Editor of Psychological Bulletin and is the Editor of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition.
SPEAKERS
Norm Dynamics
Cristina Bicchieri, University of Pennsylvania
Social norms interventions encourage individuals to engage in socially beneficial behaviors by altering their perception of existing norms, namely how prevalent a behavior is, or whether it is largely approved of. Often analysis of norm interventions concentrate on the outcome measure: the potential change in behavior. Little attention is paid to understanding how the message is interpreted. In particular the inferences people draw from such messages are overlooked. We show that this knowledge gap may lead to poorly constructed interventions in which goals and outcomes are incongruent and the resulting intervention backfires.
Cristina Bicchieri is the S. J. P. Harvie Chair of Social Thought and Comparative Ethics, and Professor of Philosophy and Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. She is the director of the Master of Behavioral and Decision Sciences, the Philosophy, Politics and Economics Program, the Behavioral Ethics Lab, and the Center for Social Norms and Behavioral Dynamics. She has published more than 100 articles and several books, among which are The Grammar of Society: the Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms, Cambridge University Press, 2006 and Norms in the Wild: How to Diagnose, Measure and Change Social Norms, Oxford University Press 2016. She works on social norms measurement and behavioral/field experiments on norm change, cooperation and fairness on social networks. Her most recent work looks at the role of trendsetters in social change, and how network structures facilitate or impair behavioral changes.
Leveraging Social Norms to Support Women’s Economic Agency and Reduce Extreme Poverty in West Africa
Catherine Thomas, University of Michigan
Shifting norms can help curb poverty in high-needs areas of the globe. A cluster-randomized field experiment in Niger (N=4,712) found that, combined with economic supports, a psychosocial intervention pairing a community-based norms intervention with skills trainings for women increased self-efficacy and social capital while reducing poverty and food insecurity.
Catherine Thomas is a postdoctoral scholar in the Department of Psychology at Stanford University and incoming faculty in Psychology and Organizational Studies at the University of Michigan. She completed her PhD at Stanford in social and cultural psychology and has an MSc in Global Mental Health from the University of London. She conducts lab and field experiments in the U.S. and the Global South to examine the psychological, social, and cultural features of efforts to mitigate poverty and inequality. In particular, across diverse sociocultural contexts she demonstrates the economic benefits of interventions that enhance the social and cultural inclusion of low-income groups. In the U.S., she also explores how narratives of policies like universal basic income can mitigate partisanship in support and welfare-related prejudice. Her work has been published in journals including Nature and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and in media outlets including Time and Foreign Affairs.
The Dynamics of Sentiment toward Racial Justice Protest in the United States
Colin Wayne Leach, Ph.D., Barnard College, Columbia University
Sentiment toward recent racial justice protests like Black Lives Matter has ebbed and flowed more than most realize, in large part due to normative questions of who, how, and why. I will discuss a transdisciplinary project that uses micro and macro methods to trace the dynamics of change in sentiment.
Colin Wayne Leach (B.A. 1989, M.A. 1991, Boston University; Ph.D. 1995, University of Michigan) is a social and personality psychologist who studies status and morality in identity, emotion, and motivation. He is also interested in protest & resistance; Prejudice, stereotypes, ...isms; Meta-theory, methods, and statistics; and transdisciplinary approaches. In addition to authoring over 100 articles and chapters, Prof. Leach has co-edited the volumes Psychology as Politics (Political Psychology, 2001), Immigrant Life in the U.S. (Routledge, 2003), The Social Life of Emotions (Cambridge, 2004), and Societal Change (Journal of Social & Political Psychology, 2013). He is Editor of Journal of Personality & Social Psychology: Interpersonal Relations & Group Processes.
How Norms Change Faster: Social Creativity in Times of Crisis
Guy Elcheroth, University of Lausanne
Rapid social change is an experienced reality in times of crisis, a frequent source of dystopia, but also humanity’s last hope to avoid ecological breakdown. I will argue that shifting perceptions of social norms are key to accelerated change, reflect on the mechanisms at play and discuss creative methods to uncover them.
Guy Elcheroth is senior lecturer and adjunct professor in social psychology, at the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences of the University of Lausanne, in Switzerland. His research examines the links between collective shocks and collective resilience, the role of memories in processes of conflict transformation, and the fate of critical voices in contexts of heightened nationalism. He has published numerous journal articles and two edited volumes on these topics and, together with Steve Reicher, has written "Identity, Violence and Power: Mobilizing Hatred, Demobilizing Dissent". He is the former director of UNIL’s Life Course and Inequality Research Centre, former principal investigator of the Pluralistic Memories Project, an international consortium on collective remembrance during and after armed conflict, former academic director of the Lausanne Summer School on Transitional Justice and Conflict Transformation, and former associate editor of the Journal of Social and Political Psychology. | https://spsp.org/events/2023-annual-convention/schedule/featured-sessions/presidential-plenary |
Organizations and individuals actively avoid perpetuating damaging conscious biases. However, the reality is that regardless of our backgrounds, we’re all prone to unconscious bias—ones that potentially have destructive effects. In this article, we look at six facts, models, and solutions for tackling unconscious bias.
In our recent webinar ‘Shine a Light on Hidden Biases’, Affirmity experts Patrick McNiel, PhD, and Pamela Pujo discussed the origins and impact of unconscious bias. We’ve assembled a list of their best insights and tips below.
1) Unconscious Biases Are Partly a Product of Efficient Brains
The human brain is hardwired for prejudice. In our distant past, being able to quickly judge who was inside and outside of our immediate group was doubtlessly a valuable asset for survival. Though instincts serve us well in certain areas to this day, our in-group/out-group biases built in a hunter-gatherer society translate poorly to a modern-day working environment.
Even among groups that we expect to maintain objectivity, unconscious bias remains. A Yale University study found that male and female scientists were more likely to hire men, and consider them more competent, and pay them $4,000 more per year than women.
2) Unconscious Biases Aren’t a Product Of Any One Factor
While our tendency towards unconscious biases is innate, the development of biases is a multifaceted and ongoing process. The following can be significant contributors:
- Background and cultural: Bias is influenced by how we were raised, where we went to school, what places of worship we attended, the views of our parents and grandparents, and others we came into contact with.
- Social experience: Norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, and languages provide individuals with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own societies. Our social experiences shape our beliefs and, in turn, how we interact with people who are different from us.
- Biased media representations: Racial and ethnic stereotypes permeate television, movies, news, and social media. We may see a particular group more frequently displayed in a negative light in any of these mediums and become prone to viewing that group in a negative manner.
Also on the blog: ‘4 Great Ways to Help Embed Diversity & Inclusion as a Priority in Your Organization’
3) Unconscious Bias Has a Tangible Negative Effect
While there’s a moral imperative to combat unconscious bias and ensure a fairer society for all groups, there’s also a simple business case for doing so. A study from the Center for Talent Innovation looked at the costs of bias. When employees perceive bias in the workplace, companies experience less innovation, lower productivity, and higher costs associated with frequent turnover and burnout.
Of employees who experience bias:
- 34% reported withholding ideas for solutions in the last six months
- 48% said they had looked for a new job while at their current job in the last six months
- 75% said they aren’t proud to work for their companies
- 33% feel regularly alienated at work
4) We Can Make Simple Changes to Behavior to Get Ahead of Our Biases
What can individuals do to combat their own unconscious biases? The following actions can reduce the chances of biased behaviors:
- Ask questions rather than making assumptions:
- Ask people for feedback.
- Ask people how you can work together more effectively.
- Ask people when you aren’t sure what their thoughts, feelings, or motivations are.
- Ask yourself what assumptions you have made, and examine whether they are valid.
- Address misunderstandings and resolve disagreements:
- Don’t let an unpleasant interaction, misunderstanding, or disagreement fester and turn into an enduring spot of conflict on your team.
- If you have a simple misunderstanding, clear it up right away so everyone can be more productive.
- If you have a more substantial disagreement, use it as an opportunity to explore a meaningful difference of perspectives.
- Whenever you have a strong reaction to someone (positive or negative), ask yourself why.
ERGs present another organizational solution to unconscious bias. Find out more in this article: ‘Maximizing the Value of ERGs: Expert Answers to 7 Burning Questions’
5) Climate Surveys Help You Take Action
You can use climate surveys focused on diversity and inclusion to understand whether bias is an issue at your organization.
Diversity Climate Focus Areas
Representation: Do people see diversity in the organization across jobs and levels? Do people think of the company as a diverse place to work at?
Support and intentionality: Do people have the understanding that key figures in the organization want diversity, and are supportive of, and pushing for diversity?
Programming and implementation: Do people have an understanding that the company’s policies, processes, and procedures work to promote and support diversity?
Group dynamics: Do people treat others who may be different with respect, consideration, and fairness. Do they value diversity and see it as an asset?
Inclusion Climate Focus Areas
Belonging: Do people have a sense of warmth when they go to work? Do people like each other, and make each other feel like they belong? Does the company attempt to create that feeling?
Authenticity: Are people allowed to be themselves or do they need to put on a false front at work?
For an in-depth treatment of climate surveys, read our blog post, ‘How to Use a Climate Survey to Understand and Nurture Diversity and Inclusion’
6) How to Make Unconscious Bias Training a Success
Once you’ve analyzed your organization’s areas of bias and drawn up an action plan, you can implement an unconscious bias training program. This program should be measured, properly communicated, and effectively layered through the rest of your learning activity.
Measure Results
Ask behaviorally focused questions 90 days after completing unconscious bias training in order to understand whether or not transference of learning from the “classroom” to the job has occurred. Next steps include:
- Measure what participants have learned via pre- and post-assessments.
- Measure how your inclusion culture might have improved (or gotten worse).
- Participants should be made aware of what behaviors are expected of them in order to work on accomplishing those goals.
Communicate Frequently
Communicate how the training is anchored to a specific focus for the company, such as unbiased performance ratings or unbiased recruiting practices. Additionally, consider:
- How are you communicating upcoming sessions?
- Are you receiving support for the training from high levels within the organization?
- Will the training be mandatory or voluntary?
- What message are you communicating prior to the training regarding the reason for training?
Develop a Multi-Layered Curriculum
Don’t just discuss diversity and inclusion (D&I) concepts during DE&I training. Try the following:
- Use D&I concepts and skills in other courses such as customer service, sales, and patient safety.
- A “one and done” D&I training session is more of a box-ticking exercise than a commitment to change. Hold an annual D&I focused session, and work D&I concepts into other courses on a quarterly basis.
- Other types of training that can enhance valuable inclusion skills include conflict management, effective communications across cultures, intercultural awareness, and sessions dedicated to helping employees understand other divisions and job roles in the organization. | https://www.affirmity.com/blog/unconscious-bias-6-insights-immediate-action/ |
The Diversity Peer Education Program is an initiative by the Honors College at Rutgers University–New Brunswick. This program is dedicated to spreading cultural awareness and sensitivity as well as promoting diversity and social justice within the Honors College community. DPE works with Honors College student leaders and organizations on a request basis to host and facilitate custom workshops related to social justice and diversity.
Meet Our Educators
Workshop Categories
Ableism
This program explores the intersections of disability, reflects on what participants know about disability and ableism, and how this relates to other social systems. This group activity will involve critical thinking about various scenarios experienced by people who are labeled as having a disability.
Gender
This program allows participants to engage in reflective thinking about gender and sexual orientation. Participants will be able to analyze their earliest messages about gender from various social systems.
Classism
This program will show participants the unequal distribution of wealth in American society and will involve hands on activities in which participants will learn about group dynamics, intersections of poverty, and unequal distribution of resources.
Religion
This program will expose participants to various religions and religious texts and allow them to analyze stereotypes that are associated with each group. With dynamic group discussions participants will also analyze the role of the media in maintaining and perpetuating these stereotypes.
Exploring Identity
This program will allow participants to explore the key aspects of their identity and how these important aspects interact with other social systems, privilege, and disadvantage. In an interactive activity participants will make an identity map by which to explore their identity and learn more about each other.
Becoming a Peer Educator
During the fall, successful applicants to the Diversity Peer Education Program will engage in a semester long training on topics and issues related to social justice education and theories. Students will also receive training on diversity workshop facilitation, and in the spring semester Diversity Peer Educators will work in pairs to facilitate diversity workshops throughout the Honors College communities.
Interested students must be in good academic standing, have an interest in diversity and social justice, and be available on Fridays in the fall from 3:00pm - 5:00pm for training. Diversity Peer Educators will be required to attend all trainings and meetings. Peer Educators are required to facilitate at least two diversity workshops per semester. In addition, Peer Educators collaborate to organize and plan one large scale diversity and/or social justice related event per semester. | https://honorscollege.rutgers.edu/life-hc/getting-involved/diversity-peer-education-program |
|8:45 - 9:45 am||Session- फर्केर के पाइन्छ ?
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In pursuit of a better future, millions of Nepalis have migrated to the Gulf and developing countries. Lately, many migrants are starting to return home to utilize their accumulated capital and skills to start new businesses—everything from poultry and livestock rearing to hospitality and Information Technology. This session will delve into why they are returning home and the benefits of doing so, and it will also feature dialogues and interactions with returnees.
Speakers:
Moderator:
|9:45 - 10:45 am||महिला पुरुषको दाजोमा कहिले ?
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Around the world, although traditional norms still play a large role in perpetuating gender biases and stereotypes, more women are taking on leading roles and taking up decision-making positions. With global campaigns such as HeForShe, the role played by men in empowering women and in building a more just society is gradually being recognised too. This session will attempt to challenge the misconceptions regarding feminism and underscore the importance of the roles played by both men and women in establishing a pathway to reaching a gender-equal society.
Speakers:
Moderator:
|10:45 - 11:00 am||Break|
|11:00 - 12:00 pm||पौरखी प्रवासी र मूलदेश
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How can the Nepali diaspora, who have excelled in the international platform through their diligence, skill and talent, contribute in the economic development and prosperity of Nepal? This session will engage with non-resident Nepalis, the Nepali diaspora and experts who have conducted insightful studies in their respective sectors.
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Moderator:
|12:00 - 12:30 pm||Can Nepal Do IT?
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Information Technology has transformed our lives, owing to the ubiquity of its adoption by a wide range of sectors. But while the global market embarked on modernisation years ago, Nepal has been a late bloomer in the IT field. IT has penetrated every field, and businesses today have become increasingly dependent on IT to ensure growth. This session will thus dwell upon the IT sector’s emergence in Nepal, and the challenges the sector needs to overcome--for which it will need to come up with strategies informed by a long-term vision.
Speakers:
Moderator:
|12:30 - 1:30 pm||Lunch Break|
|1:30 - 2:45 pm||मुख्य मन्त्रीहरुसँग मुखामुख
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Amid the confusion in the power distribution, implementation of federalism has also inflicted conflict between the center and province. Further, the situation could prolong without the proper legal provision. Although there have been few bilateral dialogues between the chief ministers and the prime minister, the discourse is yet to be held in a public forum. This session will be a platform to dwell upon the problems, concerns and potentials of the states as well as the chief ministers.
In conversation with Provincial Chief Ministers
Speakers:
Moderator: | http://2019.kantipurconclave.com/singing-concert/ |
Miss a day? We’ve got you covered.
If you’re joining us late in the Challenge you haven’t missed out! We’ll be updating this page regularly to include links to each day of Challenge so you can catch up to revisit any previous content. If we’re missing a day, hold tight. Our small team is hard at work making sure this Challenge is the best it can be. We’re glad you’ve committed to joining us.
WEEK 1: The History of the Invention of Race June 21st—June 25th
For this year’s 21-Day Challenge, we’re going back to the beginning. What even is race? When and how was it invented? What does it mean when people say, ‘race is a myth”? Before we dive into this work, we encourage you to take a moment to download your reflection log, join our Facebook group, and most importantly, be open to change. It is first by transforming ourselves that we will transform the world.
Today’s topic centers around the invention of race. Contemporary scholars agree that “race” was a recent invention, a folk idea, not a product of scientific research and discovery. Race and its ideology about human differences arose out of the context of African slavery. Today’s challenge opportunities will take a closer look at how “race” came to be.
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For today’s Challenge, we’ll be centering our focus on race as a social construction. Despite the overarching narrative that race is biological, scientists have proven that there is as much if not more genetic variance within any given racial group as there is between people of different races. Humans are more genetically homogenous than most species on earth.
So how did we get here? The creation of race is rooted in socio-political functions, and we have built systems to enforce these manufactured differences. Today’s Challenge activities take a closer look.
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In today’s Challenge, we’ll be taking a closer look at racial classifications, including how they came to be, how they have changed over the years based on the social, economic, and political landscapes, and how they vary based on geographic location.
Despite their social construction, these categories have a real impact on the lived experiences of individuals. Today’s Challenge activities will unpack how this plays out today.
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Today’s topic is centered on the concept of racial identity. Though race is a social construct, racial identity is very real. Who we think we are and who others think we are can influence how we navigate the world, think about possibilities, or take action. Our identities are complex and informed by various factors that can complicate how we experience the world around us: racial identity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, ability, etc.
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Today we’re turning our focus to gaining a deeper understanding of the levels of racism. You may already be familiar with the phrases “institutional racism” and “systemic racism.” These terms refer to the broader ways in which racism is perpetuated and upheld in our society. The following activities are great launching points to aid in digesting these concepts.
As a quick reminder, we’ve structured this year with weekends off. Most of us already have a Monday through Friday routine, but we hope that educating yourselves on race equity and social justice – the experiences of community and nation members – will also become a part of your regular routine and an ongoing process to continue the learning needed to advance racial equity and social justice.
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WEEK 2: Interpersonal & Internalized Racism June 28th—July 2nd
As we head into week two of the Challenge, we will continue our journey to learn more about the core concepts of race equity. Today’s Challenge centers on the power of stereotypes. Despite having little grounding, stereotypes are pervasive in our society, held up by pop culture, implicit biases, policies, and more.
Racial stereotyping involves a fixed, overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people based on their race. When left unchecked, stereotypes may lead to discriminatory behavior and exclusion of others. They are often learned, which means they can be unlearned when a person actively engages in addressing their biases. Today’s Challenge activities will explore the impact and power of stereotyping.
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Now that we’ve covered the power of stereotypes, we turn our focus today to microaggressions. Microaggressions are defined as verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities that communicate hostile, derogatory, or harmful racial slights and insults to the target person or group.
Microaggressions take place in everyday life, fueled by implicit biases, stereotypes, and more. They are a daily reality for BIPOC folks in the workplace, grocery store, restaurant, social gathering, etc. Today’s Challenge activities will unpack microaggressions and provide some actionable steps to address and intervene when they take place.
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For today’s Challenge, we’re focusing on implicit bias. Implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions unconsciously. Implicit bias is pervasive across nearly all social interactions, and since individuals are often unaware they may have it, it can be challenging to spot.
Becoming aware of one’s implicit biases is a lifelong process, but the following activities are great starting points. We carry preconceived judgments of those around us, but we can begin to deconstruct them once we are aware of them.
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For today’s Challenge, we will be unpacking the phenomenon of codeswitching. Codeswitching involves adjusting one’s style of speech, appearance, behavior, and expression in ways that will optimize the comfort of others in exchange for fair treatment, quality service, and employment opportunities.
Codeswitching has broad implications and is often necessary to help appease social norms and expectations to appear articulate, professional, or respectful. While it is frequently seen as crucial for professional advancement, code-switching often comes at a high psychological cost. Today’s Challenge activities will take a closer look.
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For our final Challenge of the week, we’re taking a look at what we call ourselves. Many terms aim to provide a unifying label or term for individuals from similar backgrounds, cultures, and more, such as “BIPOC” and Latinx, which you’ve undoubtedly seen used before or may even identify with yourself.
What we call ourselves is complicated, informed by personal experiences, cultural ideologies, and much more. Today’s content features several shorter resources on this topic, so we hope you’ll take the time to explore a few.
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WEEK 3: Institutional & Systemic Racism July 5th—July 9th
Welcome back to week three of the 21-Day Challenge. For today’s Challenge, we’re discussing the concept of freedom. Throughout history and into the present, freedom is not something that is equally enjoyed by all people. A person’s racial, ethnic, cultural, religious, and sexual identities impact their access to freedom.
Today’s content examines how marginalized communities and people have been denied the freedoms inherent in the American dream both historically and presently.
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For today’s Challenge, we’re taking a look at racism in politics. Representation in politics is vitally important. The demographics represented or unrepresented in lawmaking positions affect our communities in very tangible ways, resulting in laws and policies that may not take the needs, interests, and unique experiences of communities of color into account.
Today’s Challenge activities focus on the unequal representation of BIPOC folks in local and national politics, the potential reasons for that inequality, and its impact.
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For today’s Challenge, we will be discussing wealth, jobs, and more, considering the question: “What’s the value of a dollar?” This question has a multitude of answers based on a person’s race, national origin, education, and other circumstantial factors out of their control. The origins of the financial systems in the United States are complex, and in many ways, built and dependent on the exploitation of the labor of BIPOC folks.
The following Challenge activities will discuss this issue further, including the value of money and the valuation of jobs primarily held by BIPOC folks, complicating access to essentials like housing and healthcare.
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In today’s Challenge, we’ll be taking a look at racism in the media. Though this is a complex and multifaceted topic, today’s activities provide a good introduction. Racism in the media occurs in various ways, including the underrepresentation or misrepresentation of BIPOC folks in casts, writing teams, executive positions, and award shows. This underrepresentation and misrepresentation can reinforce stereotypes and diminish the visibility of BIPOC folks, including the perpetuation of the idea of monolithic cultures and identities.
Today’s resources will look at racism in different areas of the media and help us look more deeply at how the media influences a dominant social narrative that impacts the way we understand race and racism in our society.
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For today’s Challenge, we will be focusing on Critical Race Theory (CRT). In general terms, critical race theory contends that racism is a social construct that extends beyond an individual’s biases or prejudices and is embedded into our legal and political systems. The impact of such systemic racism is made evident by the disparate outcomes for BIPOC communities regarding housing opportunities, education quality, healthcare access, etc.
Today, our Challenge activities will help you better understand Critical Race Theory and provide a broad perspective on recent political activities made in response to CRT, particularly regarding the inclusion of CRT in education and training.
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WEEK 4: Personal & Collective Transformation July 12th—July 16th
Today’s Challenge helps us examine how we talk about race. How we talk about race with our families of origin, friends and chosen family, our children and coworkers, etc., influences how we think about race and respond to racism. How we talk about race can also influence the attitudes and perspectives of the people we’re talking to.
Building on Day 14, today’s resources will explore why talking about race is essential and tools and tips for talking about race better.
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For today’s Challenge, we will be exploring the concept of allyship, including what various terms mean and how they can evolve over time. You may have heard terms such as “ally” before and may even identify as one yourself, but did you know that identifying yourself as an ally is generally discouraged?
Today’s Challenge will introduce and explain various terms, including “ally,” “coconspirator,” and “accomplice,” as well as discuss the quality and type of actions of those who are engaged in anti-racist work.
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For today’s Challenge, we will be discussing the concept and process of educating ourselves. Whether you are beginning the journey to learn about race and race equity or are further along in the learning process, we encourage you to explore just a few of the vast array of resources available for educating yourself even more about these issues.
From podcasts to books, virtual workshops to movies, you are invited to explore the myriad of engaging and informative materials at your fingertips. Today’s resources offer a few great jumping-off points.
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In today’s Challenge, we’ll be taking what we’ve learned about racism and applying it to race equity at work. We spend over a third of our daily lives at our workplaces and there is an increasing demand for employers to consider and strategically design environments that are diverse and inclusive. We’ll be looking at how these differ and what efforts should be made in workplaces to amplify every voice and provide for the needs and experiences of workers.
Today’s Challenge activities will consider just how vital Race Equity practice is at work and actionable steps you can take to contribute to this work in your workplace.
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For today’s Challenge, we’re going to talk about confronting racism. Confronting racism requires practice and is an ongoing process, including direct and indirect strategies for preventing and interrupting racism. Speaking up against overt and more subtle forms of racism can help us shift social norms toward anti-racism among our families, friend groups, and communities.
Today’s Challenge resources provide a few great strategies to use when faced with a situation where confronting instances of racism, including microaggressions, implicit biases, etc., are necessary.
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WEEK 5: Stronger Together July 19th—July 21st
For our final day of the 21-Day Challenge, we’re turning our focus to collective care. Collective care encourages everyone to look out for each other, which means making authentic connections and supporting one another. Collective care encourages inclusivity and anti-racism by looking out for the BIPOC communities that continually face exclusionary and racist acts.
Today’s Challenge activities remind us of why this is critically important work and why we should take care of one another. | https://www.ywcautah.org/get-involved/challenge/2021-archive/ |
Our workplaces and cultures are full of subtle and not-so-subtle biases. Bias about gender, race, nationality, culture, educational background, politics, sexuality, body-type and age influence our decision-making and social interactions.
Biases can make living and working in our increasingly diverse, globally connected environments challenging. They can also blind us to the value that people from other cultures, backgrounds, genders and ages can bring to our workplaces and communities, limiting opportunities for talented people who don’t fit prevailing norms.
That is why building a culture of diversity and inclusion often needs to start by examining biases and helping people get around them so they can identify, promote and support talented people who may not otherwise be on the radar.
Biases in the brain
Our brains are prone to biases, whether we are conscious of them or not. These biases can lead us to pre-judge a situation or person, playing in to cultural stereotypes or our own assumptions.
For example, inbuilt mechanisms designed to enable our survival make us particularly responsive and watchful for threatening situations in our social environment. When we meet people, our brains are ready to make a snap decision: Are they friend or foe? In or out of the social group we normally relate to? Can we trust them?
One of the reasons we are so prone to bias is that we need to navigate complex social interactions and rapidly make decisions. To short-track this process, our brains store bits of knowledge about our cultural and social environment that we encounter often. When we lack all the facts or need to make a quick decision, our unconscious biases fill in the gaps.
These habitual patterns of thought can lead to errors in perception, recall, reasoning and decisions. Once stored in our minds, these hidden biases determine our behaviour toward people, often hindering our efforts to engage or include others.
In organisations this can lead to overly homogenous cultures that lack new ideas or hinder collaboration across different workgroups and teams. At worst it can result in cronyism, exclusion or even bullying of minority groups or individuals.
Minimising bias to maximise diversity
Here are three ways you can reduce the impact of unconscious bias at work and build a culture of diversity and inclusion.
1. Make it conscious.
One of the things I often look for when coming into an organisation or speaking to a new audience is the images people use to communicate messages about their culture.
You would be surprised how many times I have given feedback that a PowerPoint Presentation to promote a diversity or leadership initiative predominantly features stock photos of white faces. The images seem so familiar that people somehow don’t notice until it is pointed out!
Start by observing the unconscious biases in your workplace. (You might like to identify some of your hidden biases now by taking the Harvard IAT test).
Challenge stereotypes and check assumptions in yourself and your team. Open the discussion up to people outside your group to find out where they observe biases you miss.
2. Stop perpetuating bias.
The brain likes to chunk information in convenient ways to make it easier to remember and communicate. This can make us prone to generalising about people.
An example is the way we categorise people of different age groups. We tend to talk about boomers, millennials, generation Y or X in generalities. Yet these may not hold true when you consider the diverse experiences, backgrounds, talents and aspirations that make up the whole person.
Consider some of the ways you may be unconsciously perpetuating bias at work. Are you putting people into convenient boxes based on age, personality or type? Are biases in your policies and proceedures undermining efforts to foster diversity and inclusion?
If your workplace culture habitually uses stereotypical images or messages, choose images that counter them.
3. Make conscious connections.
Brains like people like us. As social animals we are geared to make connections with people we perceive as similar.
With similarity comes the ability to better infer what someone may be thinking or feeling. If you can find something in common with a new team member, you are more likely to empathise and connect with them, which in turn ensures you converse and build a relationship, leading to more cooperation and teamwork. On the other hand, if you perceive a person as significantly different, it may be harder to find common ground and you can be less likely to make an effort to get to know them.
Make a conscious effort to identify commonalities with the people you meet and work with. Look for ways to bypass common stereotypes or your own default assumptions.
Look beyond your own social circle or working group to make new or unexpected connections. Ask questions and be curious!
Download your free white paper on Diversity in the Boardroom. This white paper unpacks some of the key issues affecting boardroom diversity to help boards select, support and leverage a wider range of talent and ideas. It brings together the latest research on boards with approaches from neuroscience, emotional intelligence and positive psychology. | https://langleygroup.com.au/building-a-culture-of-diversity-is-unconscious-bias-hindering-diversity-in-your-workplace/ |
When Guenther Jakobs introduced the concept of “enemy criminal law” (Feindstrafrecht), or enemy penology, into the legal debate, this was due to a concern with the increasingly anticipatory nature of criminalization in German legislation in the last decades of the 20th century. Against the backdrop of a series of terror attacks in the West and the ensuing debates on how to deal with the dangers and threats of the new millennium, Jakobs’s theory gained new momentum in Germany’s public discourse and beyond. As it seems, the author himself turned the concept into a device for political intervention, declaring the notion of the enemy as indispensable for dealing with certain extreme crimes and notorious offenders, not only to prevent future crime and avert harm from society but also, and most notably, to preserve the established “citizen criminal law” (Bürgerstrafrecht): the enemy is the one to be isolated and excluded from the system. Enemy criminal law may be a peculiar legal concept. The logic of enemy penology, however, leads us to some more fundamental insights into the conundrums of liberal political thinking and attendant legal conceptions. It requires us to think about the enemy as a liminal figure that points to the preconditions and the paradoxes of our legal system. The history of criminology attests to the discipline’s struggle with penal law’s inherent limitations. And if we live today in times where exception and rule, internal security and external security, and military and police concerns increasingly overlap and intermingle in the face of ever new threats, the notion of enemy penology helps us to critically reflect on the mechanisms that drive these transformations.
Article
Susanne Krasmann
Article
Charles W. Choi
An intergroup perspective in the legal context highlights the influence of group membership on the interaction between authorities and citizens. Social identity influences communication both in the field (e.g., police–civilian) and in the courtroom (e.g., juror deliberation). The research in the law enforcement context addresses trust in police officers, the communication accommodation between police and civilians, sociodemographic stereotypes impacting police–civilian encounters, the role of police media portrayals, and its influence on intergroup exchanges between police and civilians. Juries are inextricably influenced by group membership cues (e.g., race and gender), and differentiate those in the ingroup over the outgroup. The impact of stereotypes and intergroup bias is evident in the literature on jury decisions and the severity of punitive sentencing. These and other factors make the intergroup nature of the legal context significant, and they determine the interconnection between the parties involved. Specifically, the social identity approach brings focus to the biases, attributions, and overall evaluations of the perceived outgroup. The research indicates that diversity is necessary to alleviate the intergroup mindset, thereby encouraging a more interindividual viewpoint of those outgroup members.
Article
Elisabeth Prügl and Hayley Anna Thompson
Feminism seeks to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to such opportunities for men. Until now, women face serious inequalities based on social institutions such as norms, cultural traditions, and informal family laws. Scholars argue that this aspect has so far been neglected in international policy debates, and that there needs to be further discussion about the economic status of women (labor force participation); women’s access to resources, such as education (literacy) or heath (life expectancy); and the political empowerment of women (women in ministerial positions). In some instances, social norms such as female genital mutilation or any other type of violence against women–within or outside of the household–not only violate women’s basic human rights, but seriously impair their health status and future chances in a professional career. Gender stereotypes are also frequently brought up as one disadvantage to women during the hiring process, and as one explanation of the lack of women in key organizational positions. Liberal feminist theory states that due to these systemic factors of oppression and discrimination, women are often deprived of equal work experiences because they are not provided equal opportunities on the basis of legal rights. Liberal feminists further propose that an end needs to be put to gender discrimination through legal means, leading to equality and major economic redistributions.
Article
Lee E. Ross
Critical race theory (CRT) concerns the study and transformation of relationships among race, (ethnicity), racism, and power. For many scholars, CRT is a theoretical and interpretative lens that analyzes the appearance of race and racism within institutions and across literature, film, art, and other forms of social media. Unlike traditional civil rights approaches that embraced incrementalism and systematic progress, CRT questioned the very foundations of the legal order. Since the 1980s, various disciplines have relied on this theory—most notably the fields of education, history, legal studies, feminist studies, political science, psychology, sociology, and criminal justice—to address the dynamics and challenges of racism in American society. While earlier narratives may have exclusively characterized the plight of African Americans against institutional power structures, later research has advocated the importance of understanding and highlighting the narratives of all people of color. Moreover, the theoretical lenses of CRT have broadened its spectrum to include frameworks that capture the struggles and experiences of Latinx, Asian, and Native Americans as well. Taken collectively, these can be regarded as critical race studies. Each framework relies heavily on certain principles of CRT, exposing the easily obscured and often racialized power structures of American society. Included among these principles (and related tenets) is white supremacy, white privilege, interest convergence, legal indeterminacy, intersectionality, and storytelling, among others. An examination of each framework reveals its remarkable potential to inform and facilitate an understanding of racialized practices within and across American power structures and institutions, including education, employment, the legal system, housing, and health care. | https://oxfordre.com/search?f_0=keyword&pageSize=20&q_0=legal+theory&sort=relevance |
The search found 397 results in 0.026 seconds.
Ann Swidler, University of California-Berkeley
There’s a stark and troubling way that incarceration diminishes the ability of a former inmate to empathize with a loved one behind bars, but existing sociological theories fail to capture it, Vanderbilt University sociologists have found.
Why has progress toward gender equality in the workplace and at home stalled in recent decades? A growing body of scholarship suggests that persistently gendered workplace norms and policies limit men’s and women’s ability to create gender egalitarian relationships at home. In this article, we build on and extend prior research by examining the extent to which institutional constraints, including workplace policies, affect young, unmarried men’s and women’s preferences for their future work-family arrangements. We also examine how these effects vary across education levels.
We know that culture influences people’s behavior. Yet estimating the exact extent of this influence poses a formidable methodological challenge for the social sciences. This is because preferences and beliefs are endogenous, that is, they are shaped by individuals’ own experiences and affected by the same macro-structural conditions that constrain their actions. This study introduces a new method to overcome endogeneity problems in the estimation of cultural effects by using migrant populations.
Research on young-adult sexuality in sub-Saharan Africa typically conceptualizes sex as an individual-level risk behavior. We introduce a new approach that connects the conditions surrounding the initiation of sex with subsequent relationship well-being, examines relationships as sequences of interdependent events, and indexes relationship experiences to individually held ideals. New card-sort data from southern Malawi capture young women’s relationship experiences and their ideals in a sequential framework.
Dual-process models of culture and action posit that fast, automatic cognitive processes largely drive human action, with conscious processes playing a much smaller role than was previously supposed. These models have done much to advance our understanding of behavior, but they focus on generic processes rather than specific cultural content. As useful as this has been, it tells us little about which forms of culture matter for action.
There is widespread agreement from many areas of status research that evaluators’ judgments of performances can be distorted by the status of the performer. The question arises as to whether status distorts perceptions differently at different levels of performance quality. Using data from the Columbia Musiclab study, we conduct a large-scale test of whether the effect of popularity on private perceptions of likeability is contingent on songs’ intrinsic appeal.
Mothers who leave work to raise children often sacrifice more than the pay for their time off; when they come back their wages reflect lost raises, according to a new study by Paula England, Professor of Sociology at New York University.
A recurring theme in sociological research is the tradeoff between fitting in and standing out. Prior work examining this tension tends to take either a structural or a cultural perspective. We fuse these two traditions to develop a theory of how structural and cultural embeddedness jointly relate to individual attainment within organizations. Given that organizational culture is hard to observe, we develop a novel approach to assessing individuals’ cultural fit with their colleagues based on the language expressed in internal e-mail communications.
The negative outcomes associated with cultural stereotypes based on race, class, and gender and related schema-consistency biases are well documented. How these biases become culturally entrenched is less well understood. In particular, previous research has neglected the role of information transmission processes in perpetuating cultural biases. | https://www.asanet.org/search?page=6&f%5B0%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A149&f%5B1%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A140&f%5B2%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A80&f%5B3%5D=node%253Afield_related_topics_term%3A186 |
by Ivonne Ortiz, Training and Education Specialist for the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence
October marks Domestic Violence Awareness Month (DVAM), a time when as advocates we work hard to bring attention to an issue that continues to affect our communities. Beyond raising awareness, DVAM brings a national spotlight to the issue of domestic violence, creating an opportunity to elevate conversations about its root causes, which stem from a culture of oppression and privilege. We know that domestic violence is linked to a web of oppressive systems such as racism, xenophobia, classism, ableism, sexism, and heterosexism. And while domestic violence occurs in every culture regardless of socioeconomic, educational, and religious background, we must address the fact that violence disproportionately affects marginalized groups, especially those who experience multiple forms of oppression. In response to the importance of bringing a racial justice framework to our work, we bring a focus to the experiences of women of color, who experience domestic violence at high rates and continue to encounter barriers when trying to access supportive services.
Experiences of survivors of color
According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, African American females experience intimate partner violence at a rate 35% higher than that of white females, and about 2.5 times the rate of women of other races. According to the CDC’s National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, 23.4% Hispanic/Latino females are victimized by intimate partner violence (IPV) in a lifetime, defined by rape, physical assault or stalking. Project AWARE’s (Asian Women Advocating Respect and Empowerment) 2000-2001 survey of 178 API women found that 81.1% reported experiencing at least one form of intimate partner violence in the past year.
As we think about how to make our programs more accessible, we must talk about why some groups have more access to services and experience better outcomes than others. We know that survivors must overcome a number of challenges when trying to escape abuse, but racism imposes additional burdens on survivors of color, whose survival includes navigating a complex web of oppression.
The Women of Color Network has developed multiple resources highlighting the many challenges that may prevent women of color from accessing much needed services. As the WOCN explains, each community has unique struggles, but there are common factors and considerations which may account for under-reporting of domestic violence and underutilization of services by survivors of color.
An intersectional approach takes into account all aspects of ones’ experiences of oppression as well as all the systems that produce and/or perpetuate that oppression when responding to survivors’ needs. This intersectionality of oppressions lens calls for the integration of racial justice strategies in our approaches to both preventing and responding to domestic violence.
The case of Marissa Alexander
Among communities of color one of the major challenges to seeking assistance is the distrust of law enforcement. Many survivors of color are fearful of subjecting themselves and loved ones to a criminal and civil system they see as sexist, and/or racially and culturally biased. A recent report from the National Domestic Violence Hotline revealed that both survivors who had called the police those who hadn’t shared a strong reluctance to turning to law enforcement for help. Of the 2 in 5 (43%) of respondents who felt police had discriminated against them, 22% identified race as the basis for this discrimination.
In 2010 Marissa Alexander, an African American mother and survivor of domestic violence, fired a warning shot at the wall of her home in order to scare her estranged, abusive husband during a life-threatening beating. First responders did not recognize Marissa as a victim. For trying to protect herself, she was sentenced to 20 years in prison. Marissa accepted a plea deal with the State of Florida including time served (1,030 days), an additional 65 days in the Duval County Jail, and two years of probation while serving house detention and wearing a surveillance monitor.
The Free Marissa Now Campaign released a fact sheet titled Repeal Mandatory Minimums: A Racial Justice and Domestic Violence Issue, which provides information on how women of color are often coerced into engaging in illegal activity such as drug trafficking by their abusive partners, and because of mandatory minimum sentencing laws for certain crimes, women are imprisoned for long periods of time. Marissa was incarcerated despite the fact that she had no prior criminal record, was a licensed and registered gun owner, and harmed no one when she fired that fateful warning shot.
How racial justice relates to our work to end gender based violence
Racial justice work combats all forms of racism by establishing policies that ensure equitable power, opportunities, and outcomes for all. In the case of the movement to end gender based violence, racial justice refers to the proactive reinforcement of policies, practices, attitudes and actions that produce access, safety, opportunities, treatment, impacts and outcomes for all.
To understand the role of racial justice within the context of victim services, we must consider both adverse affects of institutional racism and individual racism. Individual racism refers to the judgments, biases or stereotypes that can lead to discrimination. Institutional racism refers to “policies, practices and programs that work to the benefit of white people and the detriment of people of color, usually unintentionally or inadvertently.” (Equity and Empowerment Lens 2012) Addressing institutional racism requires the examination and dismantling of systemic policies and practices that serve to perpetuate disparities. Understanding historical context should play a role in every analysis of social and public structures and investments.
Similarly, racial justice work is an important component of our efforts to prevent intimate partner violence. Domestic violence prevention is about addressing the root causes and changing the social norms that allow and condone violence. By applying a racial justice lens to this work, we acknowledge the role of racism and privilege in perpetuating violence in our culture and commit to working to dismantle these constructs at the individual, community, and societal levels.
Join the conversation
This year for DVAM 2015, we are talking about addressing the intersectionality of oppressions through partnerships with allied social justice movements. The concept of incorporating a racial justice framework into our movement work is central to these conversations. The Awareness Highlights section of the DVAM website, “Awareness + Action = Social Change: Why racial justice matters in the prevention equation” lists a number of events that provide opportunities to engage in the national dialogue around this issue. Click on the links below for detailed information.
- National Call of Unity: Awareness + Action = Social Change
Tuesday, October 6 at 3:00-3:45pm Eastern/12:00 – 12:45pm Pacific
- #DVAM2015 Twitter Chat: Fostering healthy communities through collaboration across social justice movements
Tuesday, October 13 at 2:00-3:00pm Eastern /11:00am – 12:00pm Pacific
- Webinar: Allies in the Struggle: Intersectional work as a trauma-informed response and prevention
Wednesday, October 21 at 12:30-2:00pm Eastern/9:30 – 11:00am Pacific
- Webinar: Embracing the Intersectionality of Oppressions Lens: Bringing the margins to the center
Wednesday, October 28 at 2-3:30pm Eastern/11:00am – 12:30pm Pacific
The National Resource Center on Domestic Violence is committed to increasing access to all survivors of domestic violence by bringing into focus the ways in which race and ethnicity shape survivors experiences and offer strengths towards building healthy communities. | https://vawnet.org/news/why-it-important-bring-racial-justice-framework-our-efforts-end-domestic-violence |
The Penn State Berks Bookstore will hold a book signing event for "Perceptions of Female Offenders: How Stereotypes and Social Norms Affect Criminal Justice Responses," edited by Dr. Brenda Russell, associate professor of psychology and coordinator for applied psychology degree program at Penn State Berks. This event will be held on Wednesday, Feb. 13, 2013, at 2:30 p.m.
The publication explores how female offenders are often perceived as victims who commit crimes as a self-defense mechanism?or criminal deviants whose actions strayed from typical ?womanly? behavior. These cultural norms for violence exist in our gendered society, and there has been scholarly debate about how male and female offenders are perceived, which leads to differential treatment in the criminal justice system.
"Our social norms dictate that women are not dangerous¬?that they do not commit crimes and the thought of a female offender conflicts with traditional gender roles, where women are nurturing and passive," comments Russell.
This interdisciplinary book provides an evidence-based approach of how female offenders are perceived in society, how this translates to differential treatment within the criminal justice system, and the implications of such differences. Frequently, perceptions of female offenders are at odds with research findings.
?We therefore need to question our own perceptions about females in society and in the criminal justice system, and explore whether equality in the criminal justice system would actually benefit, or harm, society and/or female offenders,? Russell explains.
Russell?s scholarly and teaching interests include psychology and law, perceptions of victims and perpetrators of domestic violence, homicide defendants, and the social psychological and cognitive aspects of jury decision making. She is particularly interested in how gender and sexual orientation play a role in evaluating defendants in cases of domestic violence, rape, sexual coercion, bullying, and sexual harassment.
Her research on domestic violence can be seen in her book titled ?Battered Woman Syndrome as a Legal Defense: History, Effectiveness, and Implications.? Russell also serves as consultant and program evaluator for various federal and state educational, law enforcement, justice, and treatment programs. | https://berks.psu.edu/story/2640/2013/01/31/book-signing-russells-perceptions-female-offenders |
Please see the attached document for instruction and questions. Please address the questions accordingly as outlined. Thank you!
Milestone One
Department of Health and Human Services: Identifying the Problem
In the Module One discussion, you presented an idea or ideas for a social issue and how it presents itself in the local community. If you submitted more than one idea, choose the one most interesting to you and
expand
upon it.
Social Issue – Unequal Opportunism
Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed according as outlined, and remember to provide examples where indicated:
I. Introduction: In this section, you will summarize your proposal. Explain the contemporary social problem that you selected and discuss the relevance for today’s society on a local scale. How does the issue present itself in the United States or in your local community?
II. Problem Description: Determine the most influential social variables and determinants leading to the social problem and justify your selections with research.
A. Explain the social variables and determinants influencing the development of the social problem on a local level.
B. Explain the social variables and determinants influencing the development of the social problem on a global level.
C. Describe the differences and similarities are seen between local and international influences of these social variables and determinants.
Provide specific examples
.
III. Approach: In this section, you will sift through your personal biases, with the aim of limiting such biases in your later analysis.
A. Describe how people generally tend to talk about this social problem and how these approaches are problematic, supporting with resources. What stereotypes, biases, and assumptions are at play?
B. Identify and reflect on your own biases and assumptions around the issue and how these may affect your analysis of the issue. Everyone has certain preconceived notions about social issues. What are yours, and how might they influence your analysis and interpretation?
C. Explain how you will use sociological theory to limit your biases when you analyze the social problem. How can the theory help you limit your biases?
Provide a specific example.
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The increasing mobility and globalization in contemporary societies tend to intensify the heterogeneity of populations, and this includes the education of pupils and the communications with their parents. On the other hand, the problems of unemployment have increased the skepticism of new generations of teenagers toward the value of learning. In this context, teachers’ traditional methods and approaches seem insufficient. Although professionals may be competent in their respective fields, they are often helpless when faced with a new population of pupils and can have difficulties in identifying the source of the pupils’ demotivation, drop in performance, ostracism, verbal violence, and aggressive behavior.
One way to assess these problematic learning situations is to focus on students’ behavior in order to capture the social and cultural factors that play a role in their school careers (Ogbu & Davis, 2003). Less attention, however, has been devoted to the study of teachers’ attitudes and behaviors in shaping students’ experience of school. Most approaches in the domain of multicultural education try to respond to the increasing cultural diversity of the school population by emphasizing the development of a socially cohesive democratic community as well as mutual cultural enrichment. Indeed, if the implementation of multicultural education can contribute to prejudice reduction and the development of citizenship at the school level, one of its main goals should be to increase the academic achievement of students from different cultural backgrounds and low-status groups. However, such a project can also be detrimental to the targeted populations because it risks defining them according to essentialist categories, emphasizing issues of cultural in/compatibility, and categorizing presumed group members in stereotypical and irretrievable terms. While this risk is especially present within an international climate where problems related to contact between the cultures and cultural integration are intertwined with issues such as unruly behavior, low performance, dropping out of school, or even delinquency, it rests on very general mechanisms that have been identified by social psychological research (Sanchez-Mazas, 2014).
Adopting a social psychological perspective, our approach aims to question the biases and shortcomings that are most common in people’s perceptions and interpretations of social situations, as well as the biases that affect teachers’ practices—in particular, their responses to the problematic and potentially conflictual situations they have to deal with in multicultural school settings. Drawing upon classical and recent research, we address these shortcomings both as unavoidable mechanisms likely to be activated in most social and school situations and as manageable and, to some extent, controllable processes. Hence, this perspective’s central notion—social cognitive flexibility—refers to the ability not to suppress these mechanisms but to overcome their overwhelming determination within the school experience.
Certainly, an alternative way of dealing with contemporary school problems is to adopt a more individualistic approach that can adjust to singular needs and styles. The risk with this approach is however that group dynamics and students’ social identity concerns can be overlooked, and, in the case of highly problematic school situations, specialists need to be employed. Indeed, teachers are not officially required to be involved in their pupils’ problems or reflect on how to resolve a specific educational situation, transform it into a learning one, and foresee any potential problems. The multiplication of employees involved in the social and psychological services at school and the possibility of a principal’s intervention in the class contribute to the construction of the implicit rules for sharing roles and functions. Hence, it is not surprising that teachers often hand off difficulties to the principal or social/psychological services with the aim of restoring calm and good learning conditions. This kind of practice creates the habit of not getting involved (Mechi, 2014) and using only coercive methods to improve situations. Yet, the consequences of non-resolved problematic situations can be detrimental to both pupils (bad reputation, broken school career, unfulfilled potential; Croizet & Leyens, 2003) and teachers (burnout, occupational exhaustion, and feelings of incompetence or helplessness; Tatar & Horenczyk, 2003). This makes research into new theoretical models and the elaboration of new tools all the more urgent.
Zone of Action: All daily tasks in relation to the given role (teacher, parent, manager) that can be used as an opportunity to include, exclude, or do nothing toward the individual that depends on this role (pupil, child, employee); distinguish perceived (current, used) and possible (what can be do) zones of action.
Situational Vulnerability: The temporary weakness (related to the warmth low person’s and/or competence level) resulting from the situational factors.
Feeling of Being Concerned (FBC): The drive to get involved in the situation, to decide to be in the situation and to contribute to its improvement and/or resolution.
Communication Management: The manner to communicate (formally or informally) with peers and colleagues, which either conveys the stereotypes, prejudices, and stigmas (spontaneous communication) or relays the facts and descriptive elements of the situations to allow the recipient of the message to interpret it him/herself (flexible communication).
Justice Principles Management: The way of managing the equity, equality, and need justice principles in a rigid (use of one principle) manner or according to the nature of the context (flexible manner: use of three principles): Equality in the case of working or exercising, equity in the case of assessment, and need in the case of knowledge transmission or training.
Social Cognitive Flexibility Competence: The distanced vision put in action including the observation-inquiry-test cycle at each level (intra-, inter-individual, intergroup, or status and ideological).
Social Cognitive Flexibility (SCF): A distance taken from any piece of information provided by discussions, media, perception, meaning, available norms, representations, or subjective experience (emotion, mood, affect) rendering modifiable the initial expectations and judgments and making one more receptive to new or contradictory information.
Means Management: The way of managing the means and resources related to a given role (teacher, parent, and manager) as a potential opportunity to increase the warmth and competence of the person depending on this role (pupil, child, and employee). | https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/the-role-of-social-cognitive-flexibility-in-effective-teaching/140745 |
Presented by: John H. Jackson, Ed.D., J.D.
Description:
Themes explored include current issues on racism, particularly in the wake of increased violence, police use of force, and unrest on college campuses. Dr. Jackson speaks on the need to address shifting the thought from "achievement gap" to "opportunity gap" when explaining the differences in accomplishment along racial, ethnic, and gender lines.
Lecture Objectives:
1. How bias and prejudice develop, and how they become structured into institutions and systems.
2. How stereotypes inform our implicit biases and how implicit bias impacts our interactions.
3. Explore norms and learn strategies for having open and honest conversations about the content.
Fee:
The cost of the lecture with CEU is $19. Payment may be submitted before or after listening to the lecture. The lecture is open to all licensed social work practitioners and is worth 2 Continuing Education Contact Hours. Click here to pay for this course.
Content:
Click HERE to Listen to the Lecture
Click HERE to take the post test and evaluation
Pending a passing test score and payment in full, a CEU certificate will be e-mailed to you within 48 to 72 business hours.
Refund Policy:
If you pay for this course before completing it, you will have up to 60 days after payment to complete this course. After that no refunds will be issued under any circumstances.
For further information or any questions, please contact the CE department at [email protected]. | https://socialwork.wayne.edu/ce/advancing-racial-justice-lecture |
The role of implicit biases on healthcare outcomes has become a concern as some cite that implicit biases contribute to health disparities, professionals' attitudes toward and interactions with patients, quality of care, diagnoses, and treatment decisions. This course will explore definitions of implicit and explicit bias, the nature and dynamics of implicit biases, and how they can affect health outcomes. Because implicit biases are unconscious, strategies will be reviewed to assist in raising professionals' awareness of and interventions to reduce them.
- INTRODUCTION
- DEFINITIONS OF IMPLICIT BIAS AND OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
- MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT BIAS: A FOCUS ON THE IAT
- THEORETIC EXPLANATIONS AND CONTROVERSIES
- CONSEQUENCES OF IMPLICIT BIASES
- DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL TO RECOGNIZING AND REDUCING IMPLICIT BIAS
- CREATING A SAFE ENVIRONMENT
- STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE AWARENESS OF IMPLICIT BIAS
- INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE IMPLICIT BIASES
- ROLE OF INTERPROFESSIONAL COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE AND IMPLICIT BIASES
- CONCLUSION
- RESOURCES
- Works Cited
This course is designed for dental professionals working in all practice settings.
NetCE Nationally Approved PACE Program Provider for FAGD/MAGD credit. Approval does not imply acceptance by any regulatory authority or AGD endorsement. 10/1/2021 to 9/30/2027 Provider ID #217994. NetCE is an ADA CERP Recognized Provider. ADA CERP is a service of the American Dental Association to assist dental professionals in identifying quality providers of continuing dental education. ADA CERP does not approve or endorse individual courses or instructors, nor does it imply acceptance of credit hours by boards of dentistry. Concerns or complaints about a CE provider may be directed to the provider or to ADA CERP at www.ada.org/cerp. NetCE is approved as a provider of continuing education by the Florida Board of Dentistry, Provider #50-2405. NetCE is a Registered Provider with the Dental Board of California. Provider Number RP3841. Completion of this course does not constitute authorization for the attendee to perform any services that he or she is not legally authorized to perform based on his or her license or permit type.
NetCE designates this activity for 3 continuing education credits. AGD Subject Code 149. This course meets the Dental Board of California's requirements for 3 unit(s) of continuing education. Dental Board of California course #03-3841-22331.
This course meets the Michigan requirement for implicit bias training.
The purpose of this course is to provide dental professionals with an overview of the impact of implicit biases on clinical interactions and decision making.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
- Define implicit and explicit biases and related terminology.
- Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the Implicit Association Test.
- Describe how different theories explain the nature of implicit biases, and outline the consequences of implicit biases.
- Discuss strategies to raise awareness of and mitigate or eliminate one's implicit biases.
Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW, received her Master’s in Social Work from Columbia University, School of Social Work. She has clinical experience in mental health in correctional settings, psychiatric hospitals, and community health centers. In 1997, she received her PhD from UCLA, School of Public Policy and Social Research. Dr. Yick Flanagan completed a year-long post-doctoral fellowship at Hunter College, School of Social Work in 1999. In that year she taught the course Research Methods and Violence Against Women to Masters degree students, as well as conducting qualitative research studies on death and dying in Chinese American families.
Previously acting as a faculty member at Capella University and Northcentral University, Dr. Yick Flanagan is currently a contributing faculty member at Walden University, School of Social Work, and a dissertation chair at Grand Canyon University, College of Doctoral Studies, working with Industrial Organizational Psychology doctoral students. She also serves as a consultant/subject matter expert for the New York City Board of Education and publishing companies for online curriculum development, developing practice MCAT questions in the area of psychology and sociology. Her research focus is on the area of culture and mental health in ethnic minority communities.
Contributing faculty, Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
William E. Frey, DDS, MS, FICD
The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
Sarah Campbell
The Director of Development and Academic Affairs has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.
Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into practice.
It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to learners.
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#57000: Implicit Bias in Health Care
In the 1990s, social psychologists Dr. Mahzarin Banaji and Dr. Tony Greenwald introduced the concept of implicit bias and developed the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as a measure. In 2003, the Institute of Medicine published the report Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care highlighting the role of health professionals' implicit biases in the development of health disparities . The phenomenon of implicit bias is premised on the assumption that while well-meaning individuals may deny prejudicial beliefs, these implicit biases negatively affect their clinical communications, interactions, and diagnostic and treatment decision-making [2,3].
One explanation is that implicit biases are a heuristic, or a cognitive or mental shortcut. Heuristics offer individuals general rules to apply to situations in which there is limited, conflicting, or unclear information. Use of a heuristic results in a quick judgment based on fragments of memory and knowledge, and therefore, the decisions made may be erroneous. If the thinking patterns are flawed, negative attitudes can reinforce stereotypes . In health contexts, this is problematic because clinical judgments can be biased and adversely affect health outcomes. The Joint Commission provides the following example : A group of physicians congregate to examine a child's x-rays but has not been able to reach a diagnostic consensus. Another physician with no knowledge of the case is passing by, sees the x-rays, and says "Cystic fibrosis." The group of physicians was aware that the child is African American and had dismissed cystic fibrosis because it is less common among Black children than White children.
The purpose of this course is to provide health professionals an overview of implicit bias. This includes an exploration of definitions of implicit and explicit bias. The nature and dynamics of implicit biases and how they can affect health outcomes will be discussed. Finally, because implicit biases are unconscious, strategies will be reviewed to assist in raising professionals' awareness of and interventions to reduce them.
In a sociocultural context, biases are generally defined as negative evaluations of a particular social group relative to another group. Explicit biases are conscious, whereby an individual is fully aware of his/her attitudes and there may be intentional behaviors related to these attitudes . For example, an individual may openly endorse a belief that women are weak and men are strong. This bias is fully conscious and is made explicitly known. The individual's ideas may then be reflected in his/her work as a manager.
FitzGerald and Hurst assert that there are cases in which implicit cognitive processes are involved in biases and conscious availability, controllability, and mental resources are not . The term "implicit bias" refers to the unconscious attitudes and evaluations held by individuals. These individuals do not necessarily endorse the bias, but the embedded beliefs/attitudes can negatively affect their behaviors [2,7,8,9]. Some have asserted that the cognitive processes that dictate implicit and explicit biases are separate and independent .
Implicit biases can start as early as 3 years of age. As children age, they may begin to become more egalitarian in what they explicitly endorse, but their implicit biases may not necessarily change in accordance to these outward expressions . Because implicit biases occur on the subconscious or unconscious level, particular social attributes (e.g., skin color) can quietly and insidiously affect perceptions and behaviors . According to Georgetown University's National Center on Cultural Competency, social characteristics that can trigger implicit biases include :
Age
Disability
Education
English language proficiency and fluency
Ethnicity
Health status
Disease/diagnosis (e.g., HIV/AIDS)
Insurance
Obesity
Race
Socioeconomic status
Sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression
Skin tone
Substance use
An alternative way of conceptualizing implicit bias is that an unconscious evaluation is only negative if it has further adverse consequences on a group that is already disadvantaged or produces inequities [6,13]. Disadvantaged groups are marginalized in the healthcare system and vulnerable on multiple levels; health professionals' implicit biases can further exacerbate these existing disadvantages .
When the concept of implicit bias was introduced in the 1990s, it was thought that implicit biases could be directly linked to behavior. Despite the decades of empirical research, many questions, controversies, and debates remain about the dynamics and pathways of implicit biases .
In addition to understanding implicit and explicit bias, there is additional terminology related to these concepts that requires specific definition.
Cultural competence is broadly defined as practitioners' knowledge of and ability to apply cultural information and appreciation of a different group's cultural and belief systems to their work . It is a dynamic process, meaning that there is no endpoint to the journey to becoming culturally aware, sensitive, and competent. Some have argued that cultural curiosity is a vital aspect of this approach.
Cultural humility refers to an attitude of humbleness, acknowledging one's limitations in the cultural knowledge of groups. Practitioners who apply cultural humility readily concede that they are not experts in others' cultures and that there are aspects of culture and social experiences that they do not know. From this perspective, patients are considered teachers of the cultural norms, beliefs, and value systems of their group, while practitioners are the learners . Cultural humility is a lifelong process involving reflexivity, self-evaluation, and self-critique .
Discrimination has traditionally been viewed as the outcome of prejudice . It encompasses overt or hidden actions, behaviors, or practices of members in a dominant group against members of a subordinate group . Discrimination has also been further categorized as lifetime discrimination, which consists of major discreet discriminatory events, or everyday discrimination, which is subtle, continual, and part of day-to-day life and can have a cumulate effect on individuals .
Diversity "encompasses differences in and among societal groups based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, physical/mental abilities, religion, sexual orientation, and other distinguishing characteristics" . Diversity is often conceptualized into singular dimensions as opposed to multiple and intersecting diversity factors .
Intersectionality is a term to describe the multiple facets of identity, including race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, sex, and age. These facets are not mutually exclusive, and the meanings that are ascribed to these identities are inter-related and interact to create a whole .
Prejudice is a generally negative feeling, attitude, or stereotype against members of a group . It is important not to equate prejudice and racism, although the two concepts are related. All humans have prejudices, but not all individuals are racist. The popular definition is that "prejudice plus power equals racism" . Prejudice stems from the process of ascribing every member of a group with the same attribute .
Race is linked to biology. Race is partially defined by physical markers (e.g., skin or hair color) and is generally used as a mechanism for classification . It does not refer to cultural institutions or patterns. In modern history, skin color has been used to classify people and to imply that there are distinct biologic differences within human populations . Historically, the U.S. Census has defined race according to ancestry and blood quantum; today, it is based on self-classification .
There are scholars who assert that race is socially constructed without any biological component . For example, racial characteristics are also assigned based on differential power and privilege, lending to different statuses among groups .
Racism is the "systematic subordination of members of targeted racial groups who have relatively little social power…by members of the agent racial group who have relatively more social power" . Racism is perpetuated and reinforced by social values, norms, and institutions.
There is some controversy regarding whether unconscious (implicit) racism exists. Experts assert that images embedded in our unconscious are the result of socialization and personal observations, and negative attributes may be unconsciously applied to racial minority groups . These implicit attributes affect individuals' thoughts and behaviors without a conscious awareness.
Structural racism refers to the laws, policies, and institutional norms and ideologies that systematically reinforce inequities resulting in differential access to services such as health care, education, employment, and housing for racial and ethnic minorities [31,32].
Project Implicit is a research project sponsored by Harvard University and devoted to the study and monitoring of implicit biases. It houses the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which is one of the most widely utilized standardized instruments to measure implicit biases. The IAT is based on the premise that implicit bias is an objective and discreet phenomenon that can be measured in a quantitative manner. Developed and first introduced in 1998, it is an online test that assesses implicit bias by measuring how quickly people make associations between targeted categories with a list of adjectives . For example, research participants might be assessed for their implicit biases by seeing how rapidly they make evaluations among the two groups/categories career/family and male/female. Participants tend to more easily affiliate terms for which they hold implicit or explicit biases. So, unconscious biases are measured by how quickly research participants respond to stereotypical pairings (e.g., career/male and family/female). The larger the difference between the individual's performance between the two groups, the stronger the degree of bias [34,35]. Since 2006, more than 4.6 million individuals have taken the IAT, and results indicate that the general population holds implicit biases .
Measuring implicit bias is complex, because it requires an instrument that is able to access underlying unconscious processes. While many of the studies on implicit biases have employed the IAT, there are other measures available. They fall into three general categories: the IAT and its variants, priming methods, and miscellaneous measures, such as self-report, role-playing, and computer mouse movements . This course will focus on the IAT, as it is the most commonly employed instrument.
The IAT is not without controversy. One of the debates involves whether IAT scores focus on a cognitive state or if they reflect a personality trait. If it is the latter, the IAT's value as a diagnostic screening tool is diminished . There is also concern with its validity in specific arenas, including jury selection and hiring . Some also maintain that the IAT is sensitive to social context and may not accurately predict behavior . Essentially, a high IAT score reflecting implicit biases does not necessarily link to discriminating behaviors, and correlation should not imply causation. A meta-analysis involving 87,418 research participants found no evidence that changes in implicit biases affected explicit behaviors .
Among the more than 4 million participants who have completed the IAT, individuals generally exhibited implicit preference for White faces over Black or Asian faces. They also held biases for light skin over dark skin, heterosexual over gender and sexual minorities (LGBTQ+), and young over old . The Pew Research Center also conducted an exploratory study on implicit biases, focusing on the extent to which individuals adhered to implicit racial biases . A total of 2,517 IATs were completed and used for the analysis. Almost 75% of the respondents exhibited some level of implicit racial biases. Only 20% to 30% did not exhibit or showed very little implicit bias against the minority racial groups tested. Approximately half of all single-race White individuals displayed an implicit preference for White faces over Black faces. For single-race Black individuals, 45% had implicit preference for their own group. For biracial White/Black adults, 23% were neutral. In addition, 22% of biracial White/Asian participants had no or minimal implicit racial biases. However, 42% of the White/Black biracial adults leaned toward a pro-White bias.
In another interesting field experiment, although not specifically examining implicit bias, resumes with names commonly associated with African American or White candidates were submitted to hiring officers . Researchers found that resumes with White-sounding names were 50% more likely to receive callbacks than resumes with African American-sounding names . The underlying causes of this gap were not explored.
Implicit bias related to sex and gender is also significant. A survey of emergency medicine and obstetrics/gynecology residency programs in the United States sought to examine the relationship between biases related to perceptions of leadership and gender . In general, residents in both programs (regardless of gender) tended to favor men as leaders. Male residents had greater implicit biases compared with their female counterparts.
Other forms of implicit bias can affect the provision of health and mental health care. One online survey examining anti-fat biases was provided to 4,732 first-year medical students . Respondents completed the IAT, two measures of explicit bias, and an anti-fat attitudes instrument. Nearly 75% of the respondents were found to hold implicit anti-fat biases. Interestingly, these biases were comparable to the scope of implicit racial biases. Male sex, non-Black race, and lower body mass index (BMI) predicted holding these implicit biases.
Certain conditions or environmental risk factors are associated with an increased risk for certain implicit biases, including [44,45]:
Stressful emotional states (e.g., anger, frustration)
Uncertainty
Low-effort cognitive processing
Time pressure
Lack of feedback
Feeling behind with work
Lack of guidance
Long hours
Overcrowding
High-crises environments
Mentally taxing tasks
Juggling competing tasks
A variety of theoretical frameworks have been used to explore the causes, nature, and dynamics of implicit biases. Each of the theories is described in depth, with space given to explore controversies and debates about the etiology of implicit bias.
One of the main goals of social psychology is to understand how attitudes and belief structures influence behaviors. Based on frameworks from both social and cognitive psychology, many theoretical frameworks used to explain implicit bias revolve around the concept of social cognition. One branch of cognitive theory focuses on the role of implicit or nondeclarative memory. Experts believe that this type of memory allows certain behaviors to be performed with very little conscious awareness or active thought. Examples include tooth brushing, tying shoelaces, and even driving. To take this concept one step farther, implicit memories may also underlie social attitudes and stereotype attributions . This is referred to as implicit social cognition. From this perspective, implicit biases are automatic expressions based on belonging to certain social groups . The IAT is premised on the role of implicit memory and past experiences in predicting behavior without explicit memory triggering .
Another branch of cognitive theory used to describe implicit biases involves heuristics. When quick decisions are required under conditions of uncertainty or fatigue, and/or when there is a tremendous amount of information to assimilate without sufficient time to process, decision-makers resort to heuristics . Heuristics are essentially mental short cuts that facilitate (usually unconscious) rules that promote automatic processing . However, these rules can also be influenced by socialization factors, which could then affect any unconscious or latent cognitive associations about power, advantage, and privilege. Family, friends, media, school, religion, and other social institutions all play a role in developing and perpetuating implicit and explicit stereotypes, and cognitive evaluations can be primed or triggered by an environmental cue or experience . When a heuristic is activated, an implicit memory or bias may be triggered simultaneously . This is also known as the dual-process model of information processing .
Behavioral or functional theorists argue that implicit bias is not necessarily a latent or unconscious cognitive structure. Instead, this perspective recognizes implicit bias as a group-based behavior . Behavior is biased if it is influenced by social cues indicating the social group to which someone belongs . Social cues can occur rapidly and unintentionally, which ultimately leads to automatic or implicit effects on behavior. The appeal of a behavioral or functional approach to implicit bias is that it is amoral; that is, it is value- and judgment-free . Rather than viewing implicit bias as an invisible force (i.e., unconscious cognitive structure), it is considered a normal behavior .
Implicit bias has neuroscientific roots as well and has been linked to functions of the amygdala [2,54]. The amygdala is located in the temporal lobe of the brain, and it communicates with the hypothalamus and plays a large role in memory. When situations are emotionally charged, the amygdala is activated and connects the event to memory, which is why individuals tend to have better recall of emotional events. This area of the brain is also implicated in processing fear. Neuroscientific studies on implicit biases typically use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to visualize amygdala activation during specific behaviors or events. In experimental studies, when White research subjects were shown photos of Black faces, their amygdala appeared to be more activated compared to when they viewed White faces . This trend toward greater activation when exposed to view the faces of persons whose race differs from the viewer starts in adolescence and appears to increase with age . This speaks to the role of socialization in the developmental process .
It may be that the activation of the amygdala is an evolutionary threat response to an outgroup . Another potential explanation is that the activation of the amygdala is due to the fear of appearing prejudiced to others who will disapprove of the bias . The neuroscientific perspective of implicit bias is controversial. While initial empirical studies appear to link implicit bias to amygdala activation, many researchers argue this relationship is too simplistic .
Many scholars and policymakers are concerned about the narrow theoretical views that researchers of implicit bias have taken. By focusing on unconscious cognitive structures, social cognition and neuroscientific theories miss the opportunity to also address the role of macro or systemic factors in contributing to health inequities [9,57]. By focusing on the neurobiology of implicit bias, for example, racism and bias is attributed to central nervous system function, releasing the individual from any control or responsibility. However, the historical legacy of prejudice and bias has roots in economic and structural issues that produce inequities . Larger organizational, institutional, societal, and cultural forces contribute, perpetuate, and reinforce implicit and explicit biases, racism, and discrimination. Psychological and neuroscientific approaches ultimately decontextualize racism [9,57].
In response to this conflict, a systems-based practice has been proposed . This type of practice emphasizes the role of sociocultural determinants of health outcome and the fact that health inequities stem from larger systemic forces. As a result, medical and health education and training should focus on how patients' health and well-being may reflect structural vulnerabilities driven in large part by social, cultural, economic, and institutional forces. Health and mental health professionals also require social change and advocacy skills to ensure that they can effect change at the organizational and institutional levels .
Implicit bias is not a new topic; it has been discussed and studied for decades in the empirical literature. Because implicit bias is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, it is important to recognize that there may be no one single theory that can fully explain its etiology.
Implicit bias has been linked to a variety of health disparities . Health disparities are differences in health status or disease that systematically and adversely affect less advantaged groups . These inequities are often linked to historical and current unequal distribution of resources due to poverty, structural inequities, insufficient access to health care, and/or environmental barriers and threats . Healthy People 2030 defines a health disparity as :
…a particular type of health difference that is closely linked with social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage. Health disparities adversely affect groups of people who have systematically experienced greater obstacles to health based on their racial or ethnic group; religion; socioeconomic status; gender; age; mental health; cognitive, sensory, or physical disability; sexual orientation or gender identity; geographic location; or other characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion.
As noted, in 2003, the Institute of Medicine implicated implicit bias in the development and continued health disparities in the United States . Despite progress made to lessen the gaps among different groups, health disparities continue to exist. One example is racial disparities in life expectancy among Black and White individuals in the United States. Life expectancy for Black men is 4.4 years lower than White men; for Black women, it is 2.9 years lower compared with White women . Hypertension, diabetes, and obesity are more prevalent in non-Hispanic Black populations compared with non-Hispanic White groups (25%, 49%, and 59% higher, respectively) . In one study, African American and Latina women were more likely to experience cesarean deliveries than their White counterparts, even after controlling for medically necessary procedures . This places African American and Latina women at greater risk of infection and maternal mortality.
Gender health disparities have also been demonstrated. Generally, self-rated physical health (considered one of the best proxies to health) is poorer among women than men. Depression is also more common among women than men . Lesbian and bisexual women report higher rates of depression and are more likely than non-gay women to engage risk behaviors such as smoking and binge drinking, perhaps as a result of LGBTQ+-related stressors. They are also less likely to access healthcare services .
Socioeconomic status also affects health care engagement and quality. In a study of patients seeking treatment for thoracic trauma, those without insurance were 1.9 times more likely to die compared with those with private insurance .
In an ideal situation, health professionals would be explicitly and implicitly objective and clinical decisions would be completely free of bias. However, healthcare providers have implicit (and explicit) biases at a rate comparable to that of the general population [6,69]. It is possible that these implicit biases shape healthcare professionals' behaviors, communications, and interactions, which may produce differences in help-seeking, diagnoses, and ultimately treatments and interventions . They may also unwittingly produce professional behaviors, attitudes, and interactions that reduce patients' trust and comfort with their provider, leading to earlier termination of visits and/or reduced adherence and follow-up .
In a landmark 2007 study, a total of 287 internal medicine physicians and medical residents were randomized to receive a case vignette of an either Black or White patient with coronary artery disease . All participants were also administered the IAT. When asked about perceived level of cooperativeness of the White or Black patient from the vignette, there were no differences in their explicit statements regarding cooperativeness. Yet, the IAT scores did show differences, with scores showing that physicians and residents had implicit preferences for the White patients. Participants with greater implicit preference for White patients (as reflected by IAT score) were more likely to select thrombolysis to treat the White patient than the Black patient . This led to the possible conclusion that implicit racial bias can influence clinical decisions regarding treatment and may contribute to racial health disparities. However, some argue that using vignettes depicting hypothetical situations does not accurately reflect real-life conditions that require rapid decision-making under stress and uncertainty.
It has been hypothesized that providers' levels of bias affect the ratings of patient-centered care . Patient-centered care has been defined as patients' positive ratings in the areas of perception of provider concern, provider answering patients' questions, provider integrity, and provider knowledge of the patient. Using data from 134 health providers who completed the IAT, a total of 2,908 diverse racial and ethnic minority patients participated in a telephone survey. Researchers found that for providers who scored high on levels of implicit bias, African American patients' ratings for all dimensions of patient-centered care were low compared with their White patient counterparts. Latinx patient ratings were low regardless of level of implicit bias.
A 2013 study recorded clinical interactions between 112 low-income African American patients and their 14 non-African American physicians for approximately two years . Providers' implicit biases were also assessed using the IAT. In general, the physicians talked more than the patients; however, physicians with higher implicit bias scores also had a higher ratio of physician-to-patient talk time. Patients with higher levels of perceived discrimination had a lower ratio of physician-to-patient talk time (i.e., spoke more than those with lower reported perceived discrimination). A lower ratio of physician-patient talk time correlated to decreased likelihood of adherence.
Another study assessed 40 primary care physicians and 269 patients . The IAT was administered to both groups, and their interactions were recorded and observed for verbal dominance (defined as the time of physician participation relative to patient participation). When physicians scored higher on measures of implicit bias, there was 9% more verbal dominance on the part of the physicians in the visits with Black patients and 11% greater in interactions with White patients. Physicians with higher implicit bias scores and lower verbal dominance also received lower scores on patient ratings on interpersonal care, particularly from Black patients .
In focus groups with racially and ethnically diverse patients who sought medical care for themselves or their children in New York City, participants reported perceptions of discrimination in health care . They reported that healthcare professionals often made them feel less than human, with varying amounts of respect and courtesy. Some observed differences in treatment compared with White patients. One Black woman reported :
When the doctor came in [after a surgery], she proceeded to show me how I had to get up because I'm being released that day "whether I like it or not"…She yanked the first snap on the left leg…So I'm thinking, 'I'm human!' And she was courteous to the White lady [in the next bed], and I've got just as much age as her. I qualify on the level and scale of human being as her, but I didn't feel that from the doctor.
Another participant was a Latino physician who presented to the emergency department. He described the following :
They put me sort of in the corner [in the emergency department] and I can't talk very well because I can't breathe so well. The nurse comes over to me and actually says, "Tu tiene tu Medicaid?" I whispered out, "I'm a doctor…and I have insurance." I said it in perfect English. Literally, the color on her face went completely white…Within two minutes there was an orthopedic team around me…I kept wondering about what if I hadn't been a doctor, you know? Pretty eye opening and very sad.
These reports are illustrative of many minority patients' experiences with implicit and explicit racial/ethnic biases. Not surprisingly, these biases adversely affect patients' views of their clinical interactions with providers and ultimately contribute to their mistrust of the healthcare system.
There are no easy answers to raising awareness and reducing health providers' implicit bias. Each provider may be in a different developmental stage in terms of awareness, understanding, acceptance, and application of implicit bias to their practice. A developmental model for intercultural sensitivity training has been established to help identify where individuals may be in this developmental journey [74,75]. It is important to recognize that the process of becoming more self-aware is fluid; reaching one stage does not necessarily mean that it is "conquered" or that there will not be additional work to do in that stage. As a dynamic process, it is possible to move back and forth as stress and uncertainty triggers implicit biases . This developmental model includes six stages:
Denial: In this stage, the individual has no awareness of the existence of cultural differences between oneself and members of other cultural groups and subgroups. Individuals in this stage have no awareness of implicit bias and cannot distinguish between explicit and implicit biases.
Defense: In this stage, the person may accept that implicit biases exist but does not acknowledge that implicit biases exist within themselves.
Minimization: An individual in this stage acknowledges that implicit biases may exist in their colleagues and possibly themselves. However, he or she is uncertain of their consequences and adverse effects. Furthermore, the person believes he or she is able to treat patients in an objective manner.
Acceptance: In the acceptance stage, the individual recognizes and acknowledges the role of implicit biases and how implicit biases influence interactions with patients.
Adaptation: Those in the adaptation stage self-reflect and acknowledge that they have unrecognized implicit biases. Not only is there an acknowledgement of the existence of implicit bias, these people begin to actively work to reduce the potential impact of implicit biases on interactions with patients.
Integration: At this stage, the health professional works to incorporate change in their day-to-day practice in order to mitigate the effects of their implicit biases on various levels—from the patient level to the organization level.
Creating a safe environment is the essential first step to exploring issues related to implicit bias. Discussions of race, stereotypes, privilege, and implicit bias, all of which are very complex, can be volatile or produce heightened emotions. When individuals do not feel their voices are heard and/or valued, negative emotions or a "fight-or-flight" response can be triggered . This may manifest as yelling, demonstrations of anger, or crying or leaving the room or withdrawing and remaining silent .
Creating and fostering a sense of psychological safety in the learning environment is crucial. Psychological safety results when individuals feel that their opinions, views, thoughts, and contributions are valued despite tension, conflict, and discomfort. This allows the individual to feel that their identity is intact . When psychological safety is threatened, individuals' energies are primarily expended on coping rather than learning . As such, interventions should not seek to confront individuals or make them feel guilty and/or responsible .
When implicit bias interventions or assessments are planned, facilitators should be open, approachable, non-threatening, and knowledgeable; this will help create a safe and inclusive learning environment . The principles of respect, integrity, and confidentiality should be communicated . Facilitators who demonstrate attunement, authenticity, and power-sharing foster positive and productive dialogues about subjects such as race and identity . Attunement is the capacity of an individual to tacitly comprehend the lived experiences of others, using their perspectives to provide an alternative viewpoint for others. Attunement does not involve requiring others to talk about their experiences if they are not emotionally ready . Authenticity involves being honest and transparent with one's own position in a racialized social structure and sharing one's own experiences, feelings, and views. Being authentic also means being vulnerable . Finally, power-sharing entails redistributing power in the learning environment. The education environment is typically hierarchical, with an expert holding more power than students or participants. Furthermore, other students may hold more power by virtue of being more comfortable speaking/interacting . Ultimately, promoting a safe space lays a foundation for safely and effectively implementing implicit bias awareness and reduction interventions.
As discussed, the IAT can be used as a metric to assess professionals' level of implicit bias on a variety of subjects, and this presupposes that implicit bias is a discrete phenomenon that can be measured quantitatively . When providers are aware that implicit biases exist, discussion and education can be implemented to help reduce them and/or their impact.
Another way of facilitating awareness of providers' implicit bias is to ask self-reflective questions about each interaction with patients. Some have suggested using SOAP (subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) notes to assist practitioners in identifying implicit biases in day-to-day interactions with patients . Integrating the following questions into charts and notes can stimulate reflection about implicit bias globally and for each specific patient interaction:
Did I think about any socioeconomic and/or environmental factors that may contribute to the health and access of this patient?
How was my communication and interaction with this patient? Did it change from my customary pattern?
How could my implicit biases influence care for this patient?
When reviewing the SOAP notes, providers can look for recurring themes of stereotypical perceptions, biased communication patterns, and/or types of treatment/interventions proposed and assess whether these themes could be influenced by biases related to race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexuality, or other social characteristics.
A review of empirical studies conducted on the effectiveness of interventions promoting implicit bias awareness found mixed results. At times, after a peer discussion of IAT scores, participants appeared less interested in learning and employing implicit bias reduction interventions. However, other studies have found that receiving feedback along with IAT scores resulted in a reduction in implicit bias . Any feedback, education, and discussions should be structured to minimize participant defensiveness .
Interventions or strategies designed to reduce implicit bias may be further categorized as change-based or control-based . Change-based interventions focus on reducing or changing cognitive associations underlying implicit biases. These interventions might include challenging stereotypes. Conversely, control-based interventions involve reducing the effects of the implicit bias on the individual's behaviors . These strategies include increasing awareness of biased thoughts and responses. The two types of interventions are not mutually exclusive and may be used synergistically.
Perspective taking is a strategy of taking on a first-person perspective of a person in order to control one's automatic response toward individuals with certain social characteristics that might trigger implicit biases . The goal is to increase psychological closeness, empathy, and connection with members of the group . Engaging with media that presents a perspective (e.g., watching documentaries, reading an autobiography) can help promote better understanding of the specific group's lives, experiences, and viewpoints. In one study, participants who adopted the first-person perspectives of African Americans had more positive automatic evaluations of the targeted group .
Promoting positive emotions such as empathy and compassion can help reduce implicit biases. This can involve strategies like perspective taking and role playing . In a study examining analgesic prescription disparities, nurses were shown photos of White or African American patients exhibiting pain and were asked to recommend how much pain medication was needed; a control group was not shown photos. Those who were shown images of patients in pain displayed no differences in recommended dosage along racial lines; however, those who did not see the images averaged higher recommended dosages for White patients compared with Black patients . This suggests that professionals' level of empathy (enhanced by seeing the patient in pain) affected prescription recommendations.
In a study of healthcare professionals randomly assigned to an empathy-inducing group or a control group, participants were given the IAT to measure implicit bias prior to and following the intervention. Level of implicit bias among participants in the empathy-inducing group decreased significantly compared with their control group counterparts .
Individuation is an implicit bias reduction intervention that involves obtaining specific information about the individual and relying on personal characteristics instead of stereotypes of the group to which he or she belongs [4,82]. The key is to concentrate on the person's specific experiences, achievements, personality traits, qualifications, and other personal attributes rather than focusing on gender, race, ethnicity, age, ability, and other social attributes, all of which can activate implicit biases. When providers lack relevant information, they are more likely to fill in data with stereotypes, in some cases unconsciously. Time constraints and job stress increase the likelihood of this occurring .
Mindfulness requires stopping oneself and deliberately emptying one's mind of distractions or allowing distractions to drift through one's mind unimpeded, focusing only on the moment; judgment and assumptions are set aside. This approach involves regulating one's emotions, responses, and attention to return to the present moment, which can reduce stress and anxiety . There is evidence that mindfulness can help regulate biological and emotional responses and can have a positive effect on attention and habit formation . A mindfulness activity assists individuals to be more aware of their thoughts and sensations. This focus on deliberation moves the practitioner away from a reliance on instincts, which is the foundation of implicit bias-affected practice [4,87].
Mindfulness approaches include yoga, meditation, and guided imagery. Additional resources to encourage a mindfulness practice are provided later in this course.
Goldstein has developed the STOP technique as a practical approach to engage in mindfulness in any moment . STOP is an acronym for:
Stop
Take a breath
Observe
Proceed
Mindfulness practice has been explored as a technique to reduce activation or triggering of implicit bias, enhance awareness of and ability to control implicit biases that arise, and increase capacity for compassion and empathy toward patients by reducing stress, exhaustion, and compassion fatigue . One study examined the effectiveness of a loving-kindness meditation practice training in improving implicit bias toward African Americans and unhoused persons. One hundred one non-Black adults were randomized to one of three groups: a six-week loving-kindness mindfulness practice, a six-week loving-kindness discussion, or the waitlist control. The IAT was used to measure implicit biases, and the results showed that the loving-kindness meditation practice decreased levels of implicit biases toward both groups .
There is also some novel evidence that mindfulness may have neurologic implications. For example, one study showed decreased amygdala activation after a mindfulness meditation . However, additional studies are required in this area before conclusions can be reached.
Counter-stereotypical imaging approaches involve presenting an image, idea, or construct that is counter to the oversimplified stereotypes typically held regarding members of a specific group. In one study, participants were asked to imagine either a strong woman (the experimental condition) or a gender-neutral event (the control condition) . Researchers found that participants in the experimental condition exhibited lower levels of implicit gender bias. Similarly, exposure to female leaders was found to reduce implicit gender bias . Whether via increased contact with stigmatized groups to contradict prevailing stereotypes or simply exposure to counter-stereotypical imaging, it is possible to unlearn associations underlying various implicit biases. If the social environment is important in priming positive evaluations, having more positive visual images of members in stigmatized groups can help reduce implicit biases . Some have suggested that even just hanging photos and having computer screensavers reflecting positive images of various social groups could help to reduce negative associations .
The effectiveness of implicit bias trainings and interventions has been scrutinized. In a 2019 systematic review, different types of implicit bias reduction interventions were evaluated. A meta-analysis of empirical studies published between May 2005 and April 2015 identified eight different classifications of interventions :
Engaging with others' perspectives, consciousness-raising, or imagining contact with outgroup: Participants either imagine how the outgroup thinks and feels, imagine having contact with the outgroup, or are made aware of the way the outgroup is marginalized or given new information about the outgroup.
Identifying the self with the outgroup: Participants perform tasks that lessen barriers between themselves and the outgroup.
Exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars: Participants are exposed to exemplars that contradict negative stereotypes of the outgroup.
Appeal to egalitarian values: Participants are encouraged to activate egalitarian goals or think about multiculturalism, cooperation, or tolerance.
Evaluative conditioning: Participants perform tasks to strengthen counter-stereotypical associations.
Inducing emotion: Emotions or moods are induced in participants.
Intentional strategies to overcome biases: Participants are instructed to implement strategies to over-ride or suppress their biases.
Pharmacotherapy
Interventions found to be the most effective were, in order from most to least, :
Intentional strategies to overcome biases
Exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars
Identifying self with the outgroup
Evaluative conditioning
Inducing emotions
In general, the sample sizes were small. It is also unclear how generalizable the findings are, given many of the research participants were college psychology students. The 30 studies included in the meta-analysis were cross-sectional (not longitudinal) and only measured short-term outcomes, and there is some concern about "one shot" interventions, given the fact that implicit biases are deeply embedded. Would simply acknowledging the existence of implicit biases be sufficient to eliminate them [95,96]? Or would such a confession act as an illusion to having self-actualized and moved beyond the bias ?
Optimally, implicit bias interventions involve continual practice to address deeply habitual implicit biases or interventions that target structural factors [95,96].
The study of implicit bias is appropriately interdisciplinary, representing social psychology, medicine, health psychology, neuroscience, counseling, mental health, gerontology, LGBTQ+ studies, religious studies, and disability studies . Therefore, implicit bias empirical research and curricula training development lends itself well to interprofessional collaboration and practice (ICP).
One of the core features of IPC is sharing—professionals from different disciplines share their philosophies, values, perspectives, data, and strategies for planning of interventions . IPC also involves the sharing of roles, responsibilities, decision making, and power . Everyone on the team employs their expertise, knowledge, and skills, working collectively on a shared, patient-centered goal or outcome [98,99].
Another feature of IPC is interdependency. Instead of working in an autonomous manner, each team member's contributions are valued and maximized, which ultimately leads to synergy . At the heart of this are two other key features: mutual trust/respect and communication . In order to share responsibilities, the differing roles and expertise are respected.
Experts have recommended that a structural or critical theoretical perspective be integrated into core competencies in healthcare education to teach students about implicit bias, racism, and health disparities . This includes :
Values/ethics: The ethical duty for health professionals to partner and collaborate to advocate for the elimination of policies that promote the perpetuation of implicit bias, racism, and health disparities among marginalized populations.
Roles/responsibilities: One of the primary roles and responsibilities of health professionals is to analyze how institutional and organizational factors promote racism and implicit bias and how these factors contribute to health disparities. This analysis should extend to include one's own position in this structure.
Interprofessional communication: Ongoing discussions of implicit bias, perspective taking, and counter-stereotypical dialogues should be woven into day-to-day practice with colleagues from diverse disciplines.
Teams/teamwork: Health professionals should develop meaningful contacts with marginalized communities in order to better understand whom they are serving.
Adopting approaches from the fields of education, gender studies, sociology, psychology, and race/ethnic studies can help build curricula that represent a variety of disciplines . Students can learn about and discuss implicit bias and its impact, not simply from a health outcomes perspective but holistically. Skills in problem-solving, communication, leadership, and teamwork should be included, so students can effect positive social change .
In the more than three decades since the introduction of the IAT, the implicit bias knowledge base has grown significantly. It is clear that most people in the general population hold implicit biases, and health professionals are no different. While there continue to be controversies regarding the nature, dynamics, and etiology of implicit biases, it should not be ignored as a contributor to health disparities, patient dissatisfaction, and suboptimal care. Given the complex and multifaceted nature of this phenomenon, the solutions to raise individuals' awareness and reduce implicit bias are diverse and evolving.
|American Bar Association Diversity and Inclusion Center|
|Toolkits and Projects|
|https://www.americanbar.org/groups/diversity/resources/toolkits|
|National Implicit Bias Network|
|https://implicitbias.net/resources/resources-by-category|
|The Ohio State University|
|The Women's Place: Implicit Bias Resources|
|https://womensplace.osu.edu/resources/implicit-bias-resources|
|The Ohio State University|
|Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity|
|http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu|
|University of California, Los Angeles|
|Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion: Implicit Bias|
|https://equity.ucla.edu/know/implicit-bias|
|University of California, San Francisco, Office of Diversity and Outreach|
|Unconscious Bias Resources|
|https://diversity.ucsf.edu/resources/unconscious-bias-resources|
|Unconscious Bias Project|
|https://unconsciousbiasproject.org|
|University of California, San Diego Center for Mindfulness|
|https://medschool.ucsd.edu/som/fmph/research/mindfulness|
|University of California, Los Angeles Guided Meditations|
|https://www.uclahealth.org/marc/mindful-meditations|
|Mindful: Mindfulness for Healthcare Professionals|
|https://www.mindful.org/mindfulhome-mindfulness-for-healthcare-workers-during-covid|
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[Archive] Monumental proposals by fashionable architectural superstars for lower Manhattan: are these appropriate memorials to 9/11?
First published in the AR in February 2002
Following the terrorist attack of September 11 2001, resulting in the collapse of the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers, architects and critics world-wide, along with the local leaseholder and planners, voiced immediate concerns about future development. It has become obvious, however, after a long, painful process of public meetings, that to establish a successful masterplan for the 16-acre (6.5 ha) site will require an act of courage beyond the kind of inspired ingenuity that usually moves architecture one notch higher. New York City has understandably become so entangled in the emotional aspects of its human loss that no one appears prepared to separate public and private mourning from the exceptional opportunity presented to make an innovative fresh start that will reintegrate and improve the city fabric.
Having failed to produce a satisfactory plan from its own architects and planners at an earlier stage, the Lower Manhattan Development corporation commissioned seven architectural firms or collaborative teams to offer planning design for the site. These were unveiled last December with great fanfare in the newly-restored Winter Garden, the sparkling glass barrel-vaulted structure designed by Cesar Pelli in Battery Park City across from Ground Zero, as the World Trade Center site is now known. (The Winter Garden itself had been shattered by the attack.) Given the names of the architects and their reputations for both successful planning and design, the collective outcome was a major disappointment. Although there are some ingenious solutions for transportation networks and cultural amenities new to the neighbourhood, all of the proposals were hostage to the Memorial lobby.
Unfortunately, restrictions placed on the architects by the official brief for the ‘Innovative Design Study’ tied them to the past, making it impossible for them simply to devise the best and most original plans for a financial district that is also rapidly becoming residential. Now New Yorkers will never know what these minds could have produced under more productive and liberating circumstances. None of the architects went against the programme’s strong preference for preserving the footprints of the twin towers for memorial or memorial related elements’. In truth, the towers were always a mistake of urban design principles - too large, too tall, and set in a windswept empty plaza. The fact that the city must now be saddled for ever with their gigantic footprints is counter to the spirit of renewal and survival so well exemplified by cities in war-torn Europe after the Second World War. In reality, these spaces are not burial sites and, therefore, should not be treated as virtual hallowed ground.
Another of the stipulations called for a restored skyline ‘to provide a significant, identifiable symbol … a new icon for New York’. Four of the presentations proposed the tallest buildings in the world, and not only the tallest but also the safest - with alternative corridors and stairways in case of emergency. Has nothing been learned as a result of September 11? No building that tall, no matter how ‘green’ and sustainable, is safe, and the best memorial is to guarantee that future employees are not plagued by anxiety. As these architects know, towers do not have to be tallest to be elegant and urban.
The brief was right in recognizing how the area had become more residential since the construction of the Twin Towers, citing both the Park Avenue-like apartment houses around public squares in Battery Park City and the continuing rehabilitation of surrounding commercial buildings into residences. Also, the programme wisely called for reinstating the criss-crossed street system destroyed by the construction of the Twin Towers in order to create new commercial areas and a circulation pattern that would integrate the old lower Manhattan with Battery Park City and the Hudson River beyond. (A glance just across the river to New Jersey reveals the rapidly developing business quarter of Jersey City indicating that maybe a bridge should be the city’s priority since the area is still only directly accessible by boat and train.)
New York is not the most beautiful city in the world, but it has an electric environment and retains the pioneer spirit going back to its Dutch settlers who first colonized this neighbourhood with its narrow winding streets. What give the district its beauty are its density and the long canyons of light between towers. What is called for is a new and exciting complex of buildings that will become seamless with their surroundings and serve the public with commercial, cultural and residential facilities. Perhaps the most painful idea for the city to face is the need to make the former World Trade Center completely disappear.
Although none of the architects was invited to design the actual memorial - the subject of a later international competition - they all attempted to suggest one within their overall planning designs. Daniel Libeskind, who recalls his own shipside view of downtown New York as a teenage immigrant, was so impressed by the survival of the towers’ slurry walls that he retained them and sunk the footprints below a cluster of prismatic glass buildings, the spire of the tallest housing an interior forest. (So-called public gardens in upper stories of buildings were another unrealistic theme of several proposals in a city where you cannot even go to a dentist in Rockefeller Center without showing a photo ID.) In addition to a museum for September 11, the configuration of Libeskind’s structures allowed for an annual shaft of direct sunlight to mark the anniversary of the attack.
In Foster and Partners’ plan, the footprints are excavated beneath high steel and stone walls in a park setting, and the underground perimeter appears to have a series of shrine-like spaces in which the grieving can remember their loved ones, though it is questionable how many families ever want to return to the site except for official occasions. (Also, one need only recall the failed shopping well at the General Motors Building at Firth Avenue and 58th Street to understand New Yorkers’ distaste for outdoor spaces below ground, With the exception of the skating rink at Rockefeller Center.) The firm’s graceful ‘twinned towers’ (among the tallest) based on triangulation technology touch at three points to create observation platforms and other amenities, though again it is uncertain if the public would ever be permitted entry because of security considerations. The best Foster contribution is a multi-storey transportation hub under an immense glass canopy, which could reasonably become the sole use of the site.
In a similar vein, United Architects’ collaboration (including Foreign Office Architects, Reiser + Umemoto RUR Architecture PC and others) proposed aposed descent into the footprints to gaze up to their new towers, a family of futuristic sloping and cantilevered structures they call a ‘crystalline veil’ to protect the space below. In a Wagnerian turn, they see the ‘Sky Memorial’ in an upper floor as a kind of Valhalla where ‘the heroes lived’. Richard Meier, Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey and Steven Holl (a Supreme Court of architects) truly designed the proverbial camel (the horse designed by a committee) with their two tick-tack-toe buildings at right-angles as a new concept for a tower cum ceremonial gateway incorporating horizontal escape routes between the vertical elements. These also overlook a windy plaza where the footprints are reflecting pools, never mind how dirty still water becomes in New York where freezing temperatures preclude water altogether in winter leaving unattractive empty basins.
By completely filling the site with a grid of vertical glass zigzag structures, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill came closest to the concept of density to provide multi-use buildings - cultural as well as commercial - though they also incorporated those inevitable sky gardens above and reflecting pools below. It would be a massive block of light on the skyline. At the other extreme, the centrepiece of Peterson/Littenberg’s proposal is a sunken walled garden, an urban courtyard determined by the geometry of the footprints with an outdoor amphitheatre on one of them with a museum underneath. Buildings of a more humane size and context would surround this green space, but one wonders whether any of the architects considered the nearby parks and gardens in Battery Park City which seem ample enough to serve the community without more vast green areas for the city to maintain. This firm did introduce one of the most seductive urban elements of all by converting West Street, between Ground Zero and Battery Park City, into a grand tree-lined boulevard extending to the tip of Manhattan.
Finally, Think, a team including Frederic Schwartz, Rafael Vifioly, Shigeru Ban and landscape architect Ken Smith, submitted three different proposals: a 16-acre inclined rooftop Sky Park over a retail concourse, a hotel, offices and a transportation centre; the Great Room, a glass-enclosed public plaza, with the footprints protected by glass cylinders, and next to it the tallest building in the world; and the World Cultural Center, featuring two open latticework towers that would contain within them at different levels distinctly separate buildings designed by various architects to house the performing arts, a conference centre and an open amphitheatre. The lightness and elegance of this seemingly fantasy structure was truly innovative and seemed, in the end, more New York than the first two designs.
During the almost seven weeks the proposals were on view behind glass at the Winter Garden, people came in droves to view them, and children found the models and accompanying videos even more exciting than the usual holiday store windows uptown. In order to exhibit their three different designs in the urban context, Think, for example, elevated each one in turn on rotating raised platforms that fit into a scale model of lower Manhattan. As one small boy watched the towers of the first design sink below, he remarked, ‘What a good idea, if the planes come again, they can just make the buildings disappear’.
After the Cataclysm
First published in the AR in November 2002
The immediate aftermath of the attack of 11 September on the World Trade Center in New York brought out the best in so many people: unfortunately not architects. Fireman, policemen, and rescue workers risked and even lost their lives while responding to the catastrophic events of the day. Restaurateurs in the area, in the face of significant financial losses, provided free meals to those working on the site. Many people, asking for no financial compensation, volunteered for jobs associated with the clean up and support for victims families. And, I will always remember the way hard-edged, loud and often socially insensitive residents of this great city were transformed almost magically into softer, quieter and more considerate citizens of a wounded and shocked city and country. There was an unusual hush to this boisterous and energetic place as people turned to each other on the streets, in bars and cafes, at work, on the subway, really just about anywhere and tried to make sense of what had just happened. There were no answers, only questions.
Architects, with a few exceptions, rather than ask questions or undertake good works, began before the ashes of the World Trade Center were even cold to provide answers and to seek work. In contrast to so many others, they began a loud campaign in the media to insert themselves as central players in the discussion about the reconstruction of the World Trade Center site and of Lower Manhattan in general. Suggestions about the design of buildings to replace the collapsed towers, demands that there needed to be a dramatic architectural response to the tragedy and a sense that architecture was the anodyne to the tragedy dominated the public comments of architects immediately after the events of 11 September (and they still do). The media were filled with encomiums about this or that suggestion from one or another architect about what was best for the site. And almost always what was best was architectural. Of all the architects who responded publicly to the events of 11 September, I recall only one expressing a need for a pause for the wounds of the tragedy to begin to heal and for people to have time to make sense of what had happened.
Indeed like vultures fighting over a dead carcass, architects and architectural critics began a still raging debate about which architects and what designs would best serve the World Trade Center site and lower Manhattan. The issue, as the architecture critic of the New York Times put it a year later, is ultimately architectural. Architects, it could be argued were right to see it this way. It was clear that there would need to be some kind of architectural response in the process of renewing the site. The response of architects also was probably not surprising given the declining architectural economy in New York (and nationally). Yet, in the aftermath of the tragedy, the city was still in mourning, and it was still unclear just what the city and its politicians, planners and developers would do in response to the tragic events that it had just experienced.
Architects though seemed blithely unconcerned with the larger issues and focused entirely on the issue of architecture itself. Even though the area had begun to experience a loss of jobs and firms before 11 September as a result of both an economic downturn and the decision, ironically, of a number of firms to disperse both services and employees throughout the region, architectural responses (with a few notable exceptions) assumed that jobs and firms would return. If, as The Wall Street Joumal argued, Wall Street was still the spiritual heart of the financial district, it was no longer its physical centre, it suggested the possibility of new programmes and new building types for the area. Architects were not listening. For some architects, it was just another day of serving the needs and wishes of the developers and planners - themselves seeking physical fixes to the tragedy - looking to find a design response to their programmatic suggestions for the area. For other architects, the destruction of the World Trade Center offered an opportunity to rebuild in the grand tradition of the Wall Street of the past: grandeur, conceptual bravado and bigness were the operative bases for their responses.
The debate between what might be described as banal and big, corporate and conceptual, might best be understood by looking at the response to the six plans provided by the architects under the auspices of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. When unveiled, the six plans were met with what one journalist called ‘spontaneous booing’; the plans were seen as pedestrian.
In response, a number of architects, mostly world famous celebrity architects, under the auspices of the New York Times provided a series of design suggestions. In a correction of what these architects saw as real estate planning where plots are designed for particular developers, they suggested a plan whereby plots would be divided and designed by different important architects (usually architects well known for their conceptual and ground-breaking designs). Although the difference here might escape many of us, a series of designs was produced each on its own plot with little or no relation to the buildings that bordered it - why each building is located where it is goes unexplained. Images ran from twisted towers that would suggest partly collapsed structures to inverted Art Deco skyscrapers, from formalist exercises to more conventional designs of large buildings (AR March 2002). Designs ranged from what one friend called ‘the offensive to the rhetorically clever’ although most were ·just more images of stylish buildings with no more to add to the discussion than the earlier more banal designs they were supposed to replace. Or, as another critic suggested about another set of architectural suggestions for the World Trade Center site but apropos of most of the architectural responses, the majority of the proposals were merely ‘egoistic exercises and have little to do with how to repair the existing rent in the urban fabric’. 1
Overall the new proposals in the New York Times2 suggest a kind of image zoo for gazing but not a well thought through urban response to the problems facing the lower Manhattan area and New York since 11 September. What is captured according to the critic of the New York Times is ‘imagination’ and nothing so conventional as issues of use and function. Architecture as image is critical. Indeed, the architectural committee responsible for this image zoo accepted the overall planning programme set out by the planners of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation.
The architects who contributed to the New York Times do not monopolize this kind of thinking. Large skyscrapers and grand designs are central to a series of architectural images in the 16 September 2002 New York magazine and the images exhibited at the Max Protetch Gallery in New York. If one or two images suggest a rereading or rethinking of the site, most are merely exercises in architectural pyrotechnics. They are images about architecture and not architecture addressing the social and cultural issues raised by the events of 11 September or the problems now facing New Yorkers.
Nonetheless, the tactics of the architects involved in this debate appeared to have worked, at least for some. The most recent move by the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation has resulted in six architectural teams3 being selected to provide designs for the area. They include many of those who so blithely provided the images spoken about. Indeed, these images have now provided work and inserted the architects once again into the process of rethinking, or at least redesigning the World Trade Center site. Cynics might say ‘so what?’ - let the architects Play. Nothing matters but the desires of the developer Larry Silverstein who holds the lease on the World Trade Center site. Nonetheless, the tragic events of 11 September opened up an important space to begin not only the repair of the physical destruction of the site, but to begin an important conversation about what this all means for the city, especially a global city like New York, and how society might be rebuilt. Architects have a lot to offer in a discussion with others about just how we might design and rebuild after the larger discussion has begun.
Architecture is socially and culturally important if not determinative. What needed to be addressed before the creation of architectural images are questions like what do the events of 11 September mean? How might we, in light of these events and the changing economy of New York, rethink what is needed to be done at the site? Whose city and whose site is it? To whom does the site ultimately belong and how should this be recognized? What might best suit a post 11 September New York? How should the resources of the city be allocated ?
Indeed, it would be important to raise the question whether all the efforts at rebuilding the city should be centred on the Tade Center site and Lower Manhattan exclusively. Architects have no unique insights into these questions and have no monopoly on the answers but, as citizens, they have as much to offer as anyone else. It would have benefited architects as people and professionals to have joined this conversation first before they placed their images and egos, their professional differences and their personnel energies on the line. They might not only have become part of a general discourse from which they might have learned things that would have benefited their designs, they might also eventually have through good works found work that would have been able to provide more substantive and interesting responses to 11 September.
All photographs courtesy of Lower Manhattan Development Corporation
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I spent Friday with a trio of Chicago architectural giants: Louis Sullivan, Daniel Burnham and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It wasn't a very lively encounter. Each of them has been dead for decades. The setting, though, was stirring: the serene, exquisitely landscaped Graceland Cemetery, where the three greats are movingly memorialized.
The marker for Sullivan is a block of granite enlivened by intricate, nature-inspired decoration and sides that suggest the stepped-back masses of towering skyscrapers. Some critics have called the marker crowded and eclectic, but it offers an eloquent summary of the life and ideas of the man who coined the phrase "form ever follows function."
Burnham is remembered with an irregularly shaped boulder set on an island reached by a footbridge. The natural setting, with its proximity to water, is pitch perfect for the "make no little plans" visionary of Chicago's lakefront.
Mies, the master of steel and glass modernism, lies beneath a gray granite slab. It suitably evokes the understated elegance of the man and his revolutionary architecture of "less is more."
I was inspired to visit Graceland, located at 4001 N. Clark St. and home to the graves of many other notable Chicagoans, by the new book, "Their Final Place: A Guide to the Graves of Notable American Architects." This slim, self-published volume is no masterwork, but it raises an intriguing question: How, if at all, do architects, who spend their working lives creating monuments for clients, choose to memorialize themselves?
The project was clearly a labor of love for its author, Henry Kuehn, a former Chicago-area business executive who now lives in Louisville.
Kuehn, a life trustee of the Chicago Architecture Foundation and former tour director of the group's Graceland Cemetery tour, teamed up with Carter Manny, former director of the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts, to embark on a far-flung survey of final resting places of more than 150 dead American architects. They include the designers of such renowned structures as the Lincoln Memorial (Henry Bacon), the Chrysler Building (William Van Alen) and the Willis Tower (Bruce Graham).
What Kuehn discovered is surprising: The aforementioned memorials at Graceland, which distill the essence of their subjects' architectural style and achievements, are the exception, not the rule. Many architects are buried beneath simple headstones. Some look as if they were ordered from a catalog.
"It seems strange that these great architects, who created landmark structures during their lives, put so little thought into how they themselves would be memorialized for time eternal," Kuehn writes. "Apparently most of these architectural giants, like most of us ordinary people, either did not feel like dealing with death or felt that a lasting memorial for them was not important."
Yet he notes a countertrend: Many architects have had their ashes scattered on bodies of water, on landscapes or in buildings that have special meaning. There's no memorial to Chicago architect Harry Weese at Graceland; Weese, a sailor, wanted his ashes scattered on Lake Michigan. In another interesting tidbit, Kuehn reports that the ashes of Paul Rudolph, a former dean of Yale's architecture school, were distributed in several places, including the ventilating system of the Rudolph-designed Yale Art and Architecture Building (now called Rudolph Hall).
The strength of "Their Final Place" resides in Kuehn's concise, often poignant, summaries of architects' careers and their memorials.
He relates the tale of Burnham associate Frederick Dinkelberg, whose wealth was largely wiped out during the Depression after a career highlighted by the design of New York's Flatiron Building. The Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects paid for Dinkelberg's burial and headstone in a "somewhat forlorn" cemetery next to Graceland's hallowed ground.
The book is not without weaknesses: The prose sometimes lapses into repetition, the quality of the color photography is uneven and the aesthetic analysis can be thin. Readers outside Chicago may complain that the book is less broad in scope than its subtitle suggests. More than a third of the examples are from Chicago and its suburbs. The book also suffers because a sizable chunk of the grave sites are aesthetically prosaic. Kuehn and Manny went on a treasure hunt, but they did not always find treasure.
Still, the subject matter is eye-opening and informative, particularly as it's framed in a sweeping foreword by architectural historian Barry Bergdoll.
Bergdoll observes how difficult it can be for a surviving architect to design a memorial in the style of the deceased, a challenge that confronted Chicago architect Thomas Tallmadge when he shaped Sullivan's memorial. As much as they talk up the virtues of planning, few architects take the time to design their own memorials or leave instructions about a fitting visual legacy.
And then there are family conflicts that spoil the most careful plans, a fate that befell the remains of Frank Lloyd Wright, who in 1959 was buried among family members in a small churchyard in his Taliesin complex at Spring Green, Wis. Infamously, the arrangement did not last.
"Wright's third wife, Olgivanna, stipulated in her will that after her death, Wright's remains be disinterred, cremated, moved to Arizona, and mixed with her ashes," Kuehn writes. "Unbeknownst to the local Wisconsin authorities, her wishes were carried out; Wright's remains were dug up, literally, in the dead of night, and shipped to Arizona. To this day there are many hard feelings about the way one of Wisconsin's famous son's remains were 'stolen.'" | https://www.chicagotribune.com/columns/ct-architects-graves-kamin-met-0907-20140907-column.html |
Five years ago, I wrote an essay for Slate about Mexican architect Enrique Norten. I characterized Norten, whose work I admire, as belonging to the rationalist tradition of Modernism. I also observed that, judging from some of his recent designs, he was succumbing to pressure to produce increasingly unusual and startling buildings more along the lines of the Expressionist anti-rationalism of architects such as Libeskind, Hadid, and Mayne. “It would be a shame if Norten were pulled in this direction,” I wrote. “The theatricality weighs uneasily on his unsentimental and tough brand of minimal modernism.” Well, he was pulled. In the following two years he designed a number of gyrating skyscrapers whose fey whimsy rivalled the anti-rationalists. Thankfully, none were built—the Great Recession saw to that.
It is impossible to exaggerate the chilling effect of the economic slowdown on the architectural profession. For a developer or an institutional client faced with a weakening market or a diminished endowment, the easiest thing to do is simply pick up the phone and cancel any project that is not actually under construction. Even if it’s under way, there is still time: In Las Vegas, a 49-story Norman Foster-designed hotel stopped at 28 floors. Between 2007 and 2009, the Dodge Index from McGraw-Hill Construction, which measures construction activity in the United States, dropped from 135 to 85. As a result, architectural firms shrank drastically, layoffs of 50 percent or more were common, small firms simply closed up shop, and older architects took early retirement. Since the recession was global, even international practices like Norten’s were not insulated from the slowdown.
Construction is a cyclical industry, and the architectural profession is used to weathering periodic periods of boom and bust. This particular dip, however, may have another effect. The last boom coincided with a loosening—some would say abandonment—of architectural propriety. Building booms often encourage excess—think of the Gilded Age—but this time large budgets, a celebrity architectural culture, and computer-aided design combined to produce a spate of distinctly odd buildings, such as Santiago Calatrava’s twisting apartment tower in Malmö, Sweden, and Frank Gehry’s apocalyptic Stata Center at MIT. Anything that could be imagined was built. Architecture is highly competitive, and it was common practice for clients to invite several leading architects to submit designs before awarding the commission. The pressure to outdo one’s rivals pushed designers to propose increasingly outlandish buildings. Because originality was rewarded by media coverage, clients encouraged this tendency.
Responding to a question following a recent public lecture, Norten observed that such architectural extravagance was a thing of the past. “Both architects and clients have become more responsible,” he said. The change is reflected in his own work. Having weathered the brunt of the downturn, his practice has revived and is busy again: a residential tower and cultural facilities in the BAM Cultural District in Brooklyn, a just-completed contemporary art museum in Mexico City, and a state government center under construction in Acapulco. The designs of these buildings suggest that the architect has returned to his roots. They are simple structures that derive their organization from the activities that they contain, and whose forms are grounded in construction rather than in arbitrary shape-making. “This work is not about graphics,” Norten said, referring to the kind of computer-generated designs that characterize the work of many of his contemporaries.
What will happen to the anti-rationalists in this new, responsible world? It’s not easy for an architect to change his spots—just look at the diminished fortunes of Paul Rudolph in the 1970s, or Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in the 1980s. The big names will coast on their reputations, finding commissions in increasingly obscure corners of the world. Turkmenistan, anyone? The losers will be the current generation of young graduates. Trained in the arcane arts of parametric design and generative architecture, they will find themselves facing a world of chastened clients who demand discipline, restraint, and common sense. Big chill, indeed. | https://slate.com/culture/2011/01/enrique-norten-and-architecture-in-the-great-recession-it-s-for-the-better.html |
At first, that idea was preposterous and even shocking to many people who had come to know churches as medieval-looking structures designed in brick, carved stone, lots of old-time fancy filigree and pointy steeples visible for miles around.
In central Minnesota, Catholic churches especially were constructed using models from the “old country” – mainly those in Germany. The two major architectural styles, created centuries ago, were Romanesque and Gothic – magnificent structures that, in some cases, took more than 100 years to build and that still have the power to invoke jaw-dropping awe in tourists who visit Europe.
Reinforced concrete just did not fit into that old, tried-and-true sacred tradition, even though the large dome of one of the world’s greatest buildings, the Pantheon, was made of concrete in ancient Rome.
More than 60 years ago, internationally renowned architect Marcel Breuer was commissioned to design a new church and other buildings on the St. John’s University campus. It was an ambitious, intricate labor of love involving Breuer and his close collaboration with the clergy leaders and monks who were visionary in their embracing of architectural modernity to create a sacred space.
That is the story told by Victoria M. Young in her new book, Saint John’s Abbey Church: Marcel Breuer and the Creation of a Modern Sacred Space. (See related story.) Young’s book is a kind of architectural adventure story which predates another astonishing adventure many years later at St. John’s – the creation of the hand-written Saint John’s Bible. Both projects stunned the sacred and secular worlds because of their bold, daring, visionary approaches to renewals of faith.
The plans
In early 1950, the old church on the St. John’s campus, built in 1879, proved to be inadequate because it could not accommodate a growing population among the monastery, the seminary, the university and the preparatory school.
A new church was needed, and Abbot Baldwin Dworschak, OSB, took charge, determined the new church would be built in a modern style that would look forward to another century of faith in the modern world.
One influence on the concept for a modernistic design was an encyclical released by Pope Pius XII. Part of the encyclical emphasized the need to forge a oneness between Catholic clergy and participants in worship other than the centuries-old hierarchical structure with clergy above and worshippers below.
The encyclical, translated as “On the Sacred Liturgy,” opened the doors to modernism and gave architects the rationale and freedom to design churches to express that non-hierarchical oneness.
In his specifications for a new church, Abbot Dworschak said it should be “an architectural monument to the service of God. The Benedictine tradition at is best challenges us to think boldly and to cast our ideas in forms which will be valid for centuries to come.”
In the beginning
Dworschack contacted a dozen eminent world-class architects and requested them to submit blueprints for a church. After many agonizing but exciting meetings, the monastic leaders selected Marcel Breuer to do the job. Breuer, born in 1902 in Germany, was trained and taught at Bauhaus, an architectural school in Germany that was hugely influential throughout the world for its strikingly modern designs in architecture, artwork and even furniture. Later, Breuer moved to the United States where he joined great architect Walter Gropius at Harvard University, where both men taught. At that time, Breuer designed mainly homes, but by the late 1940s, he’d begun to create institutional buildings. His 1952 UNESCO headquarters building in Paris was – and still is – considered an architectural marvel.
By 1954, Breuer and the monks agreed to architectural plans for an addition to the monastic quarters on campus, with the church construction to follow. The building project began May 19, 1958 and was completed Aug. 24, 1961. It involved the use mostly of local workers, especially for the cast-concrete forms that comprise the church’s skeletal structure. It was such an innovative way of building a church that some skeptics said it couldn’t be done, that it wouldn’t work, that it might end up in a crumbled heap.
But the workers had faith, much like the builders of the great cathedrals in the Medieval Era in Europe. Such builders, sculptors and stonemasons worked lovingly on those churches, even though most workers did not live long enough to see the crowning achievement of the finished buildings. The church construction of centuries ago, in some cases, involved three and four generations of workers.
The church triumphant
When the St. John’s Abbey Church was completed, people from throughout the area far and wide came to marvel at it, never having seen anything remotely resembling such a modern church.
Some raved about the style; some did not like it; others weren’t sure if they liked it or not. But after the shock of the new receded a bit, more and more people came to admire the structure for its bold, innovative beauty. It had become an object of worldwide fame and admiration. It also set a universal standard for modern, pragmatic church architecture in which form and function were blissfully wedded.
The St. John’s Abbey Church design was a perfect blend of the functional with the aesthetic and spiritual. For example, the interior was built so all participants in the Catholic Mass would be equal participants in worship, with all sitting as closely as possible to the altar. The trapezoidal space is vast and open, with no pillars, statuary or other structures to block sight lines.
The exterior of the church is also a marvel of modernity and technology with its dazzling use of cast, steel-reinforced concrete. Visitors to the church walk toward and then under a massive but soaringly graceful bell banner, 112 feet high. On its narrow “legs” the parabolic-shaped structure seems almost as if it is about to ascend skyward from its mooring – thin arched “legs.” The stunning structure is both solid and heavy, yet lyrical and graceful. Within the banner are five bells that ring for worship. Above the bells is an open space in which hangs a large cross.
Beyond the bell banner is the north-side entrance of the church with its vast wall of rows of hexagonal stained-glass windows, like a giant honeycomb filled with shimmering colors of stylized, abstract cut-glass pieces.
The book
In her book, Young explores in compelling details, photos and drawings what a massive, innovative undertaking the campus building projects were, with most attention focused on the building project’s glorious centerpiece – the abbey church.
Young also provides a detailed background of what led to modernism in church design, including the visionary artists of the early part of the 20th Century, such as Picasso, Matisse, Georges Rouault and Georges Braque. Many artists, Matisse especially, did many liturgical works of art, including the strikingly modernistic, spare, minimal design for a chapel in Vence, a city in southern France.
Young ends her book with a tribute to the innovative pioneers – monks, architects and workers – who created St. Johns Abbey Church:
“The power of this place, its church and the people who built it will endure for generations. The liturgical concerns evaluated and presented in the church’s design facilitated an emphasis on unity that became the cornerstone of religious architecture after the Second Vatican Council, when modern building methods and materials were added to the traditional lexicon of church design. The Benedictines used Breuer’s creative, engineered concrete forms to uphold the prestige and forward-thinking architectural nature of their order, just as their Gothic counterparts had done centuries before. But the work of Breuer and his associates went beyond just a reaffirmation of monasticism: it was also the cornerstone of a liturgically reformed American and international Catholic architecture.”
contributed photo
This is the front cover of Victoria M. Young’s just-published book about the architectural projects on the St. John’s University campus more than 50 years ago.
photo by archdaily.com
World-renowned architect Marcel Breuer stands in front of his masterpiece, the St. John’s Abbey Church shortly after its completion in 1961.
photo from St. John’s Abbey website
This is a partial view of the enormous stained-glass window wall of St. John’s Abbey Church. The window was designed by Bronislaw Bak, a St. John’s University faculty member.
photo by archdaily.com
The soaring bell banner rises majestically in front of St. John’s Abbey Church. | https://thenewsleaders.com/book-explores-worldwide-marvel-abbey-church/ |
Architects are responsible for designing houses, factories, office buildings, and other large structures. Architects can be commissioned to design anything from a single room to an entire complex of buildings or public housing project. In some cases, architects may provide various predesign services, such as feasibility and environmental impact studies, site selection, cost analyses, and design requirements.
The architects' plans show the building's appearance and details of its construction. These plans include drawings of the structural system, air-conditioning, heating, and ventilating systems, electrical systems and plumbing. In developing designs, architects must follow state and local building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and easy access to buildings for people who are disabled.
Architects use computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) and building information modeling (BIM) for creating designs and construction drawings. However, hand-drawing skills are still required, especially during the conceptual stages of a project and when an architect is at a construction site. As construction continues, architects may visit building sites to ensure that contractors follow the design, adhere to schedule, use specified materials, and meet quality standards.
A recent shift in architectural thought has prompted architecture schools to focus building design more on the environment. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, Buckminster Fuller, and by green architects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn. Concepts include passive solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage.
A passive solar home collects heat as the sun shines through south-facing windows and retains it in materials that store heat, known as thermal mass. The share of the home’s heating load that the passive solar design can meet is called the passive solar fraction, and depends on the area of glazing and the amount of thermal mass. The ideal ratio of thermal mass to glazing varies by climate. Well-designed passive solar homes also provide daylight all year and comfort during the cooling season through the use of night-time ventilation.
There are typically three main steps to becoming a licensed architect: completing a bachelor's degree in architecture, gaining relevant experience through a paid internship, and passing the Architect Registration Examination. In all states, earning a bachelor's degree in architecture is typically the first step to becoming an architect. Most architects earn their degree through a 5-year Bachelor of Architecture degree program. Many earn a master's degree in architecture, which can take 1 to 5 additional years.
A typical bachelor's degree program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design with an emphasis on computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), structures, construction methods, professional practices, and math. Currently, 35 states require that architects hold a degree in architecture from one of the 122 schools of architecture accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). State licensing requirements can be found at the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB).
All state architectural registration boards require architecture graduates to complete a 3-year long paid internship before they may sit for the Architect Registration Examination. Most new graduates complete their training period by working at architectural firms through the NCARB that guides students through the internship process. Some states allow a portion of the training to occur in the offices of employers in related careers, such as engineers and general contractors. Architecture students who complete internships while still in school can count some of that time toward the 3-year training period.
Architects held about 128,800 jobs in 2017. The median annual wage for architects was $76,930 in May 2017. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $129,810. Architects are expected to be needed to make plans and designs for the construction and renovation of homes, offices, retail stores, and other structures. Many school districts and universities are expected to build new facilities or renovate existing ones. In addition, demand is expected for more healthcare facilities as the US population ages and as more people use healthcare services. | http://collegeinspector.com/engineering/architecture.php |
What exactly meant With the Term Globalisation, and How The need an Impact within the Practice Regarding Architecture?
Launch
In any age of change, discusiones on conflicting ideologies usually dominate conversations. The find it hard to adapt commonly results in healthy diet the social, political, fiscal and ethnical paradigms. For architectural backdrop ? setting and metropolitan designs, a great deal has been put forward the proposition on the ideology of modernism and traditionalism and, recently, on globalism and regionalism. These ideologies have been tacitly acknowledged, but still their practices have usually been regarded non-conforming. To effectively defend “for” a good ideology including globalism, one needs to take into consideration the consequences and effects based on predominant evidence, together with deliberate on opposing ideas. In the subsequent discussion, the very researcher can discuss internationalization and its influence on architecture with reference to various anatomist styles that can be considered universal and announce that globalization has really affected system styles of the world.
Discussion
Glowbal growth is an patio umbrella term of which refers to a fancy and general phenomenon who has affected wide-ranging dimensions as well as economics, state policies, science, story, geography, surroundings, culture, operations, international the relations, and professional practices etc . Depending on the context it is utilized for, globalization can be defined as “the escalating interdependence with the world’s people today … an operation integrating not just for the economy nevertheless culture, technology, and governance. People all over are becoming connected-affected by activities in a good corners worldwide. ” United Nations Development Program (1999: 1). From this distinction, one realizes that globalization isn’t just a sensation that is realized and liked by European cultures but it is also quickly becoming embedded within other regions of the world. Globalization has a overwhelming influence above almost all aspects of public and life (Kiggundu 2002). As a result, it is not stunning that it even offers proliferated so that you can architectural strategies as well.
To learn the have an effect on of glowbal growth on architectural mastery, one needs to be able to first understand the influence with culture at architecture. Consistent with Lewis (2002), architectural background is filled with motions of opposite cultural along with aesthetic selection, which kind the basis just for architectural school of thought and structure ideology. Simply because governments, firms and people of countries around the world are definitely the main vendors of system designs and styles, that use to advert to their law and identity. Thus, the particular Romans formulated the high quality coliseums in addition to temples when using the view towards depict all their empire’s brilliance (Lewis 2002). The traditional Roman industrial designs take into account the hegemony of her people who have also been the determinism of power structure and beliefs of the Roman culture (Tzonis, Lefaivre as well as Stagno 2001). Furthermore, a single also observes that the time-honored Roman sort of architecture represents cultural hegemony. This trend of interpersonal influence across architectural design and style is not remote in history. Through 19th and also 20th 100 years, to establish their particular identities for colonies some people set up, the very French plus English got controlled the actual architectural varieties of many patches of the world such as China, Sth East Asian countries, Africa plus America. Breathtaking designs, which might be developed make in these territories, speak of their valuable colonial concept and adjusting policies. With regards to colonial ethnic hegemony, Metcalf (1989 qt. Wright ) writes, “Administrators hoped which will preserving traditional status-hierarchies will buttress their unique superimposed colonial time order. Designers, in turn, admitting that capacity new sorts is often depending on affections just for familiar destinations, tried to prompt a sense of continuity with the nearby past with their designs. ” (Wright 9) After the a couple World Competitions, economic fall and increase of countrywide universalism brought about capitalism. Uefa and U . s citizens architects, consistent with Lewis (2002), rebelled about the classicism along with demanded a new regime pertaining to international design to be obtained with the brand new industrial, technological, social and even political buy; hence, come about the modernist style.
Modernism, according to Ibelings (1998), shaped the basis just for building, over the post-war time. Modern design progressed along with faith throughout reason. Them introduced the technique of internationalization for architecture, where designs of offices, schools, nursing homes and houses have been based upon multifunction. The following style, nevertheless has been quickly replaced by postmodernism in which concepts are set on widely accepted ideologies. The post-modern style is becoming more prominent, partly due to the deterioration associated with modernism and even partly due to the fact modernism cannot convey often the language of folks that inhabited architectural structures and homes built through modern designer. Buildings should be function as vehicles of thoughts and things to do within them (Ibelings 1998). They need to magnify the plastic and idea of the people who all live in them. It is during the post-modern period that appeared the concept of universalism to express and also accommodate signs of digital development, domestic progress, financial integration and even internationalization.
Therefore, during the past due 20th one hundred year, a samsung wave s8500 of anatomist styles came up that replicated the age of the positive effect. This world style come about which were definitily synonymous along with standardization, systemization, mass making, functional intuition and companies of level. The new purposeful type of building design offers adopted worldwide culture about commerce in addition to design.
The global architectural form triumphed covering the historic common as it is depending on the rationale connected with universalization. Worldwide architects believe the stylistic buildings while in the modern age emulate its traditional, constructivist, modernist and colonial time counterparts since it facilitates the exact vernacular reflection and allows regional along with aesthetic idea to incorporate into designs (Umbach along with Bernd 2005). The global consumers manifest their expectations plus ideologies will be influenced just by market chances, business daily activities, standardization, franchises, and companies. Buildings will be characterized by skyscrapers, towers, department stores and brand buildings. Typically the Petronas Looms, Sears Rises, World Industry Centre, Shanghai in china World Economical Centre and even Canary Wharf, for example , many depict consumerism and universalism. Thus, the global architectural model has come to dominate the worldwide arena.
The global architectural design and style has also visit influence the architectural training. As architect firms meet international markets, they increase to make money from far away stores, even though the greater part are based in the Western countries. These base their particular designs on the general structure of glowbal growth and article modernism. They can be more stimulated by the neighborhood cultures. All their designs typically reflect each of those, the local factors and general designs. Japones buildings, like are often influenced by Feng Shui principles, even though monument draws on technological together with modern architecture. Similarly, high-rise buildings in the states will have utilized glass, steel and such precious metals, which design the nation’s industrial prior.
While the previously mentioned discussion represents a positive snapshot of internationalization and its impact on architectural style, you can find contenders to barefoot jogging as well. Anti-global forces, such as humanists, claim that do my chemistry homework globalization possesses eradicated that which is essentially ethnical of a place. By producing functional, standardization and start space urbanism, cities around the globe have supplanted their ancient skyline using ugly iron and definite. Furthermore, the exact efforts so that you can standardize along with systemize possess eradicated societal identity that is why essence of an nation or possibly state. Alternatively, today building designs are generally dominated by simply political hegemony and market dominance. Complexes of today, for example the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, China Airport in addition to Thai Airlines, all certainly belong to a person style. Department stores across the world, by way of example, reflect related functionality, free of humanism or cultural id. Nevertheless, all their argument cannot reason when using the fact that worldwide designs include purpose to help in resource efficiency of the atmosphere through productive utilization of room designs. It is the brand new style that provides habitation spots without compromising land apply (Scarpaci 05; Umbach and even Bernd 2005).
Conclusion
To sum up discussion, its clear the fact that globalization provides positively determined architectural strategies and styles. It again reflects the exact culture about modernization, systemization, standardization along with functional coherence. It also explains cultural integrating, harmonization about spaces together with universal consumerism. No doubt, the classical way of thinking considers glowbal growth of structure as violation over identity and personal identity. Nevertheless, they must say that the positive effect has in actual fact alleviated localization through vernacular designs. Typically the writer contends that the positive effect has replaced the individual visual and societal uniqueness. An individual must also disclose the fact that internationalization has “mass produced” buildings that once had been an occupation of individualism and awesome skills. But still, globalization has got benefited even more through resourceful and functional architectural versions, as compared to the actual classical structures that rewards a few category of high elites only. | https://www.mulliganeers.org/impact-with-globalisation-at-architecture-10/ |
Gracious curves, abstract forms and free-flowing designs, are signatures of Brazilian architect, Oscar Niemeyer. His distinct style expressed his modernist vision, which helped give Brazil a unique visual voice. His appreciation for white facades and stark curves are most evident from his designs of Brasilia’s architecture. The curves in his buildings were inspired by his love of the female form. You can see his work all across Brazil, but also in many parts of the world and today, we shed light on his legacy.
Neimeyer was born in Rio de Janeiro, in 1907, and he grew up in a wealthy family. He had a natural talent for the visual arts, and after working for his father’s typography firm for a short period, he attended the National School of Fine Arts to pursue his passion for architecture.
Shortly before graduating in 1934, he started working in the studio of influential architect, Lucio Costa. From 1936-1943, Niemeyer worked on many buildings with Costa, including Brazil’s pavilion at the 1939 New York World’s Fair and Brazil’s Ministry of Education and Health Building, which was completed in 1943. This was the point when Niemeyer’s career started to blossom, as Lucio Costa led a team of young architects, who collaborated with Le Corbusier to design the building, which became a landmark in Brazil. Despite the team effort, the building today is associated with Niemeyer more than any other architect.
It was in the early 1940’s after he launched his solo career, that Niemeyer met Juscelino Kubitschek, who would later become the Brazilian president. Wanting to develop a new suburb in the city of Pamphula, he commissioned Niemeyer to build a series of buildings called the Pamphula Architectural Complex in the city of Belo Horizonte. It was here that Neimeyer started developing some of his trademark work, such as his affinity for the heavy use of concrete and curved designs. It was his use of reinforced concrete which allowed him to produce sensuous curves and forms, as the material can be moulded into any shape. Niemeyer said, “I consciously ignored the highly praised right angle...” At the time, reinforced concrete was an innovative new material and it helped pave the way for modernist architecture and construction. Although the buildings received wide acclaim, it wasn’t until Niemeyer collaborated again with Le Corbusier for the design of the United Nations Headquarters (1947-53), that he became an international star. He didn’t go onto produce many designs for the US, because of his affiliation with the Brazilian Communist party.
Niemeyer did face criticism, particularly for his design of Brasilia’s architecture. Many have indicated the sharp contrast between the city and surrounding regions, which are plagued by poverty. Also, Brasilia has received criticism for being messy and difficult to live in, and not having “the ingredients of a city”, as Ricky Burdett, Professor of Urban Studies at the London School of Economics, argued. But nevertheless, Niemeyer still received international acclaim for his use of modernist architecture, creating a somewhat utopian city.
By the late 1980s, he was semi-retired and he received the Pritzker award in 1988, the highest award in the profession for his cathedral of Brasilia. Niemeyer still worked at the drawing board, welcoming young architects all over the world right up until his death at age 104.
As the last founder of architectural modernism, and having reshaped the national identity of Brazil through his stunning buildings, his has an ever-lasting legacy. Many of Niemeyer’s projects are world heritage sites, including Brasilia. He influenced many other architects, such as Zaha Hadid, who said she was influenced by Niemeyer’s total fluidity in his designs. Also, his projects have been a major source of inspiration for French painter, Jacques Benoit. In 2006, he presented a series of large paintings in France, paying tribute to the Niemeyer’s legacy. The series was entitled “Three Traces of Oscar”, and consisted of 28 paintings, paying homage to three buildings designed by Niemeyer in the Paris region. These buildings were the French Communist Party’s headquarters, the labour exchange in Bobigny and the former headquarters of French newspaper, L’Humanité. Benoit expressed the deep concrete curves of these buildings in his paintings.
Oscar Niemeyer will always be remembered as a visionary, dedicated to expressing sensual designs, and as the man who helped bring Brazil into a modern age through his architecture.
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Rafael Moneo has been honored as the beneficiary of the Golden Lion Award for Lifetime Achievement, a renowned beneficiary that will be bestowed to the 83-year-old Spanish architect, critic, and educator to start the seventeenth edition of the Venice Architecture Biennale. Recognized by Hashim Sarkis, the curator of the 2021 Architectural Biennale, Moneo is credited for being “one of the most transformative architects of his generation”. The Golden Lion marks the newest achievement to Moneo’s considerable trophy chest among others, the Rolf Schock in Visual Arts (1993), the Pritzker Architecture Prize (1996), the Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects (2003) to name some.
Many Roles
Born in the northern Spanish city of Tudela in 1937, Moneo has been based in Madrid since 1965 when he set up his eponymous studio, Rafael Moneo Arquitecto, and started teaching at Escuela Técnica Superior of Madrid. From 1985 through 1990, Moneo filled in as the executive of the Architecture Department of the Harvard University Graduate School of Design. In 1997, he was chosen as an individual from the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of Spain. The Golden Lion for lifetime accomplishment is just befitting for the architect who participated in the Giudecca lodging undertaking of 1983, who won the competition for a new Cinema Palace at the Lido di Venezia in 1991, and who has drawn numerous lessons for architecture from Venice.
As a practitioner, through the expansive array of his innovative designs, like the Kursaal Auditorium, The Prado Museum, the Atocha Train Station, and the Los Angeles Cathedral, he has featured the ability of every architectural project to resonate with the contingencies of the contextual environment, the site, and program while transcending them.
As a critic of the contemporary scene, he has composed on arising wonders and key projects and has established some of the absolute dialogues on the current scenario of design with associates from around the world.
As an educator, he has thoroughly guided several generations of designers towards architecture as a vocation. As a researcher, he has consolidated his visual ability and insightful afflictions to help rethink the absolute most accepted historical buildings with fresh perspectives.
All through his long career, he has kept a poetic prowess, to align the forces of compositional architecture to express, shape but also endure. He has additionally been diligently dedicated to architecture as an act of building and reflected his vision in a series of books.
Rafael and his Vision
As a young learner, Moneo was more attracted to philosophy and painting rather than architecture, however, it was the influence of his father, an industrial designer that eventually led to him pursuing a practice in architecture. Moneo is well recognized for his vision as “timeless structures” that are merged effortlessly with the landscape while respecting the environment.
“I believe architecture schools must pay close attention to the contemporary scene. This helps to establish a productive dialogue within the profession.” – Rafael Moneo. The key he focuses, is not to overwork the drawing, freshness, and immediacy are the qualities sought after, which demand concentration, efficiency, and a sense of knowing when a drawing is complete. Having consistently blended his attention for design with insightful exploration and education, there is something estimated and mathematical about the works of Rafael Moneo. His buildings regularly include perfect, straight lines which run in a grid-like or parallel formations. Moneo’s aspiration in Denmark roughly between 1961-1962 has made an impact on his future concepts and perceptions of architectural styles. By intertwining the contemporary patterns of the 70s and 80s with customary Nordic style and materials, Rafael Moneo has created his unique design concepts.
“I never wanted to develop a language that you may use again and again from project to project. Every project is different. I don’t have a fear of not having a common language.” – Rafael Moneo By accepting wholeheartedly the significance of buildings enduring the trial of time, rather than being delivered, repeated, and obliterated, Rafael Moneo works to the philosophy of creating something for people in the future to respect, that will not go all through design. The new divulging of his augmentation for Madrid’s Prado Museum is a genuine illustration of this. Via cautious thought of the way that as an art gallery, the actual built-up must not divert from its interior, Moneo utilized basic lines in his contemporary augmentation to unobtrusively bring one of the city’s most established structures into the 21st century and inspire a timeless quality.
Popular Works
In 1968, he headed the magazine Arquitectura Bis, where many of his visionary writings were published. The National Museum of Roman Art built in 1986 in Mérida, Spain is one of his earliest projects, as well as other projects like Madrid Atocha railway station in 1992, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in 2002 in Los Angeles, and the Prado Museum Extension in 2007. Among his most popular works are the transformation of the Villahermosa Palace into the Thyssen Bornemisza Museum (1989-92), the Pilar and Joan Miró Foundation in Palma de Mallorca (1987-1992), the Diagonal Building in Barcelona (1988-1993), the Museums of Modern Art and Architecture in Stockholm, Sweden (1994-98), the Kursaal Auditorium and Congress Center in San Sebastián (1991-1999), the Souks in Beirut (1996-2009), the Northwest Science Building for Columbia University (2007-2010), the Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Peretsman Scully Hall (2007-2013).
To celebrate the Spanish architect, Sarkis, the curator has set up an exhibition inside the Book Pavilion at the Giardini, a determination of plastic models and meaningful pictures of the structures acknowledged by Moneo, that can be viewed as a response to the question,“ How will we live together ?” – the theme of the 2021 festival. | https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/architectural-news/a4149-golden-lion-for-lifetime-achievement-of-the-2021-venice-biennale-awarded-to-rafael-moneo/ |
Engineering managers are project managers. These professionals oversee engineering teams for various types of projects in structural, mechanical, civil, or electrical engineering. Engineering managers typically work full-time for engineering or architectural firms, construction companies, or consulting companies. They usually split their time between the office and worksites. This is a collaborative position; engineering managers work closely with architects, engineers, drafting personnel, and other professionals. Team leaders who love to work with their hands and translate blueprint drawings into completed structures often find success in this occupation.
Engineering Manager Duties and Responsibilities
Engineering managers work in a variety of industries. Specific duties and responsibilities may vary, but there are several core tasks associated with the job, including:
Create Plans for New Engineering Projects
Engineering managers create designs for new engineering projects. They work closely with architects, draftsmen, and research and development teams to develop building structures, roadways, bridges, production machinery, or electrical systems.
Oversee Engineering Staff
Engineering managers hire and train engineering staff. They conduct interviews, complete job reviews, and act as mentors for engineers. They also set and review professional development goals for their engineers.
Review Technical Documents
From technical drawings to manuals, engineering managers review all documentation associated with engineering projects. They also complete mechanical analysis reports, review contract documents, and fill out and submit necessary permit applications.
Design Project Budgets, Schedules, and Staffing
Once a project has been green-lighted, engineering managers develop a project schedule and budget. They complete cost estimation reports, assemble engineering teams, assign tasks, set deadlines, and order materials.
Inspect Progress of Engineering Projects
Engineering managers make frequent visits to job sites to check on the progress of engineering projects. They meet with lead engineers to discuss issues and work progression, ensure that projects are meeting specifications, and revise schedules or deadlines as necessary. They also make sure that employees are working according to company policy and state and federal regulations. | https://agfs-shop.com/product/engineering-manager/ |
Phase 1 is finished, completely re-ordering the ground floor together with a contemporary dining room extension and external alterations which are needed to provide suitable facilities for this ninebedroom family home. Phase 2 which involves dismantling and constructing a new west wing, has Planning and Listed Building Consent. This scheme involves adapting an existing static caravan to create all yeafr round log cabin type accommodation for staff.
A general architecture practice was founded in London in 1975 and expanded to offices in Covent Garden. In 1980 the practice developed a historic building specialism, producing new designs in ahistoric context, converting existing buildings and conservation-repairing historic fabric. The office moved to Hertford, in 1985 and to Southwold in 2000, where it is now based and has developed as a historic-building practice.
Morphy Lawrence Ltd was set up in 2005 by its Director, Philip D Morphy. Philip is a fully qualified Architect; a title protected by law and the practice is registered with the Architects RegistrationBoard and RIBA. As RIBA chartered Architects Morphy Lawrence have to undergo a yearly assement by the RIBA and must carry full professional indemnity insurance. Philip qualified in 1997 and was formerly a senior Architect with several prominent architectural firms in London.
We are based in the historic centre of Leiston at the heart of the beautiful heritage coast of Suffolk. We have been designing beautiful buildings and making ordinary buildings beautiful for over 30years. It is our belief that good design is client led - we provide the tools for you to bring your dream to life.
Established over 35 years ago our experienced team provides design and project management services for a wide range of building projects from initial advice through to practical completion. One of ourmajor strengths is working within the education sector, delivering solutions for both private and public schools including new classroom blocks, dormitories and sports hall facilities.
Established in 1989 I am located on the Norfolk Suffolk border and offer a full range of Architect services specialising in residential work including work to Listed Buildings, Barn Conversions,Alterations and Extensions and new Houses. I have carried out numerous projects in the region and have been awarded both Norfolk Society and South Norfolk Design Commendations.
After working with several practices in London and Scotland, McArthur Tring Architects was established in 2003 by Gillian McArthur and Steve Tring. Stephen Tring, studied in London and has worked inhousing, listed and religous buildings, and leisure with hands on experience with self-build after constructing his own house. Stephen's interests lie in sustainable design and eco -retrofit.
GPAS (GP Architectural Services), based in Bradwell near Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, specialises in residential property, together with small commercial and industrial developments. Having worked inconjunction with clients on new builds, extensions, alterations and conversions to meet their individual requirements, GPAS has many satisfied customers in the local area. The gallery shows some examples of projects which GPAS has planned and designed.
He has over 40 years experience of most aspects of architectural work from brief through to design, technical drawings, specification and project management. His work has been featured in House andGarden, The Independent, The Guardian, Sunday Telegraph, Architects Journal and Building Design. Geoffrey Reeve Architect is an RIBA Chartered Practice.
Nick, a founding partner of Plaice Design Company Ltd, is an RIBA registered Architect. He has over 30 years experience of Architectural Practice within both the private and public sectors. He hasbuilt up a large design portfolio with specialist knowledge and expertise in the design of innovative educational buildings and spaces. With the formation of this company, Nick looks forward to shared architectural journeys with new and existing design conscious clients. | https://www.planningarchitectural.co.uk/halesworth |
Doug Garofalo with Xavier Vendrell, Roscoe Village, New Street.
With a new mayor and its first regional plan since the 1909 Plan of Chicago, Chicago is debating the kind of city it wants to become in the twenty-first century. Residents and planners agree that public transit is central to the livability and economic vitality of Chicago's communities. The "L" has profoundly shaped the city's development, but has become less relevant to how many people live and work. In partnership with Stanley Tigerman, who initiated the project, the Chicago Architecture Foundation presents the Design on the Edge: Chicago Architects Reimagine Neighborhoods exhibition from September 2011 through June 2012, with related public programs and a publication. The exhibition presents proposals for seven sites, designed by Chicago architects: John Ronan, Jeanne Gang, Ross Wimer, Darryl Crosby, Doug Garofalo with Xavier Vendrell, Sarah Dunn, and Patricia Natke. Design on the Edge will focus on transit-oriented development, generating public interest in and discussion about creating vibrant, walkable, diverse neighborhoods.
Stanley Tigerman, FAIA, established his practice in 1967, and is currently in partnership with his wife, Margaret McCurry. Tigerman was a founding member of the Chicago Architectural Club and cofounder of Archeworks. Not subscribing to any one aesthetic, Tigerman specializes in institutional and educational facilities, museum installations, as well as mixed-use and affordable housing. He was named the 2008 recipient of the AIA Illinois Gold Medal in recognition of outstanding lifetime service. In 2008 he also received the AIA/ACSA Topaz Medallion for Excellence in Architectural Education. Tigerman McCurry Architects has received seven National AIA Honor Awards and more than 135 awards for architecture and design excellence with projects spanning 18 states and ten other countries. He received his architectural degrees from Yale University. Tigerman edited Visionary Chicago Architecture: Fourteen Inspired Concepts for the Third Millennia, which was published in 2004.
Gregory K. Dreicer is a historian and curator whose innovative explorations of the built environment have received national recognition. He is responsible for institutional interpretive direction and development of exhibitions, programs, publications, and content-based web experiences at CAF. Dreicer's projects at CAF include Chicago Model City (2009), an examination of the ideas behind city planning and building; Green With Desire: Can We Live Sustainably in Our Homes? (2008); and Do We Dare Squander Chicago's Great Architectural Heritage? Preserving Chicago, Making History (2008). His publications include exhibition catalogues for Me, Myself, and Infrastructure: Private Lives and Public Works in America (2002) and Between Fences (1996). Dreicer received his PhD from Cornell University's Department of Science and Technology Studies. He holds an MS in Historic Preservation and a BA in French and Psychology from Columbia University.
Darryl Crosby studied at the University of Illinois at Chicago School of Architecture, and began working for his professor, Stanley Tigerman, at Tigerman McCurry Architects while still in school. Crosby cofounded 3D Design Studio with Melinda Palmore in 1997. The firm won the Universal and Affordable House Competition, sponsored by the City of Chicago in 2002, for accessible and adaptable housing. Current projects include designing a new lounge in the renovated Goodman Theatre, and the Intergenerational Learning Center in Chicago, a uniquely configured space clad in a variety of materials providing housing, education, and day care for children and seniors.
A research-based architecture and urban design practice founded by Sarah Dunn and Martin Felsen, UrbanLab is particularly interested in issues around the megalopolis. UrbanLab's practice focuses on public infrastructure as a design opportunity to develop new architectural forms. UrbanLab posits that possibilities for design innovation arise out of the investigation of various constraints of combining infrastructural and ecological systems with cultural desires. Advancing ideas of infrastructural and ecological urbanism, UrbanLab proposes a hybridization of architecture, landscape, city, infrastructure, and ecology that attempts to address the issue of contemporary public space and urban architecture.
Jeanne Gang is the founder and principal of Studio Gang Architects, an international practice whose work confronts pressing contemporary issues. Seeking to answer questions that lie locally and resound globally, Gang has produced award-winning and innovative architecture, including Aqua Tower, Northerly Island framework plan, and the Nature Boardwalk at Lincoln Park Zoo. Gang's work has been exhibited at the International Venice Biennale, the Smithsonian Institution's National Building Museum, and the Art Institute of Chicago. She is an adjunct associate professor at the Illinois Institute of Technology, where her studios focus on megacities and material technologies.
Douglas Garofalo (1958–2011) established an internationally renowned practice in Chicago that produced architectural work through buildings, projects, research, and teaching. The work of Garofalo Architects has been widely recognized for innovative approaches to the art of building, and was exhibited at the Art Institute of Chicago in 2006. Garofalo graduated from the University of Notre Dame in 1981 with a BArch, received his MA from Yale University in 1987, and was awarded the prestigious SOM Foundation Traveling Fellowship. He was professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago's School of Architecture, where he served as acting director from 2001–03. Garofalo passed away in July 2011.
Katharine Keleman has served as full-time exhibition curator since 2008. Previously, she worked with CAF as exhibition consultant on Do We Dare Squander Chicago's Great Architectural Heritage? and Green With Desire: Can We Live Sustainably in Our Homes? Keleman has since curated CAF's Chicago Model City and Neighborhoods Go Green! exhibitions. Keleman has participated in architectural and sociological research projects, including landmark nominations, and historical and field studies of regional modernism. Keleman holds an AB from the University of Chicago and an MS from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago focusing on historic preservation.
Patricia Saldaña Natke is founding partner of UrbanWorks, an architecture, planning and interiors firm. Natke's professional accomplishments include chairing the National Diversity Committee for the American Institute of Architects; lecturing in Brazil as a 2007 recipient of a Partners of the Americas Architecture Travel Grant; presenting on topics ranging from emerging practices to sustainability at AIA National Conferences; and representing the city of Chicago at the International Expo in Osaka, Japan. Natke has served as adjunct associate professor at the University of Illinois's Graduate School of Architecture and as a facilitator at Archeworks, a postgraduate school of design.
John Ronan holds an MArch degree from Harvard University's Graduate School of Design and a BS from the University of Michigan. Ronan was named a member of the inaugural Design Vanguard by Architectural Record in 2000, and was selected to the Architectural League of New York's Emerging Voices program in 2005. His work has been exhibited throughout the United States and Europe, and has been featured in international publications. A monograph on Ronan's work Explorations was published by Princeton Architectural Press in 2010. He is an associate professor at the Illinois Institute of Technology College of Architecture.
Xavier Vendrell studied architecture in Barcelona, where he has practiced since 1983. His work embraces a range of formats, including landscape architecture, urban design, public buildings, housing, and interior design. Vendrell's office was involved in several projects for the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, and he won the prestigious 1997 FAD Award for the Riumar School. In 1999, Vendrell founded XVStudio Chicago/Barcelona, a collaborative practice of architecture, landscape, and design, whose work was the subject of an exhibition at the Graham Foundation in 2002. He is a professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago's School of Architecture.
As design director in the Chicago Office of SOM, Ross Wimer, FAIA, has developed an extensive portfolio of projects which range in scale and complexity from master plans and airports to bridges and hardware. The rigor and logic of engineering, as well as environmental performance-driven design, remain driving forces in Ross's work. His projects have been exhibited in art and educational institutions worldwide, including the Venice Biennale, the Museum of Modern Art, Harvard University, the Art Institute of Chicago, and Los Angeles County Museum. His designs have earned many accolades, including three P/A Awards and numerous AIA awards.
Founded in 1966, the Chicago Architecture Foundation (CAF) engages diverse public audiences in learning about architecture, infrastructure, and landscape with educational programs that include tours, exhibitions, lectures and symposia, and youth and family programs. CAF public programs challenge and inspire audiences to explore the role of architecture in shaping their lives and creating communities that are economically, culturally, and socially vibrant, and environmentally sustainable. | http://grahamfoundation.org/grantees/3995-design-on-the-edge-chicago-architects-reimagine-neighborhoods |
Since the mid-1980s, the charming section of Northwest Philadelphia has been one of the largest historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places, with 2,700 buildings listed as significant resources contributing to its status. Anyone who has driven up Germantown Avenue and through its neighborhoods can understand the designation.
The Chestnut Hill Historical Society is now in the process of including more of its assets. A survey started last August and expected to be completed by December will likely add another 90 buildings erected since 1935, a trove of mid-20th century structures that includes nationally and internationally renowned designs and architects.
Among the revered mid-century homes of Chestnut Hill are the Margaret Esherick House, built in 1960, one of the few existing residential designs by Louis Kahn, and the Vanna Venturi House, built in 1962 by Venturi and Rauch for Robert Venturi’s mother. Dozens of other homes were designed by celebrated architects and firms, including Oskar Stonorov, Mitchell/Giurgola, Montgomery & Bishop, John Rauch, Kenneth Day, and Mark Ueland.
“It’s stunning to learn how many of them there are,” Lori Salganicoff, executive director of the Chestnut Hill Historical Society, said of the area’s modernist buildings. “But in order to update the list, we had to resurvey the entirely of Chestnut Hill.”
Field research
With a grant from the Preservation Alliance for Greater Philadelphia, the Historical Society enlisted the help of Philadelphia University students of architecture and historic preservation taught by associate dean David Breiner.
The university has a “signature learning approach” that involves real-world collaborative experiences, Breiner explained. “What better experience than helping a community learn about its architectural heritage?”
Breiner’s previous classes have documented the early industrial community of Rittenhousetown and historic buildings in Newtown Square. Chestnut Hill provided an opportunity for his students to examine the evolution of American architecture from Colonial to contemporary, Breiner said.
The 13 undergrads received a historic overview of Chestnut Hill from archivist Alex Bartlett and architectural historian Emily Cooperman. They were then divided into teams and began the field research trained and armed with materials by Anne Wertz, who is managing the survey project for the Historical Society.
Last week the students completed and submitted their review of the current conditions and any major alterations of the buildings, with red flags noted on significant changes to the historic resources. “Now more qualified people will focus on the issues they encountered,” Breiner said.
Historic continuum
The criteria for adding the mid-century buildings to the National Register are the same as for older structures, Salganicoff said. The measurements include excellent attention to craftsmanship, outstanding examples of work by a certain architect, historic factors related to a person or event, and significance to the local community. And the buildings must be at least 50 years old, a criterion the mid-century buildings now meet.
The updated survey will help the Historical Society provide recognition of the mid-century designs as historic buildings. “These buildings are an important part of our architectural heritage and the continuum that design matters” in Chestnut Hill, Salganicoff said.
“This also allows us to offer property owners access to the preservation easement program, which would allow them to put protections on their properties” in agreements with the Historical Society, she said. “Because they are nationally recognized, the owners can get some tax deductions for that protection.”
The Historical Society was founded at the time when the mid-century buildings were still new ideas on the local landscape, and the society’s mission began with saving a handful of early American buildings. In 1985, the effort to create a historic district began “so people could make good decisions about what’s appropriate to retain and what is not,” she said.
Revisiting and updating the survey is a “wonderful opportunity to talk about what the purpose of preservation is here, and what historic means. It has already generated interesting debate about why these buildings are special,” Salganicoff said. “That’s what we’re trying to do here more than anything else.”
PlanPhilly is now a project of WHYY/NewsWorks. It began in 2006 as an initiative of Penn Praxis inside the University of Pennsylvania School of Design. Though now part of WHYY, PlanPhilly still works closely with Penn Praxis in covering planning, zoning and development news. Contact Alan Jaffe at [email protected]. | https://whyy.org/articles/chestnut-hill-to-expand-definition-of-historic/ |
Every student has probably marveled over the pyramids, The Parthenon of Greece, the Roman Coliseum, and other feats of architecture – seemingly impossible for the crudeness of tools. And yet, someone designed them, and they did get built. Those designers, of course, were some of the first architects. And through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, these architects came and went, each leaving his “footprint” on the profession and contributing to designs that were to come.
Defining the Profession
In ancient times, the definition was quite simple. An architect designed a structure. If it “worked,” it stood. If it didn’t, no matter. There were no building codes, no contracts with independent builders, no budgets, no difficult clients who kept changing their minds, etc.
Today, the architect’s job has evolved into a far more complicated set of responsibilities and tasks. Of course, he designs both exteriors and interiors of buildings, even outdoor spaces. But in doing so, he must meet with clients, hold detailed discussions, prepare preliminary drawings, estimate costs, and determine the actual feasibility of the project. Once finalized, the detailed and scaled drawings are produced, contracts are drawn up, permits are secured, and the entire project must be managed. The final product must be exactly as planned, and it must be structurally sound and in compliance with all local building codes.
How to Become an Architect
The path to architecture involves a combination of formal education, an internship of some sort, and certification through a state authority. And there can be other stops along the way on this path.
In general, an architect must have a minimum of a Bachelor’s degree in architecture from a university that has a “recognized” program. Recognition means that a degree program is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). So, if a career in architecture is your goal, be certain that any school you choose has such accreditation, at least for the final two years of your program.
It should be noted that the majority of architects do go on to get a Master’s degree and many a Ph.D. Obviously, the higher the degree level, the higher the skill level, and the more valuable an architect becomes to firms and to clients.
No one can achieve certification without an Intern Development Program. While states may vary relative to the specifics, in general, it should be with a firm that has fully licensed architects and, ideally, the voluntary certification from the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB).
Steps on the Path to Becoming an Architect
You do have some options as you progress along the path to this career.
Start with Your High School Coursework
There are courses, both required and elective, that can prepare you for your post-secondary programs. Geometry is required if you intend to go to college. Pre-calculus is elective, but bite the bullet and take it. Get help if you need it. There are a number of online academic assistance resources you can use if you are struggling. Khan Academy is a great free resource, as are your peers who are doing well in the course. Be assertive and get the help you need to master the concepts and skills of this curriculum.
If you have vocational courses that include computer-aided design (CAD) programs, by all means, take them. This is a fully-used technology by architects today.
Your Options for Post-Secondary Study
College is expensive. If you are concerned about costs and the amount of student debt you may accumulate as you pursue your path, you certainly can begin at the community college level. There is plenty of coursework that is related to architecture, of course, but you can also get the general education requirements out of the way before transferring to a four-year institution. As Shelly Canfield, a writer and editor states: “We have many community college students as clients, and they tell us that it was a good decision to take the less expensive route for their first two years. They also tell us that they are getting a high-quality education that is preparing them for transfer to a four-year institution.”
And there are associate’s degrees that can plant you firmly on your path. You may be employed in drafting positions, for example – positions that will give you the opportunity to work in entry-level positions with architectural firms while you continue your education, by transferring to a four-year college.
Once you have that Associate’s degree, you will want to transfer to an accredited program. With a Bachelor’s, you will be ready to assume an entry-level position and complete that Intern Development Program.
Get that Master’s Degree
To gain full “admission” to the architectural community, you should pursue a Master’s degree. Once that is obtained, you will be able to take your place among the most reputed architects in that community.
Your Master’s program will provide greater study in theory, technology, cultural factors, and such things as ecologically conscious practices, preservation in urban planning.
If your Bachelor’s degree was in architecture, then a Master’s program will likely involve about two years. If your undergrad degree was in another field, it will probably take more than three years.
The Internship/Training
You cannot become licensed without an internship/training program under a licensed architect. Most architectural graduates complete this after they receive their degrees, just as accountants who are aspiring for CPA licenses do. To find an internship, look to architectural firms – they tend to have more openings. Be sure to look at engineering services firms too, because they also may have licensed architects you can work under.
Most internship/training programs last about three years.
Certification and Licensure
Just like lawyers, doctors, and accountants, architects can not practice their profession without a license. And just like all of these other professions, there is an examination – the Architect Registration Examination (ARE) – administered by the National Council of Architectural Registration Board.
The test has six parts, called divisions, that include mathematical questions related to architecture and multiple-choice parts. Specifically, the divisions are:
- Practice Management
- Project Management
- Programming and Analysis
- Project Planning and Design
- Project Development and Documentation
- Construction and Evaluation
Once a candidate takes and passes the first division, he has five years to complete the remaining ones. If he does not, he must begin all over again.
The National Council of Architectural Registration Board also offers a national certification. While not a guarantee, it can help an architect move from one state to another and ease certification in that state. Again, each state has its own “rules.”
Related Careers
If you love architecture but not the years of study involved, there are some related careers that will put you on a path to work with architects.
- An Associates degree in drafting will make you a strong candidate for positions that assist architects. You will use your CAD and other architectural software expertise to craft technical drawings that will act as “plans” for construction projects.
- A Bachelor’s degree in public or city management/planning will qualify you for positions within city governments, where you will be in charge of development, sustainability, and renovation initiatives. You will work with local officials but also with architects who are bidding and winning contracts for projects.
- Civil engineering: This is the practical implementation side of what an architect designs. It involves taking that design, planning the construction side of that design, and bringing it to fruition in a finished project.
- Teaching: Lots of architects end up getting Ph.D.’s and go into teaching rather than into actual practice. For those who love the profession and want to pass that love onto others, this is an ideal related career.
Architecture in the Future
According to the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics, architectural careers will grow at about 8% over the next eight years, and the median salary is about $80,000.
But these are exciting times for the profession as a whole. New materials, innovative designs, green structures, modular arrangements, and more are just the tip of this iceberg. There is so much innovation and creativity going on today, anyone studying architecture cannot help but be enthusiastic.
|Degree Required||Professional bachelor’s or master’s degree typically accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB)|
|Field of Study||Architecture|
|Training Required||Complete Intern Development Program (IDP)|
|Key Responsibilities||Work with clients to determine design requirements; estimate equipment, material, financial and time requirements; draft blueprints and other design documents; oversee construction to ensure compliance with specifications|
|Licensure or Certification||All states require architects to be licensed, voluntary certification from the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB) may permit reciprocity with state licensing requirements|
|Job Growth (2018-2028)||8%*|
|Median Salary (2018)||$79,380 (Except Landscape and Naval Architects)*|
Source: *U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)
What Are Some Related Alternative Careers?
The occupation of the urban or regional planner is closely related to that of architects, though as of 2015, according to the BLS, only New Jersey required planners to be licensed. The job of urban or regional planner deals with the creation of programs and plans that develop and/or revitalize communities. This is done with an eye toward population growth and the accommodation of the needs and requirements of the town, city, county, or metropolitan area involved. Prior work experience as an architect may be required.
With only an associate’s degree, drafters play an integral part in the accomplishment of an architect’s job. Working closely with architects and structural engineers, drafters use their specialized training on computer-aided design (CAD) software to convert architectural and engineering designs into technical drawings. These drawings act as the pattern for the construction project.
To continue researching, browse degree options below for course curriculum, prerequisites and financial aid information. Or, learn more about the subject by reading the related articles below: | https://notbusinessasususal.com/how-to-become-an-architect/ |
The inception of digital technologies have transformed the very essence of modern Architecture radically changing the dynamics of buildings design, production and manufacturing functions while in parallel providing a platform for designers and Architects to explore innovative aesthetically appealing design formats and discover refined production concepts in construction engineering. This study attempts at revealing the emerging concepts and trends in digital technologies that are influencing modern-day techniques and contemporary architectural practices with emphasis on the UK construction industry, further delving into the different ways in which these digital design concepts and technologies have changed the way buildings are constructed, designed and conceptualized.
Branko Kolarevic (2003) states in his study titled, " Architecture in the Digital Age – Design and Manufacturing" that there is a direct correlation and relationship between digital technologies and the design process that defines what can be conceived and produced thereby depicting and manifesting the prime importance of the information repository including aspects like production problems, management and control of information, communication and the application of this specific information in the buildings design and production process. This lucid relationship between production and conceptualization according to Kolarevic (2003) is further strengthened and reshaped through the augmentation and integration of digitally enhanced processes related to design, manufacturing, analytical modeling and buildings assembly.
In modern times, digital technologies are enabling the architects to take up a central role as diverse information managers and controllers exploiting the benefits offered by a digitally sparked collaborative environment built up through the seamless integration of professional functional areas such as architecture, construction and engineering design. The benefits of the use of digital concepts, procedures and techniques in contemporary Architectural practices for design and production have expanded beyond the ability to incorporate complex curving forms to producing significant construction details and specifications regarding buildings directly from the design process. These cutting-edge digital technologies and techniques are paving the way for ingenuity and innovative conceptual frameworks in building designs and production.
One of the key designs depicting a bold, brazen and aesthetically pleasing aura is reflected by Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, that is symbolic of the technological advancements marked by the industrial revolution emphasizing the futuristic growth of glass and steel structures in modern construction. The Eiffel Tower in Paris by Gustave reflects the construction technology's capabilities that spark skyscrapers design and tall buildings. These skyscrapers were seen soaring to new heights ten decades later with gleaming glass and steel structures finding immense popularity in terms of unique construction designs and effective production values. One of the best examples of modern-day architecture symbolizing digital architectural practices is Bilbao's Guggenheim Museum built by Frank Gehry that reflects the essence of the digital information transformation that has revolutionized the construction industry. Hence, as highlighted by Branko Kolarevic (2003), the digital information age is redefining how buildings are designed, manufactured and built and the effects of these digitally-driven changes are at-par with those reflected by the industrial revolution.
The use of digital technologies in contemporary architectural practices are reflecting capabilities that were perceived and projected by experts years ago. Practices such as topological digital architectures, kinetic and dynamic systems, genetically engineered algorithms, computational models and non-Euclidean geometric space techniques have led to the diversification of the conceptualization sphere. The use of three and four dimensional structures and their productive transformation through the implementation of digitally enhanced design processes marked by flexibility and creativity have led to innovative concepts in building designs and effectiveness in the production costs and management of such structures. Techniques like digital media, CAD, CAM, parametric models and BIM have further revolutionized the way buildings are designed and constructed especially in the UK. (Paul Seletsky, 2005)
The aim of this research is to evaluate and assess the impact and influence of the use of digital technologies in contemporary architectural practices with regards to the UK construction industry. The aim also veers towards the benefits and advantages that these digital design techniques have introduced for the construction industry including the way buildings are now designed and constructed.
The primary objectives of the proposed research include:
The above mentioned aim and objectives can hence be addressed through the following research question or topic:
How are recent digital technological development such as BIM and Parametrics design processes changing the way construction projects are developed / managed and buildings are designed, conceived and produced in the UK?
The solution and arguments relevant to the above research query will be highlighted through recommendations and analytical reasoning in the the form of information and knowledge found relevant and important in this researched argumentative analysis.
This section explains and highlights the case studies and literature reviewed to obtain a clearer and deeper understanding of the trends revealed by the adoption of digital technologies in contemporary building designs and production practices. Branko Kolarevic (2003), explains how these digitally enhanced practices are redefining designs and giving rise to inexpensive production procedures. Technological advancements in computer-aided design (CAD)and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) practices have sparked beneficial possibilities in architectural designs allowing for complex architectural forms and diverse designs to be created that would otherwise be difficult and expensive to pursue through conventional construction procedures.
The digital technologies in modern-day construction design and production generate a diverse digital continuum or a bridge as per Kolarevic (2003) that defines the relationship between design and production since innovative design concepts and methods for fabrication, construction and conceptualization that are digitally engineered are refining conventional methods of building production and construction including the relationship between constructive practices and Architectural designs. Various philosophers and theorists have influenced digitally driven architectural designs and practices in contemporary architectural methodologies. These include German mathematician, philosopher and logician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995). Further, techniques like BIM and Parametric Models have further transformed the way architectural designs are conceived.
Parametric Models
Parametric Modeling is a productive digital concept related to architectural design that allows a diaspora of possibilities by enabling the architect or the designer to create an unlimited number of similar things or object through the use of parameters. Using the concept of multiplicity, a range of objects can be generated and geometric representations and forms based on an earlier designed repository of relational or operative dependencies of variable dimensions can be produced.Using this technique particular objects or specific instances can be created by setting variable 's unique value. The emphasis is on setting the parameters or values of the variables that define the design and not exactly the shape.
A range of objects or instances can thus be created by assigning or declaring variable values for the different variables or parameters. A relative geometric representation or equation can thus be defined that represents the association or relationship between the objects or configurations. This association between objects can then facilitate the definition of interdependencies between objects and the behavioural exhibition of objects relative to transformations. The paracube model by Marcos Novak is an example of architectural design generated through parametric modeling technique. In his particular algorithmic explorations of “tectonic production” , Marcos Novak through the use of mathematical software produced geometric models and procedural flows that are defined through many variables called slots, generally not associated with pragmatic aspects that can be undergo a static or dynamic mapping with an external impact.
Therefore, parametric modeling allows for a highly refined and complex design through a hierarchy of associated instances modeled parametrically to generate robust and interactive designs. It also enables refinement of the design in iterations through all phases of the construction project including design, production and construction.
Business Information Modelling
Business Information Modeling or BIM is a high level digital design technique and integrated practice that provides a powerful framework to transform the conventional methodologies of architectural conceptualization and building designs by introducing digitally enhanced concepts for visual communication, representation and conceptual designs.The technique provides numerous benefits and opportunities to the architect for generating innovative and refined complex geometric representations and architectural forms. It makes use of the virtual building model simulation functionality and capability to produce architectural models and communicate interactive designs. The technique enables architects to explore design opportunities beyond the traditional two dimensional structures to include geometric projections and virtual building design simulations that are digitally enhanced.
The digital building designs through the BIM enable the designer and architect to generate innovative concepts and geometrical models related to the models plans, sections and elevations of buildings (Guidera, 2006). Building Information Modeling technique, through the use of simulation sparked by an intelligent, data-driven and object oriented integration of virtual reality, enables the generation and production of innovative and productive building models and designs. The technical essence of this digital technology has the power to transform the output and production values of the contemporary architectural practices. Business Information Modeling or BIM allows the smooth transition from traditional and conventional methods of representative designs like drawings towards digitally driven simulations and models including three-dimensional designs that depict the architect's aesthetics and architectural intent in a more lucid and deeper manner. The technique also enables production and construction process efficiency by optimizing costs and allowing for effective management of the construction projects from the conceptualization to the final development stage.
The research methodology is structured keeping in view the analytical techniques and descriptive methods available for conducting studies. The research will primarily include assimilation and evaluation of secondary data through literature review and analysis of practical applications and examples to gather valuable quantitative and qualitative information in order to supplement the arguments presented and provide considerable evidence to support the researched topic.The literature review will entail the analysis of practical implementations and examples available through related websites, business critiques or reviews, journal articles, industry reports and academic publications. secondary data in the form of technology applications by organizations in the construction industry that have published this information will be collected for the analysis of related arguments and supplemental information will be further reviewed to collect necessary information to further substantiate the highlighted topic. The aim is to gather and evaluate all relevant information available through online and other resources to provide valuable evidence and data in favour of the researched topic.
This section explains in detail the quantitative and qualitative analytical description produced through a comprehensive secondary research methodology and data analysis techniques. Further the arguments supported through refined assessment tools like case studies and literature review are presented in this section that reveal the research findings along with the comparative analysis conducted through the reviewed literature.
Based on the analytical data collected and obtained through secondary research practices,this section reveals the recommendations and the deduced conclusion and key recommendations based on the research query and topic. This section would also highlight and discuss the future challenges of the topic under discussion with emphasis on the difficulties and prospective limitations with regards to evolving technologies and innovative solutions in the coming age.
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Peter, Zellner., Hybrid Space: New Forms in Digital Architecture, New York: Rizzoli, 1999.
Pérez-Gómez, Alberto, and Pelletier, Louise., 1997. Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge. Cambridge: The MIT Press. 2-87.
Reyner, Banham., Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, 2nd edition. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980.
Rafael, Moneo., “The Thing Called Architecture” in Cynthia Davidson (ed.), Anything. New York:Anyone Corporation, 2001, pp. 120–123.
Stephen, Perrella (ed.)., AD Profile 133: Hypersurface Architecture. London: Academy Editions,1998.
Strong, Norman., 2006. Introduction. In: M. Broshar, N. Strong, and D.S. Friedman 2006. American Institute of Architects: Report on Integrated Practice. Washington DC: The American Institute of Architects. Section 0, 1-2.
Synthetic Landscapes – ACADIA 2006 Conference Proceedings. Mansfi eld: The Association for Computer-Aided Design in Architecture. 213-227.
Seletsky, Paul., 2005. Digital Design and the Age of Building Simulation. AECbytes [online], Viewpoint #19. Available from: <http://www.aecbytes.com/viewpoint/issue_19.htm/>. Accessed [21 December 2015].
White, John., 1958. The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space. New York: Thomas Yoseloff. 112-134.
Zigo, Tomislav., 2005. Beyond BIM. The Hidden Potential of the Cumulative Knowledge Factor. Hagerman & Company, Inc. Technology Bulletin [online], 34 (AEC2). Available from: <http://newsletters.hagerman.com/newsletters/ebul34-AEC2.htm/> . Accessed [21 December 2015].
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ACCO’s Architects is a team of dedicated professionals engaged in consultancy services in the field of Architectural, Interior Design, Landscape Design, Civil and Project Management, with a wealth of project and development experience covering residential, commercial and industrial projects.
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At Sam Architects we offer our clients a range of services across a variety of domains.
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Turns out it is impossible to not design a swastika.
Author Archives: Paul Conover
Depth Mappin’
Parametricism: Fabricated Reality?
Parametricism, according to Patrik Schumacher, is the next great “style” of architectural design, being the victorious champion over the mighty Modernism and its Postmodern and Deconstructivist minions. To him this new style transcends all of its predecessors both formally and functionally in a way that no style has done before. Based not on the classic shapes (cube, sphere, cone, etc.) as previous styles were, but rather on an entirely new set of elements (spline, blob, fabric, etc), the nature of parametricism is fundamentally different. Where before architectural design was more or less strictly dictated by a designer who then “plunked” that design into a site, the role of the parametric architect is more of hand which guides the digitalization of a design which grows organically from the site. The idea, then, is that these forms become highly relevant and functional in many non-traditional ways. By definition, parametric designs are bound to the guidelines placed on them by the architect, but are otherwise free to be manipulated in seemingly any way imaginable.
Yet the strength of this new “style” is – for now – also its greatest weakness. There is a profound lack of established materiality within the idea of parametricism – in part because few existing materials and methods suit it. Simply, nobody has figured out a really great way to construct parametrically designed buildings. This is an interesting dilemma, because this is actually the first architectural “style” we see that is being pioneered by design technology rather than building technology. Whereas the Gothic style was made possible by the invention of the flying buttress and the Modern movement was precipitated by the mastery of steel and concrete, we are seeing Parametricism being born from virtuality. This poses a unique problem in that construction materials are almost an afterthought rather than a design point. We imagine the architect finishing his design, reveling in it momentarily, then muttering, “Now how the hell do we build this thing?” A simple Google Images search of ‘parametric design’ reveals this dilemma starkly by producing an endless catalog of blobby, off-white renderings – often without context and nearly never with details.
Even if you venture to the website of Zaha Hadid Architects – the firm at which Schumacher himself is a partner – you will find more of the same. And these are the people who are said to be pioneering the style! To be sure, Zaha Hadid Architects does a fantastic job with making their buildings actually look like the renderings they produce – and that’s what makes them such a good firm – but many firms do not do such a good job at bringing their conceptual designs to life. This is largely because they’re just so hard to build. In fact, we really only see parametric design being built by huge institutions and corporations because they’re the only ones who can pay for the materials and the highly skilled construction crews required to erect these buildings. In order to bring this architecture to the people, we will have to re-examine what we understand about building materials, or even invent a few new ones – a process which will take years.
Scale is another enemy of parametricism. Since most of the logic behind parametrically designed buildings revolves around site and environment – both of which are really huge dragons to slay – the scope of these projects gets blown to huge proportions. This is absolutely a step forward, because it addresses issues that have not been seriously addressed in any previous architectural “style”. Yet at times it seems that parametricism is ignoring the proverbial trees and focusing on the forest. Will we never again see the kind of details that Louis Sullivan gave us? Or even Mies’ stark, straightforward composition? Joinery is seemingly a thing of the past. On the other end of the spectrum, many of the ideas being proposed…
…are simply too enormous, by my estimation, to be fully appreciated. This is design that goes way beyond the human scale, and even though it may be the most functional shape possible, it will be easy for designers to overlook exactly how this becomes a livable and tactile place.
Speaking of functionality brings up another interesting thought which, unfortunately, many architects also look over. This is the lifespan of the building. Over the course of its lifetime, a building may have one single function, or it may have many. What was a theater one year might be a boathouse the next, or what was a hotdog joint might soon be a laundromat. There’s really no way to tell. So with buildings whose forms are so intimately tied to their function, down the road, we might find that the structures themselves are actually quite useless once the company goes out of business or the circus leaves town. And at this stage, how sustainable are we really being?
To be sure, parametricism as an idea is fascinating and holds immense promise as the future of architecture. However, I would call for several things to happen before we fully embrace it as the next architectural “style”. First, we need to figure out how to teach builders how to construct these buildings cheaply. Second, we need to develop a materiality (either natural or synthetic) that will keep these buildings from appearing as alien spaceships. Third, we need to address the issue of scale and learn how to make these projects appreciative of individual human space while simultaneously making the necessary connections to site and environment. Finally, we need to examine the longevity of these designs in order to assure that they will be equally as relevant in 50 or 100 years as they are right now. Nobody has the answers to these questions, but I believe that in order for parametricism to really take its place in architectural history – and not just fade as another “transitional” phase – they will have to be answered by somebody. | http://ming3d.com/DAAP/ARCH4001_FA13/?author=3 |
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, explores ideas of community as an intrinsic part of the aesthetics of contemporary Japanese architects.
In his acceptance speech for the Pritzker Prize in 2013, the great contemporary Japanese architect Toyo Ito showed characteristic modesty and generosity when he stated that “making architecture is not something one does alone; one must be blessed with many good collaborators to make it happen.” A new exhibition at MoMA exploring Japanese architecture, A Japanese Constellation: Toyo Ito, SANAA and Beyond, attempts to give a fuller and more rounded picture of the social and collaborative endeavour of contemporary architecture, exploring ideas of influence and community.
As its title suggests, A Japanese Constellation: Toyo Ito, SANAA and Beyond goes further than just presenting the work of individual architects and instead focuses on some of the impulses and aesthetics that are shared by a select group of contemporary architects and underlie their practice. As Pedro Gadanho, former Curator of Contemporary Architecture at MoMA, and current Director of the Museum of Art, Architecture, and Technology (MAAT) in Lisbon, remarks: “I wanted to question the status of the monographic show as the most desirable format to present work by architects. I consider this an ‘expanded monograph’ in which the focus is on the relationships and influences that a selected number of them have. In this sense, this is not a ‘national’ event, but relates very precisely to a given lineage of architects, and what becomes evident as a shared formal language.”
One of the touchstones that these creatives co-habit is an environment that could be called Post-Metabolism. Metabolism was a short-lived post-war acme moment of ambition and optimism for architecture in Japan in which architects such as Kiyonori Kikutake, Kisho Kurokawa and Fumihiko Maki devised theoretical manifestos, and designed such hypothetical projects as sprawling urban complexes floating on water and plug-in capsule towers that could incorporate organic growth. The movement itself produced only a few buildings that matched the ambition of the writing in their manifestos before dissipating due to the economic crash of the 1970s. Nevertheless, the reverberations of this movement are ever-present in the work of, for example, Ito, whose first position was with Kiyonori Kikutake’s practice.
While Metabolism was a self-defined movement, this exhibition suggests a much more fluid contemporary environment. The sense is of a specific network of architects who share a professional language and are intrinsically linked in their roles as mentors, students and colleagues. Gadanho says his intention was not to suggest a kind of formal school or a self-defined movement, “but how an atmosphere of cross-generational mutual support and influence has fostered an intellectual context and shared attitude toward architecture’s ability to induce social change.”
Kazuyo Sejima’s House in a Plum Grove (1999-2004) is an example of a relatively modest project that demonstrates both technical innovation and a poetic and aesthetic approach to space. As an architect, Sejima, one half of the Pritzker Prize-winning practice SANAA, is known for her lightness of touch; she eschews virtuosic flourishes in favour of elegant simplicity. The building is a white box with a few seemingly haphazard gaps or cuts for windows. It is an expression of modesty and presence, set in a small site of 92 metres squared, in which even the detail of the door is such as to fuse almost invisibly into the wall. Using steel sheets for the walls, Sejima was able to create a sense in which the internal and the external walls have the same thickness, and while secure, seem weightless. Internally, no room is entirely shut off from another and the home challenges ideas of privacy while reflecting the way that modern families live.
Gadanho believes that projects such as this reflect the fact that there are more opportunities for contemporary architects to work on a smaller scale and in more innovative ways in Japan than in the USA. “There is a corporate sector that is very similar in both countries, what you could call a new international architecture, which I find uninteresting. In Japan, there is also a wider scope for smaller, experimental practices that survive – and indeed thrive in terms of architectural quality solely on private commissions, something which seems to be economically unsustainable in the USA. In this sense, and discounting the obvious exceptions in the States, contemporary architecture in Japan has been much more referential in terms of the spatial innovation it has been able to create over the last couple of decades.”
Some of SANAA’s most ambitious projects are public buildings such as New York’s iconic New Museum (2003- 2007), Lausanne’s Rolex Learning Centre (2005-2010) and Kanazawa’s 21st Century Museum (2004), which characteristically explores simple forms, modulating and combining them to create a complex spatial experience. This is an important feature of SANAA’s approach to architecture: the use of basic shapes and forms in a way that is surprising, fresh and at times exhilarating. 21st Century Museum is innovative in its design in that the galleries are arranged in a non-hierarchical circular system in which a series of exhibition spaces are surrounded by a matrix of public corridors that allow visitors the freedom to choreograph their experience in different ways. There is a continuity between the galleries and the surrounding environment as well.
An inescapable shared social context for all contemporary architects in Japan is the Great East Japan Earthquake that took place in 2011. As Gadanho comments: “It had a huge impact on this group of architects, with Toyo Ito leading a discussion on the social responsibility of the architect and how these practitioners could further reconcile their aesthetic pursuits and avant-garde experimentation if they had a deeper sense of the needs felt by the users. If this was already a theme in these architects’ works, the 2011 events led them to new collaborative endeavours and self-initiated projects in a direct response to the reconstruction efforts.”
The work of Toyo Ito has always been concerned with materiality. He has written of his attempts to “counter the fixity of architectures, their stolidity, with elements that give an ineffable immaterial quality.” Many of his buildings, in their innovative employment of curved forms and his use of the grid to suggest extension and modular form achieve just this. However, this aesthetic impulse is at times at odds with a necessity to design buildings that are able to withstand the volatility inherent in building in Japan. The 74-year-old Pritzker Prize-winner’s best-known creation, The Sendai Mediatheque (2001), was commissioned and design began soon after the 1995 Kobe earthquake, and Ito ensured it conformed to exacting standards. The Sendai Mediatheque was innovative in its suggestion of a new model for a cultural institution, and it has proved hugely influential to other architects. As Gadanho explains: “The building is notable for its approach to structure, dissolving typically solid columns into hollow steel-lattice tubes that provide support as well as spaces that can be occupied. The resulting building interior is a highly fluid space where interior walls are eliminated and a series of cultural programs are seamlessly combined.”
Since 2011, Ito has refocused his activities in the direction of buildings that are adaptable. He has said in interviews that he sees the role of the architect as negotiating different demands, such as those of sophisticated urban environments in a region with high seismic activity, rather than as a visionary artist expressing a personal aesthetic. For example, he has recently developed Home-for-All, which designs homes that are easy to rebuild in the event of earthquake damage, rather than making an attempt to master or resist the elements.
It was important for Gadanho in curating the show that the exhibition itself use the space of the Museum of Modern Art in thoughtful ways, to best showcase the works. As he explains: “The translucent panels that separate the different sections not only evoke certain perceptual qualities which one may discover in these architects’ work but also attempts to bring a more atmospheric quality to the way in which architecture is appreciated in a museum context. Thus, the typical models and drawings are juxtaposed to projected slideshows that make the buildings more accessible and understandable.”
The exhibition includes recent works such as Ito’s National Taichung Theater (2016) in Taiwan. As an opera house in a site of c. 57,685 square metres, it is arranged in a design that incorporates both curves and grid forms without the need for vertical or horizontal surfaces – everything is rounded. Drawing on the surface of the human ear, the acoustics of teapots and sound bowls, and the designs of early human dwellings such as caves, the building gives the impression of a sound cavern in which audio quality is of paramount consideration, as well as aesthetics. In the large auditorium, there is a round curve on the ceiling that is designed to reflect the sounds perfectly at every angle to every seat.
Another recent project documented in the exhibition is SANAA’s Grace Farms (2012-2015), a cultural centre in a nature reserve in Connecticut. This project establishes a nuanced relationship to the landscape, which is another theme that recurs across many of these architects’ work. Suggesting the sinuous ribboning of a river or stream, the 83,000 sq ft (7,710 sq m) structure is a series of five pavilions, all linked by a curved roof, which descend a gently sloping hillside. Each building has been designed to serve a distinct function, with a sanctuary, library, gymnasium, orientation centre, and a common outside space with a cafe.
Displaying the dynamic variety of the contemporary architectural scene in Japan, A Japanese Constellation: Toyo Ito, SANAA and Beyond points also to the future. As these most recent projects testify, today’s Japanese architects are making a global impact. Both SANAA and Ito have designed pavilions for The Serpentine Galleries in London, as has one of the younger architects whose work is presented in the exhibition, Sou Fujimoto, whose Serpentine Pavilion (2013) almost seemed to pixelate and dissolve into the green space in which it was situated, vanishing chimerically in front of the eyes. However, the impact of Japanese contemporary architecture on a global scale is no chimera, and this exhibition clearly testifies to its robustness in the face of ongoing global economic and environmental challenges.
Words Colin Herd.
A Japanese Constellation: Toyo Ito, SANAA and Beyond. MoMA, New York. Until 4 July. | https://aestheticamagazine.com/material-immateriality/ |
Multivariate analysis investigates the relationships between more than two variables.
Controlling for the variation in other variables allows you to begin making causal inference and rule out spurious relationships.
- A spurious relationship is one in which the association between two variables is caused by a third.
In a multivariate cross-tabulation, you can control a third variable by holding it constant—this is control by grouping, or, grouping the observations according to their values on a third variable and then observe the original relationship within each of these groups.
Multiple regression analysis extends the bivariate regression analysis presented in Chapter 13 to include additional independent variables.
- Both types of regression involve finding an equation that best fits or approximates the data and describes the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
In a multiple regression, a coefficient indicates how much and in what direction the dependent variable, Y, changes with a one-unit increase in the independent variable, X controlling for all other variables in the model.
Statistical significance can be determined through a t-test by dividing a regression coefficient by its standard error and comparing the observed t to a critical value.
A dummy variable has two categories, generally coded one for the presence of a characteristic and zero otherwise. Recoding a nominal level variable as a dummy variable allows the variable to be used in numerical analysis.
One can measure an interaction—to determine whether variables behave differently in the presence of a third.
A standardized coefficient shows the partial effects of an X on Y in standard deviation units. The larger the absolute value, the greater the effect of a one-standard deviation change in X on the mean of Y, controlling for or holding other variables constant.
Multiple R squared is a measure of goodness of fit of the model with the data. It is the ratio of the explained variation in the dependent variable to the total variation in the dependent variable; hence, it equals the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that may be explained by the set of independent variables.
Multiple regression can be used to test hypotheses through a t-test—comparing a t statistic with a critical value from the t table.
When the dependent variable is in binary form (only two categories like voted or not), you must use a slightly different form of regression called the linear probability model that estimates the probability of an outcome on the dependent variable.
- The linear probability model, however, cannot be used to test hypotheses because it violates necessary assumptions.
A (nonlinear) logistic regression is usually a better choice for a binary dependent variable.
A logistic regression is interpreted differently than a multiple regression. Coefficients in a logistic regression change when each independent variable is set at a different value (like the mean, or one standard deviation above the mean).
To interpret logistic regression coefficients, you must specify a value for each variable and use the resulting coefficients to predict the probability of Y=1. The coefficients, therefore, do not, on their own, indicate the magnitude of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, only the direction of the relationship.
- To assess the magnitude of a relationship you must calculate the predicted probability or odds ratio, or examine a graphical representation of the relationship.
Goodness of fit for a logistic regression can be measured by calculating pseudo R squared.
Statistical significance for use in hypothesis testing can be assessed in a similar manner to multiple regression by comparing a z statistic to a critical value. | https://edge.sagepub.com/johnson8e/student-resources/chapter-14/chapter-summary |
Logistic regression Logistic regression is the standard way to model binary outcomes (that is, data y i that take on the values 0 or 1). Section 5.1 introduces logistic regression in a simple example with one predictor, then for most of the rest of the chapter we work through an extended example with multiple predictors and interactions.
Category: Logistic regression algorithm pdf
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Logistic Regression Logistic Regression Logistic regression is a GLM used to model a binary categorical variable using numerical and categorical predictors. We assume a binomial distribution produced the outcome variable and we therefore want to model p the probability of success for a given set of predictors.
Category: binary logistic regression pdf
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This looks ugly, but it leads to a beautiful model. In logistic regression, we solve for logit(P) = a + b X, where logit(P) is a linear function of X, very much like ordinary regression solving for Y. With a little algebra, we can solve for P, beginning with the equation ln[P/(1-P)] = a + b X i = U i.
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Logistic Regression Fitting Logistic Regression Models I Criteria: find parameters that maximize the conditional likelihood of G given X using the training data. I Denote p k(x i;θ) = Pr(G = k X = x i;θ). I Given the first input x 1, the posterior probability of its class being g 1 is Pr(G = g 1 X = x 1). I Since samples in the training data set are independent, the
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About Logistic Regression It uses a maximum likelihood estimation rather than the least squares estimation used in traditional multiple regression. The general form of the distribution is assumed. Starting values of the estimated parameters are used and the likelihood that the sample came from a population with those parameters is computed.
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The deviance of a fitted model compares the log-likelihood of the fitted model to the log-likelihood of a model with n parameters that fits the n observations perfectly. It can be shown that the likelihood of this saturated model is equal to 1 yielding a log-likelihood equal to 0. Therefore, the deviance for the logistic regression model is
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Liang & Zeger, 1986) or multilevel regression models (aka hierarchical linear models; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) can be used. These two approaches will be briefly described in the section on longitudinal logistic models. Software Examples . SPSS . SPSS is a bit more limited in the potential diagnostics available with the logistic regression command.
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Logistic Regression The logistic regression model is a generalized linear model with Random component: The response variable is binary. Y i =1or 0(an event occurs or it doesn’t). We are interesting in probability that Y i =1; that is, P(Y i =1x i)=π(x i). The distribution of Y
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The regression coefficient in the population model is the log(OR), hence the OR is obtained by exponentiating fl, efl = elog(OR) = OR Remark: If we fit this simple logistic model to a 2 X 2 table, the estimated unadjusted OR (above) and the regression coefficient for x have the same relationship. Example: Leukemia Survival Data (Section 10 p
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Step 2: Fit a multiple logistic regression model using the variables selected in step 1. • Verify the importance of each variable in this multiple model using Wald statistic. • Compare the coefficients of the each variable with the coefficient from the model containing only that variable.
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1. Purpose of empirical models: Association vs Prediction 2. Design of observational studies: cross-sectional, prospective, case-control 3. Randomization, Stratification and Matching • Multiple logistic regression 1. The model 2. Estimation and Interpretation of Parameters 3. Confounding and Interaction 4. Effects of omitted variables 5
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Notes on logistic regression, illustrated with RegressItLogistic output1 In many important statistical prediction problems, the variable you want to predict does not vary continuously over some range, but instead is binary , that is, it has only one of two possible outcomes.
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The linear logistic model has the form logit.ˇ/ log ˇ 1 ˇ D ˛Cˇ0x where˛istheinterceptparameterandˇ D .ˇ1;:::;ˇs/0 isthevectorofsslopeparameters. Notice that the LOGISTIC procedure, by default, models the probability of the lower response levels. The logistic model shares a common feature with a more general class of linear models: a
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Logistic regression analysis studies the association between a binary dependent variable and a set of independent (explanatory) variables using a logit model (see Logistic Regression). Conditional logistic regression (CLR) is a specialized type of logistic regression usually employed when case subjects with a particular condition or attribute
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Binary Logistic Regression • The logistic regression model is simply a non-linear transformation of the linear regression. • The logistic distribution is an S-shaped distribution function (cumulative density function) which is similar to the standard normal distribution and constrains the estimated probabilities to lie between 0 and 1. 9
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Logit Models for Binary Data We now turn our attention to regression models for dichotomous data, in-cluding logistic regression and probit analysis. These models are appropriate when the response takes one of only two possible values representing success and failure, or more generally the presence or absence of an attribute of interest.
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Keywords: st0041, cc, cci, cs, csi, logistic, logit, relative risk, case–control study, odds ratio, cohort study 1 Background Popular methods used to analyze binary response data include the probit model, dis-criminant analysis, and logistic regression. Probit regression is based on the probability integral transformation.
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The linear logistic model has the form logit.ˇ/ log ˇ 1 ˇ D C 0x where is the intercept parameter and D. 1;:::; s/0is the vector of s slope parameters. Notice that the LOGISTIC procedure, by default, models the probability of the lower response levels. The logistic model shares a common feature with a more general class of linear models: a
Assumptions of the logistic regression model logit(π i) = β 0 +β 1x i Limitations on scientific interpretation of the slope • If the log odds truly lie on a straight line, exp(β 1) is the odds ratio for any two groups that differ by 1 unit in the value of the predictor – …
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The Regression Model results will generate a new tab – labeled in our example “Step 4 - Reg Initial Values”. Step 4.2: o Copy the coefficients (weights) in column B from the regression model output to the Coefficients Table (in our example, the table includes cells T3 to T8 in column T of the spreadsheet “Predictive Model”).
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Logistic regression is much easier to implement than other methods, especially in the context of machine learning: A machine learning model can be described as a mathematical depiction of a real-world process. The process of setting up a machine learning model requires training and testing the model.
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The model for logistic regression analysis, described below, is a more realistic representation of the situation when an outcome variable is categorical. The model for logistic regression analysis assumes that the outcome variable, Y, is categorical (e.g., dichotomous), but LRA does not model this outcome variable directly.
6 hours ago Case.truman.edu Show details
To perform a logistic regression analysis, select Analyze-Regression-Binary Logistic from the pull-down menu. Then place the hypertension in the dependent variable and age, gender, and bmi in the independent variable, we hit OK. This generates the following SPSS output. Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients Chi-square df Sig.
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Request PDF On Jan 1, 2009, Joseph M Hilbe published Solutions Manual for Logistic Regression Models Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
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Results from Binary Logistic Regression models indicate that achieving a 2.1 degree largely depends on personal attributes, notably how efficiently a student manages time/schedules, some degree of
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Background. Given a set of features , and a label , logistic regression interprets the probability that the label is in one class as a logistic function of a linear combination of the features:. Analogous to linear regression, an intercept term is added by appending a column of 1's to the features and L1 and L2 regularizers are supported.
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This justifies the name ‘logistic regression’. Data is fit into linear regression model, which then be acted upon by a logistic function predicting the target categorical dependent variable. Types of Logistic Regression. 1. Binary Logistic Regression. The categorical response has only two 2 possible outcomes. Example: Spam or Not. 2.
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Logistic regression models a relationship between predictor variables and a categorical response variable. For example, we could use logistic regression to model the relationship between various measurements of a manufactured specimen (such as dimensions and chemical composition) to predict if a crack greater than 10 mils will occur (a binary variable: either yes or …
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A logistic regression model describes a linear relationship between the logit, which is the log of odds, and a set of predictors. logit (π) = log (π/ (1-π)) = α + β 1 * x1 + + … + β k * xk = α + x β. We can either interpret the model using the logit scale, or we can convert the log of odds back to the probability such that.
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sklearn.linear_model .LogisticRegression ¶. Logistic Regression (aka logit, MaxEnt) classifier. In the multiclass case, the training algorithm uses the one-vs-rest (OvR) scheme if the ‘multi_class’ option is set to ‘ovr’, and uses the cross-entropy loss if the ‘multi_class’ option is set to ‘multinomial’. (Currently the
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Logistic regression is a statistical model that in its basic form uses a logistic function to model a binary dependent variable, although many more complex extensions exist. In regression analysis, logistic regression (or logit regression) is estimating the parameters of a logistic model (a form of binary regression ).
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Logistic Regression Models presents an overview of the full range of logistic models, including binary, proportional, ordered, partially ordered, and unordered categorical response regression procedures. DARK LEGACY OF EVARD PDF. Offline Computer — Download Bookshelf software to your desktop so you can view your eBooks with or without
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Logistic Regression is a popular statistical model used for binary classification, that is for predictions of the type this or that, yes or no, A or B, etc. Logistic regression can, however, be used for multiclass classification, but here we will focus on its simplest application.. As an example, consider the task of predicting someone’s gender (Male/Female) based on …
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Simple logistic regression computes the probability of some outcome given a single predictor variable as. P ( Y i) = 1 1 + e − ( b 0 + b 1 X 1 i) where. P ( Y i) is the predicted probability that Y is true for case i; e is a mathematical constant of roughly 2.72; b 0 is a constant estimated from the data; b 1 is a b-coefficient estimated from
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The accompanying notes on logistic regression (pdf file) provide a more thorough discussion of the basics using a one-variable model: Logistic_example_Y-vs-X1.xlsx. For those who aren't already familiar with it, logistic regression is a tool for making inferences and predictions in situations where the dependent variable is binary , i.e., an
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Logistic regression is a fundamental classification technique. It’s a relatively uncomplicated linear classifier. Despite its simplicity and popularity, there are cases (especially with highly complex models) where logistic regression doesn’t work well. In such circumstances, you can use other classification techniques: k-Nearest Neighbors
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6logistic— Logistic regression, reporting odds ratios. gen age4 = age/4. logistic low age4 lwt i.race smoke ptl ht ui (output omitted) After logistic, we can type logit to see the model in terms of coefficients and standard errors:. logit Logistic regression Number of obs = 189 LR chi2(8) = 33.22 Prob > chi2 = 0.0001
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Logistic Regression is used to solve the classification problems, so it’s called as Classification Algorithm that models the probability of output class. It estimates relationship between a dependent variable (target) and one or more independent variable (predictors) where dependent variable is categorical/nominal.
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mixore2b.pdf depicts the MIXOR screens for the examples used to illustrate MIXOR version 2.0 and its new features. MIXNO - setup file for MIXNO (software for mixed-effects nominal logistic regression) MIXNO documentation. mixnocm.PDF is the MIXNO manual. mixnoi.pdf is the user's guide for the program's Windows interface.
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What is logistic regression? This type of statistical analysis (also known as logit model) is often used for predictive analytics and modeling, and extends to applications in machine learning. In this analytics approach, the dependent variable is finite or categorical: either A or B (binary regression) or a range of finite options A, B, C or D
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Regression Methods in Biostatistics: Linear, Logistic, Survival and Repeated Measures Models by Eric Vittinghoff, David V. Glidden, Stephen C. Shiboski and Charles E. McCulloch (2 copies) Linear Statistical Inference and Its Applications, Second Edition by C. Radhakrishna Rao
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In the mathematical side, the logistic regression model will pass the likelihood occurrences through the logistic function to predict the corresponding target class. This popular logistic function is the Softmax function. We are going to learn about the softmax function in the coming sections of this post. Before that.
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1 Introduction and Changes from First Edition This manual accompanies Agresti’s Categorical Data Analysis (2002). It provides assistance in doing the statistical methods illustrated there, using S-PLUS and the R language.
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Begin by fitting the regression model. This time, go to Analyze \(\rightarrow\) Generalized Linear Models \(\rightarrow\) Generalized Linear Models…. It is necessary to use the Generalized Linear Models command because the Logistic command does not support syntax for requesting predicted probabilities.
First, you should consider logistic regression any time you have a binary target variable. That's what this algorithm is uniquely built for, as we saw in the last chapter. that comes with logistic...
Logistic Regression in Machine Learning
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Logistic Regression uses the logistic function to find a model that fits with the data points. The function gives an 'S' shaped curve to model the data. The curve is restricted between 0 and 1, so it is easy to apply when y is binary.
How the Logistic Regression Model Works in Machine Learning Dependent and Independent Variables. ... Examples of likelihood occurrence of an event. ... Logistic Regression Model Example. ... Binary classification with Logistic Regression model. ... The special cases of softmax function input. ... Implementing the softmax function in Python. ... | https://manual-stores.com/logistic-regression-models/ |
What is logistic regression analytics Vidhya?
Overview Get an introduction to logistic regression using R and Python Logistic Regression is a popular classification algorithm used to predict a binary outcome … AlgorithmClassificationData ScienceIntermediateMachine LearningPythonRStructured DataSupervised.
Is logistic regression mainly used for regression True or false?
1) True-False: Is Logistic regression a supervised machine learning algorithm? True, Logistic regression is a supervised learning algorithm because it uses true labels for training. Supervised learning algorithm should have input variables (x) and an target variable (Y) when you train the model .
Which method gives the best fit for logistic regression model?
Just as ordinary least square regression is the method used to estimate coefficients for the best fit line in linear regression, logistic regression uses maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) to obtain the model coefficients that relate predictors to the target.
Is logistic regression a type of GLM?
The logistic regression model is an example of a broad class of models known as generalized linear models (GLM). … There are three components to a GLM: Random Component – refers to the probability distribution of the response variable (Y); e.g. binomial distribution for Y in the binary logistic regression.
What is logistic regression in simple terms?
Logistic Regression, also known as Logit Regression or Logit Model, is a mathematical model used in statistics to estimate (guess) the probability of an event occurring having been given some previous data. Logistic Regression works with binary data, where either the event happens (1) or the event does not happen (0).
How do you assess logistic regression?
There are several methods through which you can evaluate a Logistic regression model:
- Goodness of Fit.
- Likelihood ratio test.
- Wald’s Test.
- Hosmer-Lemeshov Test.
- ROC (AUC) curve.
- Confidence Intervals.
- Correlation factors and coefficients.
- Variance Inflation Factor(VIF)
Can we use logistic regression for regression?
It predicts a continuous value and you can use it for regression task. The interesting is that it predicts the probability of an event. For that reason we can use it as a binary classifier. … So, logistic regression is mainly a regression algorithm.
Why logistic regression is called regression?
Logistic Regression is one of the basic and popular algorithm to solve a classification problem. It is named as ‘Logistic Regression’, because it’s underlying technique is quite the same as Linear Regression. The term “Logistic” is taken from the Logit function that is used in this method of classification.
Is standardization required for logistic regression?
Standardization isn’t required for logistic regression. The main goal of standardizing features is to help convergence of the technique used for optimization. … Otherwise, you can run your logistic regression without any standardization treatment on the features.
How does a logistic regression model work?
Logistic regression uses an equation as the representation, very much like linear regression. Input values (x) are combined linearly using weights or coefficient values (referred to as the Greek capital letter Beta) to predict an output value (y).
What are the parameters in logistic regression?
Although the dependent variable in logistic regression is Bernoulli, the logit is on an unrestricted scale. The logit function is the link function in this kind of generalized linear model, i.e. Y is the Bernoulli-distributed response variable and x is the predictor variable; the β values are the linear parameters.
What are the advantages of logistic regression?
Logistic regression is easier to implement, interpret, and very efficient to train. If the number of observations is lesser than the number of features, Logistic Regression should not be used, otherwise, it may lead to overfitting. It makes no assumptions about distributions of classes in feature space.
What is Binomial Logistic Regression?
A binomial logistic regression (often referred to simply as logistic regression), predicts the probability that an observation falls into one of two categories of a dichotomous dependent variable based on one or more independent variables that can be either continuous or categorical.
How does Bayesian regression work? | https://www.pimediaservices.com/faq/logistic-regression-analytics-vidhya.html |
Researchers need to decide on how to conceptualize the interaction. In this code, the two way interactions refers to main effects - Tenure, Rating and Interaction - Tenure * Rating In the code, we are performing stepwise logistic regression which considers 0.15 significance level for adding a variable and 0.2 significance level for deleting a variable. Read more at Chapter @ref(stepwise-regression). The plotting is done with ggplot2 rather than base graphics, which some similar functions use. plot_model() is a generic plot-function, which accepts many model-objects, like lm, glm, lme, lmerMod etc. Introduction In this post, I’ll introduce the logistic regression model in a semi-formal, fancy way. These objects must have the same names as the variables in your logistic regression above (e.g. This document describes how to plot marginal effects of various regression models, using the plot_model() function. Within this function, write the dependent variable, followed by ~, and then the independent variables separated by +’s. 1.3 Interaction Plotting Packages. The coefficients are on the log-odds scale along with standard errors, test statistics and p-values. We introduce our first model for classification, logistic regression. Simple linear regression model. Contents: When the family is specified as binomial, R defaults to fitting a logit model. This chapter describes how to compute the stepwise logistic regression in R.. To fit a logistic regression in R, we will use the glm function, which stands for Generalized Linear Model. The response and hence its summary can contain missing values. It can be difficult to translate these numbers into some intuition about how the model “works”, especially if it has interactions. For a primer on proportional-odds logistic regression, see our post, Fitting and Interpreting a Proportional Odds Model. Logistic regression is used to predict the class (or category) of individuals based on one or multiple predictor variables (x). Now that we have the data frame we want to use to calculate the predicted probabilities, we can tell R to create the predicted probabilities. The recommended package MASS (Venables and Ripley,2002) contains the function polr (proportional odds logistic regression) which, despite the name, can be used with … plot_model() is a generic plot-function, which accepts many model-objects, like lm, glm, lme, lmerMod etc. Interactions in Logistic Regression > # UCBAdmissions is a 3-D table: Gender by Dept by Admit > # Same data in another format: > # One col for Yes counts, another for No counts. Logistic Regression is one of the most widely used Machine learning algorithms and in this blog on Logistic Regression In R you’ll understand it’s working and implementation using the R language. Chapter 10 Logistic Regression. In this post we demonstrate how to visualize a proportional-odds model in R . I have tried to plot a graph with an interaction term between continuous variable and categorical variable in multinomial logistic regression, despite following steps/instructions suggested on UCLA stata website, I still failed to do so. But in logistic regression interaction is a more complex concept. Recently I read about work by Jacob A. Logistic Regression. Long who created a package in R for visualizing interaction effects in regression models. Let’s compute the logistic regression using the standard glm(), using the following notation, the interaction term will be included. If x.factor is an ordered factor and the levels are numeric, these numeric values are used for the x axis.. by guest 2 Comments. You now have your plot, but you'll probably notice immediately that you are missing your trend/regression lines to compare your effects (see figure left below) ! There are research questions where it is interesting to learn how the effect on \(Y\) of a change in an independent variable depends on the value of another independent variable. To begin, we load the effects package. In this case, new and used MarioKarts each get their own regression line. Stepwise logistic regression consists of automatically selecting a reduced number of predictor variables for building the best performing logistic regression model. The function to be called is glm() and the fitting process is not so different from the one used in linear regression. In this chapter, we continue our discussion of classification. You'll learn how to create, evaluate, and apply a model to make predictions. In this section, you'll study an example of a binary logistic regression, which you'll tackle with the ISLR package, which will provide you with the data set, and the glm() function, which is generally used to fit generalized linear models, will be used to fit the logistic regression … If we use linear regression to model a dichotomous variable (as Y), the resulting model might not restrict the predicted Ys within 0 and 1. Visualization is especially important in understanding interactions between factors. interact_plot plots regression lines at user-specified levels of a moderator variable to explore interactions. Interaction models are easy to visualize in the data space with ggplot2 because they have the same coefficients as if the models were fit independently to each group defined by the level of the categorical variable. The interaction term is also linear. I am running logistic regression on a small dataset which looks like this: After implementing gradient descent and the cost function, I am getting a 100% accuracy in the prediction stage, However I want to be sure that everything is in order so I am trying to plot the decision boundary line which separates the … Previous topics Why do we need interactions Two categorical predictors Visual interpretation Post-hoc analysis Model output interpretation One numeric and one categorical predictors Model interpretation Post-hoc Two numeric predictors Multiple logistic regression with higher order interactions Welcome to a new world of machine learning! It is used to model a binary outcome, that is a variable, which can have only two possible values: 0 or 1, yes or no, diseased or non-diseased. I performed a multiple linear regression analysis with 1 continuous and 8 dummy variables as predictors. Logistic regression implementation in R. R makes it very easy to fit a logistic regression model. ... command in R to fit a logistic model with binomial errors to investigate the relationships between the numeracy and anxiety scores and their eventual success. A suite of functions for conducting and interpreting analysis of statistical interaction in regression models that was formerly part of the 'jtools' package. There are a number of R packages that can be used to fit cumulative link models (1) and (2). His graphs inspired me to discuss how to visualize interaction effects in regression models in SAS. Plot "predicted values" from regression or Univariate GLM to explore interaction effects. There are four variables have significant interaction effects in my logistic regression model, but I still did not get good way to interpret it through R software. Note that this type of glm assumes a flat, unregulatated prior and a Gaussian likelihood, in Bayesian parlance. This document describes how to plot marginal effects of interaction terms from various regression models, using the plot_model() function. The model that logistic regression gives us is usually presented in a table of results with lots of numbers. Generalized Linear Models in R, Part 5: Graphs for Logistic Regression. Logistic Regression in R with glm. How to plot a 3-way interaction (linear mixed model) in R? For example, we may ask if districts with many English learners benefit differentially from a decrease in class sizes to those with few English learning students. If linear regression serves to predict continuous Y variables, logistic regression is used for binary classification. Plot interaction effects in regression models. To begin, we return to the Default dataset from the previous chapter. The following packages and functions are good places to start, but the following chapter is going to teach you how to make custom interaction plots. To get in-depth knowledge on Data Science, you can enroll for live Data Science Certification Training by Edureka with 24/7 support and lifetime access. Have been trying syntax such as margins and marginplot , the plot itself is nevertheless looks odd. I'm trying to visualize some different interactions from a logistic regression in R. I'd like create a surface plot of the predictive model with two predictor variables along the x and y, then the binary prediction on the z. I've tried using plotly, geoR, persp, bplot, and a few other methods without much success. Now we will create a plot for each predictor. 8.3 Interactions Between Independent Variables. Figure 1: Logistic Probability Density Function (PDF). Logistic interactions are a complex concept. In this post I am going to fit a binary logistic regression model … Details. Example 2: Logistic Cumulative Distribution Function (plogis Function) In Example 2, we’ll create a plot of the logistic cumulative distribution function (CDF) in R. Again, we need to create a sequence of quantiles… When running a regression in R, it is likely that you will be interested in interactions. interact_plot.Rd. Classification is one of the most important areas of machine learning, and logistic regression is one of its basic methods. By default the levels of x.factor are plotted on the x axis in their given order, with extra space left at the right for the legend (if specified). Besides, other assumptions of linear regression such as normality of errors may get violated. Then, I’ll generate data from some simple models: 1 quantitative predictor 1 categorical predictor 2 quantitative predictors 1 quantitative predictor with a quadratic term I’ll model data from each example using linear and logistic regression. in this example the mean for gre must be named gre). Figure 1 shows the logistic probability density function (PDF). In this step-by-step tutorial, you'll get started with logistic regression in Python. If the differences are not different then there is no interaction. Common wisdom suggests that interactions involves exploring differences in differences. For example, you can make simple linear regression model with data radial included in package moonBook. In univariate regression model, you can use scatter plot to visualize model. | http://touaregseguros.com.br/best-stock-yqvwt/47xlbjf.php?302dcf=plot-interaction-logistic-regression-r |
Hello friends! I welcome all of you to my blog! Today let’s see how we can understand Multiple Linear Regression using an Example.
In our previous blog post, we explained Simple Linear Regression and we did a regression analysis done using Microsoft Excel. If you missed it, please read that. It will help you to understand Multiple Linear Regression better.
The dataset that we are going to use is ‘delivery time data”.
A soft drink bottling company is interested in predicting the time required by a driver to clean the vending machines. The procedure includes stocking vending machines with new bottles and some housekeeping. It has been suggested that the two most important variables influencing the cleaning time (a.k.a delivery time) are No of cases and distance walked by the driver. You can download the dataset by following this link.
Contents
How are we doing the Regression Analysis?
We using Minitab statistical software for this analysis. First, we will be generating a scatter plot to check the relationships between variables. Then we will do a Multiple Regression Analysis including ANOVA test. Finally, we can arrive at a conclusion as to whether there is a relationship between the response variable and predictor variables. Also, if there is such a relationship, we can measure the strength of that relationship.
Our steps can be summarized as follows :
- Identifying the list of variables
- Chech the relationship between each independent variable and a dependent variable using scatterplots and correlations
- Check the relationship among independent variables using scatter plots and correlation (Multicollinearity)
- Conduct Simple Linear Regressions for each Independent and Dependent variable pair
- Finding the best fitting model
Variables
Our Response Variable or ‘y’ variable is Delivery Time. We have two predictor variables here. One is the Number of Cases (x1) and the other one is Distance (x2).
Scatter Plot (Matrix Plot)
Let us generate a scatter plot to visually examine the relationship between the variables. In fact, this is called a matrix plot in Minitab. It compares the relationship between multiple x and y variables.
From these scatterplots, we can see that there is a positive relationship between all the variable pairs.
Also, this type of visualization helps to detect Multicollinearity between predictor variables. Multicollinearity is the situation when predictor variables in the models are correlated with other predictor variables. Minitab documentation on Multicollinearity is here.
To get further idea about Multicollinearity, let’s generate a scatter plot.
In the above scatter plot, the correlation coefficient (r) is 0.824. That means there is a strong positive correlation between the two variables. Therefore multicollinearity is present. But in the real-world, this doesn’t make any sense. How can the Number of Cases affect the distance? Therefore we need not to worry about this here.
Simple Linear Regression for Delivery Time (y) and Number of Cases (x1)
Null Hypothesis: Slope equals to zero
Alternate Hypothesis: Slope does not equal to zero
In the above Minitab output, the R-sq(adj) value is 92.75% and R-sq(pred) is 87.32%. This means our model is successful. Our model is capable of explaining 92.75% of the variance.
Here keep an eye on the metric “VIF”. This is called the Variance Inflation Factor. It points out the variables that are collinear.
If no variables are correlated, VIF = 1. If 5<VIF<10 High correlation and may be problematic. If VIF>10 regression coefficients are poorly estimated due to multicollinearity.
In this case VIF =1. Obviously it should be 1 because we only have one predictor variable here.
Also, the p-value is less than the level of significance. It means we have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis
Simple Linear Regression for Delivery Time (y) and Distance (x2)
The hypotheses are the same as above;
Here the R-sq(adj) is 78.62%. It is somewhat lower than the first model. Comparatively, it means that the variable x1 does a good job at explaining y than x2.
Okay, let’s jump into the good part! The multiple linear regression analysis!
Multiple Linear Regression Y1 vs X1, X2
Null Hypothesis: All the coefficients equal to zero
Alternate Hypothesis: At least one of the coefficients is not equal to zero.
Note when defining Alternative Hypothesis, I have used the words “at least one”. This is very important because it should mean precisely our intention. For example, if you say “All the coefficients” the meaning is different from our intention.
Here you can see the VIF = 3.12. That means a small amount of Multicollenearity is present in our model. R-sq(adj) value is 95.59% which is pretty good. 95% of the variation in the Response Variable is explained by the model.
The p-value is less than the significance level. Therefore we have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
Also, look at the error term. In our multiple linear regression model, the error term is 233.7. While in our simple linear regression models, the error terms are 402.1 and 1185.39 respectively. This means that by adding both the predictor variables in the model, we have been able to increase the accuracy of the model.
But keep in mind that this may not be the case in some cases. Sometimes when you have Multicollineariy within predictor variables, you may have to drop one of the predictors. This is why I encourage you to the Simple Linear Regressions before jumping into the full model. That way you have an idea of how the variables and other metrics behave.
Conclusion
We can conclude that both predictor variables have an impact on delivery time. Also, the inclusion of “No. of Cases”, “Distance” variables in the model show significant improvements over the smaller models. | https://datasciencelk.com/multiple-linear-regression-example/ |
Contact Us Multiple Regression with Logarithmic Transformations In Exponential Regression and Power Regression we reviewed four types of log transformation for regression models with one independent variable.
I have seen professors take the log of these variables. It is not clear to me why.
For example, isn't the homicide rate already a percentage? The log would the the percentage change of the rate?
|Outcome variable is log transformed||How can I interpret log transformed variables in terms of percent change in linear regression? The standard interpretation of coefficients in a regression analysis is that a one unit change in the independent variable results in the respective regression coefficient change in the expected value of the dependent variable while all the predictors are held constant.|
|Here is the post: Normalizing data by mean and standard deviation is most meaningful when the data distribution is roughly symmetric.|
|Uses of the logarithm transformation in regression and forecasting||FAQ How do I interpret a regression model when some variables are log transformed? Introduction In this page, we will discuss how to interpret a regression model when some variables in the model have been log transformed.|
Why would the log of child-teacher ratio be preferred? Should the log transformation be taken for every continuous variable when there is no underlying theory about a true functional form?
I do not understand your questions related to percentages: I don't believe I wrote anything advocating that logarithms always be applied--far from it! So I don't understand the basis for your last question.
Is it possible to flesh this out a bit with another sentence or two? What is the accumulation you're referring to? See this question for a good explanation - stats. The reason for logging the variable will determine whether you want to log the independent variable sdependent or both.
To be clear throughout I'm talking about taking the natural logarithm. Firstly, to improve model fit as other posters have noted. For instance if your residuals aren't normally distributed then taking the logarithm of a skewed variable may improve the fit by altering the scale and making the variable more "normally" distributed.
For instance, earnings is truncated at zero and often exhibits positive skew. If the variable has negative skew you could firstly invert the variable before taking the logarithm.
I'm thinking here particularly of Likert scales that are inputed as continuous variables. While this usually applies to the dependent variable you occasionally have problems with the residuals e. For example when running a model that explained lecturer evaluations on a set of lecturer and class covariates the variable "class size" i.
Logging the student variable would help, although in this example either calculating Robust Standard Errors or using Weighted Least Squares may make interpretation easier. The second reason for logging one or more variables in the model is for interpretation.
I call this convenience reason. Logging only one side of the regression "equation" would lead to alternative interpretations as outlined below: For example some models that we would like to estimate are multiplicative and therefore nonlinear.
Taking logarithms allows these models to be estimated by linear regression. Good examples of this include the Cobb-Douglas production function in economics and the Mincer Equation in education.
The Cobb-Douglas production function explains how inputs are converted into outputs: Taking logarithms of this makes the function easy to estimate using OLS linear regression as such:Logs Transformation in a Regression Equation Logs as the Predictor The interpretation of the slope and intercept in a regression change when the predictor (X) is put on a log scale.
In this case, the intercept is the expected value Microsoft Word - . For another example, applying a logarithmic transformation to the response variable also allows for a nonlinear relationship between the response and the predictors while remaining within the multiple linear regression framework.
All log transformations generate similar results, but the convention in applied econometric work is to use the natural log. The practical advantage of the natural log is that the interpretation of the regression coefficients is straightforward.
Again, keep in mind that although we're focussing on a simple linear regression model here, the essential ideas apply more generally to multiple linear regression models too.
As before, let's learn about transforming both the x and y values by way of example. Although the r 2 value is quite high ( Log-level and Log-log transformations in Linear Regression Models A. Joseph Guse Washington and Lee University Fall , Econ Public Finance Seminar.
Level-Level Log-Log A “Log-Log” Regression Specification. log(y). In Exponential Regression and Power Regression we reviewed four types of log transformation for regression models with one independent variable.
We now briefly examine the multiple regression counterparts to these four types of log transformations: Similarly, the log-log regression model is the. | https://rocahyi.metin2sell.com/log-transformation-regression-10254po.html |
Logistic regression model is one of the most widely used models to investigate independent effect of a variable on binomial outcomes in medical literature. However, the model building strategy is not explicitly stated in many studies, compromising the reliability and reproducibility of the results. There are varieties of model building strategies reported in the literature, such as purposeful selection of variables, stepwise selection and best subsets (1,2). However, there is no one that has been proven to be superior to others and the model building strategy is “part science, part statistical methods, and part experience and common sense” (3). However, the principal of model building is to select as less variables as possible, but the model (parsimonious model) still reflects the true outcomes of the data. In this article, I will introduce how to perform purposeful selection in R. Variable selection is the first step of model building. Other steps will be introduced in following articles.
Working example
In the example, I create five variables age, gender, lac, hb and wbc for the prediction of mortality outcome. The outcome variable is binomial that takes values of “die” and “alive”. To illustrate the selection process, I deliberately make that variables age, hb and lac are associated with outcome, while gender and wbc are not (4-6).
Step one: univariable analysis
The first step is to use univariable analysis to explore the unadjusted association between variables and outcome. In our example, each of the five variables will be included in a logistic regression model, one for each time.
Note that logistic regression model is built by using generalized linear model in R (7). The family argument is a description of the error distribution and link function to be used in the model. For logistic regression model, the family is binomial with the link function of logit. For linear regression model, Gaussian distribution with identity link function is assigned to the family argument. The summary() function is able show you the results of the univariable regression. A P value of smaller than 0.25 and other variables of known clinical relevance can be included for further multivariable analysis. A cutoff value of 0.25 is supported by literature (8,9). The results of univariable regression for each variable are shown in Table 1. As expectedly, the variables age, hb and lac will be included for further analysis. The allowance to include clinically relevant variables even if they are statistically insignificant reflects the “part experience and common sense” nature of the model building strategy.
Full table
Step two: multivariable model comparisons
This step fits the multivariable model comprising all variables identified in step one. Variables that do not contribute to the model (e.g., with a P value greater than traditional significance level) should be eliminated and a new smaller mode fits. These two models are then compared by using partial likelihood ratio test to make sure that the parsimonious model fits as well as the original model. In the parsimonious model the coefficients of variables should be compared to coefficients in the original one. If a change of coefficients (∆β) is more than 20%, the deleted variables have provided important adjustment of the effect of remaining variables. Such variables should be added back to the model. This process of deleting, adding variables and model fitting and refitting continues until all variables excluded are clinically and statistically unimportant, while variables remain in the model are important. In our example, suppose that the variable wbc is also added because it is clinically relevant.
The result shows that P value for variable wbc is 0.408, which is statistically insignificant. Therefore, we exclude it.
All variables in model2 are statistically significant. Then we will compare the changes in coefficients for each variable remaining in model2.
The function coef() extracts estimated coefficients from fitted model. The fitted model2 is passed to the function. Because there is coefficient for wbc in model1, which has nothing to compare with in model2, we drop it by using “[-4]”. The result shows that all variables change at a negligible level and the variable wbc is not an important adjustment for the effect of other variables. Furthermore, we will compare the fit of model1 and model2 by using partial likelihood ratio test.
The result shows that the two models are not significantly different in their fits for data. In other words, model2 is as good as model1 in fitting data. We choose model2 for the principal of parsimony. Alternatively, users can employ analysis of variance (ANOVA) to explore the difference between models.
The results are exactly the same. Because of our simple example, we do not need to cycle the process and we can be confident that the variables hb, age and lac are important for mortality outcome. At the conclusion of this step we obtain a preliminary main effects model.
Step three: linearity assumption
In the step, continuous variables are checked for their linearity in relation to the logit of the outcome. In this article, I want to examine the smoothed scatter plot for the linearity.
The smoothed scatter plots show that variables age, lac and hb are all linearly associated with mortality outcome in logit scale (Figure 1). The variable wbc is not related to the mortality in logit scale. If the scatterplot shows non-linearity, we shall apply other methods to build the model such as including 2 or 3-power terms, fractional polynomials and spline function (10,11).
Step four: interactions among covariates
In this step we check for potential interactions between covariates. An interaction between two variables implies that the effect of one variable on response variable is dependent on another variable. Interaction pairs can be started from clinical perspective. In our example, I assume that there is interaction between age and hb. In other words, the effect of hb on mortality outcome is somewhat dependent on age.
Note that I use the “:” symbol to create an interaction term. There are several ways to make interaction terms in R (Table 2). The results show that the P value for interaction term is 0.56, which is far away from significance level. When the model with interaction term is compared to the preliminary main effects model, there is no difference. Thus, I choose to drop the interaction term. However, if there are interaction effects users may be interested in visualizing how the effect of one variable changes depending on different levels of other covariates. Suppose we want to visualize how the probability of death (y-axis) changes across entire range of hb, stratified by age groups. We will plot at age values of 20, 40, 60 and 80.
Full table
The first command creates a new data frame that contains new patients. Variables of each patient are artificially assigned. Variable hb is defined between 4 and 15, with a total of 100 patients at each age group. lac is held at its mean value. The next line applies the fitted model to the new data frame, aiming to calculate the fitted values in logit scale and relevant standard error. The plogis() function transforms fitted values into probability scale, which is much easier to understand for subject-matter audience. Lower and upper limits of the confidence intervals are transformed in similar way. The continuous variable age is transformed into a factor that will be helpful for subsequent plotting.
The result is shown in Figure 2. Because there is no significant interaction the lines are parallel. While the probability of death increases with increasing age, increasing hb is associated with decreasing mortality rate.
Step five: Assessing fit of the model
The final step is to check the fit of the model. There are two components in checking for model fit: (I) summary measures of goodness of fit (GOF) and; (II) regression diagnostics. The former uses one summary statistics for assessment of model fit, including Pearson Chi-square statistic, deviance, sum-of-square, and the Hosmer-Lemeshow tests (12). These statistics measure the difference between observed and fitted values. Because Hosmer-Lemeshow test is the most commonly used measure for model fit, I introduce how to perform it in R.
The P value is 0.8, indicating that there is no significant difference between observed and predicted values. Model fit can also be examines by graphics.
Figure 3 is the plot of jittered outcome (alive=1; die=2) versus estimated probability of death from fitted model. The classification of the model appears good that most survivors have an estimated probability of death less than 0.2. Conversely, most non-survivors have an estimated probability of death greater than 0.8. Figure 4 is the histogram of estimated probability of death, stratified by observed outcome. It also reflects classification of the model. Survivors mostly have low estimated probability of death. Figure 5 is the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) reflecting the discrimination power of the model. We consider it an outstanding discrimination when the area under ROC reaches above 0.9.
Summary
The article introduces how to perform model building by using purposeful selection method. The process of variable selection, deleting, model fitting and refitting can be repeated for several cycles, depending on the complexity of variables. Interaction helps to disentangle complex relationship between covariates and their synergistic effect on response variable. Model should be checked for the GOF. In other words, how the fitted model reflects the real data. Hosmer-Lemeshow GOF test is the most widely used for logistic regression model. However, it is a summary statistic for checking model fit. Investigators may be interested in whether the model fits across entire range of covariate pattern, which is the task of regression diagnostics. This will be introduced in next article.
Acknowledgements
None.
Footnote
Conflicts of Interest: The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
References
- Bursac Z, Gauss CH, Williams DK, et al. Purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression. Source Code Biol Med 2008;3:17. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Greenland S. Modeling and variable selection in epidemiologic analysis. Am J Public Health 1989;79:340-9. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Model-building strategies and methods for logistic regression. In: Hosmer DW Jr, Lemeshow S, Sturdivant RX. Applied logistic regression. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000;63.
- Zhang Z, Chen K, Ni H, et al. Predictive value of lactate in unselected critically ill patients: an analysis using fractional polynomials. J Thorac Dis 2014;6:995-1003. [PubMed]
- Zhang Z, Ni H. Normalized lactate load is associated with development of acute kidney injury in patients who underwent cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. PLoS One 2015;10:e0120466. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Zhang Z, Xu X. Lactate clearance is a useful biomarker for the prediction of all-cause mortality in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis*. Crit Care Med 2014;42:2118-25. [Crossref] [PubMed]
- Kabacoff R. R in action. Cherry Hill: Manning Publications Co; 2011.
- Bendal RB, Afifi AA. Comparison of stopping rules in forward regression. Journal of the American Statistical Association 1977;72:46-53. | https://atm.amegroups.com/article/view/9400/10262 |
This course focuses on one of the most important tools in your data analysis arsenal: regression analysis. Using either SAS or Python, you will begin with linear regression and then learn how to adapt when two variables do not present a clear linear relationship. You will examine multiple predictors of your outcome and be able to identify confounding variables, which can tell a more compelling story about your results. You will learn the assumptions underlying regression analysis, how to interpret regression coefficients, and how to use regression diagnostic plots and other tools to evaluate the quality of your regression model. Throughout the course, you will share with others the regression models you have developed and the stories they tell you.
Über diesen Kurs
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Wesleyan University
Wesleyan University, founded in 1831, is a diverse, energetic liberal arts community where critical thinking and practical idealism go hand in hand. With our distinctive scholar-teacher culture, creative programming, and commitment to interdisciplinary learning, Wesleyan challenges students to explore new ideas and change the world. Our graduates go on to lead and innovate in a wide variety of industries, including government, business, entertainment, and science.
Lehrplan - Was Sie in diesem Kurs lernen werden
Introduction to Regression
This session starts where the Data Analysis Tools course left off. This first set of videos provides you with some conceptual background about the major types of data you may work with, which will increase your competence in choosing the statistical analysis that’s most appropriate given the structure of your data, and in understanding the limitations of your data set. We also introduce you to the concept of confounding variables, which are variables that may be the reason for the association between your explanatory and response variable. Finally, you will gain experience in describing your data by writing about your sample, the study data collection procedures, and your measures and data management steps.
Basics of Linear Regression
In this session, we discuss more about the importance of testing for confounding, and provide examples of situations in which a confounding variable can explain the association between an explanatory and response variable. In addition, now that you have statistically tested the association between an explanatory variable and your response variable, you will test and interpret this association using basic linear regression analysis for a quantitative response variable. You will also learn about how the linear regression model can be used to predict your observed response variable. Finally, we will also discuss the statistical assumptions underlying the linear regression model, and show you some best practices for coding your explanatory variables
Multiple Regression
Multiple regression analysis is tool that allows you to expand on your research question, and conduct a more rigorous test of the association between your explanatory and response variable by adding additional quantitative and/or categorical explanatory variables to your linear regression model. In this session, you will apply and interpret a multiple regression analysis for a quantitative response variable, and will learn how to use confidence intervals to take into account error in estimating a population parameter. You will also learn how to account for nonlinear associations in a linear regression model. Finally, you will develop experience using regression diagnostic techniques to evaluate how well your multiple regression model predicts your observed response variable.
Logistic Regression
In this session, we will discuss some things that you should keep in mind as you continue to use data analysis in the future. We will also teach also you how to test a categorical explanatory variable with more than two categories in a multiple regression analysis. Finally, we introduce you to logistic regression analysis for a binary response variable with multiple explanatory variables. Logistic regression is simply another form of the linear regression model, so the basic idea is the same as a multiple regression analysis. But, unlike the multiple regression model, the logistic regression model is designed to test binary response variables. You will gain experience testing and interpreting a logistic regression model, including using odds ratios and confidence intervals to determine the magnitude of the association between your explanatory variables and response variable.
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Top-Bewertungen von REGRESSION MODELING IN PRACTICE
Awesome course. More than regression generation, they have explained in details about how to interpret regression coefficients and results and how to make conclusions. 5 Stars
This was a great course. I've done a few in the area of stats, regression and machine learning now and the Wesleyan ones are the most well-rounded of all of them
Besides, training in SAS Studio and Python,the course offers extremely useful insights on regression models. Highly recommended for risk management professionals
This is a great beginner level course for those have no programming experience. But I would suggest the content to be extended to 8 weeks instead of 4 weeks.
Über den Spezialisierung Data Analysis and Interpretation
Learn SAS or Python programming, expand your knowledge of analytical methods and applications, and conduct original research to inform complex decisions.
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Haben Sie weitere Fragen? Besuchen Sie das Hilfe-Center für Teiln.. | https://de.coursera.org/learn/regression-modeling-practice |
Regression analysis and specifically mixed effect linear models (LMMs) is hard – harder than I thought based on what I learned in traditional statistics classes. ‘Modern’ mixed model approaches, although more powerful (as they can handle more complex designs, lack of balance, crossed random factors, some kinds of non-normally distributed responses, etc.), also require a new set of conceptual tools.
This first post covers my process of understanding how to apply the magic of multiple regression to my experimental data. The next post will cover how the analysis was done using R.
The Basics
Before tackling my specific problem as a mixed effect linear model, it is important to review the basic building block of linear regression.
Linear regression is a standard way to build a model of your variables. You want to do this when [source]:
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You have two variables: one dependent variable and one independent variable. Both variables are interval.
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You want to express the relationship between the dependent variable and independent variable in a form of a line. That is, you want to express the relationship like y = ax + b, where x and y are the independent and dependent variables, respectively.
Also, there are 4 key concepts in linear regression that should be clear before you attempt extended techniques like LMM or GLM [source]
1. Understand what centring does to your variables: Intercepts are pretty important in multilevel models, so centring is often required to make intercepts meaningful.
2. Work with categorical and continuous predictors: You will want to use both dummy and effect coding in different situations. Likewise, you want to be able to understand what it means if you make a variable continuous or categorical. What different information do you get from it and what does it mean? Even if you’re a regular ANOVA user, it may make sense to treat time as continuous, not categorical.
3. Interactions: Make sure you can interpret interactions regardless of how many categorical and continuous variables they contain. And make sure you can interpret an interaction regardless of whether the variables in the interaction are both continuous, both categorical, or one of each.
4. Polynomial terms: Random slopes can be hard enough to grasp. Random curvature is worse, be comfortable with polynomial functions if you have complex data (e.g. the Wundt curve, the bell-shaped relationship of positive affect and complexity in music).
Finally, understand how all these concepts fit together. This means understanding what the estimates in your model mean and how to interpret them.
What is a mixed effect linear model?
Simply, they are statistical models of parameters that vary at more than one level. They are a generalised form of linear regression that builds multiple linear models to provide data on how predictors relate parameters.
Many kinds of data, including observational data collected in experiments, have a hierarchical or clustered structure. For example, children with the same parents tend to be more alike in their physical and mental characteristics than individuals chosen at random from the population at large. Individuals may be further nested within demographic and psychometric features. Multilevel data structures also arise in longitudinal studies where an individual’s responses over time are correlated with each other. In experimental data, LMM is a good way to position individual difference between participants. For example, some participants may be more comfortable with using touchscreens than the others, and thus, their performance in a task might have been better. If we tried to represent this with linear regression, the model tries to represent the data with one line, this aggressively aggregates differences which may matter to the results being effective and contextually understood.
Multilevel regression, intuitively, allows us to have a model for each group represented in the within-subject factors. In this way, we can also consider the individual differences of the participants (they will be described as differences between the models). What multilevel regression actually does is something like between completely ignoring the within-subject factors (sticking with one model) and building a separate model for every single group (making n separate models for n participants). LMM controls for non-independence among the repeated observations for each individual by adding one or more random effects for individuals to the model. They take the form of additional residual terms, each of which has its own variance to be estimated. Roughly speaking, there are two strategies you can take for random effects: varying-intercept or varying-slope (or do both). Varying-intercept means differences in random effects are described as differences in intercepts. Varying-slope means vice versa: changing the coefficients of some factors.
Terminology
Dependant/Response variable the variable that you measure and expect to vary given experimental manipulation.
Independent/Explanatory/exogenous variables and Fixed effects are all variables that we expect will have an effect on the dependent/response variable. Factors whose levels are experimentally determined or whose interest lies in the specific effects of each level, such as effects of covariates, differences among treatments and interactions.
Random effects are usually grouping factors for which we are trying to control. In repeated measures designs, they can be either crossed or hierarchical/nested, more on that later. Random effects are factors whose levels are sampled from a larger population, or whose interest lies in the variation among them rather than the specific effects of each level. The parameters of random effects are the standard deviations of variation at a particular level (e.g.among experimental blocks).
The precise definitions of ‘fixed’ and ‘random’ are controversial; the status of particular variables depends on experimental design and context.
My Research Problem
In an experiment comparing Desktop (DT) computer and VR interfaces in a collaborative music-making task, I think that individual users and the dyadic session dynamics affect the amount of speech when doing the task and that the amount of talk will also be affected by media (DT/VR). Basically, the mixture of people and experimental condition will both have effects, but I really want to know the specific effect of media on speech amount.
Data structure
The dependent variable is the frequency of coded speech per user, while demographic surveys produced multiple explanatory variables along with the independent variable of media. So, we also have a series of other variables that may affect the volume of communication. Altogether variables of interest for linear modelling include:
- Media: media condition DT or VR.
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User: repeated measure grouping by the participant ID.
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Session: categorical dyad grouping e.g. A, B, C.
- Utterance: A section of transcribed speech, a sentence or comparable. Frequencies of utterances used.
- Pam: Personal acquaintance measure, a psychometric method of evaluating how much you know another person.
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VrScore: level of experience with VR, simple one to seven scores.
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MsiPa: Musical sophistication index perceptual ability factor for each user.
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MsiMt: Musical sophistication index musical training factor for each user.
Using the right tool
As I used a repeated measure design for the experiment, where each participant used both interfaces, Media is a within-subject factor. This means I need a statistical method that can account for it. A simple paired t-test or repeated measures ANOVA may be of use but it lacks the ability to include all of the explanatory variables, this leaves us with regression analysis. This decision tree highlights how to proceed with choosing the right form of regression analysis:
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If you have one independent variable and do not have any within-subject factor, consider Linear regression. If your dependent variable is binomial, Logistic regression may be more appropriate.
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If you have multiple independent variables and do not have any within-subject factor, consider Multiple linear regression.
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If you have any within-subject factor, consider Multi-level linear regression (mixed-effect linear model).
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For some special cases, consider the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) or Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM).
So, at first I chose to use a mixed-effect linear model (LMM), as I am trying to fit a model that has two random intercepts, e.g. two groups. As such, we are trying to fit a model with nested random effects.
Crossed or Nested random effects
As each User only appears once in each Session, the data can be treated as nested. For nested random effects, the factor appears only within a particular level of another factor; for crossed effects, a given factor appears in more than one level of another factor (User’s appearing within more than one session). An easy rule of thumb is that if your random effects aren’t nested, then they are crossed!
Special Cases…GLM
After a bit of further reading, I found out that my dependent variable meant a standard LMM was not suitable. As the response variable is count data of speech, it violates the assumptions of normal LMMs. When your dependent variable is not continuous, unbounded, and measured on an interval or ratio scale, your model will never meet the assumptions of linear mixed models (LMMs). In steps the flexible, but highly sensitive, Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMM). The difference between LMMs and GLMMs is that the response variables can come from different distributions besides Gaussian, for count data this is often of a Poisson distribution. There are a few issues to keep in mind, though.
- Rather than modelling the responses directly, some link function is often applied, such as a log link. For Poisson, the link function (the transformation of Y) is the natural log. So all parameter estimates are on the log scale and need to be transformed for interpretation, the means applying inverse function of the link, for log this is exponential.
- It is often necessary to include an offset parameter in the model to account for the amount of risk each individual had to the event, practically this is a normalising factor such as the total number of utterance across repeated condition.
- One assumption of Poisson Models is that the mean and the variance are equal, but this assumption is often violated. This can be dealt with by using a dispersion parameter if the difference is small or a negative binomial regression model if the difference is large.
- Sometimes there are many, many more zeros than even a Poisson Model would indicate. This generally means there are two processes going on–there is some threshold that needs to be crossed before an event can occur. A Zero-Inflated Poisson Model is a mixture model that simultaneously estimates the probability of crossing the threshold, and once crossed, how many events occur.
Moving forward
In the next post, I will cover how this analysis is done in the R environment using the lme4 package.
Resources
- Ben Bolker’s GLMM FAQ: List of R resources for GLMMs with a great overview of features, formula and meanings of terms.
- Koji Yatani’s HCI stats page on Linear Mixed Models. Very well written and easy to understand description of using LMM for HCI experiments. All code is in R.
- Introduction to random and fixed effects by Bodo Winter, thanks Peter! | https://layeraudio.com/tag/statistics/ |
You have two variables: one dependent variable and one independent variable. Both variables are interval.
You want to express the relationship between the dependent variable and independent variable in a form of a line. That is, you want to express the relationship like y = ax + b, where x and y are the independent and dependent variables, respectively.
One common usage of linear regression in HCI research is Fitts' law (and its variants). If your experiment includes a pointing task which allows the user to do a ballistic movement towards the target, the performance time you measured is likely to follow Fitts' law. In this case, you plot the index of difficulty (its logarithmic value, to be precise) along the x axis and the performance time along the y axis, and do linear regression. It is known that the goodness of fit is over 0.9 if your results follow Fitts' law.
Linear regression is also a core concept for t test and ANOVA. So understanding linear regression will help you understand other statistical methods. You can easily find the mathematical details of linear regression at many places (books, blogs, wikipedia, etc), so I don't go into those details here. Rather I want to show you how to do linear regression in R and how to interpret the results.
One thing you need to be careful about before doing linear regression is your dependent variable. If your dependent variable is binomial (i.e., the “yes” or “no” response), you probably should use logistic regression instead of linear regression. I have a separate page for it.
First of all, we need data. Let's think about a Fitts law task. You have the logarithmic ID (index of difficulty) and performance time.
I just randomly made the values for Log_ID. To generate the values for Time, I used the code Time ← 1 + 2*Log_ID + rnorm(15, 0, 0.5). So, we can expect that the result of the linear regression would be something like y = 1 + 2*x. But there is an error term (rnorm(15, 0, 0.5)), so the coefficients may not be exactly 1 and 2.
Let's do linear regression now. In R, you can use lm() function to do linear regression. But you need to tell R which variables x and y are. You can do it by using ~. In our case, we want to build a model like Time = a + b * Log_ID, so we can say Time ~ Log_ID.
Then, you get the result.
Look at the coefficients section. The values below (Intercept) and Log_ID are a and b, respectively. As we expected, a and b are pretty close to 1 and 2. But this doesn't really mean whether the model we have just built represents our data. And unlike this example, we usually don't know what the underlying model is for your data. We need to know the goodness of fit for this purpose. The goodness of fits is also called R squared (R^2). To calculate this, we need to execute one more code in R.
Now, you get more detailed results.
Look at the coefficients section. You can see the same coefficients in Estimate that we saw before. But you can also see the t values and p values in this case. What do they mean? Well, they are testing the null hypothesis such that each coefficient is equal to 0 with the t test. The degree of freedom in this t test is N-k-1 where N is the number of data (15 in this example), and k is the number of dependent variables (1 in this example). Because both p values are less than 0.05, this null hypothesis is rejected. This means that both a and b * Log_ID have significant effects on predicting the value of Time. Thus, your model needs to be Time = a + b * Log_ID, and not like Time = a or Time = b * Log_ID.
Another thing you need to look at is the goodness of fit, R squared. As you can see, we have two kinds of R squared: Multiple R-squared, and Adjusted R-squared. I know what you want to ask me: What is the difference and which one should we use? Multiple R-squared is the original goodness of fit, which ranges from 0 to 1. If this value is equal to 1, all the data perfectly fit into your model (i.e., all the data point are on the line calculated by the linear regression).
One problem of the non-adjusted R squared is that it is largely affected by the number of data points (in other words, the degree of freedom). We can think about a really extreme case: You have only two data points. You can clearly draw a line which connects the two data points, and R squared is 1. But obviously, you find that this may not be a good model if you get more data points. Another problem of the non-adjusted R squared is if you add more dependent variables to your model, it tends to be large (i.e., the data look like fitting to your model better). This is kind of a similar problem of overfitting if you are familiar with machine learning. This is more problematic in multiple regression, and I am explaining more details in the multiple regression page.
Adjusted R-squared is calculated to avoid the problems above. So, what you should look at is Adjusted R-squared, not Multiple R-squared. Please note that this can be less than 0 because of the adjustment. In our example, the adjusted R square is 0.91, which is high and indicates that the model we built predicts well.
Fortunately, the effect size of the linear regression is described by R, so you don't really need to calculate the effect size. Here are the values which are considered the small, medium, and large effect sizes.
Wtih MBESS package, we can calculate the confidence interval for this effect size.
N is the sample size, and K is the number of the factor, which is one in this case. You get the result like this.
Thus, the effect size is 0.91 with 95% CI = [0.74, 0.97].
There are several things you need to report in linear regression, but basically there are two things: statistics for your independent variable, and statistics for your model. The following example will give you an idea of how you are supposed to report the results.
The logarithmic value of the index of difficulty significantly predicted the performance time (b = 1.98, t(13) = 12.18, p < 0.01). The overall model with the logarithmic value of the index of difficulty also predicted the performance time very well (adjusted R2= 0.91, F(1, 13) = 148.4, p < 0.01).
Yes, you can do regression with non-linear models. One of the most common non-linear regression is logistic regression. But generally, it is rare to see regression other than linear regression in HCI research, and I don't have any good example of the cases in which you really need to use non-linear regression. If I have time, I will add an explanation and example for non-linear regression here.
Another extension of linear regression is to have multiple variables for the model, which is often called multiple regression. Although the idea of multiple regression is similar to linear regression, there are more things you need to care about in multiple regression. Thus, I have a separate page for multiple regression.
If you are familiar with correlation, you may wonder the difference between linear regression and correlation. I have the answer for you in the correlation page. | http://yatani.jp/teaching/doku.php?id=hcistats:linearregression |
The article is written in rather technical level, providing an overview of linear regression. Linear regression is based on the ordinary list squares technique, which is one possible approach to the statistical analysis. Both univariate and multivariate linear regression are illustrated on small concrete examples. In addition to the explanation of basic terms like explanatory and dependent. Interpreting results of regression with interaction terms: Example. Table 12 shows that adding interaction terms, and thus letting the model take account of the differences between the countries with respect to birth year effects on education length, increases the R 2 value somewhat, and that the increase in the model's fit is statistically significant Binary Independent Variables. First we will take a look at regression with a binary independent variable. The variables used are: vote_share (dependent variable): The percent of voters for a Republican candidate; rep_inc (independent variable): Whether the Republican candidate was an incumbent or not; We will code an incumbent, a candidate who is currently in office, as one, and a non.
In this on-line workshop, you will find many movie clips. Each movie clip will demonstrate some specific usage of SPSS. Linear regression: Regression modeling is a technique for modeling a response variable, which is often assumed to follow a normal distribution, using a set of independent variables.The least square method is usually applied for estimating the regression parameters Statistics are used in medicine for data description and inference. Inferential statistics are used to answer questions about the data, to test hypotheses (formulating the alternative or null hypotheses), to generate a measure of effect, typically a ratio of rates or risks, to describe associations (correlations) or to model relationships (regression) within the data and, in many other functions
Does sex influence confidence in the police? We want to perform linear regression of the police confidence score against sex, which is a binary categorical variable with two possible values (which we can see are 1= Male and 2= Female if we check the Values cell in the sex row in Variable View).However, before we begin our linear regression, we need to recode the values of Male and Female Samenvatting van de enkelvoudige lineaire regressie in SPSS - gegeven in het vak Statistische Analyse voor agogen - door Prof. De Donder Studies, courses, subjects, and textbooks for your search: Press Enter to view all search results () Press Enter. Linear regression is used for finding linear relationship between target and one or more predictors. There are two types of linear regression- Simple and Multiple. Simple linear regression is usefu The tutorial explains the basics of regression analysis and shows a few different ways to do linear regression in Excel. Imagine this: you are provided with a whole lot of different data and are asked to predict next year's sales numbers for your company Assumptions of Linear Regression. Building a linear regression model is only half of the work. In order to actually be usable in practice, the model should conform to the assumptions of linear regression
Regressie check assumpties, lineaire regressie, verklaren aan de hand van 3 factoren Meervoudige lineaire regressie Statistiek in de Praktijk. Hoofdstuk 9 pp. 533 - 553 Enkelvoudige lineaire regressie (vorig jaar): 2 kwantitatieve variabelen : X is - A free PowerPoint PPT presentation (displayed as a Flash slide show) on PowerShow.com - id: 5cc423-ZmNi Primarily, what you're looking in a simple linear regression is the correlation between the variables.Fortunately, in Excel, the trendline does it all for you. The trendline will tell you if the relationship of your variables is positive or negative I want to do a linear regression in R using the lm() function. My data is an annual time series with one field for year (22 years) and another for state (50 states). I want to fit a regression for.
I believe SPSS calculates an R-squared for logistic regression, but it may be computed differently than for linear regression. Loading... Reply. Natasha says. February 23, 2021 at 3:58 pm. Hi Jim, Firstly, thank you so much for taking the time to explain the calculation We're living in the era of large amounts of data, powerful computers, and artificial intelligence.This is just the beginning. Data science and machine learning are driving image recognition, autonomous vehicles development, decisions in the financial and energy sectors, advances in medicine, the rise of social networks, and more. Linear regression is an important part of this In this tutorial, you'll see how to perform multiple linear regression in Python using both sklearn and statsmodels.. Here are the topics to be covered: Reviewing the example to be used in this tutoria View week12-B-OEFENcollege2019-meervoudige lineaire regressie.pdf from CS 100,105 at Anton de Kom Univerisity of Suriname. week13-OEFENcollege-meervoudige lineaire regressie We hebben op d
Display and interpret linear regression output statistics. Here, coefTest performs an F-test for the hypothesis that all regression coefficients (except for the intercept) are zero versus at least one differs from zero, which essentially is the hypothesis on the model.It returns p, the p-value, F, the F-statistic, and d, the numerator degrees of freedom Using SPSS for Multiple Regression UDP 520 Lab 7 Lin Lin December 4th, 2007. The Durbin-Watson d = 2.074, which is between the two critical values of 1.5 d 2.5. If they do exist, then we can perhaps The screenshots below illustrate how to run a basic regression analysis in SPSS.We can now run the syntax as generated from the menu Linear Regression Linear regression attempts to model the relationship between two variables by fitting a linear equation to observed data. One variable is considered to be an explanatory variable, and the other is considered to be a dependent variable
Simple linear regression is a technique that we can use to understand the relationship between a single explanatory variable and a single response variable.. This technique finds a line that best fits the data and takes on the following form: ŷ = b 0 + b 1 x. where: ŷ: The estimated response value; b 0: The intercept of the regression line; b 1: The slope of the regression lin Show Methoden en Technieken, Sociale Wetenschappen, Vrije Universiteit, SPSS kennisclips, Ep Lineaire regressie 1 dummy's in SPSS - 2 Mar 200
For SPSS, we encourage you to make a small change to the syntax command so as to avoid any confusion (see Sub-Appendix A). Alternatively, you can recode the variable so that 0 corresponds to the event occurring and 1 to the event not occurring.. r documentation: Linear regression on the mtcars datase The simple linear regression is used to predict a quantitative outcome y on the basis of one single predictor variable x.The goal is to build a mathematical model (or formula) that defines y as a function of the x variable. Once, we built a statistically significant model, it's possible to use it for predicting future outcome on the basis of new x values
Popular books for Arts, Humanities and Cultures. AQA A-level History: Britain 1851-1964: Challenge and Transformation N. Shepley, M. Byrne. AQA A-level History D. Ferry, A. Anderson. BTEC Level 3 National Sport Book 1 R. Barker, C. Lydon. Edexcel A Level History, Paper 3 N. Christie, B. Christie. Edexcel AS/A Level History, Paper 1&2 R. Rees, J. Shuter. Example The dataset Healthy Breakfast contains, among other variables, the Consumer Reports ratings of 77 cereals and the number of grams of sugar contained in each serving. (Data source: Free publication available in many grocery stores.Dataset available through the Statlib Data and Story Library (DASL).. A simple linear regression model considering Sugars as the explanatory variable and. $\begingroup$ What about variables like population density in a region or the child-teacher ratio for each school district or the number of homicides per 1000 in the population? I have seen professors take the log of these variables. It is not clear to me why. For example, isn't the homicide rate already a percentage
Overview. This article will introduce you to some of the commonly used functions for building ordinary least squares (OLS) models. Diagnostic tools for these models will be covered in the Regression Diagnostics article. These two aspects of modelling are done together in practice Listen now to Enkelvoudige regressie deel I from Methoden en Technieken, Sociale Wetenschappen, Vrije Universiteit, SPSS kennisclips on Chartable. See historical chart positions, reviews, and more
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Listen now to reduceren in SPSS from Methoden en Technieken, Sociale Wetenschappen, Vrije Universiteit, SPSS kennisclips on Chartable. See historical chart positions, reviews, lineaire regressie, verklaren aan de hand van 3 factoren. Published 11/22/10 vervolg type I en type II fouten. Instructie type I en type II fouten, SPSS. Published 10. Show Methoden en Technieken, Sociale Wetenschappen, Vrije Universiteit, SPSS kennisclips, Ep K&K deel II: lineaire regressie & dummy's - Apr 19, 200 With SPSS, I could square the part correlations from the output and so calculate semi-partial correlations (sri2). Thanks Charles! Reply. Charles. February 27, 2018 at 9:45 am Demos, The coefficients are for unstandardized regression. If you want standardized regression, se
regress— Linear regression 5 SeeHamilton(2013, chap. 7) andCameron and Trivedi(2010, chap. 3) for an introduction to linear regression using Stata.Dohoo, Martin, and Stryhn(2012,2010) discuss linear regression usin Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) linear regression is a statistical technique used for the analysis and modelling of linear relationships between a response variable and one or more predictor variables. If the relationship between two variables appears to be linear, then a straight line can be fit to the data in. Linear Regression. Linear regression is used to explore the relationship between a continuous dependent variable, and one or more continuous and/or categorical explanatory variables. Other statistical methods, such as ANOVA and ANCOVA, are in reality just forms of linear regression The regression model is linear in parameters. An example of model equation that is linear in parameters. Y = a + (β1*X1) + (β2*X22) Though, the X2 is raised to power 2, the equation is still linear in beta parameters. So the assumption is satisfied in this case Let's take a look at how to interpret each regression coefficient. Interpreting the Intercept. The intercept term in a regression table tells us the average expected value for the response variable when all of the predictor variables are equal to zero. In this example, the regression coefficient for the intercept is equal to 48.56.This means that for a student who studied for zero hours. | https://egymas-zacali.com/fsw/mtlab/mtcvd/college/ECO3-20139ckw60822d7-.pdf |
A tolerance statistic below.20 is generally considered cause for concern.Of course, in real life, you don’t actually compute a bunch of regressions with all of your independent variables as dependents, you just look at the collinearity statistics. Let’s take a look at an example in SPSS, shall we? If the option "Collinearity Diagnostics" is selected in the context of multiple regression, two additional pieces of information are obtained in the SPSS output. First, in the "Coefficients" table on the far right a "Collinearity Statistics" area appears with the two columns "Tolerance" and "VIF". Moreover, when you have SPSS; all you need to do is to know to use it. Bear in mind that you can use the statistical software for many purposes. You can use it for multicollinearity, collinearity, regression and much more. It has lots of purpose so when you know how.
Tolerance is a measure of collinearity reported by most statistical programs such as SPSS; the variable’s tolerance is 1-R2. A small tolerance value indicates that the variable under consideration is almost a perfect linear combination of the independent variables already in the equation and that it should not be added to the regression equation. The collinearity diagnostics confirm that there are serious problems with multicollinearity. Several eigenvalues are close to 0, indicating that the predictors are highly intercorrelated and that small changes in the data values may lead to large changes in the estimates of the coefficients. Tolerance is estimated by 1 - R 2, where R 2 is calculated by regressing the independent variable of interest onto the remaining independent variables included in the multiple regression analysis. All other things equal, researchers desire higher levels of tolerance, as low levels of tolerance are known to affect adversely the results associated with a multiple regression analysis. 10/12/2019 · In this section, we will explore some SPSS commands that help to detect multicollinearity. Let’s proceed to the regression putting not_hsg, hsg, some_col, col_grad, and avg_ed as predictors of api00. Go to Linear Regression – Statistics and check Collinearity diagnostics. Collinearity statistics in regression concern the relationships among the predictors, ignoring the dependent variable. So, you can run REGRESSION with the same list of predictors and dependent variable as you wish to use in LOGISTIC REGRESSION for example and request the collinearity.
Multicollinearity Test Example Using SPSS After the normality of the data in the regression model are met, the next step to determine whether there is similarity between the independent variables in a model it is necessary to multicollinearity test. Multicollinearity makes it tedious to assess the relative importance of the independent variables in explaining the variation caused by the dependent variable. In the presence of high multicollinearity, the confidence intervals of the coefficients tend to become very wide and the statistics tend to be very small.
The most common summary statistic for evaluating collinearity is tolerance. The tolerance value for a particular predictor in a particular model is 1 - R², where the R² is obtained using that predictor as a criterion and all others as predictors. SPSS automatically does a tolerance analysis and won't enter the regression model any variable. 22/10/2011 · In our last chapter, we learned how to do ordinary linear regression with SPSS, concluding with methods for examining the distribution of variables to check for non-normally distributed variables as a first look at checking assumptions in regression. Without verifying that your data have met the. 14/08/2006 · I have a dataset with categories to run a logistic regression. However, i want to check for multicollinearity before I run the log. regression. A book on SPSS says to run a linear regression and ignore the the rest of the ouput but focus on the Coefficients ta ble and the columns labelled collinearity Statistics. My questions are. A book on SPSS says to run a linear regression and ignore the rest of the ouput but focus on the Coefficients table and the columns labelled collinearity Statistics. My questions are: The correlation between two variables fathers' Spanish origin and mother's Spanish origin is -0.714.
If all variables are quantitative or dichotomous, use the REGRESSION command to estimate your model and check the boxes or include the sub-commands in your syntax to do the usual diagnostics. These will include tolerance and variance inflation factor VIF. Don't pay attention to the coefficients etc, just the collinearity diagnostics. ตารางที่ 2 ผลการวิเคราะห์ Multiple regression โดยโปรแกรม Excel. จะรู้ได้อย่างไรว่าเกิด Collinearity หรือ Multicollinearity ขึ้นแล้วเมื่อเราทำการวิเคราะห์. How to Deal with Collinearity. As you may have noticed, there are rules of thumb in deciding whether collinearity is a problem. People like to conclude that collinearity is not a problem. However, you should at least check to see if it seems to be a problem with your data. If it is, then you have some choices: Lump it, but cautiously. Collinearity, in statistics, correlation between predictor variables or independent variables, such that they express a linear relationship in a regression model. When predictor variables in the same regression model are correlated, they cannot independently predict the value of the dependent variable. 01/12/2015 · This video explains multicollinearity and demonstrates how to identify multicollinearity among predictor variables in a regression using SPSS. Correlation, tolerance, and variance inflation factor VIF are reviewed.
The presence of high correlations generally.90 and higher is the first indication of substantial collinearity. Hair et al 2013, p. 196. The regression model can be tested for multicollinearity by examining the collinearity statistics. Multicollinearity is analyzed through tolerance and variance inflation factor VIF. However, the model fit statistics, such as adjusted R-squared and RMSE are not affected by multicollinearity. That might explain why removing a variable that appears to be insignificant causes a large reduction in the goodness-of-fit statistics. There’s also a number specifics that matter. How much multicollinearity do you have?
Using SPSS for Multiple Regression UDP 520 Lab 7 Lin Lin December 4th, 2007. Step 1 — Define Research Question. Tolerance VIF Collinearity Statistics a. Dependent Variable: BMI Unstandardized coefficients used in the prediction and interpretation standardized coefficients used for. I'm using the binary Logistic Regression procedure in SPSS, requesting the Backwards LR method of predictor entry. Does this procedure have any mechanism for assessing multicollinearity among the predictors and removing collinear predictors before the Backward LR selection process begins? Is there a user-controlled criterion for the degree of. | http://pinshealth.club/Collinearity%20Statistics%20Tolerance%20Spss |
What’s the brightest thing in the universe?
The brightest object in the universe has been discovered, a quasar from when the universe was just 7 percent of its current age. The quasar, now known as PSO J352. 4034-15.3373 (P352-15 for short), was discovered 13 billion light-years away from Earth by the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) radio telescope.
Also What is the closest star to Earth?
The closest star to Earth is a triple-star system called Alpha Centauri. The two main stars are Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B, which form a binary pair. They are about 4.35 light-years from Earth, according to NASA.
Which is the oldest thing in the universe?
Quasars are some of the oldest, most distant, most massive and brightest objects in the universe. They make up the cores of galaxies where a rapidly spinning supermassive black hole gorges on all the matter that’s unable to escape its gravitational grasp.
What is the brightest man made light?
A laser has produced the most dazzling light ever made on Earth – one billion times brighter than the surface of the sun. Scientists at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln in the US fired an ultra high-intensity laser known as “Diocles” at electrons suspended in helium.
What is brighter than the sun?
As the name suggests, Diamond is a source of intensely bright light, which can be up to 10 billion times brighter than the sun.
What is largest star in Milky Way?
The largest of all
The star lies near the center of the Milky Way, roughly 9,500 light-years away. Located in the constellation Scutum, UY Scuti is a hypergiant, the classification that comes after supergiant, which itself comes after giant. Hypergiants are rare stars that shine very brightly.
What color is the hottest star?
White stars are hotter than red and yellow. Blue stars are the hottest stars of all. Stars are not really star-shaped. They are round like our sun.
Is every star a sun?
There are billions of such galaxies in this universe. Sun is a star..all stars are like Sun but some may be larger or smaller. Mily way galaxy is about 100,000 light years in size stars are different in size, age, temperature etc..
How old is the black hole?
At more than 13 billion years old, the black hole and quasar are the earliest yet seen, giving astronomers insight into the formation of massive galaxies in the early universe.
What is the oldest animal on earth?
This tortoise was born in 1777. Jonathan, a Seychelles giant tortoise living on the island of Saint Helena, is reported to be about 189 years old, and may, therefore, be the oldest currently living terrestrial animal if the claim is true. Harriet, a Galápagos tortoise, died at the age of 175 years in June 2006.
What is the age of the universe in seconds?
436,117,076,900,000,000 seconds
That is a bit more than 13.82 billion years.
What is the brightest city from space?
From space at night, Las Vegas is the brightest city on Earth. Pyongyang, North Korea, is the darkest. The industrial age transformed cities, setting them aglow with light.
Is lightning brighter than the sun?
Since a lightning channel can reach 5X the temperature of the Sun, every square centimeter of the lightning channel radiates about 600 times more energy than a similar area radiates on the surface of the Sun – lightning is effectively 600 times “brighter”.
What is the brightest color?
By another definition pure yellow is the brightest, in that it most closely resembles white. Blue is perceived as closest to black. This illustrates how there can be several definitions of perceived brightness.
What color is our sun?
When we direct solar rays through a prism, we see all the colors of the rainbow come out the other end. That’s to say we see all the colors that are visible to the human eye. “Therefore the sun is white,” because white is made up of all the colors, Baird said.
What star is 10000 times brighter than the sun?
The well-known star Williams targeted is a cool red dwarf, less than 1 percent as massive as the sun. It lies about 35 light-years from Earth, in the constellation Boites. Previous studies of the star from the Karl G.
What’s the most powerful light in the world?
By far the brightest light on earth is the Sky Beam at the top of the Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas. As you may be aware, the Luxor Hotel is a pyramid and the Sky Beam is a solid cord of white light that emanates from the pinnacle of the pyramid.
Which star is coldest?
According to a new study, a star discovered 75 light-years away is no warmer than a freshly brewed cup of coffee. Dubbed CFBDSIR 1458 10b, the star is what’s called a brown dwarf.
What is the biggest thing in the Universe?
The largest known structure in the Universe is called the ‘Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall‘, discovered in November 2013. This object is a galactic filament, a vast group of galaxies bound together by gravity, about 10 billion light-years away.
Is the Sun the hottest star?
No, the Sun is not the hottest star; there are many stars much hotter than the Sun! … The coolest stars are red, then orange, then yellow (like our Sun). Even hotter stars are white and then the hottest stars are blue! The surface temperature of our sun is 5777 Kelvins (~5000 degrees C or ~ 9940 degrees F).
Which star is the coldest?
M stars are the coldest stars and O stars are the hottest. The full system contains other types that are hard to find: W, R, N, and S. The closest star to the Earth, the sun, is a class G star.
Is the Sun all colors?
The color of the sun is white. The sun emits all colors of the rainbow more or less evenly and in physics, we call this combination “white”. That is why we can see so many different colors in the natural world under the illumination of sunlight.
Can there be a purple star?
Although you can spot many colors of stars in the night sky, purple and green stars aren’t seen because of the way humans perceive visible light. Stars are a multicolored bunch. … The color of a star is linked to its surface temperature. The hotter the star, the shorter the wavelength of light it will emit. | https://parentfresh.com/names-meanings/whats-the-brightest-thing-in-the-universe/ |
1. The Big Bang
It is unlikely to beat this temperature record; at the time of birth, our universe had a temperature of about 1032 K, and by the word “moment” we here mean not a second, but a Planck unit of time equal to 5 10-44 seconds. In this literally immeasurably short time the universe was so hot that we have no idea what laws it existed; at such energies, even fundamental particles do not exist.
2. TANK
The second place in the list of the hottest places (or moments of time, in this case there is no difference) after the Big Bang is our blue planet. In 2012, heavy ions were broken up at 99% of the speed of light at the Large Hadron Collider of Physics, and for a brief instant they got a temperature of 5.5 trillion Kelvin (5 * 1012) (or degrees Celsius – on this scale it is one and the same).
3. Neutron stars
1011 K is the temperature inside the newborn neutron star. The substance at this temperature is not at all like the forms that we are accustomed to. The bowels of neutron stars consist of a boiling “soup” of electrons, neutrons and other elements. In just a few minutes, the star cools down to 10 9 K, and for the first hundred years of existence – another order of magnitude.
4. Nuclear explosion
The temperature inside the fireball of a nuclear explosion is about 20,000 K. This is greater than the temperature at the surface of most main sequence stars.
5. The hottest stars (except neutrons)
The surface temperature of the sun is about six thousand degrees, but this is not the limit for the stars; the hottest of the known to date stars, WR 102 in the constellation of Sagittarius, is heated to 210 000 K – this is ten times hotter than an atomic explosion. Such hot stars are relatively few (in the Milky Way they were found about a hundred, as many in other galaxies), they are 10-15 times more massive than the Sun and much brighter than it. | https://www.planet-today.com/2018/07/the-five-hottest-places-in-universe.html |
Short answer: The oldest star we know of is called “HD 140283”, AKA the “Methuselah Star”. It’s 14.46 ± 0.8 billion years old.
What is the oldest known star?
Methuselah Star Name Age (billions of years) Distance The Methuselah Star or HD 140283 13.7 ± 0.7 200 ly 2MASS J18082002-5104378 B 13.53 1 950 ly BD +17° 3248 13.8 ± 4 968 ly SMSS J031300.36-670839.3 13.6 6 000 ly.
What is the oldest star that can be seen with the naked eye?
This Digitized Sky Survey image shows the oldest star with a well-determined age in our galaxy. Called the Methuselah star, HD 140283 is 190.1 light-years away. Astronomers refined the star’s age to about 14.5 billion years (which is older than the universe), plus or minus 800 million years.
Which star in the answer choices would be considered the oldest star?
HD 140283, the oldest known star. Astronomers have found the oldest star in the Universe.
What color star is the oldest?
However, there is an anomaly that the colour of the star usually tell the age of the star. Blue being the youngest, next comes to Blue-white, next aged stars look in white color. Old stars have color from yellow shades to Orange and Red being the oldest one.
How old is the youngest star?
Age and distance Title Object Data Oldest star HD 140283 14.5±0.8 billion years Youngest Stars are being formed constantly in the universe so it is impossible to tell which star is the youngest. For information on the properties of newly formed stars, See Protostar, Young stellar object and Star formation.
What is the youngest thing in the universe?
GN-z11 is the youngest and most distant galaxy scientists have observed. This video zooms to its location, some 32 billion light-years away. GN-z11 is 13.4 billion years old and formed 400 million years after the Big Bang. Its irregular shape is typical for galaxies of that time period.
What is the farthest away star?
A recent study found a star in the halo that’s the farthest member of the Milky Way yet seen. It’s a million light-years away from Earth. An international team studied a class of pulsating stars in and around the constellation Virgo. The stars are named for their prototype, RR Lyra.
What is the farthest away star we can see?
Nasa’s Hubble Space Telescope has discovered the farthest individual star ever seen – an enormous blue stellar body nicknamed Icarus located over halfway across the universe. The star, harboured in a very distant spiral galaxy, is so far away that its light has taken nine billion years to reach Earth.
What is the closest star to Earth?
Alpha Centauri: Closest Star to Earth. The closest star to Earth are three stars in the Alpha Centauri system. The two main stars are Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B, which form a binary pair. They are an average of 4.3 light-years from Earth.
What color star is the coolest?
Red stars are the coolest. Yellow stars are hotter than red stars. White stars are hotter than red and yellow. Blue stars are the hottest stars of all.
What came first galaxies or stars?
The first stars did not appear until perhaps 100 million years after the big bang, and nearly a billion years passed before galaxies proliferated across the cosmos. Astronomers have long wondered: How did this dramatic transition from darkness to light come about?.
What type of galaxy has the youngest stars?
Cards Term What is the shape of the Milky Way Galaxy? Definition A huge, slowly revolving disk. Term Which galaxy type has the oldest stars? Definition Elliptical Term Which galaxy types has the youngest stars? Definition Irregular Term Which galaxy type are typically the largest galaxies in the universe? Definition Spiral.
Are older stars hotter?
The answer to this question goes like an intricate detective story. Scientists can deduce the age of a star by its brightness and color. stars, which in turn are brighter than red stars. are hotter are also brighter.
Are red or blue stars older?
As stars age, they run out of hydrogen to burn, decreasing the amount of energy they emit. Thus, younger stars can appear bluer while older ones appear more red, and in this way, a star’s color can tell us something about that star’s age.
Which star is very similar to Sun?
An international team of astronomers has discovered that Tau Ceti, one of the closest and most Sun-like stars, may host five planets, including one in the star’s habitable zone.
What star has the most energy?
There is another star called the Pistol Star. It is in our neighborhood, the Milky Way galaxy. Although the sun is extremely powerful, this star is even much more so. It produces 10 million times more energy than the sun and gives off as much energy in six seconds as the sun does in an entire year.
Which star has the highest gravity?
Neutron stars are known that have rotation periods from about 1.4 ms to 30 s. The neutron star’s density also gives it very high surface gravity, with typical values ranging from 1012 to 1013 m/s2 (more than 1011 times that of Earth).
What is the coldest star in the universe?
According to a new study, a star discovered 75 light-years away is no warmer than a freshly brewed cup of coffee. Dubbed CFBDSIR 1458 10b, the star is what’s called a brown dwarf.
How many universes are there?
The only meaningful answer to the question of how many universes there are is one, only one universe. And a few philosophers and mystics might argue that even our own universe is an illusion.
What is the Milky Way circling?
Answer: Yes, the Sun – in fact, our whole solar system – orbits around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. But even at that high rate, it still takes us about 230 million years to make one complete orbit around the Milky Way! The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy.
What are the oldest things on Earth?
Microscopic grains of dead stars are the oldest known material on the planet — older than the moon, Earth and the solar system itself. | https://www.bristolpetitions.com/best-answer-what-is-the-oldest-star/ |
These factors contribute to the fact that the surface of Mercury has the greatest temperature range of any planet or natural satellite in our solar system. The surface temperature on the side of Mercury closest to the Sun reaches 427 degrees Celsius, a temperature hot enough to melt tin.
Which planet has the greatest daily temperature change?
Highs and lows. Orbiting between 28 and 43 million miles (46 and 70 million kilometers) from the sun, Mercury, also the smallest planet, feels the brunt of the solar rays. According to NASA, the tiny world suffers the most extreme temperature range of any other planet in the solar system.
Which planet has the highest temperature?
Venus is the exception, as its proximity to the Sun and dense atmosphere make it our solar system’s hottest planet. The average temperatures of planets in our solar system are: Mercury – 800°F (430°C) during the day, -290°F (-180°C) at night.
Which planet has the greatest fluctuation difference between high and low in temperature?
Due to the tenuous atmosphere, Mercury really has no weather to speak of other than wild fluctuations in temperature. In fact, Mercury has the largest diurnal temperature spread of any planet in our solar system. This is explained by a few factors.
Which planet has the largest temperature difference between day and night?
Venus. Mercury has the largest day-night temperature difference.
What planet is known as Earth’s twin?
Venus is Earth’s evil twin — and space agencies can no longer resist its pull. Once a water-rich Eden, the hellish planet could reveal how to find habitable worlds around distant stars.
Is Venus hot or cold?
The average temperature on Venus is 864 degrees Fahrenheit (462 degrees Celsius). Temperature changes slightly traveling through the atmosphere, growing cooler farther away from the surface. Lead would melt on the surface of the planet, where the temperature is around 872 F (467 C).
Which is the hottest and coldest planet?
Shakeel Anwar
|Name of Planets (Hottest to Coldest)||Mean Temperature (Degree Celsius)|
|1. Venus||464|
|2. Mercury||167|
|3. Earth||15|
|4. Mars||-65|
Is the sun a planet?
The Sun is a yellow dwarf star, a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of our solar system. Its gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything – from the biggest planets to the smallest particles of debris – in its orbit.
Which planet has the longest year?
Given its distance from the Sun, Neptune has the longest orbital period of any planet in the Solar System. As such, a year on Neptune is the longest of any planet, lasting the equivalent of 164.8 years (or 60,182 Earth days).
What is the coldest inner planet?
With a temperature of -357 degrees Fahrenheit, Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system.
What is the closest planet to the sun?
The smallest planet in our solar system and nearest to the Sun, Mercury is only slightly larger than Earth’s Moon.
Why is Venus called Earth’s sister?
Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth’s “sister planet” because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects.
Which planet has the shortest day?
The planet Jupiter has the shortest day of all the eight major planets in the Solar System. It spins around on its axis once every 9 hr 55 min 29.69 sec. Jupiter has a small axial tilt of only 3.13 degrees, meaning it has little seasonal variation during its 11.86-year-long orbit of the Sun.
How many planets are in the universe 2020?
For those of you who like to see gigantic numbers written out in full, around 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 planets in our observable Universe, and that’s only counting planets that are orbiting stars.
Why Venus is hottest planet than Mercury?
The carbon dioxide traps most of the heat from the Sun. The cloud layers also act as a blanket. The result is a “runaway greenhouse effect” that has caused the planet’s temperature to soar to 465°C, hot enough to melt lead. This means that Venus is even hotter than Mercury. | https://bigbangpokemon.com/people/which-planet-has-the-greatest-change-in-temperature-and-how-much-does-it-change.html |
The core of the Sun is actually relatively small compared to the rest of it, as there’s a lot of swirling gases that surround the core that still make up part of the Sun. We’ve actually been within a few million miles of the Sun without our spacecraft being burnt up into smithereens. The Parker Solar probe came within 4.3 million miles of its center (this is just one of many interesting facts about the Sun).
Of course, the Sun is crucial to our survival on the planet Earth too – we’re just close enough to it that it supplies us with heat, but fortunately not close enough that we have a burning temperature like Venus. The Sun is the hottest part of our solar system, and of the Sun, the core has the highest temperature. But just how hot can the core of the Sun get, and how does that compare to other stars in our universe? I’m going to run through this quickly now.
How hot is the core of the Sun?
The core of the Sun is on average 28,080,000°F, which is a little under 156,000,000°c, making it the hottest part of the Sun and indeed in our whole solar system. However, this is right at the core of the Sun, and in comparison, the surface and outer regions are much lower in temperature.
One of the main reasons why the Sun is so hot is down to its massive size – the Sun is so massive that it actually makes up more than 99% of the mass in our solar system, which shows just how small our planets are in comparison. And when the Sun formed, many different gases came together in what is known as “nuclear fusion”, which essentially is all of the atoms that make up these gases compressed together. These gases were compressed together with such pressure that it created the Sun’s high temperature.
Like the planets, the Sun also has an atmosphere that surrounds it, which means that it retains some of the heat that it creates too. This stops the Sun from eventually getting cooler, as the atmosphere stops the heat from completely escaping the planet. It also means that the closer to the Sun that you get, the hotter it becomes. As the Sun is made up of gases, there’s no solid surface to it, and the deeper you go beneath it to the core, the higher the temperature is.
Is the Sun the hottest place in the universe?
Because the Sun is so hit, many people wonder whether it may be the hottest place in the whole universe. And although yes, it does have an extremely high temperature, it’s definitely not the hottest place in the universe – far from it, in fact. We know that the Sun is actually unique in the fact that it has planets orbiting it with life on it, though it is still just one of hundreds of billions of stars in the universe.
And actually, in comparison to some of the other stars in our universe, the Sun isn’t actually that high in temperature. For example, one of the hottest stars in our universe is WR 102, which is a Wolf Rayet star; although we’re not exactly sure of its core temperature, it has a surface temperature of 210,000K, which is around 36x times the surface of our Sun, so the core is likely much hotter than our own. Also, it’s a common misconception that the biggest star is always the hottest though, as this isn’t necessarily the case.
Conclusion
So in conclusion, the core of the Sun is extremely hot, and in comparison with any of our planets, it doesn’t compare. The actual temperature of the Sun’s core can surprise some people, as if we compare it to the Sun’s surface (which has an average temperature of 5,505 °C), it’s dramatically hotter. But even then, if we look at other stars within our universe, there are many others that are much hotter than our own. | https://www.odysseymagazine.com/how-hot-is-the-core-of-the-sun/ |
What are the main steps in stellar evolution?
Step 1: Large cloud of gas.
What is formed during stellar evolution?
All stars are formed from collapsing clouds of gas and dust, often called nebulae or molecular clouds. Over the course of millions of years, these protostars settle down into a state of equilibrium, becoming what is known as a main-sequence star. Nuclear fusion powers a star for most of its existence.
How many stages does stellar evolution have?
Massive stars transform into supernovae, neutron stars and black holes while average stars like the sun, end life as a white dwarf surrounded by a disappearing planetary nebula. All stars, irrespective of their size, follow the same 7 stage cycle, they start as a gas cloud and end as a star remnant.
What elements were found during stellar evolution?
Because of the mass of these stars, the fusion of heavier and heavier elements continues through neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, iron and nickel. Each time a new element is created the star becomes larger and redder.
What are the 7 stages of a star?
The formation and life cycle of stars
- A nebula. A star forms from massive clouds of dust and gas in space, also known as a nebula.
- Protostar. As the mass falls together it gets hot.
- Main sequence star.
- Red giant star.
- White dwarf.
- Supernova.
- Neutron star or black hole.
What are the 6 stages of a star?
Formation of Stars Like the Sun
- STAGE 1: AN INTERSTELLAR CLOUD.
- STAGE 2: A COLLAPSING CLOUD FRAGMENT.
- STAGE 3: FRAGMENTATION CEASES.
- STAGE 4: A PROTOSTAR.
- STAGE 5: PROTOSTELLAR EVOLUTION.
- STAGE 6: A NEWBORN STAR.
- STAGE 7: THE MAIN SEQUENCE AT LAST.
What is the most abundant element in the universe?
Hydrogen
Hydrogen — with just one proton and one electron (it’s the only element without a neutron) — is the simplest element in the universe, which explains why it’s also the most abundant, Nyman said.
What color are the hottest stars?
Blue stars
White stars are hotter than red and yellow. Blue stars are the hottest stars of all.
What type of star is the sun?
G2VSun / Spectral type
What is star death called?
While most stars quietly fade away, the supergiants destroy themselves in a huge explosion, called a supernova.
What is the rarest element in the universe?
Element Astatine
Element Astatine. The rarest naturally occurring element in the universe. Discovered in 1940.
Why there is no oxygen in the space?
In space, there is very little breathable oxygen. A ground—based experiment by an experimental astrophysicist at Syracuse University found that oxygen atoms cling tightly to stardust. This prevents the oxygen atoms from joining together to form oxygen molecules. | https://www.worldsrichpeople.com/what-are-the-main-steps-in-stellar-evolution/ |
There are several places in the universe that are colder than we can ever imagine here on this planet. Of these, what and where is the coldest place in the universe? What temperatures does it see and how does it manage to remain so cold? Let’s find out below!
Coldest Place In The Universe: Short Summary
The coldest place in the universe in which low temperatures occur naturally is the Boomerang Nebula. This reflecting cloud or preplanetary nebula in the Centaurus constellation remains as cold as -458°F.
The Boomerang Nebula is nearly 5,000 light years away from Earth.
There are several reasons that can help explain these kinds of cold temperatures, such as the shape of the nebula, its planetary nebula form and its expulsion of mass and material.
You can learn more about this through this YouTube video.
Where Is The Coldest Place In The Universe?
The coldest place in the universe is the Boomerang Nebula. This is a protoplanetary or preplanetary nebula that is on its way to quickly evolve into a planetary nebula. This star system has been around for a long, long time and is situated in the Centaurus constellation in space.
This Centaurus constellation is located in the southern direction of the universe, based on the way we measure directions here on Earth. Containing multiple big and bright stars, many of which are even visible from the Earth’s sky, this constellation has several protoplanetary nebulae, including the Boomerang Nebula.
The distance of various stars, bodies and galaxies located in this constellation are at varying distances from the Earth, making it possible for certain stars to be much closer compared to others.
Based on this, Boomerang Nebula is at a distance of nearly 5,000 light-years from Earth, which is much further than some stars but generally much closer compared to many other stars and bodies.
Additional Observations
It is important to note here that this Boomerang Nebula contains temperatures that are colder than the rest of space itself. Space, in this case, refers to the empty space present in the universe and not parts of it that contain such universal elements as galaxies, stars, planets and similar bodies.
Additionally, it might be easy to envision Boomerang Nebula as a defined structure (like a planet), but it is actually a large mass of gas. It appears similar to a cloud, which is often why it is referred to as a reflective cloud.
What Does the Boomerang Nebula Look Like?
The Boomerang Nebula looks like a massive glowing light that has a central converging point with two flashes of light on either side. Why, then, is this preplanetary nebula called the Boomerang Nebula?
When it was initially discovered and observed in space, there were several limitations in terms of what the telescopes could achieve and the kind of scope they could reach through their technology. Based on this, when astronomers first came to view the Boomerang Nebula, they could only observe a small part of it.
This resembled the shape of a boomerang due to the lobes at the end being curved. It was only later, when more advanced telescopes were used, that a more accurate and fuller version of this system was captured, resembling an hourglass.
Developments
With further observations and advancements, the shapes became even more apparent. For instance, in 2013, astronomers found that the Boomerang Nebula actually has a double lobe that gives it almost a ghost-like appearance. The cloud takes on a longer and more oval shape than was previously imagined.
There are also numerous grainy and dust-like particles that surround this structure, which is responsible for giving the protoplanetary nebula its hourglass-like resemblance.
The light that is visible tends to be orange-like in color, with the surrounding particles giving it a more blue-like shade. With further developments in the technology of telescopes, it is possible to get an even clearer view of the Boomerang Nebula.
Discovery and Further Developments
Astronomers and scientists were not always aware of the existence of the Boomerang Nebula, nor was its precise shape and temperature known from the very beginning.
Let’s take a look at how and when scientists discovered the Boomerang Nebula, how they came to know more about it and how they determined that it was the coldest place in the universe.
1980
It was in the year 1980 that astronomers first discovered and observed the Boomerang Nebula from a telescope. Keith Taylor and Mike Scarrott made use of the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT) located inside the Siding Spring Observatory near New South Wales in Australia.
They could only view it faintly, based on which they came to the conclusion that the nebula had curved ends, just like a boomerang. This was why it began to be referred to as the Boomerang Nebula.
1995
It was only in the year 1995, 15 years after its discovery, that astronomers found that the Boomerang Nebula is the coldest place in the universe. This was a result of astronomer Raghvendra Sahai’s 1990 research on cold regions in the universe.
Sahai, along with Lars-Åke Nyman and their team, used the Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope in Chile to put the research into practice, based on which they discovered the low temperatures in this nebula.
1998
The Hubble Space Telescope, which continues to capture images of space from the Earth’s orbit, captured clearer images of the Boomerang Nebula in the year 1998.
It was then that astronomers got a better and more accurate picture of the appearance of the system, based on which they could then make even further advancements in learning more about it.
2003
With the help of the Hubble Space Telescope, even clearer images were obtained in 2003. These provided the astronomers with a bow tie or hourglass shape along with its distinct blue light, thus contributing even more to the study and research being conducted.
2013
The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) telescope is located in the Atacama desert in Chile. Using its ability to observe and capture electromagnetic radiation, it was found that the Boomerang Nebula not only has its double lobes of gas but also has some more cold gas that forms a sphere-like shape around the lobes.
This tends to contribute to the temperatures of the nebula. This discovery was possible only due to the submillimeter readings. Several other properties of this system were also discovered.
2017
Using the same ALMA telescope, astronomers went on to discover in 2017 that the nebula actually comprises a central red giant, as a result of which the expulsion of mass and matter is continuing to take place. They also found that the rate of expulsion is also incredibly high.
Temperatures In The Coldest Place
Now that you know about the location and appearance of the Boomerang Nebula, you can move on to understanding the actual temperatures of the coldest place in the universe.
For reference, it is important to understand that the temperature is measured based on the thermodynamic scale, which situates the lowest possible temperature on the scale as zero Kelvin. This measures around -273.15°C, or -459.67°F.
Interestingly, the temperatures in the Boomerang Nebula come extremely close to zero Kelvin, being only a degree higher. To be precise, the temperature here measures one Kelvin, which amounts to -272.15°C or -457.87°F.
This makes it colder than the rest of space itself, with no other known planetary body having such low temperatures so far. In fact, even the Big Bang’s background radiation and light/glow, which has a temperature of -270°C, falls short compared to the Boomerang Nebula.
While this does not make it the end-all lowest temperature in the universe, it certainly holds this status currently and for the foreseeable future unless other discoveries come into existence.
The temperature of the Boomerang Nebula itself may also undergo several changes based on how the expansion and expulsion process continues to take place.
What Makes This Place So Cold?
What exactly causes the Boomerang Nebula to be so cold, even colder than space and the radiation from the Big Bang? It is important to look into the discoveries, structure and properties of the Boomerang Nebula to understand the reasons behind the low temperatures.
Let’s take a detailed look into some of these causes below.
Protoplanetary Nebular Status
The Boomerang Nebula is a protoplanetary or preplanetary nebula. This astronomical system is, therefore, going through a rapid rate of evolution, making this particular stage fall between that of a red giant and the final stage of a star, called the planetary nebula.
What this means is that the red giant continues to collapse in on itself while also emitting plenty of infrared radiation, causing it to reflect the light of other nearby stars and bodies.
The nebula, starting to exhaust its fuel, causes it to get rid of its outermost layers, making it enter the planetary stage, which marks the end of its life cycle.
Central Red Giant
Initially, the structure and characteristics of the Boomerang Nebula were not clearly known. Due to the findings of the ALMA telescope, it was found that the structure is a combination of a star in the system with a red giant.
As a result of this kind of ‘joining of forces’, so to speak, the matter that was a part of the red giant began to flow outward due to the pressure of the star. This can help explain the cold temperatures due to the loss of heat that occurs with this kind of outflow.
Moreover, through the impact of the stellar wind, the appearance of the nebula ends up becoming more circular and spherical, as is what the telescopes noted.
Expulsion of Mass
The mass present in the nebular structure of this reflective cloud tends to expel the mass, including large amounts of dust and gas, out into space from the internal structure of the system.
As a result of the expulsion of such vast quantities of gas, the temperature inside the cloud goes on decreasing, which is why the temperature here is so low.
Further, while it might seem that the glow seen from the telescope is a result of this kind of emission and infrared radiation, it is actually only because of the surrounding lights reflected through the dust.
The absence of this actual light makes it even cooler, at least until the planetary nebular stage begins.
Rapid Outflow
If the outflow and expulsion were only taking place slowly, the temperatures would have been much warmer inside the Boomerang Nebula. However, as a result of the rapid rate at which this outflow is taking place, it becomes much easier for it to maintain its exceedingly low temperatures.
In fact, the Boomerang Nebula has been expelling this kind of material at a rapid rate for the past 1,500 years, with the gases expelled also going on to expand considerably. This rate is ten times faster than any other star in the universe.
The gases expelled tend to travel out at a speed of around 93 miles per second or 150 km per second. A part of this kind of speed can be explained due to the presence of nearby stars who also produce a gravitational force due to their closeness.
Overall, these determining factors can help maintain the cold temperatures of the nebula. However, with further discoveries and its continued evolution, there might be potential changes in this temperature.
Future of the Boomerang Nebula
Where exactly is the Boomerang Nebula headed in the future? What form will it take as it continues to evolve in its life cycle and expels vast quantities of material? Will this kind of expulsion ever stop and will such cold temperatures continue to characterize the Boomerang Nebula?
There are still plenty of developments being made and found when it comes to this preplanetary nebula. As more and more images and records of it come to the astronomers, the more are they likely to find out new things about it.
Based on its current form, however, it is clear that the Boomerang Nebula will end up evolving into a planetary nebula, where it will keep emitting even more gas that will continue to expand. This gas, however, is also likely to emit its own glow and color as a result of infrared radiation.
This is something that the current version of the nebula cannot do. Instead, it relies on the light from other stars to become visible. The ejected mass will also become ionized as a result of ultraviolet light. This stage, however, is bound to take several millennia to occur.
Based on what the 2017 ALMA images show, however, astronomers have found that the outer layers of this nebula are now beginning to become warmer than before, even though the overall temperature still remains the coldest in the universe.
This kind of warming up can be a result of the photoelectric effect, in which the electromagnetic radiation hits the solid surface and causes it to emit more electrons. This can be a way of indicating that the process is moving a bit further along slowly and steadily.
An equilibrium will also end up becoming established once all the internal matter and gas are expelled out, resulting in a further increase in the temperature, which will no longer make it the coldest place in the universe.
This, therefore, points towards the rare occurrence of this phenomenon, especially given the large gaps in time that take the structure from one phase to another.
Achieving Colder Temperatures
Although the coldest temperature in the universe is a part of the Boomerang Nebula, this is only based on natural occurrences. Is it possible to achieve colder temperatures as a result of technological and scientific experiments and advancements?
Research conducted by a team of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) succeeded in cooling sodium gas to half-a-billionth of a degree more than absolute zero, setting the record as the coldest temperature ever achieved.
This was done in the year 1995, following which many other institutes around the world have gone on to achieve this temperature.
This also led to the discovery of a new kind of matter that went on to be called the Bose-Einstein condensate, in which the particles are a bit denser and more unified as compared to particles that usually move around on their own.
What Does This Imply?
This can go on to have several impacts on how the storage and usage of such gases can work, a matter which is still being researched by various institutions around the world.
Despite this kind of colder temperature that is now common to achieve, it remains impossible to go even beyond this temperature. Additionally, when it comes to a steady and constant state of such cold temperatures over a long period of time, the naturally existing and evolving Boomerang Nebula is what takes the cake.
With further research, it might be possible for newer discoveries to be made in terms of the scope of the universe, especially since we only know about a fraction of it. This might reveal another coldest place too.
Frequently Asked Questions
Does The Boomerang Nebula Measure 0 Kelvin?
Boomerang Nebula does not measure 0 Kelvin, although it is only a degree short of it. This is interesting because nothing else in the universe has naturally come as close to this.
Is Absolute Zero Possible?
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature that the thermodynamic scale can measure. Absolute zero generally refers to zero Kelvin, which amounts to -273.15°C, or -459.67°F.
This kind of temperature might be possible in space (although no part of space has managed to reach absolute zero yet), but it is not exactly possible to achieve due to the amount of effort required. Even naturally, however, this can be an extremely rare occurrence.
How Cold Is It In Space?
Space itself is extremely cold, being only a couple of degrees more than absolute zero and around one degree more than the temperature in the Boomerang Nebula. Space is, therefore, around 2.725 Kelvin. However, there are several parts of space that have different temperatures depending on their properties and their location.
Conclusion and Summary
It is clear that the coldest place in the universe is currently the Boomerang Nebula, which is found in the Centaurus constellation as many as 5,000 light-years from Earth. It is only one degree more than absolute zero, carrying a temperature of approximately -458°F.
First discovered and noticed in the year 1980, Boomerang Nebula continues to expel gas, mass and other materials from its outermost layers, causing it to lose heat and remain at an extremely low temperature.
Over time, it is possible for other places in the universe to reach such cold temperatures, surpassing even the Boomerang Nebula. | https://journalofcosmology.com/coldest-place-in-the-universe/ |
South India lies more close to equator and hence sun remains directly perpendicular keeping it hotter through out the year. North Indian summers are longest, from Apr-Oct, it remains 45+ degrees, but it receives dense cold waves from Northern Himalayan mountains.
Why is North India hotter than the south during summer?
Climate in South India is generally hotter and more humid than that of North India. South India is more humid due to nearby coasts. … Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer.
Which part of India is hottest?
Churu currently is the hottest place in the country with a maximum temperature of 42.1 degrees Celsius. Followed by Pilani, again in Rajasthan with a maximum temperature of 41.7 degrees Celsius. Sawai Madhopur is at third with mercury there reaching 41.6 degrees Celsius.
Why the North of India remains cooler than the south in India?
North India is colder than south india because of Arctic Ocean and the presence of Himalayas. Explanation: The position of the Earth is titled by certain degrees on its path around the sun and this tilt is constantly towards one side only.
Which part of India is warmer compared to North?
South India is warmer than North India as it is close to the equator. … The north India is far from the equator and is hot in summer and cold in winter (extreme climate) because it is away from the coast.
Which state is coldest in India?
Leh. No doubt, Leh is one of the coldest places to visit in India. Perched in the newly formed Union Territory of Ladakh, the temperature is known to drop to as less as -13 degrees Celsius!
Which is the coolest city in India?
1. Dras – The Coldest Place in India. Dras is a lonely town in the infamous Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir, popularly known as ‘The gateway to Ladakh’. Dras is the coldest place in India and often touted as second to the coldest place inhabited on Earth.
Why is it so hot in India?
The report said India’s average temperature had risen by 0.7 degrees Celsius from 1901-2018. This rise is primarily due to global warming caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. … India’s baseline temperatures are already very high.
What are the three seasons in India?
Climate
|Seasons||Month||Climate|
|Winter||December to January||Very Cool|
|Spring||Feburary to March||Sunny and pleasant.|
|Summer||April to June||Hot|
|Monsoon||July to Mid-September||Wet, hot and humid|
Why is the South so hot?
The southern hemisphere is warmer than the northern hemisphere because more of its surface area is water. | https://tripsforindia.com/traveling-in-india/which-part-of-india-is-hotter-southern-or-northern-why.html |
European astronomers are taking a close look at one of the hottest known exoplanets. Initial measurements made by the CHaracterising ExOPlanet Satellite (CHEOPS) space telescope indicate that the giant WASP-189b, located 326 light years from Earth in the constellation Libra, is an impressive 3200 degrees Celsius.
The exoplanet glows as hot as a small star as it orbits its central star at high speed on an unusual orbit that takes it close to the star’s poles.
“Planets like WASP-189b are called ultra-hot Jupiters,” says Monika Lendl, from Switzerland’s University of Geneva. “Iron melts at such a high temperature and even becomes gaseous. This object is one of the most extreme exoplanets we know so far.”
Lendl is lead author of a paper in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics – the first publication using data from the telescope since it was placed in a sun-synchronous orbit 700 kilometres above Earth on 18 December last year.
CHEOPS is the first European Space Agency (ESA) mission dedicated to characterising known exoplanets (planets outside our Solar System). It was built and launched by a consortium of more than 100 scientists and engineers from 11 countries.
“The planet WASP-189b was detected in 2018; because of its unusual orbit close to its central star, we studied it with CHEOPS very early on,” says Szilárd Csizmadia from the German Aerospace Centre.
“The precise measurements made with CHEOPS have now revealed its extraordinary characteristics: it is an ultra-hot planet, almost 1.6 times the diameter of Jupiter, and its orbit around its star is strangely inclined.”
WASP-189b is only 7.5 million kilometres from its star (Earth is 150 kilometres from the Sun) and an orbit takes just 2.7 days to complete. Its star is larger and over 2000 degrees hotter than the Sun, and therefore appears to glow blue.
“Only a handful of planets are known to exist around stars this hot, and this system is by far the brightest,” says Lendl. “WASP-189b is also the brightest hot Jupiter that we can observe as it passes in front of or behind its star, making the whole system really intriguing.”
The star itself is not a perfect sphere; it rotates so fast that it deforms. Its equatorial radius is thus greater than its polar radius, causing it to be cooler at the equator and hotter at the poles, and the poles to appear brighter.
Also intriguing, the researchers say, is that WASP-189b’s orbit is not in the equatorial plane of the star, as would be expected if the star and planet developed from a common disc of gas and dust that passes on its rotational direction to its planets, as is the case in the Solar System. The orbit of WASP-189b, however, passes over the poles of its star.
Planetary objects like WASP-189b are exotic, Lendl says, because they have a permanent day side, which is always exposed to the light of the star, and, accordingly, a permanent night side.
This means that its climate is completely different from that of Jupiter and Saturn, the gas giants in our Solar System.
Originally published by Cosmos as Exoplanets that go to extremes
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The Earth’s mantle is a liquid layer that is 2,900 kilometers thick. Nickel and other metals make up the exterior core. The inner core corresponds to the hottest region, with a temperature of 900150 Fahrenheit!
Where is the hottest layer of earth?
The innermost layer of the Earth is its inner core, which is the hottest.
Which layer is the hottest?
The inner core is the Earth’s hottest layer, which lies closest to the planet’s center.
Which layer is hotter than Earth’s layers?
The mantle is considerably hotter, and it has the capacity to flow. The Outer and Inner Cores are even more scorching, with pressures that would squeeze you into a marble ball if you were able to journey to the center of the Earth!!!!!! The outside of an apple is similar to the crust of the planet.
Which layer of earth is thickest?
The Earth’s crust is thin when compared to the other layers, and the core is rather thick.
What are the 7 layers of the earth?
The lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core are the four subdivisions of Earth determined by rheology. However, if we split the layers based on chemical variations, we combine them into a crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
Which is the coldest layer?
The density and composition of the atmosphere vary with altitude, as do the pressure, wind speed, air temperature, and humidity.
Because temperature locally decreases to as low as 100 K (-173°C), the coldest area of the Earth’s atmosphere is found at the top of the mesosphere.
Which is the hotter thermosphere or exosphere?
The thermosphere is between the mesosphere and exosphere. The thermosphere is frequently about 200° C (360° F) warmer during the day than at night, and it’s approximately 500° C (900° F) hotter when the Sun is active than when it’s not.
What layer do we live in?
The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer. This is the realm where we dwell and where weather occurs.
Is Corona the hottest layer?
The corona, the outermost atmospheric layer, is extremely hot, approaching 2 million degrees Fahrenheit. The solar wind begins here. During total solar eclipses, these layers may be observed for the first time.
What is Earth’s thinnest layer?
Inner core
It is the thinnest of all the Earth’s layers. The crust is 5-35 kilometers thick beneath the land and 1-8 kilometers thick beneath the water.
What are the 4 layers of the earth?
The planet’s crust, mantle, core, and inner and outer cores are the four layers that makeup Earth. They are arranged from deepest to shallowest as follows: the inner core, the outer core, the mantle, and finally the crust. Except for the crust, no one has ever visited these levels in a person. Drilling to a depth of 10 kilometers (about 6 miles) is the deepest that anyone has ever drilled.
How hot is Earth’s crust?
The upper crust endures the ambient temperature of the atmosphere or ocean, which is hot in arid deserts and chilly in ocean trenches. The temperature of the crust near the Moho ranges from 200° Celsius (392° Fahrenheit) to 400° Celsius (752° Fahrenheit).
What is the thickest layer of skin?
The middle layer, also known as the dermis, is the thickest of the three primary skin layers.
Where is the thinnest crust on Earth Found?
The American and African continents connect at this site, where scientists say they’ve found the thinnest layer of Earth’s crust — a 1-mile thick, earthquake-prone location under the Atlantic Ocean where the two continents meet.
Where is the center of Earth?
We haven’t even come close. The Earth’s center is over 6,000 kilometers deep, and the core’s outermost region is barely 3,000 kilometers beneath our feet. In Russia, the Kola Superdeep Borehole goes only 12.3 kilometers deep. | https://largestandbiggest.com/science/which-is-the-hottest-layer-on-earth/ |
Topping all my desires, I want the experience of and to be the living example of equanimity.
e·qua·nim·i·ty
ˌēkwəˈnimitē
- mental calmness, composure, and evenness of temper, especially in a difficult situation.
- a perfect, unshakable balance of mind, rooted in insight.
- vigilant presence of mind
I long sought to find it but more recently have come to recognize that for me, it’s primarily a result… equanimity is what I experience when I work my spiritual practice, when I’m mindful and rigorous about meditation and when I walk thru my days focused and vigilant about doing good and being as noble as I know how.
It’s the benefits of an inner life.
I began my deepening of this wisdom because I was so attracted to the deep calm vibe of people we all know—the folks who seem to be sturdy and centered and calm no matter what storm they were amidst.
It was like learning to dance in the rain.
I knew I’d never get a reprieve from life’s storms, so instead I set out to see who I could become within them.
I listened to a talk by Gil Fronsdal that he gave in 2004 and then found a list of seven qualities that he suggested support the development of equanimity.
Seven mental qualities that support the development of equanimity: (adapted from a talk by Gil Fronsdal, May 29th, 2004 )
1) Virtue or integrity. When we live and act with integrity, we feel confident about our actions and words, which results in the equanimity of blamelessness. The ancient Buddhist texts speak of being able to go into any assembly of people and feel blameless.
2) A sense of assurance that comes from faith. While any kind of faith can provide equanimity, faith grounded in wisdom is especially powerful. The Pali word for faith, saddha, is also translated as conviction or confidence. If we have confidence, for example, in our ability to engage in a spiritual practice, then we are more likely to meet its challenges with equanimity.
3) A well-developed mind. Much as we might develop physical strength, balance, and stability of the body in a gym, so too can we develop strength, balance and stability of the mind. This is done through practices that cultivate calm, concentration and mindfulness. When the mind is calm, we are less likely to be blown about by the worldly winds.
4) A sense of well-being. We do not need to leave well-being to chance. In Buddhism, it is considered appropriate and helpful to cultivate and enhance our well-being. We often overlook the well-being that is easily available in daily life. Even taking time to enjoy one’s tea or the sunset can be a training in well-being.
5) Understanding or wisdom. Wisdom is an important factor in learning to have an accepting awareness, to be present for whatever is happening without the mind or heart contracting or resisting. Wisdom can teach us to separate people’s actions from who they are. We can agree or disagree with their actions, but remain balanced in our relationship with them. We can also understand that our own thoughts and impulses are the result of impersonal conditions. By not taking them so personally, we are more likely to stay at ease with their arising.
Another way wisdom supports equanimity is in understanding that people are responsible for their own decisions, which helps us to find equanimity in the face of other people’s suffering. We can wish the best for them, but we avoid being buffeted by a false sense of responsibility for their well-being.
One of the most powerful ways to use wisdom to facilitate equanimity is to be mindful of when equanimity is absent. Honest awareness of what makes us imbalanced helps us to learn how to find balance.
6) Insight, a deep seeing into the nature of things as they are. One of the primary insights is the nature of impermanence. In the deepest forms of this insight, we see that things change so quickly that we can’t hold onto anything, and eventually the mind lets go of clinging. Letting go brings equanimity; the greater the letting go, the deeper the equanimity.
7) Letting go of our reactive tendencies. We can get a taste of what this means by noticing areas in which we were once reactive but are no longer. For example, some issues that upset us when we were teenagers prompt no reaction at all now that we are adults. In Buddhist practice, we work to expand the range of life experiences in which we are free.
Equanimity is not merely a Buddhist thing— I look to find universal truths as much as possible and like to strip away as much religion as possible because I see no need to create any more obstacles than life already presents us. I found, Equanimity is a basic truth and core practice in many religions:
Buddhism
Equanimity (upekkhā, upekṣhā) is one of the four immeasurables and is considered neither a thought nor an emotion; it is rather the steady conscious realization of reality’s transience. It is the ground for wisdom and freedom and the protector of compassion and love. While some may think of equanimity as dry neutrality or cool aloofness, mature equanimity produces a radiance and warmth of being. The Buddha described a mind filled with equanimity as “abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility and without ill-will.”
Judaism
Many Jewish thinkes highlight the importance of equanimity (Menuhat ha-Nefesh or Yishuv ha-Da’at) as a necessary foundation for moral and spiritual development. The virtue of equanimity receives particular attention in the writings of rabbis such as Menachem Mendel Lefin and Simcha Zissel Ziv.
Christianity
Samuel Johnson defined equanimity as “evenness of mind, neither elated nor depressed.” In Christian philosophy, equanimity is considered essential for carrying out the theological virtues of gentleness, contentment, temperance, and charity.
Islam
The word “Islam” is derived from the Arabic word Aslama, which denotes the peace that comes from total surrender and acceptance. Being a Muslim can therefore be understood to mean that one is in a state of equanimity.
“Perform all thy actions with mind concentrated on the Divine, renouncing attachment and looking upon success and failure with an equal eye. Spirituality implies equanimity.”
― Anonymous, The Bhagavad Gita
More? | https://postsfromthepath.com/seven-mental-qualities-support-development-equanimity/ |
Bhagavad Gita (literally: Song of the Lord), composed between the fifth and second centuries BCE, is part of the epic poem of Mahabharata, located in the Bhisma-Parva, chapters 23–40, and is revered in Hinduism. It is not limited to followers of the Vaishnava stream, since it is a core text for most yogic and tantric Hindu philosophies. The Gita is considered by most Hindus to be the single most representative sacred text of the faith, and it is the acknowledged source book of Yoga philosophy.
Many a Hindu has said that the most succinct and powerful abbreviation of the overwhelmingly diverse realm of Hindu thought is to be found in the Bhagavad Gita. Essentially, it is a microcosm of Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and even Tantric thought of the Hindu fold. Indeed, the Bhagavad Gita refers to itself as a 'Yoga Upanishad,' thereby establishing itself as more than just a text based on Krishna, but rather one that speaks of truths through Krishna. Through verse, based on the third-party retelling by the Kaurava courtier Sanjaya, King Dhritarasthra's chief advisor, it relates the lesson imparted to Arjuna, a warrior prince, by his mentor and friend, an avatar (reincarnation) of the Lord Vishnu, Krishna, who is steering his chariot for the great battle of Kurukshetra. It is set in the great Hindu epic of the Mahabharata. Arjuna and Krishna have ridden out into the middle of a battlefield, with armies arrayed on either side of them, just before the battle has begun, signaled by the blowing of conch shells. Seeing friends, teachers and relatives in both armies, Arjuna is heartbroken at the thought that the battle will cost him many loved ones. He turns to Krishna for advice.
Krishna counsels Arjuna on a wide range of topics, beginning with a tenet that since souls are immortal, the deaths on the battlefield are just the shedding of the body, which is not the soul. Krishna goes on to expound on many spiritual matters, including the yogas (or paths) of devotion, action, meditation and knowledge. Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from suppression of the ego, of "I", "my" and "mine" consciousness, and to realize that the only truth is the immortal Self (soul), Atman, which is none other than Brahman (the ultimate divine consciousness). Through dispassion for the senses, extreme jubilation and bereavement, the yogin is able to subjugate his mortality and attachment for the material world and see the infinite.
To demonstrate the infinitude of Brahman, which is unknowable, indescribable and ineffable in human knowledge, Krishna temporarily gives Arjuna the cosmic eye and allows him to see him in all his divine glory. He reveals that he is fundamentally both the ultimate ground of being behind the universe and the material body of the universe, as well as an avatar for the personalized Lord Vishnu. This three-fold understanding of the nature of God has led to the Bhagavad Gita becoming the basis for many varying philosophies of the Hindu faith and the fountainhead text of Yoga.
The Gita has been the favorite book of many great thinkers, sages, devotees and figures of Hindu India. Among some of the most well-known are Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who represents the truest example of bhakti yoga (yoga of love and devotion) of Krishna, exemplifying what Vaishnavs (followers of Vishnu) saw as a great devotee of Krishna. It was he who first sang the "Hare Krishna" mahamantra (great mantra). Needless to say, he was steeped in the Bhagavad Gita. Mahatma Gandhi, who interpreted the war of the Mahabharata—an obvious aspect of the philosophical/religious epic mythology - as a metaphor for the confusions, doubts, fears and conflicts that trouble all people at one time or another. He thus used the culminating message of the Gita to aid him in his own struggle against the colonial rule of the British.
The first great yogin to spread the message of Hindu Yoga in America was the dynamic Swami Vivekananda, follower of Shri Ramakrishna, known for his seminal commentaries on the four yogas, those of Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. In writing them, he drew from his knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads and the Gita to expound on them. (See below for "Bhagavad Gita as a Yoga Scripture"). Swami Sivananda, a renowned yogin, advises that the true yogin will read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. Paramahamsa Yogananda, writer of the famous "Autobiography of a Yogi," viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's two most divine scriptures, along with the Four Gospels of Jesus.
Aleister Crowley wrote that Vishnu in the Bhagavad Gita was The Holy Guardian Angel. (In The Temple of Solomon the King and Book Four) He also cites the Bhagavad Gita for descriptions of the three gunas. In the "Literature Recommended for Aspirants" appendix to Magick in Theory and Practice, he characterizes it as "A dialogue in which Krsna, the Hindu 'Christ,' expounds a system of attainment," and recommends Edwin Arnold's The Song Celestial as a verse translation. The Bhagavad Gita is included in the short "Course of Reading" in "Liber E," as well as the longer study curricula composed by Crowley.
The Gita addresses this discord within us and speaks of the yoga of equanimity - a balanced outlook. The term yoga covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita it describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action, and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman), which is ultimately one with the ground of being (Brahman). It is the basis of all yoga philosophy. According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by desire. The only way to douse the flame of desire, says Krishna, is by stilling the mind through discipline of the senses and the intellect.
However, total abstinence from action is regarded as being just as detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self. This goal can be achieved through the yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge.
Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Yoga can fundamentally be said to comprise FOUR MAIN TYPES: Raja Yoga (psycho-physical meditation), Bhakti Yoga (devotion and love), Karma Yoga (selfless action), and Jnana [pronounced GYAAN] Yoga (self-transcending knowledge). Other forms that exist today sprang up long after the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras (to be discussed below) and are all essentially forms of Raja Yoga.
While each path differs, their fundamental goal is one and the same: to realize Brahman (the Divine Ground), as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, but the soul (Atman) is infinite and one with Brahman. Yoga's aim (nirvana, moksha) is essentially to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality.
" When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the self, he is content in the Self." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verse 20) | " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."
Raja Yoga is, in general, stilling of the mind and body through meditative techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. This practice was later described by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras.
Bhakti Yoga is simply love and devotion, epitomized by such traditions as worship of Krishna, dedicating one to Mother Kali. This Hindu system of worship is analogous to finding salvation in Christ through love.
Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or doing one's duties in life, without desire or expectation of reward, a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication of one's chosen profession and its perfection to God. It is also visible in community and social service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain.
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not eternal. Through a steady advancement in realization of the real and the unreal, what is eternal and temporal, one develops into a Jnana Yogin. This is essentially a path to God through knowledge and disrimination, and has been described as being the "shortest, but steepest" path to God: the most difficult one.
In many ways a heterogeneous text, the Gita is a reconciliation of many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy of both Brahmanical (i.e., orthodox, Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic, yogic tradition. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Samkhya and Yoga philosophy. It has stood the time, bringing together all four thought systems by taking their largely cohesive, common ideologies and backgrounds into the powerful Sanskrit verse of one text.
It had always been a seminal text for Hindu priests and yogins in India. Although not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu sects draw upon the Gita as authoritative. Recently, textual studies have indicated that it may have been inserted into the Mahabharata at a later date, but this is only natural as it sounds more like an Upanishad (which are commentaries that followed the Vedas) in thought than a Purana (histories of Hindu gods and goddesses), of which tradition the Mahabharata is a part.
For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts to come out of the Hindu tradition. Indeed, it stands tall among the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.
Wikipedia. (2004). Bhagavad Gita (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita). Retrieved Sept. 19, 2004.
The Bhagavad Gita is quickly becoming one of the most popular religious texts in translation with numerous readings and adaptations of its 700 verses in many languages having come out, especially with its exposure to the world outside of India. It should be kept in mind that different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages truly signifiy and their best possible presentation in English. Different authors offer a wealth of diverse views which, when taken as a corpus of literature, present a fittingly varicolored idea of the possible interpretations of the religion and philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita.
English translations of high repute not available on the public domain include those of Juan Mascaro (praised by Aurobindo Ghosh), Barbara Stoler-Miller, the combined effort of Christopher Isherwood and Swami Prabhavananda and Winthrop Sargeant.
This page has been accessed 22934 times. This page was last modified 23:50, 30 Oct 2004. Content is available under GNU Free Documentation License 1.2. | http://thelemapedia.org/index.php/Bhagavad_gita |
Bhagavad Gita is a spiritual document that explains how one reaches enlightenment, by using an epic dialogue between Pandava Prince Arjuna and his guide, Lord Krishna.
Arjuna faces an internal struggle between good and evil. Through this conversation, Arjuna learns that a person must find peace by completing the highest service to his God. One must not be fooled by the traps of the three gunas: rajas (anger, ego), tamas (darkness, ignorance), and saatva (harmony, purity). Arjuna is led to understand the importance of one’s devotion to the divine and greater good, blending philosophical, spiritual and yogic ideals.
According to the text, there are four major paths (Margas) that guide one to the ultimate goal of yoga – Kaivalya. Kaivalya means ‘aloneness’ and refers to the recognition that the divine is all there is. With this recognition comes freedom from the gunas and all that is temporal or ephemeral.
The path of Knowledge, Jnana Marga, teaches one to distinguish between what is real and what is an illusion. Karma Marga, the path of selfless action; Bhakti Marga, the path of devotion of the heart; and Yoga Marga, the path of control and linking of the body with the mind, complete the four primary paths. From these paths stem many different paths of yoga that one can follow.
The Bhagavad Gita is a profound text that requires one to read between the lines of the text with an open, analytical mind, but to get practical guidance from one who has a deeper attainment than ourselves. Historically, comprehension of the text was vital to one gaining success in all parts of life. It emphasizes the importance of goals, absolute truthfulness, and a willingness to learn throughout life’s journey.
There are many insightful quotes found in the text that people often incorporate into their daily living philosophy:
"It is better to perform one's own duties imperfectly than to master the duties of another. By fulfilling the obligations he is born with, a person never comes to grief."
"We are kept from our goal, not by obstacles, but by a clear path to a lesser goal."
"On this path, effort never goes to waste and there is no failure. Even a little effort toward spiritual awareness will protect you from the greatest fear." | https://www.iyogaposes.com/Bhagavad-Gita.html |
Course Description:
“Narada Bhakti Sutra is considered the best authority on the Bhakti Marga, the path of Divine Love. For sincere devotees who are in need of practical spiritual instructions, in a very short compass, there is no better scripture than Narada Bhakti Sutra.” (Swami Sivananda)
Open your heart and experience Divine Love through the study and practice of Bhakti Yoga – the yoga of Devotion. In this transformative 8-week journey you will deepen your connection to the Divine and to your True Self, gain mastery over your mind, learn how to manage your lower emotions and transform them into higher emotions such as love, compassion and joy.
The course includes in-depth study of The Narada Bhakti Sutra, an ancient vedic text on Bhakti Yoga. Explore the birth, growth, development, unfoldment, and expression of Divine Love and learn how to practice it in your daily life.
Learn the 9 practices of Bhakti Yoga including listening to stories, singing kirtan, performing puja (rituals), japa (repetition of the Divine Name) and others. Receive guidance on how to arrange a special place for your practice including an altar. Benefit from personal guidance that will be offered to you during these 8 weeks (in classes and in between classes) to help you establish a steady and constant practice of Bhakti Yoga.
Transform your life and receive inspiration for practice and for your daily life.
What you will learn:
Additional Information:
Offered as 6 weekly sessions on Wednesdays, Nov 10, 17, 24 Dec 1, 8, 15 6:00-7:30pm ET
This program is offered live through Zoom webinar with the availability for students to interact through Q&A with the presenter.
For enrolled students, a video recording will be available after each class in the event you miss a class or would like to review the content.
It is possible to register and take the course at any time. You can catch up on any classes you miss with the recordings.
Requirements and Recommendations:
Course Includes:
Rukmini Chaitanya
Rukmini Chaitanya is a senior staff member of the Sivananda Ashram Yoga Retreat Bahamas, and the personal assistant to Swami Swaroopananda, the Acharya, or spiritual director of the Ashram. She regularly teaches the Bhagavad Gita during the Sivananda Yoga Teacher training as well as other courses on the Bhagavad Gita, Vedanta, positive thinking, meditation, and yoga philosophy.
Rukmini Chaitanya is known for her enthusiastic and inspiring teaching style as well as for her devotion to the lineage and the scriptures. She is dedicated to each of her students and has an innate desire to share knowledge with them. She brings a great deal of clarity to every topic and is highly appreciated for her capacity to unfold complicated topics and present them in a coherent and pure way. | https://online.sivanandabahamas.org/courses/the-narada-bhakti-sutras-with-rukmini-chaitanya/ |
History was made by 43 Kids by memorizing and Chanting 700 Verses of Bhagavad Gita with the Divine Blessings of Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swamiji-Part 2
Part 1 of the article can be accessed by clicking on the link:
http://www.savetemples.org/2016/09/07/history-was-made-by-43-kids-memorizing-and-chanting-700-verses-of-bhagavad-gita/
The Power of Mantras
Every word, a combination of words, a sentence, or a verse when uttered in a particular manner will become a powerful mantra. Mantra means “revealed sound.” “Man” means mind and “trai” means liberate. Mantra also means to liberate the mind. They are revealed to the ancient rishis and other enlightened people when they are in deep meditation. They are uttered for spiritual as well as material purposes. The aim of chanting the mantras is to achieve the purushardas in life such as dharma (religious righteousness and duty), artha (economic needs and fulfilment desires), kama (procreative needs and sensual satisfaction) and moksha (salvation from birth and rebirth). These mantras possess magical or divine power enabling the utterer to achieve the potential desires. Mantra consist of six aspects: a rishi or a guru, a raga or melody, the Devata or presiding deity, a bija or seen sound, the Sakti or power, and a kilaka or pillar, as per Swami Sivananda Radha.
Heinrich Zimmer defined mantra as “A word or formula …. Which represents a mental presence or energy; by it something is produced, crystalized, in the mind. The term mantra Shakti is employed to denote this magic power possessed by words when they are brought together in a formula.” Sanskrit mantra, when chanted with proper sound vibrations and proper utterance, will have specific effect on the mind and body.
The power of Mantras is amply described by Judith Tyberb. She observed that, “Its every alphabet is a Mantra, a sound or phrase of spiritual significance and power… The language is constructed inharmonious relation with the very truths of existence, hence its power of illumination … that every word or sound (shabda) has a power (Shakti). This intrinsic power can always convey the sense that is inseparably related to the sound … In the sacred Sanskrit scriptures this power was not only intuitively expressed but consciously wielded. And the power was not only of the human mind but of the Spirit.” As per the tradition, initiation into mantra is given by the guru, one’s mother or revelation. A mantra can never be bought or sold. When a guru gives a mantra it is never based on a monetary transaction. A mantra obtained in such a way will never have any power.
Mantra is a condensed form of spiritual energy of the divinity. Pandit Rajmani Tigunait says, “The yogic scriptures often compare mantra to a boat or a bridge that an aspirant can take to cross the mire of delusion created by the external world and reach the center of consciousness within. Mystics and yogis say that mantra is an eternal friend who accompanies the meditator even after death, lighting the way in the realm where the light of the sun and the moon cannot penetrate. According to the more esoteric literature of the yoga tradition, mantra is the essence of guru shakti, the power of the spiritual master. In other words, the mantra is itself the guru. Mantra, God, guru, and one’s highest self are identical.”
Sanskrit mantras are recited by millions of Hindus – they could be just one letter mantra or a combination of any number of letters. All temple functions are conducted entirely in Sanskrit starting from waking up the Deity until the night where the Gods are retired for the day. Homas are conducted on a regular basis. Agnihotras are conducted across the globe by chanting appropriate Sanskrit mantras. Similarly, mantras are chanted during all sixteen Samskaras starting with the birth of a child to the last stage of life.
Even chanting of one word “OM” creates sound of cosmic creation that pervades the universe. Chanting of a given mantra“activates the stomach, spinal cord, throat, nasal and bran regions. It activates prana that will move from the base all the way up to the brain, thereby channelizing energy and activating the spinal cord and brain. Its continuous chanting will shift the attention and echo the harmonic relationship of every vital organ, our heartbeat, breathing, brain wave pulsing, neuron cells, metabolic, enzymatic and hormonal rhythms, and will bust stress, addictions and improve behavior. It acts as brain stabilizer, and by practicing it, one can enter into one’s own natural state.” (Vijay Hashia)
Benefits of Chanting OM/ Slokas
Gives strength & stability to the mind to handle conflicts
Fills the mind with light and brings in a ray of hope
Helps in dealing with unexpressed emotions by opening the channels of communication
Helps in stress management by bringing about creative will, abundant wisdom and right action.
Eliminates the root cause of Stress, Anxiety and Depression
Stimulates both the used and unused cells of the brain and increase your memory.
Enhances the capabilities of mind to focus, retain & recollect information
Enhances Intelligence and improves memory power.
Helps cultivate superior thoughts
Rejuvenates the brain and helps to shed unnecessary stress and mental fatigue
Reduce the stress by maintaining the blood pressure. The immunity of the body gets strong.
Improves the production of endorphin and makes you feel relaxed.
Decreases the adrenaline levels and reduces stress by providing more oxygen to the body.
Slows down the heartbeat and dilates the blood vessels to provide more oxygen to the body.
Creates vibrations in the body which increases the effectiveness of the spinal cord.
Creates vibration in the throat and benefits the thyroid glands.
Revitalizes the mind by improving memory, concentration and grasping power. It provides relief
from stress-giving headaches.
Regular chanting of mantras increases serotonin production in our body- a hormone which influences our mood and behavior. An inadequate supply of serotonin in our body can lead us to a state of depression and can also cause obesity, insomnia and headaches. It can help us in resolving the deepest of neuroses, fears and conflicts which cause ill-health and stress in us. It also increases the activities of natural killer-cells which help our body in destroying many types of harmful bacteria as well as cancer cells. It is especially appropriate for pregnant women to chant mantras as it puts them in tune with their babies.(Aditi Swami, The Viewspaper, Jan 13 2010)
Why Bhagavad Gita?
Of all the thousands of scriptures, why did Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swamiji selected Bhagavad Gita to be chanted by children? It reflects one of the forms of the perennial philosophical systems that embodies those universal truths that are eternal with no physical boundaries and no time limitations. Bhagavad Gita would equip the children, youth and children to cope with the challenges they face in life, trials and tribulations they encounter on a daily basis, problems they meet in the modern world, frustrations they may be bumped into the competitive world of work, adjustment they have to make in the family life, ancient wisdom they may use to differentiate between the dharmic and adharmic values, and stress they may face in their hectic, hurried and materialistic world. Bhagavad Gita would teach the high morals that promote peace and harmony. Bala Gangadhar Tilak observed, “The most practical teaching of the Gita, and one for which it is of abiding interest and value to the men of the world with whom life is a series of struggles, is not to give way to any morbid sentimentality when duty demands sternness and the boldness to face terrible things ... It is my firm conviction that it is of utmost importance that every man, woman and child of India understands the message of the Gita.”
Sri Swamiji wanted to impress upon the children the timeless and universal Gita can offer them for the rest of their life by learning the basic principles of life that will shape, guide and mold their personalities. One would learn about discharging his own dharma, doing his responsibility with no attachment for the fruits of the action, establishing the balance between material and spiritual fields, importance of Sadguru in one’s own life, learning the art of maintaining sthithipragna (controlling the mind), the virtues of freedom and independence, acquiring the courage and strength in face of distraught and hopelessness, and handling with the confusion and troubles that beset the modern world.
The relevance and importance of Bhagavad Gita is emphasized by Ananda K Coomaraswamy,"....We must, however, specially mention the Bhagavad Gita as probably the most important single work ever produced in India; this book of eighteen chapters is not, as it has been sometimes called, a "sectarian " work, but one universally studied and often repeated daily from memory by millions of Indians of all persuasions; it may be described as a compendium of the whole Vedic doctrine to be found in the earlier Vedas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads, and being therefore the basis of all the later developments, it can be regarded at the focus of all Indian religion.”
1. Dharma Reigns
Bhagavad Gita starts with the word dharma which is defined as duty, responsibility, principle, and to hold together. When Sanjay started narrating the story, he used the word dharma to make Dhritarashtra reflect on his responsibility in this Kurukshetra where a number of religious activities have been conducted to preserve the customs and traditions. When Arjuna was despondent of the consequences of the war that may result in the death of many people, he seeks the advice of Lord Krishna who realized the Arjuna’s weakness of heart and feebleness. Lord tell Arjuna, it is his responsibility to fight by saying, “And even considering your personal dharma as well, it is not right for you to hesitate. There is nothing better for a warrior than a fight based on dharma.” (2.31). If you fail to execute your dharma for personal reasons, you shall incur sin. Those who perform their duty are very close to the Lord. “But those who fully honor this immortal nectar of dharma as it has been spoken [by Me], having faith, taking Me as supreme—those devotees are exceedingly dear to Me.” (12.20)
In the first chapter it is clearly stated that there is a conflict of duties within all of us not knowing which course of action to take. Arjuna was in confusion and agony and not in a position to make a righteous decision. Lord Krishna talks about the eternal nature of soul, and says that one is not responsible for the consequences of discharging his dharma. “Even a very small amount of this dharma saves one from great danger, for there is no loss in such an endeavor, and it knows no diminution.” (Bg. 2.40). One has to follow his dharma in order to preserve and protect the very nature of existence.
2. Importance of Sadguru
Sadguru Tattva permeates the entire cosmos as per Hindu scriptures. Guru is essential for spiritual growth and his advice, guidance and knowledge is sought by the disciples for many millennia. Guru is the one who can remove the ignorance by lighting the lamp of knowledge in the heart of the disciple. Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swamiji says, “By mere touch the Guru transforms “Manava” (man) into “Madhava” (God). By his mere look “nara” (human) becomes “Narayana” (God) and “Jeeva (soul) realizes its identity with “Ishwara” (God). The land trodden by the Guru becomes a place of pilgrimage. By mere sight he transforms mud into delicious food and stone into glittering gold … There is nothing in this world that cannot be obtained by Guru’s grace.” Guru is indeed a friend in need, especially when our mind is fogged by ignorance, confused by turmoil, and disoriented with indecision. Guru is the only person who can come to the rescue.
When Arjuna approached Lord Krishna by saying, “My heart is overpowered by the taint of pity, my mind is confused as to duty. I ask Thee: tell me decisively what is good for me. I am Thy disciple. Instruct me who has taken refuge in Thee.” (2:7). Knowing fully well about the nature of Guru who knows about both illusion and truth, and whose mission is to help his devotees to overcome the ignorance and darkness by imparting the knowledge and truth, Lord Krishna tells Arjuna the method to find a Guru and surrender. Sri Krishna Himself tells that, "Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized soul can impart knowledge unto you because he has seen the truth."(4:34).
If we are very serious about understanding the science of God is a guru required. We should not try to keep a guru as a matter of fashion. One who has accepted a guru speaks intelligently. He never speaks nonsense. That is the sign of having accepted a bona fide guru. We should certainly offer all respect to the spiritual master, but we should also remember how to carry out his orders.
Following the Lord Krishna’s message to Arjuna to carry his dharma in discharging his duties, Arjuna’s ignorance due to delusion, passion, attachments and perception of consequences was removed. He realized that it was his foolishness and childishness to think that he would be responsible for the death of his kith and kin, not knowing that everybody who is born is destined to die. Lord Krishna’s Vishwarupa convinced him of the inevitability. With that realization, Arjuna says, “My delusion is destroyed. I have regained my memory through Your grace, O Achyuta. I am firm. I am free from doubt. I shall act according to your word.” (18:73).
3. Guru Sishya Sampradaya.
From ancient times on wards, Guru-sishya relationship existed in Bharat where mentoring of a student by a spiritual teacher is undertaken. Selfless transmission by a genuine, dedicated and committed teachers pass on the information to a student who is expected to receive the knowledge with committed, faith, devotion, respect and sincerity. The tradition of dialogue, discussion, debate, questioning, dissecting and deciphering is the hallmark of exchange of opinion. No WORD is taken for granted. Tradition of un-questioning the scriptures is unheard of this tradition. It is this kind of questioning that encouraged the freedom that is essential for the intellectual growth and survival of humanity. Just imagine how much valuable, eternal, immortal and everlasting message was rendered by Lord Krishna to Arjuna who asked a simple question about his confusion and dilemma about waging a war that might kill all his relatives and gurus?
4. Remove the confusion and indecision.
In Gita, Lord Krishna delivers the message in order to remove the confusion and sorrow that engulfed Arjuna, who asks the question: “With a heart contaminated by the taint of helplessness, with a mind confounded as to my duty, I ask you to tell me what is assuredly good for me. I am your disciple. Instruct me who have thrown myself on your indulgence."
Lord Krishna says: Undoubtedly, O Arjuna, the mind is restless and difficult to restrain, but it is subdued by any constant vigorous spiritual practice -- such as meditation -- with perseverance, and by detachment, O Arjuna. (6.35). Lord Krishna tells Arjuna to gain clarity on any given situation, ponder over it and develop clear, calm and collective mind to do your duty with no attachment.
5. Balancing
Samatvaṁ yoga ucyate (Gita 2.48): Equilibrium, evenness, harmony, adjustment, adaptability, unity, the blending of the subject and the object in harmony is Yoga. In everything that we do, we must be able balance between various facets of life. Balance must be maintained in our daily life with regard to work, family, leisure, friends, opportunities, children and other pursuits. Decisions must be made based on the priorities as to what we consider as important on life based on dharmic values with no expectation of rewards or fruits. Let us remember the words of Lord Krishna:
"Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga"(2:48)
6. Niskama Karma
Bhagavad Gita is the source of for one’s ethics with regard to the discharge of his duty without expectation to the fruits of action. Performing duty without motivation, thinking, deliberating and calculating about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and see the value of desire less action. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:
To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction.(2:47).
The Gita advocates action, relentless action regardless of the rewards. It preaches the mantra of karma yoga and defines it as dexterity in action; ‘yagahe karmasu kaushalam’(Yoga is excellent at work) gives new dignity to work.
7. Karma and Reincarnation
Bhagavad Gita clearly enumerates connection between karma and reincarnation. Soul reincarnates again and again depending on the actions performed when it entered the body. Individual soul is separated from the Source. This soul takes innumerable incarnations until it perfected itself and finally reunited with the Supersoul. The ultimate goal of every soul is to be released from karmic cycle. Only then the soul stops to incarnate and achieves final liberation from the cycle of samsara. Number of births a soul reincarnates depend on the kind of actions one performs in his life cycles. One can move up or down in the hierarchy of life depending on his karmas. If one performs good deeds he will be born in a more comfortable situation. If one engages in bad deeds, he will be born to bear a difficult condition. One reaps what they sow.
Bhagavad Gita vividly describes the journey of soul as follows:
"As the embodied soul continuously passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death."(2.13)
"As a person puts on new garments, giving up old ones, the soul similarly accepts new material bodies, giving up the old and useless ones."(2.22).
"The soul can never be cut to pieces by any weapon, nor burned by fire, nor moistened by water, nor withered by the wind. (2.23)
At the time of death, the soul leaves the body and reenters another gross body depending on the accumulation of karma. The actions performed in the present life before death will determine the next life. The soul is permanent and the body is impermanent.
8. Stithipragna
In life many decisions are made with vagaries of mind. Mind is always changing, not stable. Decisions made without having agitated mind yields better results. Lord Krishna says that one should be able to make decision effortlessly, naturally and calmly based on the pros and cons of the situation with no attachments. One has to do sadhana to reach that state known as Stithipragna. It is the stage where one will be able to have effective control overhis Mind and the Indiriyas (sense organs). Just like a driver of Charioteer can control the horses, mind should be able to control all the sense organs. To achieve this stage, one has to be trained by a living guru and practice controlling mind under his guidance. Stithipragna is always alert, wakeful, efficient, attentive and careful. In this stage whatever we do, it is done with the full control of mind and control of all Indiriyas based on wisdom, not based on whims and fancies. Decisions must be made with no attachment, no fear and no anger. Steady mind is a prerequisite for making rational decision.
9. Respect for Freedom
Arjuna was distraught about the potential demise of his kith and kin, his Gurus and the dynasty itself and expressed his desire not to fight. Lord Krishna realizing the despondence of Arjuna, He delivers the eternal message of individual dharma to uphold the harmony in the society. Lord Krishan talks about the Supersoul, dharma of each person, the inherent nature of creation, the karma theory, importance of devotion and knowledge, and how to remain balanced in the society faced with turmoil and turbulence. He even showed his Vishwaroopa to convince the inevitable nature of the existence itself. Arjuna is Kshatriya and his natural duty is to fight for justice. Through Viveka (discrimination). One should surrender to the Lord. Whoever engages himself under the direction of the Supreme Lord, he becomes glorious. One should not think of himself as independent of the Lord since he abides in very living creature. Lord Krishna tell Arjuna in 18:62 sloka that he should surrender to Him completely. By doing so, one will attain transcendental peace and eternal abode.
Finally, Lord says, “Thus I have explained to you, knowledge still more confidential. Deliberate on this fully, and then do what you wish to do.” The hall mark of Bhagavad Gita and Hinduism is the concept of freedom. It is only with unflinching freedom, one can excel in his talents and skills and contribute to the welfare and prosperity of the society. Any imposition by or interference from external authority would not be conducive to healthy society. That is the reason, Lord tells Arjuna that he should deliberate on His message with all his intelligence and decide by himself. No external pressure was imposed on Arjuna and Lord Krishna did not ask him to do what he wanted to him to do. Lord gave him full freedom to choose his course of action.
10. Greatness of Bhagavad Gita
The Gita concludes with Sanjay’s assessment of the message of Lord Krishna to Dhritarashtra. Sanjay says that his hair stood up as he listened to the dialogue between Vasudeva and Arjuna through the grace of Sage Vyasa who blessed him the vision of Cosmic form of Lord Krishna. He concludes with the statement: “Wherever is Krishna the Lord of Yoga, wherever is Partha, the wielder of the bow, there prevails prosperity, victory, glory and righteousness; that is my conviction.” (18:78). This verse is called ekashloki Gita and is Sanjaya’s answer to Dhritarashtra’s question about the war. Sanjaya says indirectly that there is no doubt that the Pandavas will win the war.
The Mahabharata says "sarva shaastramayii giitaa" meaning that the Gita is the essence all the scriptures. Sage Vyasa said that the Gita alone should be sung, heard and assimilated and there is no use of any other scripture when one has the Gita because it has originated from the lips of the Lord Himself. Gita Mahatyam or the Glory of Gita says that Gita contains the essence of all the four Vedas and yet its style is so simple that after a little study, anyone can easily follow the structure of the words. As a reader grows in maturity, the same words reveal more and more facets of meaning and thought process and hence the Gita remains eternally new. The Lord Himself says in the Varaha Purana that, “Where the Gita is read, forthwith comes help. Where the Gita is discussed, recited, taught, or heard, there, O Earth, beyond a doubt, do I Myself unfailingly reside.”
The Bhagavad Gita has lessons for the young and old of any caste, creed and religion and teaches the technique of perfect living. It is for all ages; and it is universal. Where the Bhagavad Gita book is kept and the study is conducted, there all the sacred places, the sacred rivers and all holiness are present. It is also said, where the Gita is read, there help comes quickly. It has become source of inspiration to Mahatma Gandhi to lead the Independence movement and became a good friend during his imprisonment. “When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to Bhagavad-Gita and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. Those who meditate on the Gita will derive fresh joy and new meanings from it every day".
11. Develop Management Skills.
Business management is riddles with stress, strain, pressure and tensions. The managers have to meet the deadline and complete the task within a short period of time. The dejection and depression Arjun is typical of many managers. His frustration was typical of these managers. Arjuna says, "Mind is very restless, forceful and strong, O Krishna, it is more difficult to control the mind than to control the wind." Lord Krishna says that one must do his duty without attachment. Because, it is the ego that interferes with the task. In any business, the work involves vigorous and arduous effort to pursue the task on hand. Mind always gets agitated as we get stressed up whenever we are involved in time bound work culture. Bhagavad Gita provides a set of guidelines, that may help achieve the goal completing the assigned task, such as perseverance, commitment, balance, clarity, motivation, self-discipline, integrity, fearlessness, steady mind and self-confidence.
Lord Krishna says that a doer has the right to work, he does not have control over the result, he cannot afford to be inactive and success depends on selfless action only. The last chapter of Bhagavad Gita talks about the important lesson of renunciation to be an effective leader in any organization. Renunciation is a process whereby a leader must be a symbol of selfless giving and strive for the common good of the company and the society. Also abstain from selfish acts and detach from the fruits. This is very difficult to practice in today’s condition where deceit, dishonesty, selfishness, greed, and profit making dominates the world of work. As per the theory of renunciation, if the result of our efforts are successful, the entire credit should be appropriated to all the doers. Similarly, if the efforts result in failure, every doer should take the responsibility.
Business is a collective effort. It should look at the long range plans to succeed with honesty and selflessness. Philosophical outlook is important to succeed in the long run. Greed will result in a failure. Leaders should be philanthropic and self-sacrificing for the survival of a company.
12. The Curative Powers
In Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna’s message not only gives courage, fearlessness and strength to discharge one’s responsibility with equanimity by balancing the mind, body, and soul but it also has a number of curative powers that benefit the reader. T. R. Seshadri in his book “The Curative Powers OF the Holy Gita” gives a number of verses that can be used to cure certain types of deceases. In fact, he says that if we look at the condition Arjuna described after he decided not to fight with gurus and kinsmen is very similar to person who was about to have a heart attack. Arjuna says that his mouth was perched, unable to stand and hold his weapon, body was shivering, hair stood up, skin burns up all over, mind was reeling, and limbs failing. Lord Krishna’s message was a cure for his heart attack like condition.
Similarly, a person with blood pressure (hypertension, hypotension), depression, impotency, neurosis, sexual disorders, stress, syphilis and venereal infections is said to benefit from chanting this verse: “The one who is not depressed in adversity or disturbed by pleasure and pain, and is devoid of attachment, fear and anger – he is indeed a steadfast one.” (Gita II – 56).
A person with AIDS, alcohol and drug addiction, blood pressure, brain disorders, depression, mental disorders, mind control, neurosis, psychic and psychosomatic illness, sexual disorders, stress, stroke and tension can be benefitted by chanting this verse: “The turbulent senses forcibly lead astray the minds of even the wise. To control them, one should sit meditation on Me. He who has his senses under control, is steadfast in his wisdom.” (Gita II – 61)
For child birth, conception, delivery, gynecological disorders, menstrual problems and pregnancy, verse 9:18 is suggested: “God is the goal, the sustainer, the witness, the abode, the refuge, the friend, the source, the destroyer, the supporter, the resting place and the imperishable seed.”
The author suggests that these verses should be chanted only in SANSKRIT to have an impact on the mind which is the source of stress and numerous deceases. It is argued that the correct understanding of verses in the Bhagavad Gita can alleviate stress and strain, which is the root cause of several modern day diseases.
13. Much More to Learn
The sessions conducted at IIM in Indore will serve as guiding principles that can be introduced at different levels in the educational system subject to the level of knowledge. Ten modules developed by Swami Samarpananda of Ramakrishna Mission are appropriate for proper discussion to be included in the curriculum: (1) Harnessing mental energy (2) Values in leadership and administration (3) Philosophy of life and its importance (4) Acquiring excellence (5) Managing stress, (6) Duty (7) Karma Yoga; (8) Dynamics of work (9) Self-Upliftment (10) The goal supreme and looking back. Number of educational institutions have already introduced Bhagavad Gita s a course to be taught in numerous countries.
Finally, the Lord says, He is dearest to me who imparts this knowledge to earnest spiritual students. Study of the Gita is a great yajna or sacrifice because the student offers his ignorance to be burnt up in the fire of knowledge. Even those who listen to the Gita with faith in the Lord reach the land of the meritorious, the world of peace and joy, for the reaction of their past misdeeds will not act upon them.
History was made
Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swami has made a history by inspiring, encouraging, guiding and blessing 43 children of ages 6 thru 14 to memorize all 700 verses of Bhagavad Gita and chant in His presence. On July 17, 2016 these children chanted Bhagavad Gita without looking at the book sitting for more than four hours creating vibrations and spreading the energy waves across the space. These children’s lives have changed forever as these verses have permeated their body, mind and soul. It is also time to remember that Lord resides in each of these verses thereby that Lord Krishna will be there with them and in them. By memorizing, they have absorbed the eternal message, improved their intelligence and expanded their memory bank. The power of the Sanskrit and vibrations created by chanting the mantras (verses), would live with them forever. Bhagavad Gita will help them to face numerous roadblocks with little difficulty. The eternal universal message will guide them throughout their lives. Bhagavad Gita will equip them with a lifelong friend who travels with them wherever they go. It never fails them. Many scholars, researchers, philosophers, politicians reaped the benefit in their daily pursuits as well as their academic pursuits. By commanding the children to learn Bhagavad Gita, Sri Swamiji instilled curiosity in them, helped them to memorize all 700 verses of Bhagavad Gita, implanted courage in them, infused confidence, helped expand their memory power, and shaped their personalities for life. With Sri Swamiji’s blessings, these kids will be the role models for the other children and their parents to pursue their innate talent and become ambassadors to the richness of Sanatana dharma.
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Best Vedas Books
Here you will get Best Vedas Books For you.This is an up-to-date list of recommended books.
1. The Bhagavad Gita, 2nd Edition
Author: by Eknath Easwaran
Nilgiri Press
English
296 pages
The Bhagavad Gita is the best known of all the Indian scriptures, and Eknath Easwaran’s best-selling translation is reliable, readable, and profound. Easwaran’s 55-page introduction places the Bhagavad Gita in its historical setting, and brings out the universality and timelessness of its teachings.
Chapter introductions clarify key concepts, and notes and a glossary explain Sanskrit terms. Easwaran grew up in the Hindu tradition in India, and learned Sanskrit from a young age. He was a professor of English literature before coming to the West on a Fulbright scholarship.
A gifted teacher, he is recognized as an authority on the Indian classics and world mysticism. The Bhagavad Gita opens, dramatically, on a battlefield, as the warrior Arjuna turns in anguish to his spiritual guide, Sri Krishna, for answers to the fundamental questions of life.
Yet, as Easwaran points out, the Gita is not what it seems it’s not a dialogue between two mythical figures at the dawn of Indian history. The battlefield is a perfect backdrop, but the Gita’s subject is the war within, the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious.
2. The Upanishads, 2nd Edition
Author: by Eknath Easwaran
Nilgiri Press
English
384 pages
Easwaran’s best-selling translation of the ancient wisdom texts called the Upanishads is reliable, readable, and profound. In the Upanishads, illumined sages share flashes of insight, the results of their investigation into consciousness itself. In extraordinary visions, they have direct experience of a transcendent Reality which is the essence, or Self, of each created being.
They teach that each of us, each Self, is eternal, deathless, one with the power that created the universe. Easwaran’s translation of the principal Upanishads and five others includes an overview of the cultural and historical setting, with chapter introductions, notes, and a Sanskrit glossary.
But it is Easwaran’s understanding of the wisdom of the Upanishads that makes this edition truly outstanding. Each sage, each Upanishad, appeals in a different way to the reader’s head and heart. In the end, Easwaran writes, The Upanishads are part of India’s precious legacy, not just to Hinduism but to humanity, and in that spirit they are offered here.
3. The Vedas: The Samhitas of the Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva [single volume, unabridged]
Author: by Anonymous
English
498 pages
1541294718
The present volume is an unabridged compilation of all four Vedas (Rig, White and Black Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Four of the translations are from Ralph Griffith, with the remaining (black yajur) from Arthur Keith. The texts have been proofed and all Sanskrit terms updated and synced between versions.
An Index-Dictionary of Sanskrit terms has been published as a second volume: ISBN: 978-1541304079. From the foreword: The Vedas (from the root vid, to know, or divine knowledge) are the most ancient of all the Hindu scriptures. There were originally three Vedasthe Laws of Manu always speaks of the three, as do the oldest (Mukhya) Upanishadsbut a later work called the Atharvaveda has been added to these, to now constitute the fourth.
The name Rigveda signifies Veda of verses, from rig, a spoken stanza; Samaveda, the Veda of chants, from saman, a song or chant; Yajurveda, the Veda of sacrificial formulas, from yajus, a sacrificial text. The Atharvaveda derives its name from the sage Atharvan, who is represented as a Prajapati, the edlest son of Brahma, and who is said to have been the first to institute the fire-sacrifices.
4. Bhagavad Gita : Complete Bhagavad Gita In Simple English To Understand The Divine Song Of God (Eastern Spirituality Classics)
Author: by Bhakti Bhav Publishings
B091WFG8WZ
English
309 pages
My life has been full of external tragedies and if they have not left any visible effect on me,I owe it to the teaching of Bhagavad Gita;-Mahatama GandhiUndefeatable warrior Arjuna who is standing in the battlefield of Kurukshetra, overwhelmed with negative emotions and losing his motivation to fight against his own relatives.
Arjuna then seeks out for help to his friend and spiritual guide-Lord Krishna;Lord Krishna motives Arjuna to end the war within. Lord Krishna teaches Arjuna about the fundamental of life, self-realization, and purpose of human beings on this planet.
Bhagavad Gita is not only a scripture that promotes about Hinduism; The wisdom in Bhagavad Gita is eternal and unchanging; The God talks with Arjuna has fundamentals of eastern philosophy, life changing ideas and knowledge about life. Although Bhagavad Gita is helpful for people who are seeking Self-Realization by pursuing the path of love, devotion and the path of supreme god; However, it is recommended to anyone of any position at any stage of life.
5. Sovereign Self: Claim Your Inner Joy and Freedom with the Empowering Wisdom of the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita
Author: by Acharya Shunya
English
448 pages
1683645812
Unshackle your mind and claim your spiritual birthright of freedom, wholeness, and joy through the perennial wisdom of ancient yogaThere’s a reason that the Vedas, a 5,000-year-old collection of celebrated verses from ancient India, have given rise to several world religions and influenced Western thinkers from Emerson to Ram Dassthey provide us with a uniquely accessible and effective path to liberation and sovereignty.
With Sovereign Self, Acharya Shunya shares a groundbreaking guide to the wisdom of these classic texts so that each of us may emancipate ourselves from restrictive belief systems and discover our true naturethat which is always whole, joyful, and free.
As the first female lineage holder in a 2,000-year-old line of spiritual teachers, Shunya provides a rare opportunity to receive these authentic teachings from a genuine Vedic masterone with a distinctly down-to-earth, feminine flavor who never lets us forget that our humanity is to be embodied and enjoyed.
6. When Love Comes to Light: Bringing Wisdom from the Bhagavad Gita to Modern Life
Author: by Richard Freeman
English
312 pages
1611808170
Eminent yoga teachers Richard Freeman and Mary Taylor explore essential lessons from The Bhagavad Gita to reveal a practical guide for living in today’s complex world. The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most influential and widely recognized ancient texts in Indian epic literature.
Through the telling of the story and its many different philosophical teachings, the text provides deep insight into how to meet life’s inevitable challenges while remaining open, clear, and compassionate. It offers modern day wisdom seekers a framework for understanding our core beliefs and who we really are-revealing the fact that healthy relationships to others and the world are essential to living a full, compassionate, balanced life.
Richard Freeman and Mary Taylor, both deeply respected yogic teachers, offer a practical, immediately relevant interpretation that emphasizes self-reflection and waking up in our modern world. Following the traditional sequence of teachings in The Bhagavad Gita-from its opening scene in which Arjuna finds himself in the middle of a battlefield, hesitating and trapped between opposing sides, torn by his dharma and confused by the various paths of action he might choose in the process of awakening-Freeman and Taylor interweave insight into how these classic teachings are relevant for modern readers struggling with what it means to live responsibly in the twenty-first century.
7. The Upanishads: Breath from the Eternal
Author: by Swami Prabhavanada
0451528484
Signet
English
The Wisdom of the Hindu Mystics The principal texts selected and translated from the original Sanskrit, Upanishad means “sitting near devotedly”, which conjures images of the contemplating student listening with rapt attention to the teachings of a spiritual master. These are widely considered to be philosophical and spiritual meditations of the highest order.
8. The Rig Veda (Penguin Classics)
Author: by Wendy Doniger
0140449892
Penguin Classics
English
The earliest of the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas, and the first extensive composition to survive in any Indo-European language, the Rig Veda (c. 1200-900 BC) is a collection of over 1,000 individual Sanskrit hymns. A work of intricate beauty, it provides a unique insight into early Indian mythology, religion and culture.
This selection of 108 of the hymns, chosen for their eloquence and wisdom, focuses on the enduring themes of creation, sacrifice, death, women, the sacred plant soma and the gods. Inspirational and profound, it provides a fascinating introduction to one of the founding texts of Hindu scripture – an awesome and venerable ancient work of Vedic ritual, prayer, philosophy, legend and faith.
For more than seventy years, Penguin has been the leading publisher of classic literature in the English-speaking world. With more than 1,700 titles, Penguin Classics represents a global bookshelf of the best works throughout history and across genres and disciplines. Readers trust the series to provide authoritative texts enhanced by introductions and notes by distinguished scholars and contemporary authors, as well as up-to-date translations by award-winning translators.
9. Mahabharata: The Greatest Spiritual Epic of All Time
Author: by Krishna Dharma
English
984 pages
168383920X
In this exciting rendition of the renowned classic, Krishna Dharma retells this epic as a fast-paced novel, but fully retains the majestic mood of the original. As the divinely beautiful Draupadi rose from the fire, a voice rang out from the heavens foretelling a terrible destiny.
She will cause the destruction of countless warriors. And so begins one of the most fabulous stories of all time. Mahabharata plunges readers into a wondrous and ancient world of romance and adventure. A powerful and moving tale, it recounts the history of the five heroic Pandava brothers and their celestial wife.
Cheated of their kingdom and sent into exile by their envious cousins, they set off on a fascinating journey on which they encounter mystical sages, mighty kings, and a host of gods and demons. Profound spiritual themes underlie the enthralling narrative, making it one of the world’s most revered texts.
Culminating in an apocalyptic war, Mahabharata is a masterpiece of suspense, intrigue, and illuminating wisdom.
10. Tantra: The Supreme Understanding
Author: by Osho
B0711WYJCH
June 6, 2017
English
Tantra is freedom; freedom from all mind-constructs, from all mind-games; freedom from all structures; freedom from the other. Tantra is space to be. Tantra is liberation, a total orgasm of the whole being. Osho The tradition of Tantra or Tantric Buddhism is known to have existed in India as early as the 5th century AD.
In this all-time bestseller, using the contemporary idiom and his own unique blend of wisdom and humor, Osho talks about the mystical insights found in the ancient Tantric writings. He also explores many significant Tantric meditation techniques, demonstrating how they are as relevant to the modern-day seeker as they were to those in earlier times.
No matter how complex, obscure, or mystical the subject, Osho always brings his uniquely refreshing perspectiveintroducing the most difficult concepts to the widest possible audience with irreverent wit and thought-provoking inspiration.
11. Bhagavad Gita, The Holy Book of Hindus: Original Sanskrit Text with English Translation & Transliteration [ A Classic of Indian Spirituality ] (1)
Author: by Sushma
English
204 pages
1945739363
Bhagavad Gita – ‘The Song of God’- is collection of 700 verses from the great epic Mahabharata, composed millenniums ago by Veda Vyasa, a prehistoric sage of India. It is set in the narrative framework of a dialogue that takes place in the middle of a battle field between prince Arjuna, and his guide and charioteer Lord Krishna.
The Bhagavad Gita is a synthesis and compendium of Hindu spiritual ideas on Dharma, Bhakti, Karma, Moksha, Raja Yoga etc. Alongside Ramayana, the Bhagavad Gits is an important Hindu Scripture and is counted amongst the classics of Indian spirituality. This edition contains the Sanskrit verses of the Bhagavad Gita, and their simple English Translation, and also Transliteration of the Sanskrit verses-so that the original text can be read in English, even without knowing the Devanagari script.
The Translation is presented in a simple running style, unencumbered of any burdensome commentaries to dig through.
12. American Veda: From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation How Indian Spirituality Changed the West
Author: by Philip Goldberg
0385521359
Harmony
English
A fascinating look at India’s remarkable impact on Western culture, this eye-opening popular history shows how the ancient philosophy of Vedanta and the mind-body methods of Yoga have profoundly affected the worldview of millions of Americans and radically altered the religious landscape.
What exploded in the 1960s, following the Beatles trip to India for an extended stay with their new guru, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, actually began more than two hundred years earlier, when the United States started importing knowledge-as well as tangy spices and colorful fabrics-from Asia.
The first translations of Hindu texts found their way into the libraries of John Adams and Ralph Waldo Emerson. From there the ideas spread to Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, and succeeding generations of receptive Americans, who absorbed India’s science of consciousness and wove it into the fabric of their lives.
Charismatic teachers like Swami Vivekananda and Paramahansa Yogananda came west in waves, prompting leading intellectuals, artists, and scientists such as Aldous Huxley, Joseph Campbell, Allen Ginsberg, J.D. Salinger, John Coltrane, Dean Ornish, and Richard Alpert, aka Ram Dass, to adapt and disseminate what they learned from them.
13. The Upanishads (Penguin Classics)
Author: by Anonymous
Penguin Classics
English
144 pages
The Upanishads, the earliest of which were composed in Sanskrit between 800 and 400 bce by sages and poets, form part of the Vedas – the sacred and ancient scriptures that are the basis of the Hindu religion. Each Upanishad, or lesson, takes up a theme ranging from the attainment of spiritual bliss to karma and rebirth, and collectively they are meditations on life, death and immortality.
The essence of their teachings is that truth can by reached by faith rather than by thought, and that the spirit of God is within each of us – we need not fear death as we carry within us the promise of eternal life.
For more than seventy years, Penguin has been the leading publisher of classic literature in the English-speaking world. With more than 1,700 titles, Penguin Classics represents a global bookshelf of the best works throughout history and across genres and disciplines. Readers trust the series to provide authoritative texts enhanced by introductions and notes by distinguished scholars and contemporary authors, as well as up-to-date translations by award-winning translators.
14. Your Sacred Wealth Code Oracle Cards: A Daily Practice to Unlock Your Soul Blueprint for Purpose & Prosperity (A 23 Card Deck & Guidebook)
Author: by Prema Lee Gurreri
Heart Drop Press
English
86 pages
2018 PRODUCT OF THE YEAR, 21st Annual COVR Visionary Awards Gold Winner, Divination Products, 21st Annual COVR Visionary Awards Gold Winner, Manifestation Products, 21st Annual Visionary Awards Silver Winner, Visionary Products, 21st Annual COVR Visionary Award Bronze Winner, Inspirational or Transformation Products, 21st Annual COVR Visionary Awards DISCOVER YOUR WEALTH ARCHETYPES AND CREATE YOUR PURPOSE AND PROSPERITY!
Did you know that you have a unique design and internal formula for attracting wealth that is your very birth right? Like a treasure map, this formula is written into your soul blueprint at the moment you were born. Just like your own fingerprints, your very own prosperity code is unlike that of any other human being.
It belongs only to you. Your soul purpose is written in the universal language of purpose and abundance and called your Sacred Wealth Code. Unlike angel cards or wisdom card decks, this one-of-a-kind oracle deck is purpose-built to provide your gateway to exploring your connection with the Sacred Wealth Archetypes to create an abundant life.
15. Essence of the Upanishads: A Key to Indian Spirituality (Wisdom of India Book 1)
Author: by Eknath Easwaran
B00BSEQOR0
Nilgiri Press
July 1, 2010
The Katha Upanishad embraces the key ideas of Indian mysticism in a mythic story we can all relate to the quest of a young hero, Nachiketa, who ventures into the land of death in search of immortality. But the insights of the Katha are scattered, hard to understand.
Easwaran presents them systematically, and practically, as a way to explore deeper and deeper levels of personality, and to answer the age-old question, Who am I? Easwaran grew up in India, learned Sanskrit from a young age, and became a professor of English literature before coming to the West.
His translation of The Upanishads is the best-selling edition in English. For students of philosophy and of Indian spirituality, and readers of wisdom literature everywhere, Easwaran’s interpretation of this classic helps us in our own quest into the meaning of our lives.
16. The Upanishads: A New Translation by Vernon Katz and Thomas Egenes (Tarcher Cornerstone Editions)
Author: by Vernon Katz
B00R6M8EQC
TarcherPerigee
June 30, 2015
This new translation of The Upanishads is at once delightfully simple and rigorously learned, providing today’s readers with an accurate, accessible rendering of the core work of ancient Indian philosophy. The Upanishads are often considered the most important literature from ancient India.
Yet many academic translators fail to capture the work’s philosophical and spiritual subtlety, while others convey its poetry at the cost of literal meaning. This new translation by Vernon Katz and Thomas Egenes fills the need for an Upanishads that is clear, simple, and insightful yet remains faithful to the original Sanskrit.
As Western Sanskrit scholars who have spent their lives immersed in meditative practice, Katz and Egenes offer a unique perspective in penetrating the depths of Eastern wisdom and expressing these insights in modern yet poetic language. Their historical introduction is suited to newcomers and experienced readers alike, providing the perfect entry to this unparalleled work. | https://booksawesome.com/16-best-vedas-books/ |
Compiled and edited by Judy Warner, these stories are written by normal everyday people -- maybe your next door neighbor -- and they show how true spiritual awakening occurs under vastly different circumstance, outlooks, educations, backgrounds and philosophical approaches to life.
A beautifully realized synthesis of the ancient tradition of Advaita Vedanta and Tantra.
Who could forget their own mother, what to speak of the Mother of all souls? Kali, the Divine Mother of the Universe, emerges from these pages to engulf one with infinite love in this extraordinary description of Her many divine aspects. ..".This is a contemplative cyclopedia of the magic and mystery of Mother Kali, indispensable especially for lovers of Kali...." - Prof. Shivaramkrishna, Osmania University, India
Widely read, The Bhagavad Gita is a classic of world spirituality while The essential companion to The Bhagavad Gita, The Uddhava Gita has remained overlooked. This new accessible and only English translation in print of The Uddhava Gita offers a previously unexplored path to understanding Hinduism and Krishna s wisdom. Written centuries apart, the ideas of the two dialogues are similar although their approach and contexts differ. The Bhagavad Gita is filled with the urgency of battle while The Uddhava Gita takes place on the eve of Krishna s departure from the world. The Uddhava Gita offers the reader philosophy, sublime poetry, practical guidance, and, ultimately, hope for a more complete consciousness in which the life of the body better reflects the life of the spirit."
The Bhagavad Gita is the best known and best loved of all non-Judeo-Christian scriptures. More than 50 editions are available in the United States alone, and the Gita continues to gain new adherents. Yet there is little agreement about the Gita's message. Sharpe shows how the Bhagavad Gita has made an enormous impression upon Western thought during the past two centuries, and how reciprocal Western interpretations have had a tremendous impact upon Indian politics and society.
In the first major English translation of the ancient Upanisads for over half a century, Olivelle's work incorporates the most recent historical and philological scholarship on these central scriptures of Hinduism. Composed at a time of great social, economic, and religious change, the Upanisads document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions. The introduction and detailed notes make this edition ideal for the non-specialist as well as for students of Indian religions.About the Series: For over 100 years Oxford World's Classics has made available the broadest spectrum of literature from around the globe. Each affordable volume reflects Oxford's commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, voluminous notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more.
An "Upanisad" is a teaching session with a guru, and the thirteen texts of the "Principal Upanisads"--which comprise this volume--form a series of philosophical discourses between teacher and student that question the inner meaning of the world. Composed beginning around the eighth century BCE, the Upanisads have been central to the development of Hinduism, exploring its central doctrines: rebirth, karma, overcoming death, and achieving detachment, equilibrium, and spiritual bliss. Speaking to the reader in direct, unadorned prose or lucid verse, the Upanisads collected here embody humanity's perennial search for truth and knowledge.Valerie Roebuck's powerful new translation blends accuracy with readability and retains the oral style of these stirring and profound philosophical explorations. This volume includes an introduction to the text, information on Sanskrit pronunciation, suggestions for further reading, explanatory notes, and a glossary. For more than seventy years, Penguin has been the leading publisher of classic literature in the English-speaking world. With more than 1,700 titles, Penguin Classics represents a global bookshelf of the best works throughout history and across genres and disciplines. Readers trust the series to provide authoritative texts enhanced by introductions and notes by distinguished scholars and contemporary authors, as well as up-to-date translations by award-winning translators. | https://www.magersandquinn.com/?cPath=388&page=17 |
Gitananda is a spiritual non-profit dedicated to the international presentation of the PATH OF LOVE through Eternal, Absolute spiritual principles universally applicable to humanity and to be achieved through personal interviews and spiritual guidance.
Gitananda seeks to empower everyone everywhere with the knowledge and experience of their own Divinity. The foundation stresses the practical application of the Bhagavad Gita’s teachings as well as those of Mirabai. It also encourages individuals to practice the Universal Principals of Truth in their own home, making it a temple and bringing harmony, discipline, devotion, knowledge and love to each family that makes up society.
Gitananda encourages spiritual aspirants to abide by:
Spiritual Law
Spiritual Light
Spiritual Love
Spiritual Life!
Gitananda maintains that finding the Divine within takes self-effort, spiritual study, sincerity and humility. While we may disagree with the outward mechanical rites and social superstitions that have ruined the sanctity of religion and hampered the growth of the spirit of religion, the fundamental principles of religion — namely a deepening awareness of the Divine and compassion for humanity — are never superseded. Rather we are repeatedly reminded of these spiritual laws through divine incarnations such as Mirabai, Buddha, Shri Krishna, Jesus Christ of Nazareth, Mahavir, Mohammed, Nanak, Kabir, Narsi Mehta, and Shri Ramakrishna.
Gitananda is run by volunteers and funded through donations from people who, having experienced the benefits of spiritual study, wish to give others the opportunity to benefit from it also. | https://www.gitananda.org/hinduism/vedantas-message.html |
Like many people, I have been dealing with the karma of health challenges. I suffer from a neurological disorder that causes overall stiffness, slowness, cramping, and occasional pain. It affects nearly everything I do on the physical plane, including spiritual practices. Such simple tasks as getting ready in the morning take longer. Walking and other activities I used to take for granted now require more will power.
The emotional and spiritual challenges of an illness are perhaps even harder than the physical. There’s the temptation to fall into self-pity or to be hurt by other people’s impatience or lack of understanding. We live in a fast-paced, youth-oriented culture where “perfect, graceful bodies” are held up as the ideal.
For now, when I struggle with negative emotions, I pray for the grace to have a broader perspective: to understand my karma more deeply and to learn its lessons. I pray especially for the right attitude and the ability to stay positive.
Quietly turning pages
As if in answer to my prayers, I recently had the good fortune to be involved with the Ananda Village audio recording of Swami Kriyananda reading his new book, The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita. While Kriyananda was reading aloud the entire book, I was by his side in the recording booth, quietly turning the pages.
The task was surprisingly demanding. I had to be awake and alert at every moment so I would be sure to remove each page at exactly the right time. I also had to listen for any unintended changes or mistakes, so that I could bring them to Swami Kriyananda’s attention.
Also, due to space and noise considerations, I was on my knees for the entire six days of recording. For me, perhaps more than for most people, it was a sacrifice — but one that strangely added to the overall joy of the experience.
All great works are accompanied by tapasya or austerity. Swami Kriyananda’s entire life has been one of self-sacrifice, especially in the creation of Ananda. It seemed fitting, then, that the recording of The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita should require some mild discomfort on my part.
Since my involvement in the recording of the book was the result of an unusual series of circumstances, I have asked myself, why did this experience come to me? I think there are two reasons, one personal, the other related to the book.
A microcosm of lessons
My days with Swami Kriyananda in the recording studio were a microcosm of lessons in how to live as a disciple, and how to meet the challenges of the body. Kriyananda had just celebrated his 80th birthday, yet his energy and focus remained consistently strong both during and after the recording process. Though he may have been physically unwell, he rarely mentioned it.
A friend who went to India this year for the celebration of Yogananda’s mahasamadhi (his final conscious exit from the body), told me of a day when Kriyananda’s body was so ill, he practically went straight from his sick bed to the teaching platform, and was brought into the hall in a wheel chair. Deeply moved by his example, she said, “Swami is showing us that we can always find a way to serve our Guru — even up to the moment of death!”
“I am not the body”
During the recording of The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita, Kriyananda served as a powerful role model of self-transcendence. Over the 35 years of my association with him, I have often observed his non-identification with the body. He knows he is not the body, while most of us are still trying to realize this truth.
While with him in the studio, I experienced a taste of that transcendence. Any physical discomfort was just a faint buzz in the background. In the foreground of my mind was the joy of the experience, including helping to manifest a recording that will inspire so many people. Etched in my soul was the lesson: self-transcendence is a matter of what you focus on.
Gradually, the liberating idea that “I am not the body” has started to ring true in unexpected ways, bringing a new sense of freedom. The radiant memory of those days in the recording studio helps me open up to the bigger picture. I try constantly to remind myself of the joyful devotion and detachment I felt while in Kriyananda’s presence.
An ocean of inspiration and grace
The other reason this experience came to me, I believe, relates to the book itself. From the reports of those who were with him, Kriyananda was immersed in an ocean of inspiration and grace during the writing of The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita. He often says that Yogananda wrote the book through him.
The inspiration Kriyananda felt permeates the book in an almost tangible way. I had already experienced the power of that inspiration in reading the book. During the recording session, I was immersed in it for six entire days.
Being careful not to squander a precious opportunity, after each day of recording, I remained quiet and inward while handling my other duties for Radio Ananda, (Ananda’s internet radio station). Meditating and reading The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita were the highest priority; I yearned to stay in that sacred vibration as long as possible.
I can now appreciate more fully the Bhagavad Gita’s promise to any one who listens with devotion to its timeless wisdom: “Even that person who, full of devotion and without skepticism, merely listens to this holy discourse, and heeds its teachings, shall become free from earthly karma and shall be blessed to dwell in the high realm of the virtuous.”
The Gita as a friend
A few months after the recording session, I sat one day in front of a picture of Sister Gyanamata, Yogananda’s greatest woman disciple who, at death, became a liberated soul. Among Yogananda’s disciples, she is known for the depth of her inward attunement to him.
Silently I prayed to her, asking for guidance on becoming more in tune with the Guru. I felt her answer: “Read the Bhagavad Gita.” This was another confirmation that the Gita had become an important vehicle for attuning myself to the ray of divine grace that flows through Yogananda and Kriyananda.
However, the Gita is a valuable resource for any spiritual aspirant. For many of us there are times when meditation is difficult, when reading The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita may be all we can do. The book can help us on many levels, including the powerful level of vibration. What’s essential is that we approach it, as we would any good friend, with respect and an open heart.
“Wisdom is the greatest cleanser,” said Swami Sri Yukteswar. The Gita is a flowing stream of wisdom and light, which we can tap into at any point. If we bathe in that stream, it will cleanse and purify us.
Each moment is precious
Recently I felt a welling up of gratitude for all the blessings in my life: for my Guru and for Swami Kriyananda, for the practice of yoga and meditation, for the spiritual community of Ananda.
Increasingly, I see my life in terms of quality more than quantity. Each moment is precious. Each day provides opportunities for giving my life to God — for loving and serving the Divine Friend. | https://www.ananda.org/blog/karma-yoga-kriyananda-ananda/ |
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10-Minute Meditation
New to meditation? Try this simple mantra practice to get you started and enjoy the benefits of seeing the world in a different light. | https://www.yogapedia.com/topic/226/hindu-gods |
The Bhagavad Gita is a holy book revered by millions of Hindus around the world. The book, written in Sanskrit, consists of a conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. The Bhagavad Gita is not only a spiritual guide but also a practical guide for everyday life. One of the many aspects that Lord Krishna discusses in the book is the qualities that students should strive to develop. In this article, we will discuss the four life lessons for students taught by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita.
Lesson 1: Change is the law of the world
Lord Krishna emphasizes that change is inevitable in the universe. This teaching is relevant for students as it teaches them that failure is not permanent. If they fail, they should learn from it and not give up. Students should not shy away from hard work, and they should focus on their efforts rather than the results. Lord Krishna encourages students to work with devotion and not worry about the outcome.
Lesson 2: Faith is the basis of man
Lord Krishna emphasizes the importance of self-confidence and faith in oneself. In today’s age of social media, students can suffer from a lack of self-confidence. Students who believe in themselves usually succeed. Lord Krishna encourages students to have faith in themselves and their abilities.
Lesson 3: Dhyana (Meditation)
Meditation is a practice that can benefit students in their academic and personal lives. Lord Krishna promotes the benefits of meditation in the Bhagavad Gita. Meditation can help students relieve anxiety and stress during exams or other stressful situations in life.
Lesson 4: Have a Big Dream
Lord Krishna also emphasizes the importance of having a clear goal and a path to achieve it. Obstacles can arise along the way, but students should not let them discourage them from achieving their dreams. Lord Krishna encourages students to keep their goals in mind and work towards them with determination.
Conclusion
The teachings of Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita provide valuable life lessons for students. By following these teachings, students can develop self-confidence, work with devotion, meditate to relieve stress, and achieve their dreams. These teachings have been passed down through generations and remain relevant today, offering guidance and inspiration to all who seek it. | https://atmanirvana.com/four-life-lessons-of-lord-krishna-for-students/ |
The mind is very restless, forceful and strong, O Krishna, it is more difficult to control the mind than to control the wind ~ Arjuna to Sri Krishna.
Introduction.
One of the greatest contributions of India to the world is Holy Gita which is considered to be one of the first revelations from God. The managent lessons in this holy book were brought in to light of the world by divine Maharshi Mahesh Yogi and the spiritual philosophy by Sr. Srila Prabhupada Swami and humanism by Sai Baba. Maharishi calls the Bhagavad-Gita the essence of Vedic Literature and a complete guide to practical life. It provides "all that is needed to raise the consciousness of man to the highest possible level." Maharishi reveals the deep, universal truths of life that speak to the needs and aspirations of everyone. Arjuna got mentally depressed when he saw his relatives with whom he has to fight.(
Mental health has become a major international public health concern now). To motivate him the Bhagavad Gita is preached in the battle field Kurukshetra by Lord Krishna to Arjuna as a counseling to do his duty while multitudes of men stood by waiting . It has got all the management tactics to achieve the mental equilibrium and to overcome any crisis situation. The Bhagavad Gita can be experienced as a powerful catalyst for transformation. Bhagavad gita means song of the Spirit, song of the Lord. The Holy Gita has become a secret driving force behind the unfoldment of one's life. In the days of doubt this divine book will support all spiritual search. This divine book will contribute to self reflection, finer feeling and deepen one's inner process. Then life in the world can become a real education--dynamic, full and joyful--no matter what the circumstance. May... | https://www.writework.com/essay/bhagavad-gita-and-super-management |
As person abandons worn-out clothes and acquires new ones, so when the body is worn out a new one is acquired by the Self, who lives within.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Self-discovery]
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Just as a fire is covered by smoke and a mirror is obscured by dust, just as the embryo rests deep within the womb, wisdom is hidden by selfish desire.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Selfishness]
Living creatures are nourished by food, and food is nourished by rain; rain itself is the water of life, which comes from selfless worship and service.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Service]
O Krishna, the stillness of divine union which you describe is beyond my comprehension. How can the mind, which is so restless, attain lasting peace? Krishna, the mind is restless, turbulent, powerful, violent; trying to control it is like trying to tame the wind.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Spirit and Spirituality]
Sages speak of the immutable Tree of Life, with its tape root above and its branches below.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Spirit and Spirituality]
Little by little, through patience and repeated effort, the mind will become stilled in the Self.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Patience]
For those who wish to climb the mountain of spiritual awareness, the path is selfless work. For those who have attained the summit of union with the Lord, the path is stillness and peace.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Peace of Mind]
To the illumined man or woman, a clod of dirt, a stone, and gold are the same.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Possessions]
Fear not what is not real, never was and never will be. What is real, always was and cannot be destroyed.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Reality]
Better indeed is knowledge than mechanical practice. Better than knowledge is meditation. But better still is surrender of attachment to results, because there follows immediate peace.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Knowledge]
When meditation is mastered, the mind is unwavering like the flame of a lamp in a windless place.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Mediation]
Still your mind in me, still yourself in me, and without a doubt you shall be united with me, Lord of Love, dwelling in your heart.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Meditation]
Those who eat too much or eat too little, who sleep too much or sleep too little, will not succeed in meditation. But those who are temperate in eating and sleeping, work and recreation, will come to the end of sorrow through meditation.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Meditation]
He is not elevated by good fortune or depressed by bad. His mind is established in God, and he is free from delusion.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Mind]
The disunited mind is far from wise; how can it meditate? How be at peace? When you know no peace, how can you know joy?
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Mind]
I look upon all creatures equally; none are less dear to me and none more dear. But those who worship me with love live in me, and I come to life in them.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Nature]
The senses have been conditioned by attraction to the pleasant and aversion to the unpleasant: a man should not be ruled by them; they are obstacles in his path.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Obstacles]
On this path effort never goes to waste, and there is no failure. Even a little effort toward spiritual awareness will protect you from the greatest fear.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Failure]
When the senses contact sense objects, a person experiences cold or heat, pleasure or pain. These experiences are fleeting they come and go. Bear them patiently.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Feelings]
Governing sense, mind and intellect, intent on liberation, free from desire, fear and anger, the sage is forever free.
~ Bhagavad Gita - [Freedom]
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Bhagavad Gita: Eternal Wisdom of Life and Life Skills by Dr Sunanda Rathi
Do you know what the crucial moment in Mahabharata was? It was the moment when, in the Kurukshetra war, Arjuna saw his closed ones on the other side as his foes. As he eliminates the people who shared blood relations with him and played paramount roles in his life. Arjuna was in the moral dilemma of how to fight against his people. Lord Krishna recounted different lessons and philosophies to Arjuna during the Kurukshetra war. It was the time when the tables turned.
The epic saga of the valuable interaction between Lord Krishna and Arjuna has now become a worldwide phenomenon and known as the Bhagavad Gita.
The Bhagavad Gita is a 700-verse Hindu scripture and a crucial part of the epic Mahabharata. But are these the only facts that make the Bhagavad Gita great? The Bhagavad Gita is not just a motivational speech a motivator gave to his lost pupil. It’s the essence of life cleverly outlined and applicable to any and everyone.
The lessons and philosophies in the Bhagavad Gita not just encouraged Arjuna to do the right thing, but they also touch various aspects of daily life in today’s time.
They shed light on everyday problems and offer solutions for them as well. The Kurukshetra war was not just between the Kauravas and Pandavas. It was a Dharma Yuddha, a Righteous war fought between right and wrong, good and bad, ethical and unethical. It is something that we all struggle to figure out at some point in our life.
We all are modern Arjunas fighting modern problems. We fight a war of life every day. Yes, it is a war.
Everyone’s war is different and has different intensity. And the Bhagavad Gita gives us lessons on how to fight and win everyday battles. In our current era, we call these lessons- Life Skills.
Right now, we are fighting an even bigger enemy- a Pandemic. Not just the COVID-19 virus, but the whole lockdown thing is taking a toll on us. The frustration, depression, stress, tensions, disagreements, emotional fluctuations, and many other negative feelings are growing day by day and making people suffer physically and mentally. These are not the problems that have popped up out of the blue. They were always part of our life. But in current scenarios, the degree of their existence is senselessly increasing.
To tackle these problems, we need an enhanced degree of Life Skills. And the Bhagavad Gita extends its sagacity to help us in these times. The Bhagavad Gita is not just a fancy buzzword that revolves only around some Sanskrit Shlokas. It is the ultimate astuteness bestowed upon mankind to realize the truthful nature of divinity and accustom it to our daily lives.
Though the teachings drafted in the Gita date back to ancient times, miraculously, they are applied to every era. The Bhagavad Gita is the eternal wisdom of life. What Gita offers is not easily understood by everyone.
That’s why Dr Sunanda Rathi, a Yoga Researcher, has initiated a workshop to spread the life lessons from the Bhagavad Gita worldwide. She has designed an Online Training Program cum workshop on the Bhagavad Gita “gems@gita: Life Skills from the Song Divine”.
This program simplifies the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita and elaborates the Life Skills enlightened in it.
This program talks about our daily problems and bestows knowledge of ways to successfully handle them with the help of the philosophies from the Gita. These philosophies not only enrich your physical, intellectual, psychological, emotional and spiritual level, but they also bring peace and bliss to your mind and help you escalate your standard of life.
We have more to offer in this Online Program. Come, join us. Join the journey of modern life enlightenment with the Bhagavad Gita.
Stay tuned for more with http://www.sunandarathi.com/ to have more updates. | https://www.stayfeatured.com/post/bhagavad-gita-eternal-wisdom-of-life-and-life-skills-by-dr-sunanda-rathi |
Why Srimad Bhagwad Gita is so famous globally...?
The word 'Gita' means song and the word 'Bhagavad' means God, often the Bhagavad-Gita is called the Song of God. It has molded traditions and made great men for thousands of years. Bhagvad Gita is the thought-process behind that extra-ordinary life that lived singing, dancing and remaining peaceful amidst a great battle.
"In the narrative, Lord Krishna has descended to earth to aid Arjuna in his battle against Kauravas and their army. Lord Krishna assumes the role of Arjuna's chariot driver and aids him in the battle and reveals to Arjuna several divine truths about human existence in the material plane, the true nature of the supreme personality of God, and the method of eternal progression and release from the earthly cycles of death and rebirth through the practice of bhakti yoga."...Says Srila Prabhu pada.
Lord Krishna Said---
*“Reshape yourself through the power of your will”
*Those who have conquered themselves live in peace, alike in cold and heat, pleasure and pain, praise and blame, To such people a clod of dirt, a stone, and gold are the same, Because they are impartial, they rise to great heights.
*Whatever happened, happened for the good. ...!
*You have the right to work, but never to the fruit of work. ...!
*Change is the law of the universe. ...!
*The soul is neither born, and nor does it die. ...!
*You came empty handed, and you will leave empty handed.
*When meditation is mastered,
The mind is unwavering like the
Flame of a lamp in a windless place.
In the still mind,
In the depths of meditation,
The Self reveals itself.
Beholding the Self
By means of the Self,
An aspirant knows the
Joy and peace of complete fulfillment.
Having attained that
Abiding joy beyond the senses,
Revealed in the stilled mind,
He never swerves from the eternal truth.
The purpose of life as per Bhagavad-Gita is to purify our Existence from all material contamination by practicing Bhakti-yoga or Devotional Service and at the end of life go back home, back to Godhead, I.e Lord Krishna's abode. One can understand the Supreme Personality as He is only by devotional service.
*Bhagvat Gita Says
“The demonic do things they should avoid and avoid the things they should do, Hypocritical, proud, and arrogant, living in delusion and clinging to their deluded ideas, insatiable in their desires, they pursue unclean ends, Bound on all sides by scheming and anxiety, driven by anger and greed, they amass by any means they can a hoard of money for the satisfaction of their cravings. Self-important, obstinate, swept away by the pride of Wealth, they ostentatiously perform sacrifices without any regard for their purpose. Egotistical, violent, arrogant, lustful, angry, envious of everyone, they abuse my presence within their own bodies and in the bodies of others”
Bhagavad Gita emphasizes the truth and thus helps us in attending to the responsibilities. Get rid of ignorance through knowledge: Strangeness causes stress. ... That is what happens with Arjuna but listening to Bhagavad Gita helps him in coming out of his fears and get in touch with his inner strength.
Srimad Bhagavadgita teaches us: -
*You have the right to work, but for the work's sake only. You have no right to the fruits of work. Desire for the fruits of work must never be your motive in working. Never give way to laziness, either.
*Perform every action with you heart fixed on the Supreme Lord. Renounce attachment to the fruits. Be even-tempered in success and failure: for it is this evenness of temper which is meant by yoga.
*Work done with anxiety about results is far inferior to work done without such anxiety, in the calm of self-surrender. Seek refuge in the knowledge of Brahma. They who work selfishly for results are miserable.
*Whatever action is performed by a great man, common men follow in his footsteps, and whatever standards he sets by exemplary acts, all the world pursues.
*One who sees inaction in action, and action in inaction, is intelligent among men.
*Man is made by his belief. As he believes, so he is
*Death is as sure for that which is born, as birth is for that which is dead. Therefore grieve not for what is inevitable.
*You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions.
*Thinking of objects, attachment to them is formed in a man. From attachment longing, and from longing anger grows. From anger comes delusion, and from delusion loss of memory. From loss of memory comes the ruin of understanding, and from the ruin of understanding he perishes. (Bhagavad Gita 2:62-63)
*Neither agitated by grief nor hankering after pleasure, they live free from lust and fear and anger. Established in meditation, they are truly wise. Fettered no more by selfish attachments, they are neither elated by good fortune nor depressed by bad. Such are the seers." (Bhagavad Gita 2:56-57)
*I am ever present to those who have realized me in every creature. Seeing all life as my manifestation, they are never separated from me. (Bhagavad Gita 6:30)
*One believes he is the slayer, another believes he is the slain. Both are ignorant; there is neither slayer nor slain. You were never born; you will never die. You have never changed; you can never change. Unborn, eternal, immutable, immemorial, you do not die when the body dies. (Bhagavad Gita 2:19-20)
The Lord says...
- I am the ritual and the sacrifice; I am true medicine and the mantram. I am the offering and the fire which consumes it, and the one to whom it is offered.
- I am the father and mother of this universe, and its grandfather too; I am its entire support. I am the sum of all knowledge, the purifier, the syllable Om; I am the sacred scriptures, the Rig, Yajur, and Sama Vedas.
- I am the goal of life, the Lord and support of all, the inner witness, the abode of all. I am the only refuge, the one true friend; I am the beginning, the staying, and the end of creation; I am the womb and the eternal seed. - I am heat; I give and withhold the rain. I am immortality and I am death; I am what is and what is not.
THE THEMES
Three major themes in the Bhagavad Gita:
knowledge (jnana), action (karma), and love (bhakti)
A. Knowledge: Krishna shows Arjuna that his grief is misplaced since the eternal soul, unlike the body, cannot be slain.
1. Krishna urges Arjuna to acquire discriminative wisdom (i.e., the ability to distinguish the eternal from the transient).
2. One acquires this wisdom by cultivating steadiness of mind, which Krishna compares to a lamp unflickering in a windless place.
3. Attainment of the mental stability requires practice, especially yoga postures (“stopping the whirlpools of the mind”), which help to concentrate the mind. The body is a vehicle for helping the mind come to repose.
B. Action: Acting without getting enmeshed in the results of action.
1. Krishna asks Arjuna to renounce not the worldly life or action itself, but instead the fruits of action. One must bring steadiness of mind into action: yoga is “skill in action.”
2. The four purushartas or goals of life are kama (please or passion), artha (wealth or power), dharma, and moksha (freedom).
3. On the field of dharma, one should act without passion (nishkama) and without desire for the fruits of action (nishphalaratha). Through yoga, one can cultivate a disinterestedness in or detachment from the outcome of action.
C. Love: Dedicate your action in devotion to God.
1. God – Bhagavan – is the supreme reality that is both ultimate and personal.
2. Krishna teaches a lesson of divine presence: Though I am unborn, I come into being in age after age, whenever dharma declines and adharma is on the rise (Gita, chapter 4). This is the first articulation of divine descent or avatara.
3. At Arjuna’s request, Krishna reveals his supreme form, which Arjuna perceives with a special third eye.
4. Arjuna responds with love to Krishna’s revelation. Only through love can one perceive Krishna’s true form.
5. Krishna reveals his love for Arjuna, saying: “Abandoning all dharma, come to me alone for refuge…”
6. Love can subvert dharma; there is no need to consider dharma when one consecrates one’s acts to God.
WHAT THEY OPINED (or said) ABOUT THE BHAGWADGITA?
The physicist Robert Oppenheimer watched the massive explosion and blinding flash of the mushroom cloud of the first atomic bomb test in New Mexico. Oppenheimer then claimed that when he saw that, two verses from the Gita came to his mind:
# If a thousand suns were to raise in the heavens at the same time, the blaze of their light would resemble the splendor of that supreme spirit. (Bhagavad Gita 11:12)
# I am time, the destroyer of all; I have come to consume the world [...]. ( Bhagavad Gita 11:32 )
Albert Einstein: When I read the Bhagavad-Gita and reflect about how God created this universe everything else seems so superfluous.
Mahatma Gandhi: When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to Bhagavad-gita and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. Those who meditate on the Gita will derive fresh joy and new meanings from it every day.
Henry David Thoreau: In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavad-gita, in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial.
Dr. Albert Schweitzer: The Bhagavad-Gita has a profound influence on the spirit of mankind by its devotion to God which is manifested by actions.
Sri Aurobindo: The Bhagavad-Gita is a true scripture of the human race a living creation rather than a book, with a new message for every age and a new meaning for every civilization.
Carl Jung: The idea that man is like unto an inverted tree seems to have been current in by gone ages. The link with Vedic conceptions is provided by Plato in his Timaeus in which it states…” behold we are not an earthly but a heavenly plant.” This correlation can be discerned by what Krishna expresses in chapter 15 of Bhagavad-Gita.
Pt. JL Nehru: The Bhagavad-Gita deals essentially with the spiritual foundation of human existence. It is a call of action to meet the obligations and duties of life; yet keeping in view the spiritual nature and grander purpose of the universe.
Herman Hesse: The marvel of the Bhagavad-Gita is its truly beautiful revelation of life’s wisdom which enables philosophy to blossom into religion.
Ralph Waldo Emerson: I owed a magnificent day to the Bhagavad-gita. It was the first of books; it was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us.
Rudolph Steiner: In order to approach a creation as sublime as the Bhagavad-Gita with full understanding it is necessary to attune our soul to it.
Adi Shankaracharya: From a clear knowledge of the Bhagavad-Gita all the goals of human existence become fulfilled. Bhagavad-Gita is the manifest quintessence of all the teachings of the Vedic scriptures.
Aldous Huxley: The Bhagavad-Gita is the most systematic statement of spiritual evolution of endowing value to mankind. It is one of the most clear and comprehensive summaries of perennial philosophy ever revealed; hence its enduring value is subject not only to India but to all of humanity.
Ramanuja: The Bhagavad-Gita was spoken by Lord Krishna to reveal the science of devotion to God which is the essence of all spiritual knowledge. The Supreme Lord Krishna’s primary purpose for descending and incarnating is relieve the world of any demoniac and negative, undesirable influences that are opposed to spiritual development, yet simultaneously it is His incomparable intention to be perpetually within reach of all humanity.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee (April 1998): If today the Bhagavad Gita is printed in millions of copies in scores of Indian languages and distributed in all nooks and corners of the world, the credit for this great sacred service goes chiefly to ISKCON. ... For this one accomplishment alone, Indians should be eternally grateful to the devoted spiritual army of Swami Prabhupada's followers. The voyage of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to the United States in 1965 and the spectacular popularity his movement gained in a very short spell of twelve years must be regarded as one of the greatest spiritual events of the century.
Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati: The Bhagavad-Gita is not seperate from the Vaishnava philosophy and the Srimad Bhagavatam fully reveals the true import of this doctrine which is transmigation of the soul.
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada: Bhagwad Gita advocates the path of bhakti toward Krishna, who is seen as the Supreme Personality of Godhead Himself. It establishes that Krishna is not an incarnation, He is the cause of all causes. He is the source of all incarnations. He is even the cause of Vishnu. It teaches the loving service of the transcendental personality of the Lord. | https://www.speakingtree.in/blog/the-bhagwadgita-in-the-greatest-service-for-mankind |
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