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Determine Initial ISR Plan
4-74. The staff considers all HN security force assets.
Update Operational Timeline
4-75. The staff may decide to use the higher, operational, planning, enemy, and populace (HOPE-P)
construct to develop the timeline.
Restate Mission
4-76. Although it is challenging to do for a COIN environment, the staff must use tactical mission
task(s) as the verb(s) in the mission statement.
Deliver Mission Analysis Briefing
4-77. (No change.)
Approve Restated Mission
4-78. (No change.)
Develop Initial Commander’s Intent
4-79. (No change.)
Issue Commander's Planning Guidance
4-80. (No change.)
Issue Warning Order
4-81. The staff must account for additional time needed to translate and brief a WARNORD in two
languages.
Review Facts and Assumptions
4-82. (No change.)
Step 3: COA Development
4-83. The staff develops a COA to determine one or more ways to accomplish the mission. For all types
of plans, the brigade and battalion must construct a COA that accounts for tasks across all seven COIN
LOEs. In a time-constrained environment, leaders may be only able to craft one COA. The six steps
of COA development remain the same, however the staff must—
Analyze Relative Combat Power
4-84. Combat power is the total means of destructive, constructive, and information capabilities that a
military unit or formation can apply at a given time (FM 3-0). The staff compares friendly combat power,
including that of the Host Nation, all enablers, and insurgent combat power. The staff must also account for
pro and anti government populations.
Generate Options
4-85. The staff ensures that they cover all options, including additional LOEs and HN actions.
Array Initial Forces
4-86. The staff arrays all enemy forces such as different insurgent groups as well as all friendly forces,
to include Host Nation security forces. Small units may also have to develop plans to employ special teams
such as military working dog teams, tactical site exploitation teams, UASs or attack, reconnaissance,
and assault aviation. |
3-24.2 | 113 | Comprehensive Tactical Planning in Counterinsurgency
Develop the Concept of Operation
4-87. The staff describes the operation from start to finish. Extremely important is construction of the
battlefield framework to include, for example, objectives, phase lines, building numbers, and target
reference points. It is important to establish this early to ensure subordinate units doing parallel planning
use the correct graphic control measures.
Assign Headquarters
4-88. The staff assigns headquarters, including HN security, joint and coalition forces.
Prepare COA Statement and Sketches
4-89. The S3 develops statements and sketches that show how the unit will accomplish the mission
and explains the concept of operation.
Step 4: COA Analysis (Wargame)
4-90. It is during COA analysis (wargaming) that the most significant and unique considerations apply.
COA analysis (wargaming) includes rules and steps that help commanders and staffs visualize the flow of a
battle. Wargaming focuses the staff’s attention on each phase of the operation in a logical sequence. It is an
iterative process of action, reaction, and counteraction. However, the standard wargaming methods of the
belt, avenue-in-depth or box method may not capture the complexity of the COIN environment that
commanders and planners must have to conduct successful counterinsurgency operations. The box method
is the traditional method that comes the closest to facilitating COIN wargaming. The traditional wargaming
process is shown in Figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3. Course of action analysis (wargame).
4-91. To wargame an operation, the staff visualizes it from start to finish, evaluating the enemy’s
actions, and then modifying their plan. With only one COA, this step is often used to synchronize the plan
across the warfighting functions. Analyzing a COA (modeling it) gives the staff a deeper understanding
of the complex and adaptive OE of COIN, and how particular actions will affect it.
Eight Steps of COA Analysis (Modeling)
4-92. Conduct the model using the same eight steps as laid out in FM 5-0 for the wargaming process—
gather the tools, list friendly forces, list assumptions, list critical events, determine evaluation criteria,
select the wargame method, select a method to record, and war-game the operation. All of these steps are
still valid and essential. Within some steps, there are modifications that must occur to successfully model.
4-93. Different groups may conduct specific LOE modeling sessions prior to a larger group conducting
a larger scale modeling session. For some LOE, the wargaming method may be more appropriate. Unlike |
3-24.2 | 114 | Chapter 4
wargaming, modeling is not a one-time event. Modeling sessions should be rerun as operations, events
and the operational environment changes.
4-94. Steps one through four remain unchanged in this technique. Step five, determining evaluation
criteria, can be complicated. This is where the planners develop the operation’s measures of effectiveness
and measures of performance. These measures are derived from the commander’s end state and the
conditions leading to the end state. These measures show when the unit is successful and achieves the
commander’s end state. Additionally, the measures should also tell commanders when they are gaining the
ability to influence the system.
4-95. The number of insurgent attacks can be a misleading indicator. Measures of effectiveness are
more accurate when there are multiple supporting measures that look at similar issues with the intent
of seeing the whole. In a counterinsurgency, the three major areas to measure are the strength of the
government, the support of the people, and the strength of the insurgency. By measuring these three areas
through a variety of quantifiable measurements, such as the ability to complete an essential service, the
number of tips reported to the police, and the volume and type of insurgent propaganda, the commander
should have a good feel for success and workable measures of effectiveness.
4-96. For step seven, select a method to record and display the results; the recording method must
capture the depth of the lessons that will be gained from the modeling and there must be a method to refine
certain critical products. There are four areas where the planners should focus on capturing new
information.
1. The planners must capture any greater depth of understanding for each of the variables.
2. They must record any new understanding of the variables and how they relate.
3. They must update the rules of behavior for each variable.
4. They must update the collection matrix.
4-97. An expanded synchronization matrix (Figure 4-4) captures the actions of US forces, HN forces
and the insurgents using the warfighting functions (WFFs). It also shows the population groups across the
political, economic, and social categories. Using a synch matrix to show these factors can reveal the
complexity of the operational environment over time. Based on their deeper understanding of the system,
new critical information requirements will arise that must be addressed in the collection matrix. |
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Units Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
US COIN Forces
Movement and Maneuver
Fires
Intelligence
Sustainment
C2
Protection
HN COIN Forces
Movement and Maneuver
Fires
Intelligence
Sustainment
C2
Protection
Population
Political
Military
Economic
Social
Insurgent
Movement and Maneuver
Fires
Intelligence
Sustainment
C2
Protection
Figure 4-4. Example expanded synch(ronization) matrix.
4-98. The last step, war-game the operation and assess the results, is the modeling session itself. The
focus of the modeling method is to gain a better understanding of the complex system that makes up an
insurgency and to accurately forecast how actions affect the system. Like wargaming, there are many
different techniques to conduct the actual modeling session. For the purposes of this manual, the turn-based
technique using four groups is used.
Modeling Technique
4-99. During each turn, each group states their actions followed by the next group’s actions. The four
groups are the US COIN forces, the Host Nation (includes other friendly forces), all neutral elements (IPI,
the population, NGOs, and so on), and the insurgents. Before beginning, the group must clearly explain the
concept, rules, and limitations for the modeling session to everyone, to include specific guidance to key
individuals. Two key parts of COIN modeling are modeling the individual LOE and modeling the overall
area or sector affected. In a typical staff, the S-3 plays the role of US and HN forces, the S-9 plays the
neutral elements, and the S-2 plays the role of the insurgents. The XO facilitates. The staff plays its
respective parts as accurately as possible portray their group in the coming modeling session.
4-100. Like with wargames, the staff needs a visual reference to conduct the modeling process. This may
be a sand table, a map, or some other visual board. Most of the items that compose this visual board come
out of the mission analysis and must include more than just the hills and roads and other normal military
aspects of terrain. For the model to be successful, it has to set the stage for the other planners to be able
to see the world through their group’s eyes. That means the visual board should include significant cultural |
3-24.2 | 116 | Chapter 4
sites and key social infrastructure sites. The more detailed the board, the more accurate and meaningful the
modeling will be.
4-101. As operations unfold and more intelligence is gathered, the planners should update the rules
of behavior and capabilities for each group. As the knowledge of the individual groups and the system as a
whole is improved, the planners will be able to identify how to more effectively influence the system. This
planning tool does not stop when the operation order is issued. Modeling is an effective way
of understanding the counterinsurgency system and ongoing operations.
Step 5: COA Comparison
4-102. Staffs analyze and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each COA, as well as identifying
the one with the highest probability of success against the most likely enemy COA. Additional COIN
evaluation considerations may include—
• Effect on or role of the HN government.
• Effect on or role of the HN security forces.
• Effect on groups of the population.
• Impact on information engagement.
Step 6: COA Approval
4-103. Either after participating in the COA comparison process or upon receipt of a COA recommended
decision, the commander makes a COA decision by approving a COA to execute.
Step 7: Orders Production
4-104. Units in COIN operations issue a warning order or WARNORD, and, after the commander selects
a COA, issue a written operation order. However, additional time for orders production may be needed if
the order must be translated into another language. To ensure nothing is lost in the translation, and ensure
success in multinational operations, the staff must keep orders and rehearsals simple.
TROOP-LEADING PROCEDURES
4-105. Troop-leading procedures (TLPs) give small-unit leaders a dynamic framework for analyzing,
planning, and preparing for an operation.
4-106. TLPs in a COIN environment differ little from those described in FM 5-0. The next sections will
provide a brief description of the eight steps along with some additional considerations for COIN
operations. Figure 4-5 shows addition COIN considerations during TLPs.
Figure 4-5. TLPs in COIN. |
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Step 1: Receive Mission
4-107. Receipt of a mission may occur with a written or verbal WARNORD, FRAGO, or OPORD. Due
to the ambiguity in COIN operations, companies or platoons often start planning after identifying an
insurgent vulnerability, receiving HUMINT, or after having a conversation with a local leader.
4-108. Upon receipt of a mission, leaders must rapidly assess the situation using METT-TC. Leaders
must provide additional emphasis on analyzing civil considerations by using the ASCOPE method.
4-109. In a time constrained situation, an ongoing assessment of the AO using the operational variables
(PMESII-PT) should provide relevant information to accomplish the mission. Based on current
information, leaders estimate and allocate 1/3 of available time to plan and prepare for the mission,
including time to accommodate the language barrier with HN security forces; and the remaining 2/3 of the
available time for subordinates' planning and rehearsals. This remains relevant in a COIN environment.
Step 2: Issue Warning Order
4-110. Once done with the initial assessment, leaders issue the best possible WARNORDs, often called
WARNORD 1, with the information at hand. They also draw relevant information from their ongoing
assessment of the AO using the operational variables (PMESII-PT). Typically, three WARNORDs are
issued. Each builds upon the previous one. Normally, a WARNORD consists of—
• Mission.
• Time and place of the OPORD.
• Units participating in the operation.
• Specific tasks.
• Time line of the operation.
Step 3: Make a Tentative Plan
4-111. Once the WARNORD is issued, leaders build a tentative plan by combining mission analysis,
COA development, COA analysis, COA comparison, and COA approval. Within companies and platoons,
these steps are less structured and are often done mentally by the leader.
Mission Analysis
4-112. Leaders use the METT-TC format to conduct mission analysis as they expand on the hasty
analysis they conducted in step one. After mission analysis is complete, an updated WARNORD,
WARNORD 2 is issued. In a COIN environment, special consideration must be given to—
Mission
4-113. Units create their restated mission statement after analyzing higher headquarters’ mission
or analyzing their particular problem. It may take multiple times of conducting mission analysis to fully
grasp the problem.
Enemy
4-114. Units use the tools from Chapter 2 (elements of an insurgency, dynamics of an insurgency, the six
insurgent strategies, insurgent tactics and the strengths and vulnerabilities of insurgents) to help further
identify the group or groups of insurgents they may encounter. Then, define composition, disposition,
recent activities, most probable COA, and most dangerous COA.
Terrain and Weather
4-115. No significant changes from FM 5-0. |
3-24.2 | 118 | Chapter 4
Troops and Support Available
4-116. Leaders must determine the amount and type of friendly forces available, especially Host Nation
security forces, coalition forces and the nonmilitary enablers.
Time
4-117. Use the acronym HOPE-P (higher, operational, planning, enemy, and populace) to identify the
various timelines.
Civil Considerations
4-118. Leaders must use the ASCOPE method to analyze areas controlled by various demographic
groups to obtain a better understanding of the AO.
COA Development
4-119. Leaders use COA development to determine one or more ways to accomplish the mission. In a
time-constrained environment, leaders may only be able to craft one COA. For long, mid, and short-range
plans, companies will need to develop tasks along all lines of effort. The six steps of COA development
in COIN are unchanged, but special consideration should be given to—
Analyze Relative Combat Power
4-120. Leaders compare friendly, including Host Nation, all enablers and insurgent combat power.
Leaders may incorporate analysis of pro—and anti—government populations.
Generate Options
4-121. Options should always consider employment of HN security forces and the HN government.
Array Forces
4-122. Array all enemy forces, such as different insurgent groups, as well as all friendly forces to include
Host Nation security forces. Small units may also have to develop plans to employ special teams such
as military working dog teams, tactical site exploitation teams, UASs or attack, reconnaissance, and assault
aviation.
Develop Concept of Operations
4-123. Leaders describe the operation from start to finish. Especially critical is the creation of graphic
control measures such as phase lines and building numbers to assist with C2 and clarify roles and tasks.
The COA must achieve unity of effort amongst all organizations.
Assign Responsibilities
4-124. Assign responsibilities for each task including those for HN security forces.
Prepare a COA Statement and Sketch
4-125. Leaders prepare a COA statement that describes all significant actions from start to finish, as well
as a sketch.
COA Analysis (Wargame)
4-126. To wargame, leaders visualize the operation from start to finish, evaluate the enemy’s actions
and then modify their plan. With only one COA, often this step is used to synchronize the plan across
the WFF. |
3-24.2 | 119 | Comprehensive Tactical Planning in Counterinsurgency
COA Comparison and COA Approval
4-127. These two steps are normally done mentally by the leader during TLP.
Step 4: Initiate Movement
4-128. As in any military operation, leaders may choose to initiate movement necessary to enable mission
preparation or position the unit for execution. In COIN, this may mean moving US forces to an HN
security force patrol base to conduct combined planning and movement.
Step 5: Conduct Reconnaissance
4-129. Whenever time and circumstances allow, leaders personally observe the AO for the mission since
there is no substitute for first hand information. Leaders may also consider using a map, Joint Land Attack
Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor System (JLENs), UAS, or attack reconnaissance aviation
to conduct the reconnaissance if time, OPSEC, or other considerations preclude a personal reconnaissance.
Step 6: Complete Plan
4-130. Leaders incorporate the results of the reconnaissance, update information, refine their products,
make coordination with adjacent units, including Host Nation units, and issue the final WARNORD. Extra
time may be needed to translate the order into the Host Nation’s language.
Step 7: Issue OPORD
4-131. Leaders issue verbal or written orders to their subordinates, using the standard five-paragraph
field order format. In addition, leaders use map, overhead imagery, or terrain model to enhance
subordinates’ understanding of the mission. Additional time may be required to brief the OPORD in two
languages if HN forces are participating in the operation. Units who have experienced OPSEC issues with
HN security forces may choose to issue the OPORD to the HN unit just prior to crossing the line
of departure.
Step 8: Supervise and Refine
4-132. Throughout the TLPs, Army leaders monitor preparations, refine the plan, coordinate with
adjacent units, and conduct rehearsals. COIN operations use the standard five types of rehearsals. They are
the confirmation brief, the back brief, the combined arms rehearsal, the support rehearsal, and the battle
drill or SOP rehearsal.
4-133. Additional time may be required to conduct rehearsals in two languages. Units who have
experienced operational security (OPSEC) issues with HN security forces may choose to have HN forces
conduct generic rehearsals, for example, clear a room or establish checkpoint versus the actual complete
operation.
Section IV—TARGETING INSURGENTS
In major combat operations, targeting focuses on identifying capabilities or resources the maneuver commander
must have effects for his operation to succeed, then attacking them with fire support, aviation, and close air
support. During counterinsurgency operations, the role of targeting can include a broad range of both enemy
and stability targets that use all seven COIN Lines of Effort to attack or influence them.
ROLE IN COIN
4-134. The expanded use of targeting in COIN gives the planner two key benefits: prioritization
and synchronization. Because the counterinsurgent often faces multiple objectives, many without clear
positional references, friendly courses of action may not be easily represented in terms of various forms
of maneuver. Each may instead portray a series of targets that the unit must influence over a specified time. |
3-24.2 | 120 | Chapter 4
4-135. The targeting process focuses operations and the use of limited assets and time. Commanders
and staffs use the targeting process to achieve effects that support the objectives and missions during
counterinsurgency operations. It is important to understand that targeting is done for all operations, not just
attacks against insurgent. The targeting process can support PSYOP, civil-military operations, and even
meetings between commanders and Host Nation leaders, based on the commander’s desires.
4-136. The synchronization of RSTA/ISR assets with available combat power is the greatest contribution
targeting brings to the counterinsurgent. The indirect nature of irregular warfare often creates limited
opportunities to strike or influence targets. Integrating the intelligence process and the operations process
through targeting can be used to ensure that maneuver units strike the right targets at the right time or are
prepared to strike targets of opportunity.
4-137. Effective targeting requires the creation of a targeting board or working group, although in many
cases, the targeting staff is similar to the planning staff. It is typically chaired by the XO or fire support
coordinator, and includes representatives from across the staff including S-2, S-3, S-5, S-7, S-9, air liaison
officer, and staff judge advocate. The goal is to prioritize targets and determine the means of engaging
them that best supports the commander’s intent and operation plan. The focus of the targeting cell, in a
counterinsurgency environment, is to target people, both the insurgents and the population.
4-138. Effective targeting identifies the targeting options, both lethal and nonlethal, to achieve effects
that support the commander’s objectives. Lethal assets are normally employed against targets with
operations to capture or kill. Nonlethal assets are normally employed against targets that are best engaged
with PSYOP, negotiation, political programs, economic programs, and social programs. Figure 4-6 shows
examples of potential targets.
Figure 4-6. Lethal and nonlethal targeting. |
3-24.2 | 121 | Comprehensive Tactical Planning in Counterinsurgency
COUNTERINSURGENCY TARGETING PROCESS
4-139. The targeting process comprises the four functions of decide, detect, deliver, and assess (D3A).
Targeting is critically linked to the MDMP. The decide function derives critical information that develops
from mission analysis through course of action approval. Both detect and assess functions are tied to the
unit’s RSTA/ISR plan which is driven by IPB, the MDMP, and tactical site exploitation. Figure 4-7 shows
the links between the targeting cycle and MDMP.
Figure 4-7. Targeting and MDMP.
4-140. The commander’s guidance drives the targeting process. Commanders issue targeting guidance
during Decide. Actions during Detect may give commanders the intelligence needed to refine their
guidance. Target identification may be difficult once a counterinsurgency operation begins. The focus
during Deliver should be on decisive points that the commanders can engage. Immediately after delivering,
units Assess the effect.
4-141. The unit S2 must understand that the targeting process depends on the effective and timely use
of the intelligence cycle and on the exploitation of objectives and detainees. Target development against
insurgents results from complete and accurate situation development during peacetime, contingency
planning, and analysis of the operational environment during conflict. The IPB supports the target
development process and provides the commander with the intelligence needed to select valid target nodes
to engage. |
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DECIDE
4-142. This function focuses and sets priorities for intelligence collection and both lethal and nonlethal
plans. Intelligence and operations personnel, with the commander and other staff members, decide when a
target is developed well enough to engage. Continuous staff integration and regular meetings of the
intelligence cell and targeting board enable this function. Specifically, intelligence analysts need to identify
individuals and groups to engage as potential counterinsurgency supporters, targets to isolate from the
population, and targets to eliminate. During the decide activity, the targeting board produces a prioritized
list of targets and a recommended course of action associated with each. Executing targeting decisions may
require the operations section to issue fragmentary orders. Each of these orders is a task that should be
nested within the higher headquarters’ plan and the commander’s intent. Targeting decisions may require
changing the intelligence synchronization plan. The targeting working group participates in COA analysis
and collaboratively develops the following decide function products:
High-Payoff Target List
4-143. An HPT list is a prioritized list of targets, by phase of the joint operation, whose loss to an enemy
will contribute to the success of the mission (JP 3-60)
Intelligence Synchronization Plan
4-144. This is what the intelligence officer uses, with staff input, to synchronize the entire collection
effort, to include all assets the commander controls, assets of lateral units, and higher echelon units,
organizations, and intelligence reach to answer the commander’s critical information requirements
(FM 2-0).
Target Selection Standards
4-145. Target selection standards establish criteria, including accuracy, that must be met before an attack.
For targets to be attacked using lethal means. requirements might include a picture, address, 8-digit grid,
and enough evidence to prosecute. For targets to be attacked by nonlethal means, requirements may include
background information on an individual, meetings he may attend, and known associates.
Attack Guidance Matrix
4-146. The attack guidance matrix lists which targets or target sets approved by the commander to act on,
how and when to act on them, and the desired effects.
Target Synchronization Matrix
4-147. The target synchronization matrix combines data from the high-payoff target list, intelligence
synchronization plan, and the attack guidance matrix. It lists high-payoff targets by category and the
agencies responsible for detecting them, attacking them, and assessing the effects of the attacks.
Targeting FRAGO
4-148. The targeting FRAGO tasks units to execute the lethal and nonlethal plans.
DETECT
4-149. The detect function involves locating HPTs accurately enough to engage them. Targets are
detected through the maximum use of all available assets. The S-2 must focus the intelligence acquisition
efforts on the designated HPTs and PIR. Situation development information, through detection
and tracking, will be accumulated as collection systems satisfy PIR and information requirements.
Tracking is an essential element of the “detect” function of the targeting process. Tracking priorities are
based on the commander’s concept of the operation and targeting priorities. Tracking is executed through
the collection plan, since many critical targets move frequently.
4-150. Detection at the tactical level is achieved through a variety of means such as a HUMINT source,
an anonymous tip, UAS, a combat patrol, SIGINT, DOMEX, rotary wing aircraft, USAF aircraft
or military working dog teams. The best means of detecting a target during an insurgency is HUMINT, |
3-24.2 | 123 | Comprehensive Tactical Planning in Counterinsurgency
though. As such, the detect activity requires a detailed understanding of social networks, insurgent
networks, insurgent actions, and the community’s attitude toward the counterinsurgent forces.
4-151. For a target that must be engaged by nonlethal means, the detect function may require patrols
to conduct reconnaissance of a leader’s home to determine if they are there, an assessment of a potential
project, or attendance at a greeting to meet with a leader.
RSTA AND ISR OPERATIONS
4-152. Reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA) and intelligence, surveillance,
and reconnaissance are activities that synchronize and integrate the planning and operation of sensors,
assets, and processing; exploitation; and dissemination systems in direct support of current and future
operations. This is an integrated intelligence and operations function (JP 2-01). RSTA/ISR provides
relevant information about all aspects of the operational environment. RSTA/ISR helps commanders assess
the degree to which information superiority is achieved. RSTA/ISR also directly supports information
engagements by defining targets in detail and by helping assess the effectiveness of friendly and adversary
information engagements.
4-153. Reconnaissance and surveillance operations help to confirm or deny insurgent COAs
and estimates of guerrilla capabilities and combat effectiveness. Reconnaissance and surveillance also
confirm or deny assumptions about the operational environment and threat made during planning.
4-154. Doctrine requires the staff to carefully focus RSTA/ISR on the CCIR (PIR and FFIR) and be able
to quickly retask units and assets as the situation changes. This ensures that the enemy situation drives
RSTA/ISR operations. The S-2 and S-3 play a critical role in this challenging task that is sometimes
referred to as “fighting ISR.” Through RSTA/ISR, commanders and staffs continuously plan, task,
and employ collection assets and forces. They collect, process, and disseminate timely and accurate
information, combat information, and intelligence to satisfy the commander’s critical information
requirements and other intelligence requirements.
4-155. RSTA/ISR synchronization analyzes information requirements and intelligence gaps; evaluates
available assets both internal and external to the organization; determines gaps in the use of those assets;
recommends RSTA/ISR assets controlled by the organization to collect on the CCIR; and submits requests
for information for adjacent or higher collection support (FM 3-0). Collection tasks linked to decision
points play a critical part in the operation. The reconnaissance and surveillance plan must ensure that
information tied to decision points reaches the commander and staff in time to support the decision. The
reconnaissance and surveillance plan also ties directly into the targeting process. Collection assets are
identified, prioritized, and planned to detect certain targets during the “decide” and “detect” phases of the
D3A process. The collector’s information, if it meets the established, criteria may trigger the deliver
function. After delivery, the collectors, also identified in the “decide” phase, provide information to assess
the attack. These may be the same collector or a different asset. If not, a different asset is tasked to do this.
One tool to achieve this is a daily RSTA/ISR and operations synchronization meeting, which is discussed
in the targeting section of this chapter. The RSTA/ISR synchronization plan is an output of this meeting,
and coordinates and synchronizes the RSTA/ISR. (For more, see FM 2-0.)
DELIVER
4-156. The deliver function of targeting begins in earnest with execution. The targeting process provides
speed and efficiency in the delivery of lethal or nonlethal fires on targets in accordance with the Attack
Guidance Matrix or the targeting FRAGO. Within the deliver function, the system or combination
of systems selected during the “decide” phase is employed.
4-157. For a target that requires lethal means, units may eliminate the target using a joint direct attack
munition (JDAM) from a USAF aircraft, an Excalibur round, a Joint Tactical Attack Cruise Missile System
(JTACMS), or a sniper. However, many times it is more important to capture the target, so commanders
will choose to execute a raid or a cordon and search. For a target that requires nonlethal means, a
commander may choose to use an information engagement to convince a local leader, or to conduct a
project to garner the population’s support through money or employment. |
3-24.2 | 124 | Chapter 4
4-158. Target exploitation in the counterinsurgency environment is similar to that in law enforcement.
An exploitation plan not only facilitates gathering evidence for future court cases, but also may lead
to follow-on targets after successful exploitation. (See Chapter 6 for details on tactical site exploitation.)
ASSESS
4-159. At the tactical level, commanders use assessment to get a series of timely and accurate snapshots
of their effect on the insurgent and the population. It provides commanders with an estimate of the
insurgent’s combat effectiveness, capabilities, and intentions, as well as an accurate understanding of the
people. This helps commanders determine when, or if, their targeting efforts have been accomplished. The
“assess” phase relies heavily upon MOEs and MOPs.
4-160. Producing the assessment is primarily an intelligence responsibility, but requires coordination
with operations, civil affairs, public affairs, information operations, and PSYOP to be effective. As part
of the targeting process, assessment helps to determine if another engagement of the target is necessary.
TARGETING BATTLE RHYTHM
4-161. During COIN operations, brigades and battalions typically use a one or two week targeting battle
rhythm. The target cycle drives the tactical unit’s daily and weekly operations. Figure 4-8 shows an
example of a targeting cycle and battle rhythm.
Figure 4-8. Targeting battle rhythm.
4-162. Another important facet of the battle rhythm is the daily RSTA/ISR and operations
synchronization meeting. Due to the air tasking order cycle, this traditionally synchronizes operations from
96 hours to 24 hours in the preparation to hand over to current operations. In counterinsurgencies, this
meeting must synchronize all actions along the seven COIN LOEs. Especially critical is planning
and requesting higher-level assets such as air force aircraft, jamming, UASs, ISR, and aviation ahead of the
higher headquarters decision cycle. There are three outputs from this meeting—a 96-hour synchronization
matrix, a 96-hour RSTA/ISR plan, and a daily FRAGO.
SUMMARY
Planning in COIN uses tactical design, either MDMP or TLP, and targeting to ensure units achieve their
end state over time. Throughout the COIN planning process, tactical units employ the seven COIN lines
of effort to ensure that they achieve unity of effort, prioritization in accomplishing tasks, control of the
population, and an increase in the Host Nation government’s legitimacy. |
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Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
“For it is in the nature of warfare…that the initiative must be maintained, that the
regular army must lead while its adversaries follow, and that the enemy must be
made to feel a moral inferiority throughout. There must be no doubt as to which side
is in the ascendant, no question as to who controls the general course of the war…”
C. E. Callwell, Small Wars, 1896
Tactical units conduct offensive operations during COIN operations to destroy,
disrupt, interdict, deny, or neutralize the elements of an insurgency in support of the
lines of effort (LOEs). Tactical units may be tasked to conduct offensive operations
as part of clear-hold-build operations, strike operations or populace and resource
control operations. Units may be tasked to isolate, disrupt, or fix an insurgency’s
base, auxiliary, underground, leaders, or guerrillas. This chapter explores how
offensive operations support the following seven LOEs in counterinsurgencies:
• Establish civil security.
• Establish civil control.
• Support Host Nation security forces.
• Support to governance.
• Restore essential services.
• Support to economic and infrastructure development.
• Conduct information engagements.
Section I—OVERVIEW
In COIN, the characteristics of the offense apply to all offensive operations. Tactical units conduct all four
types of offensive operations in the COIN environment—Movement to Contact, Attack, Exploitation,
and Pursuit. Within the four types of offensive operations, units conducting COIN focus on specific tactics
and techniques which include search and attacks, raids, cordon and searches, ambushes, sniper employment,
site exploitation (SE), and COIN patrols. Additionally, US forces should conduct combined offensive
operations with HN security forces at every opportunity in order to reinforce HN legitimacy, support HN
security forces, and support the HN rule of law.
PURPOSE IN COIN
5-1. Units conduct offensive operations to—
• Secure the populace continuously.
• Isolate the insurgency from populace.
• Prevent crime.
• Destroy, disrupt, interdict, deny or neutralize elements of the insurgency.
• Secure national and regional borders.
• Integrate with and support HN security forces.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OFFENSE
5-2. The characteristics of the offense are surprise, audacity, tempo, and concentration. For COIN, an
additional characteristic, flexibility, is added. |
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SURPRISE
5-3. Units achieve surprise by striking the enemy at a time, place, or manner in which he
is unprepared. Total surprise is rarely attainable or essential in conventional operations but is often
essential during COIN operations.
CONCENTRATION
5-4. This is the massing of combat power, particularly its effects, at the decisive point to achieve the
unit’s purpose. During COIN, insurgents avoid situations in which US/HN security forces could potentially
mass combat power unless the potential collateral effects of use of that combat power will distance the
population from the US/HN government. This outweighs combat losses. US/HN security forces always
seek to mass nonlethal and lethal combat power, though not always visibly.
TEMPO
5-5. This is the rate of military action relative to the insurgency. Tempo is not the same as speed.
Successful COIN units control or alter tempo to maintain the initiative. Such action promotes surprise,
enters the enemy’s decision cycle, increases the protection of the attacking force, and decreases the
insurgent’s ability to defend or plan effectively.
AUDACITY
5-6. This is a simple plan of action, boldly executed. Audacity is critical to successful COIN offensive
operations and is completely reliant on a thorough understanding of the operational environment.
Creativity and mental agility are characteristics of an audacious counterinsurgent.
FLEXIBILITY
5-7. This is the ability of a military unit to adapt to unplanned or unexpected conditions of the
operational environment to achieve its tactical purpose and support the LOE.
TYPES OF OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
5-8. The types of offensive operations are movement to contact, attack, exploitation, and pursuit:
MOVEMENT TO CONTACT
5-9. This develops the situation and establishes or regains contact with the enemy (insurgent) forces
(FM 3-0). It also creates favorable conditions for subsequent tactical actions and stability operation. At a
tactical level, every movement can be treated as a movement to contact, because of the lack of information
concerning insurgent location, strength, capabilities, and intentions. Specific types of movements to contact
include search and attack and cordon and search operations.
ATTACK
5-10. This destroys or defeats enemy (insurgent) forces, seizes and secures terrain, or both (FM 3-0).
Attacks require mobility, countermobility, and survivability supported by direct and indirect fires. Attacks
may be hasty or deliberate, depending on the time available for planning and preparation. Commanders
execute hasty attacks when the situation calls for immediate action with available forces and minimal
preparation. They conduct deliberate attacks when they have more time to plan and prepare.
5-11. Tactical units normally conduct synchronized and special purpose attacks during COIN
operations. Special purpose attacks are ambushes, spoiling attacks, counterattacks, raids, feints,
and demonstrations. This chapter focuses on the tactics of raids, ambushes, and sniper employment. |
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EXPLOITATION
5-12. This rapidly follows a successful attack and disorganizes the enemy in depth (FM 3-0). Tactical
commanders exploit successful offensive operations. In COIN, failure to exploit may allow the insurgent
to egress, reposition, or disappear into the population. An example of a tactical unit conducting an
exploitation in COIN would be sending a unit on a raid based on information and intelligence gathered on
a cordon and search that occurred earlier in the day. Effective search procedures, tactical site exploitation,
tactical questioning, and use of ISR assets are key to units being able to effectively conduct an exploitation.
PURSUIT
5-13. This is conducted to catch or cut off a hostile force attempting to escape with the aim
of destroying it (FM 3-0). Pursuit operations begin when an insurgent forces attempts to conduct retrograde
operations. Unlike conventional operations, where the enemy’s transition to retrograde operations leaves
him vulnerable to loss of internal cohesion and complete destruction, the insurgent’s transition
to retrograde operations may make it more difficult for tactical units to engage, capture, or kill him.
Successful pursuit of the insurgent relies on maintaining contact through surveillance assets, patrols,
and HN security forces.
5-14. Tactical leaders must recognize the potential of the insurgent to conduct a baited ambush during
retrograde operations. Critical to mitigating risk to friendly forces during a pursuit is maintaining one
of the eight forms of contact (direct, indirect, nonhostile/civilian, obstacle, CBRN, aerial, visual, and
electronic) and positioning of adjacent units such as aviation, HN security forces, surveillance assets, other
ground forces, and quick reaction forces (QRF).
OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS IN CLEAR, HOLD, BUILD OPERATIONS
5-15. Offensive operations are the initial focus in clear, hold build, operations. These operations
establish civil security and establish civil control. Both are pivotal in setting the conditions for balanced
development across the seven COIN LOEs. Offensive operations will continue to be conducted in the hold
and build phases. This keeps insurgents from reestablishing influence over an area and is based on a
change in the insurgency’s organizational and operational patterns.
MISSION VARIABLES IN COIN
5-16. In counterinsurgency operations, tactical units face a unique set of considerations based on the
mission variables. Specific considerations for types of offensive operations will be discussed later.
However, some considerations for all offensive operations include—
MISSION
• Offensive operations should be based on the best intelligence available, while inflicting the
minimal damage to the population, infrastructure, and local economy.
• To further gather intelligence, units must be prepared to conduct SE.
• Leaders should consider having a consequence management and a Perception Management
plan, in case the offensive actions go poorly.
ENEMY
• Leaders must pay careful attention to insurgent escape routes, as most insurgents will seek
to flee from most. Other enemy considerations include—
(cid:131) The insurgent resistance in the direction of attack into the target area.
(cid:131) Insurgent resistance in the objective area.
(cid:131) Insurgent resistance at the target.
(cid:131) Insurgent resistance departing the objective. |
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TERRAIN AND WEATHER
• Leaders often seek to conduct operations during limited visibility or early morning hours in
order to surprise the targets.
TROOPS AND SUPPORT AVAILABLE
• Tactical units are often task-organized with additional teams or units (Chapter 3). Host Nation
security forces are essential for every offensive operation.
TIME AVAILABLE
• Leaders allocate sufficient time to conduct the operation; in COIN, this should include time
to conduct SE and tactical questioning.
CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS
• The level of inconvenience to the local populace should discourage insurgents and insurgent
sympathizers from remaining in the locale and encourage the local population to provide
information on the insurgents. The level of inconvenience should not be so great as to turn the
local population towards active or passive support of the insurgency.
• Actions on the objective must include how to deal with nonhostile persons, bystanders, family
members, and detainees.
Section II—CIVIL SECURITY AND CONTROL
Establishing civil security promotes a safe environment. Establishing civil control involves regulates selected
behavior and activities of individuals and groups. It reduces risk to individuals and groups and provides
security from both external and internal threats (FM 3-07). Together, actions along these LOEs in COIN often
take the form of unilateral and combined offensive operations against insurgent leadership, guerrillas,
underground, and auxiliary. These offensive actions help establish public order and safety. In COIN, offensive
operations are more successful when supported by effective targeting.
SEARCH AND ATTACK
5-17. This technique is used for conducting a movement to contact that shares many of the
characteristics of an area security mission (FM 3-90). A search and attack is a specialized technique
of conducting a movement to contact in an environment of noncontiguous AOs. In COIN, a search
and attack uses multiple coordinated small-units (team, squad, or platoon) that conduct decentralized
movement to find and attack the enemy. A commander normally employs this form of a movement
to contact when the enemy is operating in small, dispersed elements. Often searches and attacks are used
to support the establish civil security subtask of enforce cessation of hostilities, peace agreement, and other
arrangements.
5-18. Search and attack operations are used in both urban and rural terrain. They are followed by
operations supporting the other LOE such as restoring damaged infrastructure or conducting information
engagements in a neighborhood. This tactic disrupts insurgent activities, while trying to solve some of the
root causes of the insurgency. The search and attack is typically used during the clear phase of a
clear-hold-build operation. It may also be used in a strike operation.
5-19. To develop a specific search and attack concept, the commander must understand the OE by using
the operational variables, the mission variables, and mission analysis. The troop-leading procedures (TLP)
and military decision-making process (MDMP) applied to the COIN OE serve as the planning foundation
for commanders and leaders.
CONSIDERATIONS DURING COUNTERINSURGENCIES
5-20. Specific considerations using elements of the mission variables to a search and attack
in COIN are— |
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Mission
5-21. Leaders determine whether the search and attack is enemy or terrain-oriented. If enemy-oriented,
the search and attack should attack the enemy while inflicting minimal damage to the population,
infrastructure, and local economy. If terrain-oriented, the search and attack must be prepared to locate base
camps, caches, safe houses, or subterranean structures.
Time Available
5-22. The size of the area, especially the interior layout of urban buildings, impacts force size
and search time.
PHASES
5-23. A search and attack has three basic phases: organize, plan, and execute.
Organize
5-24. The commander task-organizes his unit into reconnaissance, fixing, and finishing forces, each
with a specific purpose and task. The size of the reconnaissance force is based on the available intelligence
about the size of insurgent forces in the AO. The less known about the situation, the larger the
reconnaissance force. The reconnaissance force typically consists of scout, infantry, aviation,
and electronic warfare assets. The fixing force must have enough combat power to isolate insurgents once
the reconnaissance force finds them. The finishing force must have enough combat power to defeat
insurgents. The commander can direct each subordinate unit to retain a finishing force, or he can retain the
finishing force at his echelon. The commander may rotate his subordinate elements through the
reconnaissance, fixing, and finishing roles. However, rotating roles may require a change in task
organization and additional time for training and rehearsal.
Reconnaissance Force
5-25. The reconnaissance force finds the enemy force using all means available. It can serve as an
element of the fixing force or follow and assume the role of the attack force if sufficiently resourced. If the
reconnaissance element makes contact without being detected by the insurgent, the commander has the
initiative. In COIN, HN security forces are often the best suited to conduct the reconnaissance, if they have
the training, equipment, and capability.
Fixing Force
5-26. Although sometimes included in the reconnaissance force in COIN, the fixing force develops the
situation, and then executes one of two options based on the commander's guidance and the mission
variables. The first option is to block identified routes that the insurgent can use to escape or use
for reinforcements. The second option is to conduct an attack to fix the insurgent in his current positions
until the finishing force arrives. The fixing force attacks if that action meets the commander's intent and it
can generate sufficient combat power against the insurgents. Depending on the insurgent's mobility and the
likelihood of the reconnaissance force being compromised, the commander may need to position his fixing
force before his reconnaissance force enters the AO.
Finishing Force
5-27. The finishing force must possess and maintain sufficient combat power to defeat the insurgent
templated. The finishing force may move behind the reconnaissance and fixing force or it may locate
where it is best prepared to rapidly maneuver on the insurgent’s location, by foot, vehicle, or air. The
finishing force must be responsive enough to engage the insurgent before he can break contact with the
reconnaissance force. The finishing force destroys or captures the insurgent by conducting hasty
or deliberate attacks, or employing indirect fire, attack reconnaissance aviation, or close air support
to destroy the insurgent. The commander may direct the finishing force to establish an area ambush and use
his reconnaissance and fixing forces to drive the insurgent into the ambushes. |
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Plan
5-28. The commander establishes control measures that allow for maximum decentralized actions
and small-unit initiative. Control measures facilitate the rapid consolidation and concentration of combat
power before an attack. The minimum control measures for a search and attack are an AO, objectives,
checkpoints, phase lines, limits of advance, and contact points. The use of target reference points (TRPs)
facilitates responsive fire support once a reconnaissance force makes contact with the enemy. The
commander uses objectives and checkpoints to guide the movement of subordinate elements. The
commander uses other control measures as needed such as phase lines, restrictive fire lines,
and marking systems.
Zones
5-29. The commander next determines how the area of operations will be broken down. Two
options are—
Multiple
5-30. Assigning multiple small zones that keep subordinate elements concentrated and allow controlled,
phased movement throughout the overall area. This facilitates overall control and allows subordinates
to rapidly mass their combat power.
Single
5-31. Concentrate the main effort in one zone and use fire teams or squad patrols to reconnoiter the next
zone. Once the main effort has completed a thorough reconnaissance of the initial zone, it then moves into
the zone that the small units have reconnoitered, as they then move to their next zone. Small patrols
provide the initial reconnaissance information, which commanders evaluate and then focus additional
reconnaissance efforts.
Orientation
5-32. The commander determines how the search and attack will be conducted within the designated
zones. The zones may be searched selectively or systematically. The commander must visualize, describe,
and direct how subordinates will conduct the reconnaissance and how the attacking force will maneuver
against the enemy. Two methods include—
Decentralized Attack
5-33. Each subordinate element is tasked to find, fix, finish, and exploit all enemy forces in their area
within their capabilities. If more combat power is required, then the BCT will employ additional assets, the
reserve, or adjacent units.
Centralized Attack
5-34. The commander retains control of the attack force while each subordinate element is tasked
to find and fix the enemy in their AO. This method works well when insurgents use base camps.
Execute
5-35. The four typical steps in search and attack operations are enter the AO, search the AO, locate the
enemy, and conduct the attack.
Enter the AO
5-36. Commanders determine how combined forces enter, conduct movement, and establish objective
rally points (ORPs) and bases (patrol bases, combat outposts), or (joint security stations) within the AO by
considering the eight forms of contact possible with the insurgent or the population. This technique allows
commanders and subordinate leaders to identify their units’ potential contact with the enemy
and population throughout all phases of the search and attack. Leaders synchronize the actions of adjacent
units and provide specific tasks to ensure subordinates understand actions on contact with both enemy |
3-24.2 | 131 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
and civilians within the ROE. Units may enter the area or zone by infiltrating as an entire unit and splitting
or by infiltrating as smaller subordinate units via ground, air, or water (Figures 5-1 and 5-2).
Figure 5-1. Infiltration by company. Figure 5-2. Infiltration by squad/platoon.
Search the AO
5-37. Reconnaissance elements search areas to locate the enemy without detection. This allows more
time for leaders to plan and coordinate an attack. Generally, small units are used, since they move quickly
and with more stealth among the population regardless of the AO. Once an element of the insurgency
is discovered, the commander’s concept, intent, and the situation on the ground dictates whether the
reconnaissance element follows the insurgent or fixes the insurgent until the attack force is in position.
Specific tasks may include route, area, and zone reconnaissance or other surveillance tasks.
Locate Enemy
5-38. Reconnaissance units must locate insurgent forces, tracks, or other indicators of direction
or location. In rural and some border operations, well-trained trackers can identify and follow insurgent
tracks that are hours or even days old. Units tracking the insurgent must be prepared to react to insurgent
contact and avoid likely ambush situations. Leaders must ensure support for the reconnaissance force if it
is compromised. In urban areas, tracking the insurgent is more difficult due to the nature of the terrain
and the insurgent’s use of the population. Leaders rely on HUMINT, a thorough knowledge of their AO,
UAS, attack reconnaissance aviation, and sound communication and coordination with adjacent units
to find the elusive insurgent.
Conduct the Attack
5-39. The attack in a search and attack has four elements:
Concentrate Combat Power
5-40. Once the insurgent is discovered, the plan must support the rapid concentration of combat power
to fix and destroy the insurgent. Leaders at each echelon must plan to destroy the insurgent within their
capabilities, or at least fix the insurgent.
Fix the Enemy
5-41. If the insurgent cannot be destroyed by the forces on hand, then the forces must fix the insurgent
until finishing forces arrive. Fixing forces block egress routes with indirect fires, maneuver forces,
obstacles or all three. They also suppress the insurgent’s weapons systems, obscure his vision, and disrupt
his command and control. Specific tasks may include establishing a blocking position, an ambush, or a
support by fire position. |
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React to Contact
5-42. If a unit makes contact, it takes immediate action to fix or destroy the insurgent. The speed
and violence of a hasty attack may compensate for the lack of a reconnaissance or combat power.
However, this is rarely true against a prepared insurgent defense or during periods of limited visibility.
Leaders should not assume the discovered insurgent force is alone; there may be mutually supporting
positions or units.
Finish the Enemy
5-43. An initial attempt to finish the insurgent by a squad or platoon in contact may become a fixing
effort for a platoon or company attack.
CORDON AND SEARCH
5-44. A cordon and search operation is conducted to seal (cordon) off an area in order to search it
for persons or things such as items, intelligence data, or answers to PIR. Effective cordon and search
operations possess sufficient forces to both effectively cordon a target area and thoroughly search that
target. Usually, this operation contributes to establishing public order and safety, a key establish civil
control subtask. It is also one of the techniques used in the “clear” phase of a clear-hold-build operation.
5-45. Cordon is a tactical task given to a unit to prevent withdrawal from or reinforcement to a position.
Cordon implies occupying or controlling terrain especially mounted and dismounted avenues of approach.
Search implies the physical and visual inspection of an area. Both the object of the search and the physical
area of the search influence the type and degree of the search (FM 3-90.5, FM 3-90.15, and FM 3.06.20),
and for additional information on searches and site exploitation.
METHODS
5-46. The two basic methods of executing a cordon and search are—cordon and knock and cordon
and enter. They differ in level of aggression. Based on the enemy SITEMP and identified operational risk,
actual cordon and search operations vary between these two levels.
5-47. Key factors to consider in selecting the method to use include the enemy threat, the local populace
support, the level of intelligence available, and the capabilities of the HN security forces. In both methods,
the cordon is still established with as much speed or surprise as possible to isolate the objective. Both
methods may require some integrated HN security forces or civil authorities to obtain the agreement by the
occupants of the targeted search area. Figure 5-3 compares the characteristics of permissive and
nonpermissive cordon and search operations.
Figure 5-3. Comparison of cordon and search methods.
Cordon and Knock
5-48. This is less intrusive than cordon and search. It is used when the populace is seen as friendly
or neutral, when no resistance is expected, and when the goal is to disrupt and inconvenience the occupants
as little as possible. One version of this is called the tactical callout. This is a procedure where occupants
are asked to exit the before search forces enter. If occupants refuse to exit, or if the ground commander
believes that the potential exists for an insurgent encounter, he may escalate to cordon and enter. |
3-24.2 | 133 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
5-49. A second version of the cordon and knock is cordon and ask, which means occupants or the local
Host Nation authorities are asked for permission to search a particular location. If permission is denied, no
entry occurs. However, the cordon and knock and the cordon and ask require some degree of integration
with HN security force or HN authorities to obtain the agreement by the occupants of the target to the
subsequent search. At a minimum, a sufficient number of translators, preferably one with each element,
is required.
Cordon and Enter
5-50. This approach is intrusive. The intent is to rapidly breach barriers to gain entry into the search
area, typically using speed and surprise to allow the unit to quickly gain control. This action allows units
to maintain the initiative over a potentially unknown insurgent force operating in the search area. Intrusive
entry ranges from a Soldier simply opening a door without occupant permission, to mechanical ballistic, or
explosive breaching. In addition, mounted units can use vehicles to breach. The cordon and enter
approach does not explicitly require integrated HN security forces or HN authorities, because occupants'
permission is not required. However, during a counterinsurgency, obtaining the leadership or direct support
of the HN is always preferred. Commanders assume operational risk in COIN by foregoing these
considerations. Some considerations when using the cordon and enter method follow. These considerations
may be more or less important than capturing the target individual, site, or equipment. Gains in security by
violent capture of a key insurgent leader may result in far more substantial losses along the other LOE:
• Risk to civilian occupants and bystanders.
• Collateral damage to infrastructure.
• Perception of the populace.
• Risk to Soldiers.
• Rehearsals.
• Level of training of breach element.
• Effects on subsequent tactical site exploitations.
APPROACHES
5-51. Leaders plan and execute cordon and search operations using either a systematic or selective
approach. A systematic approach is the search of all buildings in the targeted area, while a selective
approach is the search of specific locations within a targeted area. The approach used depends on
numerous factors. However, the purpose of the operation is still to capture the designated personnel, site,
or equipment.
CONSIDERATIONS
5-52. If intelligence indicates enemy presence, and the local populace is either neutral or supportive
of the insurgency, then the principles of speed and surprise are the keys to a successful cordon and search.
Specific considerations using elements of the mission variables are—
Mission
5-53. Leaders determine the focus and method of the cordon and search based on the anticipated threat
and the level of violence in the area of operations.
Enemy
5-54. Cordon elements cannot effectively block pedestrian egress or ingress. Therefore, commanders
should consider how to best physically stop pedestrian traffic. Lethal fire is not a universal means
of enforcing the nature of a cordon.
Troops and Support Available
5-55. The size and composition of the cordon and search force is based on the size of the area to be
cordoned, the size of the area to be searched and the suspected enemy SITEMP. Normally, a military
commander, with the police in support, best controls a search involving a battalion or larger force. The |
3-24.2 | 134 | Chapter 5
police, with the military in support, best control a search involving smaller forces. Regardless of the
controlling agency, HN police are the best choice for performing the actual search. However, they must be
available in adequate numbers and be trained in search operations.
Time Available
5-56. As time available to plan and prepare for a cordon and search mission is generally limited, it
is often necessary to conduct planning while reconnaissance and intelligence collection are ongoing. The
size of the area, especially the interior layout of urban buildings, impacts force size and search time.
Leaders should plan on allowing time for follow-on missions based on exploitable information.
Civil Considerations
5-57. Cordon and search operations are a great opportunity for all Soldiers to conduct information
engagements with the population. Each Soldier should know and understand the information engagement
task and purpose.
PHASES
5-58. The phases of a cordon and search are the planning phase, reconnaissance phase, movement to the
objective phase, isolate the objective phase, search phase, and the withdrawal phase.
Plan
5-59. Establishing the cordon requires detailed planning, effective coordination, and meticulous
integration and synchronization of available assets to achieve the desired effects. This requires the
commander to consider both lethal and nonlethal effects. Each subordinate cordon position such as a traffic
control point or blocking position must have a designated leader and a clearly understood task and purpose.
5-60. A cordon and search operation can usually support the conduct engagement LOE. Commanders
must develop, integrate, and nest the information message in accordance with the purpose of the search.
Often the best message in COIN is one’s actions or that of the entire unit.
5-61. Search of an urban area varies from a few, easily isolated buildings to a large well-developed
urban city. Leaders should divide the urban area to be searched into zones. Buildings should be numbered
and assigned specific search parties for coordination and clarity
Enablers
5-62. Assets employed during the cordon and search may include tactical PSYOP teams (TPTs), tactical
HUMINT teams (THTs), law enforcement professionals (LEPs), special advisors, attack, reconnaissance,
and assault aviation, CAS, SIGINT enablers, MASINT enablers, military working dog teams, (MWDs)
biometrics collection efforts, female searchers, and civil affairs teams (CATs, Chapter 3).
5-63. A TPT is an outstanding combat multiplier. Messages broadcast in the local language during
cordon and search/knock operations facilitates situational awareness and understanding for the local
inhabitants. These TPTs, using vehicle-mounted or man-pack loudspeaker systems, can help inform
and control the population. In addition, the TPT conducts face-to-face communication along with
disseminating handbills or leaflets explaining the purpose and scope of the cordon and search. This helps in
gaining compliance by the local population.
5-64. THT is also an outstanding combat multiplier. THTs collect valuable information from individuals
in the search area, provide a tactical questioning capability, and have additional language capabilities.
Organization
5-65. The typical cordon and search organization includes a command element, a cordon element, a
search element, and a reserve element each with a clear task and purpose. Figure 5-4 displays a typical
organization for search operations. |
3-24.2 | 135 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 5-4. Typical organization for cordon and search operations.
Command Element
5-66. An overall commander controls the unit conducting the cordon and search. He identifies the
subordinate element leaders.
Cordon Element
5-67. This force must have enough combat power to cordon off the area. An effective cordon that both
prevents the egress of individuals from the search area and prevents outside support to the search area,
is critical to the success of the search effort. Based on the mission variables (METT-TC), two cordons are
often established: an outer cordon to isolate the objective from outside reinforcements or disruptions,
and an inner cordon to prevent individuals from leaving or communicating with someone outside the
search area. Both cordon elements must maintain 360-degree security. UAS, scouts, attack reconnaissance
aviation, or sniper teams should be considered by tactical units for use in observing the objective area
for enemy both before and during the operation.
Search/Assault Element
5-68. The search element conducts the actual search operation. A search may orient on people, on
materiel, on buildings, or on terrain. Normally, it is organized into special teams. The most basic search
team is a two-person team consisting of one person who conducts the actual search while another person
provides immediate security to the searcher. Establish discipline and standardized search SOPs to ensure
searches are thorough, PIR-focused, and of minimal risk to Soldiers.
5-69. All search elements must be prepared to handle male and female personnel, key equipment,
hazardous materials (biohazards or other toxic elements), ordinance, and record key events. They must be
trained to understand and on order execute information engagements, tactical site exploitation, detainee
operations, and adjacent unit coordination. Search personnel must be trained to operate with HN security
forces and within the established ROE. First aid and other medical training is critical. Soldiers must be
proficient with signaling and marking devices as well as detection and recording equipment. Biometric
and video/audio recording device proficiency is crucial in COIN search operations. Basic language training
is essential to maintain effective searches and overall operational tempo.
5-70. Typical search teams are organized in two- to three-Soldier teams. Female Soldiers are a proven
combat multiplier during search operations, because few cultures tolerate males searching females. Search
teams clear each room or area in accordance with FM 3-21.8. Units should not confuse entry methods
and their levels of aggression with the requirement to respect the Host Nation’s people and homes.
Typically, once a room is cleared, one team member provides security while the other(s) searches. All
search element personnel are prepared to fight. Basic considerations for any search team include the
following:
• Detailed instructions including prohibited items such as weapons, chemicals, medicines,
and machine tools. |
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• Understanding of search restrictions and special considerations to include—
(cid:131) Searching of religious buildings.
(cid:131) Searching of females by female Soldiers.
(cid:131) Searching of historical, cultural, or governmental sites (unauthorized or hostile).
• Host nation security forces or local interpreters.
• Biometrics tools.
• Breaching kit.
• Vehicle access tools such as lock picks.
• Information engagement products and tools.
• Audio and video recording devices and data imaging devices.
• Markings and signaling techniques and any constraints.
• Respect for personal property.
• Tools to collect and record information for HUMINT.
• Necessity to maintain communication and report location.
• Standardization of maps, imagery, and labeling conventions.
Reserve Element
5-71. The reserve element or QRF must possess and maintain enough combat power to defeat the
insurgent forces templated within the AO. The commander gives priorities for planning to the reserve that
could include to be prepared to execute any of the subordinate unit missions. Priorities can also include
additional missions such as CASEVAC or reinforcement. The reserve element leader focuses efforts on
synchronized communications, rehearsals, battle tracking, and positioning before and during the operation.
Reconnaissance
5-72. Every target area should be reconnoitered prior to execution using many of the available
resources. If the target is part of a unit’s AO, then a patrol around the target may not be out of order. ISR
assets, attack reconnaissance aviation, local nationals, and imagery are other methods for conducting
reconnaissance. The reconnaissance plan must not provide the enemy with indicators of an impending
cordon and search. Given the nature of COIN, the reconnaissance phase could last an extended period,
as units identify the relative size and location of buildings, entry points, cordon position and avenues
of approach. Further tools for objective analysis may be obtained from attack aviation photographs, maps,
and local emergency services departments.
Movement to the Objective
5-73. The timing, routes, and execution of movement to the objective should consider the factors
of METT-TC, and whether it should be simultaneous or phased. If contact is made in the movement,
commanders should consider whether they wish to send forces forward to initiate the cordon.
Isolation of the Objective
5-74. Although analysis of the mission variables using METT-TC determines specifics, a unit typically
establishes the outer cordon first, establishes the inner cordon second, and moves the search element to the
objective last. Commanders should consider the value of using the opposite technique of forming the
cordons following rapid movement to the objective to gain surprise. Timing is when executing either
technique is important. The quicker these three events are accomplished, the less time personnel on the
objectives have to egress, find concealment, or destroy materials or equipment.
Position the Reserve Element
5-75. The reserve element or QRF is a mobile force positioned in a nearby area, with multiple planned
ground, water, or air routes to the objective area. Its mission is to aid the search and security elements
if they require assistance or become unable to achieve their purpose. |
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Establish the Cordon
5-76. There are two techniques for emplacing the actual cordon positions: simultaneously
and sequentially. Careful consideration must be given to both, because each has advantages
and disadvantages. Units establishing a cordon position themselves to be able to block movement to
and from the objective area. This may be by observed fire, but usually it will be by physically controlling
routes. Cordon positions should be occupied rapidly just prior to the search element reaching the objective.
Establishing the cordon during a period of limited visibility increases movement security but makes control
difficult. Cordon positions, once occupied, will be detected by locals as they conduct their daily business.
5-77. Both the outer and inner cordon leaders must maintain situational understanding of not only their
AOs, but also each other’s cordon and the progress of operations of the search element. In doing so, they
can anticipate insurgent activity, control direct and indirect fires, and achieve their task and purpose.
5-78. The various positions of the outer and inner cordons may include, vehicle mounted platoons
or sections, dismounted platoons or squads, interpreters, detainee security teams, crowd control teams,
tactical PSYOP teams, observation posts, traffic control points or blocking positions, Host Nation security
forces (military or police), and aviation assets.
5-79. The outer cordon usually focuses on traffic control points and blocking positions, while the inner
cordon focuses on overwatching the objective and preventing exfiltration or reposition of persons within
the search area. Figure 5-5 shows the typical establishment of a cordon and Figure 5-6 shows the details
of an inner cordon in an urban setting. Note the technique of assigning each building a number to increase
clarity and coordination between units.
Figure 5-5. Typical establishment of an urban cordon. |
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Figure 5-6. Urban inner cordon.
Search
5-80. A search may be oriented toward people, materiel, buildings, or terrain. It usually involves both
HN police and military personnel. It must be a systematic action to ensure that personnel, documents,
electronic data, and other material are identified, evaluated, collected, and protected to develop intelligence
and facilitate follow-on actions.
5-81. The tempo at which a search operation is conducted should be slow enough to allow for an
effective search, while not so slow that it allows the insurgent force time to react to the search. Search
teams must consider a return to an area after an initial search. This can surprise and remove insurgents who
may not have been detected or may have returned. All searches should create pressure on insurgents
and sympathizers to not stay in the area, but not inconvenience the local residents to the degree that they
will collaborate with the insurgents.
5-82. Special laws regulate the search powers of military forces. Misuse of search authority can
adversely affect the outcome of operations and future legal proceedings; therefore, all searches must be
lawful and properly recorded to be of value. These laws must be disseminated to the population to ensure
understanding and compliance. Additional information on searches can be found in FM 3-06.20. Search
teams must have instructions for three basic categories:
Personnel
5-83. This includes both male and female and both persons of interest and other persons.
Physical Items
5-84. This includes weapons, equipment, documents, computers, and cameras.
Information Mediums
5-85. This includes data inside computers, cameras, and cell phones.
Withdrawal
5-86. During this phase, the unit may be the most vulnerable. To mitigate risk, a commander may
choose to—
• A relief in place.
• Stay-behind elements to cover the withdrawal.
• Different routes and timing.
• Simultaneous or phased withdrawals. |
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SEARCH OPERATIONS
5-87. A search is the deliberate examination of a person, place, area or object using Soldiers, animal
or technological sensors to discover something or someone. Examples include searches of enemy
or detained personnel, military objective areas, personnel or vehicles at a checkpoint, and lines
of communication.
5-88. A search is conducted under a wide variety of situations and for a wide variety of purposes.
Typically, a person is searched in order to find something that is concealed. A place, area, or object, such
as a car or desk, is searched for something that may or may not be concealed. For more on vehicle
searches, see Chapter 7. Communication objects, such as letters, books, computers, cell phones, and other
media and signaling tools, are searched to discover information.
5-89. During a counterinsurgency, the rules of engagement and various agreements between the Host
Nation and US counterinsurgent forces often describe search situations, and may limit search methods.
5-90. During a search, it is important to keep the local population informed, as much as tactically
possible, that search contributes to their safety and security. This communication should begin during the
actual search, if possible, but is often accomplished after the search by follow-up patrols. Follow-up patrols
can not only aid in mitigating some of the negative aspects of the search but also see if missed individuals
have returned to the searched area. Follow up patrols which include civil affairs teams or tactical PSYOP
teams provide a great capability to conduct consequence management, assisting in the achievement
of information engagement, often through reinforcing themes, and collecting information for development
into intelligence.
TECHNIQUES
5-91. A search can orient on people, materiel, buildings, or terrain (FM 3-21.8) Key basic
considerations for conducting a search in various includes searching individuals, tactical site exploitation,
aerial searches, searching subterranean areas, searching individuals, detention of individuals, tactical
questioning and detainee processing.
Individuals
5-92. Any individual can be an insurgent, auxiliary, or member of the mass base. However, searchers
must avoid mistaking all suspects for the enemy. Because there may be little or no Host Nation personnel
identification procedures, identifying the correct person as an insurgent may be very difficult. It is during
the initial handling of individuals about to be searched that the greatest caution is required. During the
search, one member of a search team always covers the other member who makes the actual search. When
females have to be searched, every precaution is made to prevent violating local customs and mores. If
female searchers cannot be provided, consider using the medic to search female suspects.
Teams
5-93. Soldiers conduct individual searches in search teams that consist of the following:
Searcher
5-94. Actually conducts the search. This is the highest-risk position.
Security
5-95. Maintains eye contact with the person being searched.
Observer
5-96. Supervises search and warns of suspicious behavior or actions.
Methods
5-97. The most common search methods used to search an individual are frisk and wall searches.
A third, less common method, used in very select situations, is the strip search. |
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Frisk Search
5-98. Quick and adequate to detect weapons, evidence, or contraband. A frisk search is more dangerous
because the searcher has less control of the individual being searched.
Wall Search
5-99. Affords more safety for the searcher by leaning the suspect against any upright surface, such as a
wall, vehicle, tree, or fence. The search team places the subject in the kneeling or prone position if more
control is needed to search an uncooperative individual.
Strip Search
5-100. Considered only when the individual is suspected of carrying documents or other contraband on
his or her person. This extreme search method should be conducted in an enclosed area and by qualified
personnel when available.
Search with Sensors
5-101. Metal detectors or thermals can identify hidden items.
Population Control
5-102. Three basic methods are used to control the population during a search of an urban area: assembly
of inhabitants in a central location, restriction of inhabitants to their homes, and control of the heads of the
households.
Assemble Inhabitants in a Central Location
5-103. This method moves inhabitants from their homes to a central area. It provides the most control,
simplifies a thorough search, denies insurgents an opportunity to conceal evidence, and allows for tactical
questioning. However, this method has the disadvantage of taking the inhabitants away from their
dwellings and possibly encouraging looting, which, in turn, engenders ill feelings. A specific element must
be identified to control the centralized inhabitants. A TPT, using a loudspeaker, can facilitate assembly by
giving specific instructions to the inhabitants of the search area.
Restrict Inhabitants to their Home
5-104. This technique prohibits movement of civilians, allows them to stay in their dwellings,
and discourages looting. The use of a TPT to broadcast “stay-indoors” messages facilitates clearing the
streets of civilians and aids in restricting their movement. The security element must enforce this restriction
to ensure compliance. The disadvantages of this method are it makes control and tactical questioning
difficult, and gives inhabitants time to conceal contraband in their homes.
Control Heads of Households
5-105. The head of each household is told to remain in front of the house while everyone else in the
house is brought to one room. The security element controls the group at the central location, controls the
head of each household, and provides external security for the search team. When dealing with the head
of a household, it is important to explain the purpose of the search using an interpreter. During the search,
the head of the household accompanies the search team through the house. This person can be used to open
doors and containers to facilitate the search. It is important for the head of the household to see that the
search team steals nothing.
Houses or Buildings
5-106. The object of a house search is to look for contraband and to screen residents to determine if any
are guerrillas, auxiliaries, members of the underground or the mass base. A search party assigned to search
an occupied building should consist of at least one local police officer, a protective escort for local
security, and a female searcher. If inhabitants remain in the dwellings, the protective escort must isolate
and secure the inhabitants during the search. Forced entry may be necessary if a house is vacant or if an
occupant refuses to allow searchers to enter. If the force searches a house containing property while its |
3-24.2 | 141 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
occupants are away, it should secure the house to prevent looting. Before US forces depart, the commander
should arrange for the community to protect such houses until the occupants return.
5-107. Try to leave the house in the same or better condition than when the search began. In addition
to information collection, the search team may use digital cameras or video recorders to establish the
condition of the house before and after the search. All sensitive material or equipment found in the house
should be documented before it is removed, to include date, time, location, the person from whom it was
confiscated, and the reason for the confiscation. The use of a digital camera can assist in this procedure.
For a detailed search, the walls and floors must be searched to discover hidden caches.
SITE EXPLOITATION
5-108. Tactical leaders plan, resource, direct, and supervise tactical site exploitation efforts during all
COIN offensive operations. Site exploitation (SE) is the systematic action executed with the appropriate
equipment, to ensure that personnel, documents, electronic data, and other material at a site are identified,
evaluated, collected, and protected in order to gather intelligence and facilitate follow-on actions. It is a
means by which tactical units exploit and analyze the insurgent after collecting biometric, physical, digital,
and spoken data. In COIN, insurgents who are captured many times are prosecuted within the HN rule
of law and SE is an excellent means of providing courts with evidence, especially when properly recorded.
SE contribute to the decide, detect, assess activities of D3A targeting cycle. Once collected, analyzed,
and assessed, it may lead to future operations. More information on SE can be found in CALL product
07-26. Figure 5-7 shows an example SE site sketch.
Figure 5-7. Example site exploitation sketch.
Conduct
5-109. Leaders ensure that Soldiers methodically and effectively identify, preserve, and collect evidence
while maintaining its integrity. They strive to prevent damage or corruption from foreign materials,
undocumented chains of custody, or loss. They consider how to mitigate risk by allowing minimal |
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personnel to operate in the area, by minimizing time on target, by concealing movement of evidence, by
avoiding patterns, and by maintaining an obvious respect for civilians and their belongings.
5-110. An important SE resource, biometric assets can measure humans by face, fingerprint, hand
geometry, handwriting, iris, retina, vein, voice, and DNA. Other SE resources include search, detention,
and marking tools; collection containers; marking materials; photographic, video, and voice recording
devices; linguists; and artificial sources of light. In addition, leaders—
• Initially evaluate the situation.
• Decide whether the unit must perform an expedient or formal site exploitation.
• Properly bag and tag evidence.
• Record sworn statements, from Soldiers and locals, for entry into the legal system. (Using
evidence kits is the best and easiest way.)
• Photograph captured contraband evidence with the suspect for judicial proceedings.
• Ensure that photos of people, materiel, and other items of potential intelligence interest
and evidence collection are documented on and adjacent to the site.
• Use document and material exploitation (DOMEX), which includes hasty analysis of pocket
contents, electronic mirror-imaging media, and evacuating data for further, more
detailed analysis.
• Process detainees into detainee holding area (DHA), to include collection of biometric
and computer database information, by special BCT-level teams.
• Ensure that pre- and post-bomb blast forensics and signatures collected from IED factories,
routinely collected by weapons intelligence teams (WITs), are entered into the system
for comparison and analysis with detainee records.
Techniques
5-111. Basic SE techniques include search methods, searches of individuals, detention of individuals,
tactical questioning, and debriefing.
Methods
5-112. Search methods must include providing security for search team, ensuring integrity of site,
conducting a methodical search, and coherently documenting effort for later review. The type of search
team used depends on many factors such as available forces, HN capabilities, and purpose of the search.
Most of these are covered in METT-TC. The following SE on-target checklist is not all inclusive:
• Search all rooms or caves, to include roof, yard, any subterranean areas, and associated
vehicles for—
(cid:131) ID cards.
(cid:131) Weapons.
(cid:131) Computers.
(cid:131) Documents.
(cid:131) Digital media.
(cid:131) Propaganda.
(cid:131) Cellular and satellite phones.
(cid:131) Large amounts of money.
• Search other likely hiding places, which may include—
(cid:131) Appliances (refrigerator—ice cube trays, under and inside back housing).
(cid:131) Furniture hide spots (taped under furniture, hollow legs, inside cushions.
(cid:131) Floors (hollow flooring, removable wood boards, removable tiles, under rugs).
(cid:131) Gardens, false wall locations, chimney hide locations.
• Search all vehicles for weapons and photograph the weapons.
• Positively identify (PID) the target.
• Photograph all individuals.
• Complete packets on all individuals. |
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• Verify individual by checking ID cards.
• Perform a gunpowder test or use X-spray on all individuals.
• Photograph each detainee with evidence.
• Collect and document all evidence, and take it to the transport vehicle.
• Load all detainees for transit to FOB, combat outpost, patrol base, or DCP.
Detention
5-113. Detainee refers to any person captured or otherwise detained by an armed force (JP 1-02). The
reason for capture or detention of a detainee, and his ultimate disposition and categorization, depends on
the situation. Before detaining someone, a leader must first decide what to do with the person afterward.
Does the leader want to search, question, process, or release the person?
5-114. AR 190-8, FM 3-19.40, and, international law (including the Law of War and the Geneva
Conventions) cover policies, procedures, and responsibilities for administering, treating, protecting,
securing, and transferring custody of detainees. They also cover other planning factors as well as
regulatory and legal requirements concerning detainees.
Rules
5-115. The six rules for processing detainees follow:
• Search the detainee thoroughly and disarm him.
• Silence the detainee.
• Segregate the detainee from other detainees by sex and rank.
• Safeguard the detainee from harm while preventing him from escaping.
• Speed the detainee to the designated detainee collection point.
• Tag the detainee with key information. Use approved format if possible. The tag includes the
date of capture, location of capture (grid coordinate), capturing unit, and special circumstances
of capture (how the person was captured).
Protected Status
5-116. Once the suspected insurgents are under friendly control, they assume the protected status
of detainees. This term includes any person captured or otherwise detained by armed force. Under the law
of war, leaders and Soldiers are personally responsible for detainees under their control. Mistreatment
of detainees is a criminal offense under the Geneva Convention and the 1996 War Crimes Act. One of the
most conspicuous violations of the Geneva Convention is the unauthorized photography of detainees.
Note: Avoid photographing detainees for nonmilitary or unofficial purposes. Doing so is
unauthorized.
Tactical Questioning
5-117. Units recognize value of timely information and intelligence during COIN operations and thus
may tactically question an insurgent on the objective. Units designate or construct a detainee holding area,
ensuring detainees are unable to communicate in any manner. Leaders then conduct tactical questioning
of priority detainees away from the group, as they carefully gather facts and details required to establish
consistencies or inconsistencies. Leaders then sort detainees into those to be taken off target, those without
further value, those no longer of interest, and those who require immediate battlefield interrogation by
qualified personnel. Leaders wanting the ability to interrogate personnel during a potential operations
should request and incorporate qualified interrogators into their mission task organization to facilitate
timelier information or intelligence.
Necessity for Soldier Presence
5-118. The terminology may change, but the need for Soldiers at the point of capture or point
of detainment to ask questions remains. Trained interrogators are seldom on hand, but Soldiers are always |
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present. Experiences from recent operations show that US forces using immediate tactical questioning
techniques with their Soldiers on target find important information that leads to actionable intelligence.
Tactical questioning must not violate the Law of War or any legal agreements (SOFAs and coalition
agreements). Typical questions should focus on discovering other nearby insurgents, their intentions, their
equipment, how they are financed, or their means of support.
Backtracking of Route
5-119. A successful technique to determine where the individuals were before they came to the point
of capture is to verbally backtrack their route. The detainee is questioned as to when he/she arrived, how
he/she traveled to the point of capture (foot or vehicle), and from what direction. With a general direction
and a means of travel, the route can be developed. Using a map, the Soldier asks leading questions
to determine the route. The detainee identifies significant terrain features seen at specific locations, such
as rivers, bridges, key buildings, or hills. Talking jogs the detainee's memory. Gradually, the detainee
reveals their route (where they originated). Considerations for successful tactical questioning follow:
• Know your linguist; use more than one to double-check the integrity and accuracy
of information and reliability of linguist.
• Have a basic knowledge of language(s) of detainee(s).
• Learn to identify physical behavior and posture, resistance or defensive postures; use multiple
observers.
• Study your target before he becomes a detainee on the objective.
• Study behavior, values, and interests of others in the OE before conducting tactical questioning.
• Consider placing uniformed linguist in the area of detainees and allow the detainees
to communicate so that the uniformed linguist can collect information (deception collection).
• Conduct questioning of one individual in a separate room from other detainees so that if the
detainee answers he maintains plausible deniability with members of his community.
• Commanders can prepare four to five questions related to information requirements. These can
be briefed as part of the patrol order and used by leaders during operations.
• Prepare a tactical questioning plan for information that you believe the detainee may have.
Aerial Searches
5-120. Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), close air support (CAS), and rotary wing aircraft (attack
and reconnaissance aviation) can be used as observation platforms. CAS aircraft and attack reconnaissance
aviation can also provide commanders an aerial search capability with different search perspectives
and constraints. Rotary wing aircraft are an effective means of conducting mounted search patrols, specific
population control measures, and security operations.
5-121. Helicopter-mounted patrols may reconnoiter an assigned area or route in search of insurgent
elements. They may conduct snap checkpoints on roads to interdict insurgent mounted and dismounted
movement. When the element locates a known or suspected element, it can instruct attack aviation teams
to engage the insurgent element or it may also choose to land and attack the enemy with a dismounted
assault. This technique can be useful in open rural areas unless an air defense threat is present. Use
of aerial patrols should be used in operations when sufficient intelligence is available to justify their use
or friendly ground-based operations have become predictable to the insurgents. Such patrols are most
effective when used in conjunction with ground operations.
5-122. In aerial or air/ground search operations, helicopters insert troops in an area suspected
of containing insurgents. With the helicopters overwatching from the air, Soldiers search the area. Soldiers
remount and the process is repeated in other areas. Members of aerial patrols should be trained in tracking
procedures to follow insurgents to their base or safe houses using terrain, deception, and stand-off
capability of aviation optics in conjunction with ground and other technological assets. Leaders must plan
for the evacuation of prisoners, casualties, and materials, both by air and ground. |
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Subterranean Area Searches
5-123. In both urban and rural areas, insurgents must remain undetected to survive. Therefore, insurgents
use all means of concealment available. Subterranean areas, in both rural and urban areas, reduce the
chance of detection and facilitate insurgent movement. Subterranean areas include natural caves,
basements, manmade underground bunkers, tunnels, holes, and sewer systems. Underground sewers
and tunnels may also be used in the attack of targets and for egress after an attack. See FM 3-34.170,
Engineer Reconnaissance, for a discussion of tunnel (and subterranean) detection, reconnaissance,
maneuver, and destruction.
Signs of Use of Subterranean Area
5-124. Certain signs may reveal the often signal or identify that insurgent forces within a certain area are
using subterranean structures. These indicators include—
• Movement of insurgents in a specific direction when spotted by aircraft.
• Sniper fire occurring from areas where there are no obvious avenues of withdrawal.
• HUMINT reports of subterranean areas
• Failure of cordons to prevent withdrawal or infiltration of insurgent forces
• Turned or managed soil far away from places of habitation or daily labor.
• Operations where insurgents inflict casualties and withdraw without detection or engaging
COIN forces.
• The smell of burning wood or food cooking in an uninhabited area.
• Mounds of dirt, and dirt of different colors, which might indicate digging.
• Trails to water sources in uninhabited areas that may indicate personnel requiring water.
Methodical and Coordinated Approach
5-125. Searching an area where suspected subterranean facilities are located requires a methodical
and coordinated approach. The size of the surface area and the suspected size of the subterranean
determine the size and the strength of the unit assigned. The unit is task-organized for subterranean search
operations, and is divided into five elements: C2, security, search, guard, and reserve. The C2 element
often remains with the reserve element.
Narrowing of the Search
5-126. To detect or locate subterranean, leaders first reduce the geographical area of interest to smaller
areas of probable locations. Acquiring existing blueprints, maps, imagery, video, aerial photographs,
and hydrology analysis tools; actively observing for indicators of probable subterranean access locations;
and questioning the local population as to the existence or specific knowledge of any subterranean.
Overhead imagery may produce results if the appearance of the surface and vegetation are changed or
if deductions about substructure can be made from analysis of existing or historical terrain.
Security
5-127. Perimeter and flank security is imperative. A slow, methodical search is conducted in the area
of operations, with each search team systematically searching every square meter. The security element
moves toward the limits of advance of the search area. Deliberate search techniques emphasize where
to look for the insurgent locations that provide him with observation, cover, concealment, and an
egress route.
Signs of Tunnels
5-128. Several visual signs help in detecting the actual tunnels. Visual inspections often disclose the
general area of a tunnel, but not its precise location. The keys to finding a tunnel system are a thorough
terrain analysis (OAKOC) and an equally thorough physical ground search. |
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Rural Visual Indicators
5-129. Visual indicators in a rural operational environment include—
• Air holes.
• Worn places on trees the insurgent uses as handholds.
• A small trail, much like a game trail, through the brush into a clump of small trees
• Cut trees and Limbs tied near a treetop to conceal the use of a tunnel from aircraft.
• Slight depression in or around a group of small trees.
• A lone individual, especially a female, in the area.
• Fresh cooked food with no one attending the site.
• Fresh human feces in an area.
Urban Visual Indicators
5-130. Visual indicators in an urban operational environment include—
• Sewer, storm drain, or utility grates or manhole covers
• Disturbed soil in mature gardens
• Presence of flooring materials in homes, businesses, and other structures not under
construction.
RAID
5-131. This is an operation to temporarily seize an area in order to secure information, confuse an
adversary, capture personnel or equipment, or to destroy a capability. It ends with a planned withdrawal
upon completion of the assigned mission (JP 3-0). A raid is conducted to destroy a position or installation,
destroy or capture insurgents or equipment, free friendly prisoners, or seize possible intelligence;
and is followed by a rapid withdrawal. By capturing insurgents, information can be developed into
intelligence and confiscating contraband can contribute to improved public order and safety. It is often
used as part of a strike operation. For additional information on raids, see FM 3-21.8 and FM 3-21.10.
5-132. A raid in a COIN environment can differ from a raid in conventional operations since the
requirement for minimizing collateral damage may be a significant factor. In addition, the time on the
objective prior to withdrawal may be greater, due to the requirement to conduct a detailed SE. As in all
raids, the success of the raid is based on accurate, timely, and detailed intelligence and planning.
CONSIDERATIONS
5-133. Raids in COIN could have lasting effects on the population and the insurgents. Specific
considerations using elements of the mission variables are—
Mission
5-134. In a COIN, raids target insurgents, terrain, intelligence, or equipment. Missions are often executed
in conjunction with a form of cordon to prevent enemy escape into the population. Units should plan
and rehearse according to target intelligence, the commander’s intent, and the purpose of the raid.
Enemy
5-135. The objective of the raid may be a valuable asset the insurgency is prepared to defend. Often, the
insurgent will have additional forces in the area positioned to alert, react, facilitate egress, or conduct
combat. Effective reconnaissance can increase awareness of these factors.
Time Available
5-136. Leaders should plan on allowing time for follow-on missions based on exploitable information.
Also, units should not stay on the objective too long. |
3-24.2 | 147 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
TECHNIQUES
5-137. The minimum task organization for a raid is a headquarters section, an assault element, and a
security element. Depending on METT-TC variables, a support element may be formed separately
or integrated into the assault element. Additional specialty teams should consist of detainees or EPWs, SE,
or CASEVAC teams. Squads are typically too small to execute raids, especially in urban AOs. Figure 5-8
shows the concept of operations for a typical raid.
Figure 5-8. Example raid concept.
5-138. A typical raid during a counterinsurgency is executed in five phases—insertion, seal off the
objective, assault the objective, secure the objective, and withdrawal. The following are some
considerations for each phase:
Insert
5-139. Insertion in COIN is less difficult than infiltration, especially in urban terrain, due to constant
civilian interaction. Units should use whichever method is most likely to achieve surprise. Deception, such
as disguising intent with other activities such as establishing a checkpoint, may be useful. Other
considerations include—
• Insertion by airborne or air assault can enhance surprise.
• Launch the raid at an unexpected time or place by taking advantage of darkness and limited
visibility and moving over terrain that the enemy may consider impassable.
• Infiltration of a sniper team before the raid.
• Avoid detection in rural areas through proper movement techniques and skillful camouflage
and concealment to include taking advantage of natural cover of the terrain.
• In urban areas, avoiding detection is difficult, therefore planning to delay detection
or awareness of the objective is better. This can be accomplished by rapid movement
or deception. |
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Seal Off the Objective
5-140. Units should ensure insurgents can neither leave nor reinforce the objective. In many cases, this
may be the decisive operation. Some considerations include—
• All forces must understand and adhere to rules of engagement (ROE) and escalation of force
(EOF) procedures.
• Establish an outer cordon to block avenues of approach into the objective areas.
• Support force provides initial overwatching fire for the assault force (can be aviation).
• Use of aerial UAS or aviation support to maintain observation as needed.
Assault the Objective
5-141. Any insurgent element at or near the objective is overcome by surprise and violence of action.
Some considerations include—
• Time the assault as close as possible to the execution of the cordon.
• Perform quick, violent, precise, and audacious actions that focus full combat power at the
decisive point.
• Breach rapidly—if possible, the breach should be the first overt action of the raid.
• If fires are used, the support element either provides a heavy volume of fire or precision fires
dictated by civil considerations. Fires must be closely controlled to ensure precision using
FCMs, marking, and signaling. On order or as planned, fires are lifted and shifted to support
the assault element by suppressing enemy fire from the objective.
Secure the Objective
5-142. Units secure the objective by detaining insurgents, controlling personnel on or near the objective,
clearing the objective of other threats, conducting SE, and setting conditions that prevent insurgent fires
from outside the objective.
Withdraw
5-143. As planned, the unit withdraws from the objective area. A support force may provide suppressive
fires for withdrawal or provide escort away from the objective. Commanders consider use of stay behind
measures or devices to monitor backfill of insurgents or population support for the insurgency. A raid in a
COIN environment may modify phase five and withdraws at the discretion of the commander.
AMBUSH
5-144. An ambush is a form of attack by fire or other destructive means from concealed positions on a
moving or temporarily halted enemy (FM 3-90). Ambush patrols are combat patrols with missions
to establish and execute ambushes to harass or destroy insurgents or capture personnel and equipment. (For
further information on ambush, see FM 3-21.8 and FM 3-21.10.) By eliminating insurgents, an ambush
contributes to improving public order and safety, a key civil security subtask. It may be used
in clear-hold-build operations or strike operations.
TYPES
5-145. The two types of ambushes follow:
• A point ambush involves elements deployed to support the attack of a single killing zone.
• An area ambush involves elements deployed as multiple, related, point ambushes.
CATEGORIES
5-146. Based on the amount of preparation time, ambushes can be hasty or deliberate.
• A hasty ambush is an immediate action drill of a friendly force with little or no information on
the insurgent force. The discovery of a nearby insurgent element, usually moving, provides a |
3-24.2 | 149 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
limited opportunity for a friendly force to hastily occupy a position from which to ambush the
guerrilla.
• A deliberate ambush is a planned operation against a specific insurgent force. Sufficient
detailed information of the enemy force, such as the size, nature, organization, armament,
equipment, route, direction or movement timeline is available to permit the detailed planning
of an ambush.
CHARACTERIZATIONS
5-147. An ambush is characterized as either near or far. These are based upon the proximity of the
insurgent to friendly forces.
• A near ambush is an ambush with the assault element within hand grenade distance of the kill
zone (less than 50 meters). Close terrain such as urban, jungle, and heavy woodlands may
require this positioning. It may also be appropriate in open or mountainous terrain in a “rise
from the ground” ambush.
• A far ambush is an ambush with the assault element beyond reasonable assaulting distance
of the kill zone (beyond 50 meters).This location may be appropriate in open terrain offering
good fields of fire.
CONTROL MEASURES
5-148. The ambush commander’s control of all elements at the ambush site is critical. This includes the
initial occupation, time in position, execution, and withdrawal. Commanders should develop control
measures for the—
• Occupation.
• Execution.
• Fire control measures.
• Fratricide and collateral damage prevention, especially if assault element or a nonlinear
ambush.
• Initiation of assault and actions on the objective.
• Tactical site exploitation.
CONSIDERATIONS
5-149. Well-planned and well-executed ambushes are a useful offensive technique to employ against
insurgents. It is an effective technique to interdict and disrupt movement of insurgent forces within an area.
Specific considerations using elements of the mission variables are—
Mission
5-150. Tactical units should attempt to ambush insurgents in manners they least expect and in ways that
minimize compromise by and risk to the HN populace. It is difficult for US forces to emplace an ambush
in populated areas due to size of units, appearance, and insurgent presence amongst the population.
Enemy
5-151. Commanders ensure ambush plans are flexible as to allow adjustment and initiative at the
ambush site.
Troops and Support Available
5-152. A small ambush party is generally more practical but likely less secure. The size of the party
depends on the size of the unit targeted, the estimated insurgent strength in the area and an analysis
of operational risk. In COIN, some popular units used to execute ambushes are small capture teams
(SCTs), small observation teams (SOTs) and small kill teams (SKTs). Most SCTs, SOTs, and SKTs in an
urban AO conduct area ambushes. |
3-24.2 | 150 | Chapter 5
TECHNIQUES
5-153. An ambush in COIN has five basic phases: planning, organizing, moving, occupying,
and executing.
Plan
5-154. Key steps in planning a deliberate ambush include—
• Determine the target and purpose of the ambush (kill or capture).
• Determine the advantages and disadvantage for executing the ambush during limited visibility,
amongst the population, or vicinity of sensitive sites.
• Determine if the ambush will be a point ambush or an area ambush.
• Select the appropriate ambush formation.
• Determine if the ambush will be a near ambush or a far ambush.
• Determine communication requirements.
• Determine weapons requirements and limitations.
• Determine compromise contingency plans.
• Determine what, if any, special equipment is required. This includes money for damage
compensation or the need to video or photograph the area for documentation.
• Withdrawal.
Organization
5-155. An ambush patrol is organized in the same manner as other combat patrols to include a
headquarters, an assault element, a support element, and a security element. If an ambush site is to be
occupied for an extended period, double ambush forces may be organized to allow continuous coverage.
One ambush force occupies the site while the other conducts routine maintenance, rests, and eats at the
objective rallying point or alternate and supplementary concealed locations. They alternate on command,
usually after no more than eight hours.
Movement
5-156. Deliberate ambushes should include an objective rally point (ORP). Units should plan movement
to the ORP, from the ORP to the ambush site and back and withdrawal from the ambush site is back to the
ORP or to another final destination. In addition, leaders should plan movement that allows the unit to enter
the ambush site from the rear and avoid moving into the kill zone or across the suspected route of the
enemy force to be ambushed. In COIN, the presence of people near the ambush positions requires a
carefully planned movement. Units should use maps, imagery, video, HUMINT, and aerial photographs
to analyze the terrain and HN population. If possible, units conduct ground reconnaissance and avoid
selecting obvious ambush sites. Surprise is even more difficult to achieve in these areas. An ambush site
should provide—
• Clear fields of fire.
• Concealed positions.
• Canalization of the insurgents into the killing zone.
• Little or no cover and concealment in the kill zone.
• Covered routes of withdrawal (to enable the ambush force to break contact and avoid pursuit).
• No egress route for the insurgent force.
• A defensible position if compromised.
Occupation
5-157. In COIN, especially urban environments, it can be extremely difficult to occupy ambush sites
or positions uncompromised due to locals. As a rule, the ambush force occupies the ambush site at the
latest possible time permitted by the tactical situation and the amount of site preparation required. This not
only reduces the risk of discovery, but also reduces the time Soldiers must remain still and in position. |
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Techniques
5-158. Some techniques include using—
• Stay-behind elements.
• Alternate infiltration methods such as HN security force vehicles.
• Subterranean (urban) or subterranean structures (rural).
• Feints.
• Deception.
Firing Positions
5-159. The unit typically moves into the ambush site from the rear. Security elements are positioned first
to prevent surprise while the ambush is being established. Position automatic and precision fire weapons so
each can fire along the entire kill zone. If this is impossible, then ensure that automatic weapons have
overlapping sectors of fire. The point is to cover the entire kill zone and to achieve a large volume of near
simultaneous concentrated fires into the kill zone, fires that can inflict maximum damage on the insurgent.
The unit leader then selects a position where he can see when to initiate the ambush. Claymores,
explosives, and M203 grenade launchers are examples of what may be used to cover any dead space left by
the automatic and precision fire weapons. All weapons are assigned sectors of fire to provide mutual
support. Multiple positions also provide interlocking or overlapping support. The unit leader sets a time by
which positions are to be prepared.
Kill Zone
5-160. If Soldiers must enter the kill zone to place booby traps, special-purpose munitions, or expedient
devices, they must remove any tracks or signs that might alert the insurgents and compromise the ambush.
Under a strict ROE, units may choose to record the ambush using a video cameras.
Execution
5-161. A clear target engagement criteria is all that is needed to execute an ambush. Audible and visible
signals such as whistles and pyrotechnics must be changed often to avoid establishing patterns, or alerting
the insurgents to friendly actions or positions.
• A signal by the security force to alert the patrol leader to the insurgent’s approach may be given
by hand-and-arm signals, radio, as a quiet voice message, transmission of a prearranged
number of taps, or by signaling with the push-to-talk switch or field telephone when there is no
danger that wire between positions will compromise the ambush.
• A signal to initiate the ambush given by the patrol leader or a designated individual may be a
shot or the detonation of mines or other types of explosives. The ambush should be initiated
with a mass casualty-producing weapon (claymore, machine gun, or similar system).
• A signal for lifting or shifting fires may be given by voice command, whistles, or pyrotechnics.
All fire stops immediately so the assault can be made before the insurgent can react.
• A signal for withdrawal may also be by voice command, whistles, or pyrotechnics.
• Surprise must be achieved or the attack is not an ambush. Surprise allows the ambush force
to seize and retain control of the situation. Units achieve surprise by careful planning,
preparation, and execution. Concealment and fire discipline are also critically important.
FORMATIONS
5-162. Whether independent or part of an area ambush, a point ambush is positioned along the expected
avenue of approach of the insurgent force. The selection of the type of ambush formation is important,
because it determines the volume of concentrated fire required to isolate, trap, and destroy the insurgents.
The formation to be used is determined by carefully considering possible formations and the advantages
and disadvantages of each in relation to terrain; conditions of visibility, forces, weapons, and equipment
ease or difficulty of control; force to be attacked; and overall combat situation. Types of ambush
formations include linear, L-shaped, Z-shaped, T-shaped, V-shaped, triangle, and box. |
3-24.2 | 152 | Chapter 5
Linear
5-163. In a linear ambush, the attack element is deployed generally parallel to the insurgent force’s route
of movement (road, trail, and stream). This positions the attack element parallel to the long axis of the kill
zone and subjects the insurgent force to heavy flanking fire (Figure 5-9). An advantage of the linear
formation is its relative ease of control under all conditions of visibility. The size of the force that can be
trapped in the kill zone is limited by the area the attack element can effectively cover with highly
concentrated fire. The force is trapped in the kill zone by natural obstacles, mines, booby traps,
or expedient devices, and direct and indirect fires.
Figure 5-9. Linear formation ambush.
5-164. A disadvantage of the linear formation is the chance that lateral dispersion of the force may be too
great for effective coverage. The linear formation is appropriate in close terrain that restricts insurgent
maneuver, and in open terrain where one flank is restricted by natural obstacles, mines, booby traps,
special-purpose munitions, or expedient devices. Similar obstacles and casualty producing systems can be
placed between the attack element and the kill zone to provide protection from insurgent counter ambush
measures. When a destruction ambush is deployed in this manner, access lanes are left so the force in the
kill zone can be assaulted. The line formation can be effectively used in a “rise from the ground” ambush
in terrain seemingly unsuitable for ambush.
L-Shaped
5-165. The L-shaped formation (Figure 5-10) is a variation of the linear formation. The long side of the
attack element is parallel to the kill zone and delivers flanking fire. The short side of the attack element
is at the end of, and at right angles to, the kill zone and delivers enfilading fire that interlocks with fire
from the other leg. |
3-24.2 | 153 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 5-10. L-shaped formation ambush.
5-166. The L-shaped formation is flexible. It can be established on a curving stretch of a trail, near a
stream, or at a sharp bend in a trail or stream. When appropriate, fire from the short leg can be shifted
to parallel the long leg if the insurgent force attempts to assault or escape in the opposite direction.
In addition, the short leg prevents escape in that direction or reinforcement from that direction. Positive
means of controlling fires, such as aiming stakes, are needed to prevent the fire from one leg hitting
Soldiers positioned on the other leg.
Other
5-167. Other traditional ambush formations that are highly METT-TC dependent and usually better for
rural operations, include the following:
Z-Shaped Formation
5-168. The Z-shaped formation is a variation of the L-formation. The attack force is deployed as in the
L-formation, but with an additional side so that the formation resembles the letter Z. The additional side
may serve to engage a force attempting to relieve or reinforce the guerrillas, restrict a flank, prevent an
envelopment of the ambush force.
T-Shaped Formation
5-169. In the T-shaped formation, the attack element is deployed across, and at right angles to, the route
of movement of the hostile force so that the attack element and the target form the letter T. This formation
can be used day or night to establish a purely harassing ambush. It can be used at night to interdict
movement through open, hard-to-seal areas.
V-Shaped Formation
5-170. The V-shaped attack element is deployed along both sides of the insurgent route of movement so
it forms a V. Care is taken to ensure that neither group fires into the other. The V-formation is suited
for open terrain, but can also be used in the jungle.
Triangle Formation
5-171. The triangle is a variation of the V-formation that can be employed in three ways. The most
common technique is the closed triangle. The attack element is deployed in three groups, positioned so that
they form a triangle. An automatic weapon is placed at each point of the triangle and positioned so it can be
shifted quickly to interlock with either of the others. Elements are positioned so their fields of fire overlap.
Mortars may be positioned inside the triangle. When deployed in this manner, the triangle ambush becomes
a small unit strongpoint that is used to interdict night movement through open areas when insurgent
strategy is likely to be from any direction. Advantages include ease of control, all-round security, |
3-24.2 | 154 | Chapter 5
and guerrillas approaching from any direction can be fired on by at least two automatic weapons.
Disadvantages include the requirement for an ambush force of platoon size or larger to reduce the danger
of being overrun by a large guerrilla force; one or more legs of the triangle may come under guerrilla
enfilade fire; and lack of dispersion, particularly at the points, increases danger from guerrilla mortar fire.
Box Formation
5-172. The box formation is similar in purpose to the triangle ambush. The unit is deployed in four
elements positioned so each element becomes a corner of a square or rectangle. Advantages
and disadvantages are much the same as the triangle formation.
VARIATIONS
5-173. Common ambush variations during counterinsurgency operations include—
Baited Trap
5-174. A variation of the area ambush is the “baited trap” ambush. A central kill zone is established along
the insurgent’s avenue of approach. Point ambushes are established along the routes over which units
supporting or reinforcing the insurgent force will have to approach. The insurgents in the central kill zone
serve as “bait” to lure relieving or reinforcing insurgent units into the kill zones of the outlying ambushes.
Items such as infrastructure, sensitive equipment, caches, and security measures can be used as bait.
Spider Hole
5-175. This type of point ambush is designed for open areas that lack the cover and concealment
and other features normally desirable in a good ambush site. This technique is effective in less populated
rural areas or urban areas with subterranean. Concealed in a “spider hole," a type of covered and concealed
foxhole, the attack element is deployed in the formation best suited to the overall situation. Soil is carefully
removed and positions expertly camouflaged. This ambush takes advantage of the tendency of patrols
and other units to relax in areas that do not appear to favor ambush. The chief disadvantage of this
technique is that the ambush element’s vulnerability if compromised.
SNIPER OPERATIONS
5-176. Sniper operations are effective for both insurgent and counterinsurgent in the COIN environment.
Snipers, if employed correctly, are a COIN force multiplier and provide the commander an immediate
means to enter the insurgent decision cycle.
5-177. Small kill teams (SKTs), small observation teams (SOTs), and small capture teams (SCTs) differ
by task, manning, and equipment. SKT focuses on destroying of insurgent elements. SCTs focus on the
capture of those elements. SOTs are for reconnaissance. In COIN, more may be gained by capturing than
by killing the insurgent. However, SKTs can give commanders a deterrent to insurgent activity.
5-178. Sniper teams sometimes as part of SKTs, SOTs, or SCTs, are employed in populated urban areas
or large rural areas with adequate fields of fire. For mission success, all three teams employ specific point
and area weapons systems. All three also rely on redundant communications, marking materials, detailed
infiltration plans, exfiltration, mutual support, security, compromise contingencies, and engagement criteria
CONSIDERATIONS
5-179. Sniper employment in a COIN must be carefully considered. The infiltration or exfiltration
of snipers, SKTs, and SCTs must be meticulously planned with the understanding of the habits, behaviors,
and density of the local population. Besides the basic mission of precision fires and surgical elimination
of individuals, they are valuable for ISR collection, route and area security augmentation, countersniper
operations, and counter mortar or rocket operations. Compromise and contingency planning is critical
to sniper employment. Commanders base this detailed planning on a thorough analysis of the mission
variables with specific attention to terrain and civil considerations. Specific considerations using elements
of the mission variables are— |
3-24.2 | 155 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Mission
• Snipers must have clear engagement criteria and a thorough understanding of the ROE.
Engagement criteria must be refined so the individual sniper can make the correct engagement
decision while the target is engageable.
• Once an engagement area and a sniper position are identified, then leaders should determine a
mutually supporting position for a security team to occupy.
• Current and planned locations of sniper teams should be tracked by the headquarters
responsible for the area in which the snipers are operating. Often this means designating their
locations as a no fire area that can be tracked by all forces operating in the area to prevent
fratricide.
Enemy
• Sniper positions need to be defendable in case of compromise by the enemy.
Terrain and Weather
• Snipers, small kill teams, small observation teams, and small capture teams can aid
commanders in denying terrain and freedom of movement to insurgent elements while
providing security to sensitive or critical sites in both rural and urban areas.
Troops and Support Available
• In addition to a robust communications capability, commanders resource these elements with
linguists, medical personnel, surveillance equipment, and sustainment resources. The QRF
is typically involved in the detailed planning of these operations and can be deployed forward
to minimize reaction time.
• SKTs, SOTs or SCTs are task-organized with sniper-qualified personnel or squad designated
marksman, weapons squads, and specialty skills personnel. They may be comprised
of sniper-qualified individuals or squad designated marksman.
TECHNIQUES
5-180. All sniper operations in COIN should consider sniper positions, sniper security sniper insertion
and sniper extraction.
Positions
• Tactical leaders must continually analyze the OE for potential sniper team overwatch positions.
Leaders reconnoiter to determine the suitability of potential positions. Leaders reconnoiter
to determine the suitability of potential positions. When employing sniper teams, leaders ensure
each position provides mutual support against a threat.
• The insurgent often will engage from areas of passive support, and where he has a sense
of security. Detailed reconnaissance and accurate knowledge of the OE allows leaders
to recognize advantages and disadvantages of different positions and types of areas. There are
two basic areas for sniper positions in an urban environment—residential areas and industrial
areas. Both areas include the use of elevated positions or ground level positions. Roofs are not
always the best place to operate since roofs are often not the highest location in the area and are
often wide open with little cover. Successful position selection techniques in COIN are—
Rent Uninhabited Dwellings or Other Structures
• Teams are careful not to establish a pattern or expose the property owner to the insurgency.
Owners may compromise the snipers.
Positions in Locally Occupied Homes
• Teams, however, must consolidate the family in one part of the house with a security element.
When exfiltrating the residence, compensation should be provided to the owner. |
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Stay-Behind Opportunities
• Teams may have the opportunity to achieve surprise if insurgents attempt to return to areas
after another counterinsurgent unit has conducted an operation.
Security
• Sniper teams should move with a security element (squad or platoon) whenever possible. This
allows the teams to reach their area of operation faster and safer than if alone. The security
element also protects snipers during operations. When moving with a security element, snipers
follow these guidelines:
(cid:131) The leader of the security element leads the sniper team.
(cid:131) Snipers must appear to be an integral part of the security element. To do so, each sniper
carries his weapon system in line with and close to his body to hide the weapon's outline
and barrel length. Snipers also conceal from view all sniper-unique equipment (optics
and ghillie suits).
(cid:131) Sniper uniforms must be the same as that of security element members.
(cid:131) Snipers and element members maintain proper intervals and positions in the element
formation.
Infiltration
• The key to sniper infiltration is undetected occupation of hide positions. An insertion may be
as simple as a drop off in close proximity and moving dismounted to the position. It can be
as complex as conducting a cordon and search/knock and leaving a stay-behind team. Planning
considerations for insertion include the mission variables and a detailed understanding of the
terrain and people. Planning considerations include—streetlights, barking dogs, nightlife
establishments, insertion vehicle noise (HMMWV engines, vehicle ramps hitting the ground),
and local nationals who may sleep on their roof or outdoors during hot summer months.
Exfiltration
• Exfiltration is just as important; snipers do not want to compromise a position you may want
to use again in the future. The amount of time spent in a Sniper Position is dependent on the
situation. Sniper teams should have a preplanned emergency exfiltration route to a safe zone,
known by all supporting elements. The snipers can withdraw dismounted, during hours
of limited visibility, to a designated rally point, where the QRF can retrieve them
• Some units use a quick reaction force (QRF) as a means of reinforcement or emergency
extraction, as well as maintaining or regaining contact with insurgents engaged by the snipers.
When properly employed, the US sniper teams can contribute significantly to the fight by
overwatching key areas, serving as an economy of force, eliminating insurgents, and causing
uncertainty within the insurgents. For further information on conventional sniper employment
techniques, see FM 3-21.11.
COIN PATROLS
5-181. A patrol is a detachment sent out by a larger unit to conduct a combat or reconnaissance
operation. A patrol may be a fire team, squad, platoon, or company. Conventional patrolling doctrine
applies to counterinsurgency operations, but some modifications must be made to account for the
insurgent’s activities and the operational environment. Aggressive patrolling in an area greatly reduces the
insurgents’ freedom of movement, disrupts operations, and weakens their influence on the local population.
Furthermore, Patrolling becomes more significant in counterinsurgency operations because of the difficulty
in locating and identifying insurgent forces. This section discusses the important role patrols play
in defeating the insurgent force. There are two types of patrolling in COIN operations: Reconnaissance
patrols and combat patrols. Patrols are an integral part of clear-hold-build operations, strike operations,
and PRC operations. |
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CONSIDERATIONS
5-182. Specific considerations using elements of the mission variables for COIN patrols are—
Mission
5-183. Leaders must brief all patrol members as to the task and purpose of the operation. Every COIN
patrol has a task and purpose that is nested within one of the LOEs.
5-184. Leaders must plan patrol routes carefully and coordinate in detail with higher, lower, and adjacent
units, to include Host Nation security forces, aviation elements, fires, ISR elements, and reserve forces. All
patrols conduct rehearsals and a patrol brief at a minimum.
Enemy
5-185. Small-unit patrols are more effective than larger unit patrols against insurgent activities. This is
because they can cover more territory than a large unit, and are more difficult to track and predict. This
keeps the insurgent off balance.
Terrain and Weather
5-186. Patrol leaders must learn and know the routes, terrain, and weather implications on the HN
population, the counterinsurgent, and the insurgent. For example, urban patrol techniques will differ from
rural patrol techniques.
Troops and Support Available
5-187. Communication between patrol vehicles, riflemen, and higher headquarters is essential. Within the
patrol, radios, data transfer devices, voice commands, and visual signals may be used. Vehicular-mounted
radios and data systems are usually the best means for communication within the patrol and to higher
headquarters. Aircraft may be used to relay radio messages for long distance patrol communication. Blue
Force Tracker text messages or single channel TACSAT provide excellent means of maintaining long haul
communications.
5-188. Tactical units may be involved in patrolling in one of three ways: patrol as a complete unit;
provide subordinate unit for patrols (as directed by higher), or send out patrols to support their own
operation. Normally, the planned action at the objective determines the type of the patrol, usually
categorized as either combat or reconnaissance. Patrols may be mounted or dismounted or a combination.
Civil Considerations
5-189. Patrols are often the easiest way for tactical units to engage the HN population across
multiple LOEs.
Mounted Patrols versus Dismounted Patrols
5-190. Patrols may be mounted or dismounted. Mounted patrols allow greater coverage of distances than
dismounted patrols but sacrifice interaction with the populace and the opportunity to conduct more
effective information engagements. Mounted patrols can operate in insurgent controlled areas too
dangerous for dismounted patrols while carrying more or heavier equipment, weapons, and ammunition.
5-191. Dismounted patrols can be physically demanding and patrol members must be in good shape.
Additionally, contact with insurgents in close combat is physically demanding. The patrol leader ensures
patrol members carry only mission essential equipment.
5-192. A mounted patrol is prepared in the same manner as a dismounted patrol. Leaders ensure vehicles
are mechanically fully mission capable and properly supplied with fuel, oil, ammunition, and water.
Drivers and other personnel receive the same patrol brief as dismounted patrol members.
5-193. A mixture of mounted and dismounted patrolling can provide greater flexibility. The dismounted
element can interact with the population. The mounted element provides increased firepower,
communications, and CASEVAC. |
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Urban Patrols
5-194. The basics of patrolling remain the same in both urban and rural environments; however, the
differences between the urban and the rural environment require specific patrol considerations. Urban areas
have a high population density and patrols must be prepared for population related incidents. The
population may interact with the patrol in many ways, such as asking for medical attention
or demonstrating against the presence of the patrol itself. Basic urban patrolling consideration include—
• While contact with insurgents may happen, contact with elements of the population is certain.
• If available, armored vehicles should be ready to rapidly reinforce urban patrols to provide
additional firepower.
• At least one Soldier in each squad or team should be dedicated to scanning the rooftops
and upper level windows.
• Actions at a halt must include 360-degree security. Soldiers should seek cover and face out.
Cover in an urban environment may be a light pole, a building corner or even a parked car.
• Urban patrols should thoroughly scan the far side of all open areas, since insurgents will use
them to achieve stand-off.
• If contact is likely, then the patrol should move by bounds. Moving by bounds, with one
element overwatching another element, is used in urban terrain just as in rural terrain.
• React to contact in an urban environment often includes the basic elements of a cordon
and search. Once contact is made, return fire is initiated and simultaneously the area should be
cordoned to prevent the insurgent’s escape.
Combined Patrols
5-195. The combined patrol is a patrol conducted with Host Nation security forces and US units.
They are an important piece in increasing the legitimacy of the HN government and improving the skills
of the HN security forces.
Mutual Support
5-196. Commanders consider mutual support when task-organizing forces and assigning areas
of operations. Mutual support is support units render each other against an enemy, because of their
assigned tasks, their position relative to each other and to the enemy, and their inherent capabilities (JP
1-02). Mutual support has two aspects: supporting range and supporting distance.
Supporting Range
5-197. Supporting range is the distance one unit may be geographically separated from a second unit yet
remain within the maximum range of the second unit’s weapons systems (FM 3-0). It depends on available
weapons systems and is normally the maximum range of the supporting unit’s indirect fire weapons. For
small units such as squads, sections, or platoons, it is the distance between two units that their direct fires
can cover effectively. If one unit cannot effectively or safely fire in support of the other unit, they may be
out of supporting range even though their weapons have the requisite range.
Supporting Distance
5-198. Supporting distance is the distance between two units that can be traveled in time for one to come
to the aid of the other. It is a function of terrain and mobility, distance, enemy capabilities, friendly
capabilities, and reaction time. During counterinsurgency operations, commanders should always consider
supporting distance. Units maintain mutual support when one unit can draw on another unit’s capabilities
for support.
TYPES OF PATROLS
5-199. There are two types of patrols: |
3-24.2 | 159 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Reconnaissance Patrols
5-200. This type of patrol collects information and confirms or disproves the accuracy of information
previously received. They are used to locate insurgent units and base camps, to reconnoiter specific
locations, locate leaders, and gather intelligence. Reconnaissance patrols provide the commander with
timely, accurate information of insurgents, the population, and the terrain. This information is vital
in making tactical decisions. Leaders must ensure that no pattern is established that would allow an
insurgent force to ambush reconnaissance units. Reconnaissance patrols are further classified into two
types.
Route Reconnaissance Patrols
5-201. These are a form of reconnaissance that focuses along a specific line of communication, such as a
road, railway, or cross-country mobility corridor. It provides new or updated information on route
conditions, such as obstacles and bridge classifications, insurgent and civilian activity, and traffic patterns
along the route. A route reconnaissance includes not only the route itself, but also all terrain along the route
from which the insurgent could influence the friendly force’s movement.
Zone Reconnaissance Patrols
5-202. These are conducted to obtain information on enemy, terrain, people, and routes within a specified
zone. The commander may require information of an extended area, or may desire information of several
locations within an area. A zone reconnaissance patrol secures this information by reconnoitering the area,
maintaining surveillance over the area, or by making the coordinated area reconnaissance of designated
locations within the area.
Area Reconnaissance Patrols
5-203. This is conducted to obtain information on a specific location or small specific area, usually a
known or suspected position or activity. An area reconnaissance patrol secures this information by
reconnoitering the location or by maintaining surveillance over the location.
5-204. In addition to reaching the objective without discovery, a reconnaissance patrol also tries
to conduct its reconnaissance or surveillance without being discovered. Stealth, patience, and maximum
use of concealment are mandatory. A reconnaissance patrol must be prepared to fight to protect itself.
5-205. Continual technological improvements have a significant impact on reconnaissance abilities.
Sensors and video cameras can be emplaced to be remotely monitored. Computer and electronic
technology must be leveraged to extract information from a wide array of technological systems.
Day and Night Patrols
5-206. These use about the same techniques as other patrols. The main differences are—
• Day Reconnaissance requires greater use of concealment. The patrol is more likely to be seen
than at night and usually will not be able to move as close to the objective.
• Night Reconnaissance requires stealth. Sounds carry farther at night, and reduced visibility
usually requires a closer approach to the objective.
Combat Patrols
5-207. In counterinsurgency operations, the term security patrol has often been used; however, this is still
a combat patrol. A combat patrol provides security and harasses, destroys, or captures enemy troops,
equipment, and installations. A combat patrol also collects and reports information, whether related to its
mission or not. Combat patrols in a counterinsurgency include raids, ambushes, security, saturation,
and satellite patrols. Regardless of the name, all counterinsurgency combat patrols have the general mission
of seeking out and attacking targets of opportunity.
Raid and Ambush Patrols
5-208. Raids and ambushes were discussed earlier in Chapter 5. |
3-24.2 | 160 | Chapter 5
Security Patrols
5-209. The difference between a security patrol and a raid or ambush patrol is that combat activity is not
the primary mission of the security patrol. This is true even if combat is expected during the patrol.
Security patrols normally seek to control critical roads and trails, maintain contact between villages
and units, provide security for friendly forces, provide security in rural areas, and interdict insurgent routes
of supply and communication.
Saturation Patrols
5-210. This is when units use numerous combat patrols to saturate an area of suspected insurgent activity
by moving over planned and coordinated routes, which are changed frequently to avoid establishing
patterns. Saturation patrols are extremely effective against insurgents. Use of saturation patrols results in
the following:
• Denial of an area to an insurgent force as it seeks to avoid contact with the saturation patrols.
• Ability to harass insurgent forces.
• Opportunity to discover insurgent forces.
• Chance to gain an intimate knowledge of the area of operations.
• Chance to reassure the local population that the government provides protection and security.
Satellite Patrols
5-211. This patrol technique adds depth to a patrol, deters ambushes, and provides patrols with a
maneuver element on enemy contact. Figure 5-11 shows a satellite patrol moving through a built-up area.
5-212. The satellite patrol uses a base unit to control smaller units, or satellites, that leave and return to
the base unit. The advantage of this technique is the unpredictability, to the enemy, of the route, size,
locations, and the patrol’s overall axis of advance. Satellite patrols are given either an area or an axis
of movement. As with all other patrols, they should have a specific task and purpose. Units have specific
requirements including—
Organization
5-213. At a minimum, the patrol has one base and one satellite unit.
Size
5-214. The size of the base unit and satellites is METT-TC dependent. Normally, a satellite unit consists
of either a squad or a fire team. All units must be able to defend themselves until reinforcements arrive.
Command and Control
5-215. The base unit is under the direct control of the senior leader and must have radio communications
with each of the satellites units. This facilitates control and actions if contact is made. The base unit sets the
pace and maintains the general direction of the patrol. Controlling multiple small satellite patrols is difficult
and requires an experienced leader and excellent communications. |
3-24.2 | 161 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 5-11. Satellite patrol movement.
Movement
5-216. All units must know the overall route and if possible, left and right boundaries. Both the base unit
and the satellite units move in ways to confuse the enemy as to the patrol’s actual axis of advance.
Standard movement techniques are still used. Satellites move away from the base unit for limited periods
of time to inspect potential ambush sites, dead spaces, parallel roads, or other assigned missions. The time
that the satellite is separated from the base unit should be prescribed by the patrol leader prior to departure.
Training
5-217. Units may experience initial difficulty with this technique because of the dispersed, unpredictable,
and seemingly random movement of the satellite patrols. To properly execute the technique, units must
train and practice.
Actions on Contact
5-218. The unit in contact reacts normally. All other units move towards the unit in contact. The satellite
patrol leader coordinates, as needed, their routes, actions, and linkup.
Patrol Debrief
5-219. One of the best ways to turn information into intelligence is to conduct a patrol debrief following
every patrol. When the patrol is over, the unit has not completed its mission. The leader must ensure that
all the information collected during the patrol is turned over to the appropriate staff section for evaluation.
Additionally, all patrol members must be debriefed to collect any information not already identified. The
unit must also conduct an after-action review of the entire mission from start to finish. The unit must record |
3-24.2 | 162 | Chapter 5
what operations were executed correctly and what could have been done better. This information must be
passed on so that others can learn from the operation. Finally, unit members must account for and clean
their equipment in order to be ready for the next operation. The debrief, at a minimum, should include—
• Specifics on the five W’s (who, what, when, where, why) and how.
• Photos or sketches.
• Answers to priority intelligence requirements (PIRs) and other information requirements.
• Actionable intelligence.
• Recap of route.
• Reports of enemy contact.
• Engagements conducted:
(cid:131) Who engaged the guerrilla force?
(cid:131) What concerns have the HN population brought to the patrols attention?
(cid:131) What promises did the US make as a result of these concerns?
• Tips or actionable information for intelligence.
• Noteworthy observations (propaganda, graffiti, and so on).
• Changes in the HN population, which leaders can use to improve understanding of community
dynamics. These changes may be detected in—
(cid:131) People’s attitudes toward coalition forces.
(cid:131) Local infrastructure.
(cid:131) Civil leadership.
(cid:131) Local organization.
(cid:131) Civil institutions.
Section III—OTHER LINES OF EFFORT
Offensive operations enable and complement the other lines of effort—support HN security forces, restore
essential services, provide support to economic and infrastructure development, provide support to governance,
and conduct information tasks. Without the increased security resulting from offensive operations, units may
not be able to accomplish any significant tasks in the other LOE.
SUPPORT HOST NATION SECURITY FORCES
5-220. The preferred method is to conduct all offensive operations combined with HN security forces
to improve their tactical and technical competence and develop their professionalism. This technique also
takes advantage of both forces’ strengths and capabilities, especially the HN security forces’ language
skills and cultural knowledge. An example of this is a combined cordon and search of a suspected
insurgent village where US forces establish the outer cordon and the HN security forces conduct the actual
search of the village.
SUPPORT TO GOVERNANCE
5-221. In COIN, tactical units must consider how offensive operations can be used to assist their efforts
to strengthen the local government. For instance, a unit might conduct a combined cordon and search based
on a tip provided by the local mayor, assist in securing polling sites during local or national elections,
or set the conditions for completion of a government project. Units must remember that all offensive
operations support one or another group’s political agenda. Eliminating one insurgent group may lead
to another group filling the power vacuum.
RESTORE ESSENTIAL SERVICES
5-222. Tactical units must consider how to incorporate essential service projects as a complementary
portion of their offensive operations. For instance, delivering water to a neighborhood without clean
drinking water can be useful in several ways. For example, it may afford the opportunity to gather
intelligence for an upcoming raid, reconnoiter for a cordon and search, serve as a deception for the |
3-24.2 | 163 | Offensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
emplacement of a sniper, or allow the covert positioning of a force for a later attack. Units must be careful
about too closely linking projects and offensive operations to ensure that they do not inadvertently decrease
the population’s support.
SUPPORT TO ECONOMIC AND INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT
5-223. Tactical units conducting COIN must consider how offensive operations can assist in stimulating
the economy of their local area. For instance, a raid on an insurgent group that has been extorting money
from the local factory to finance their operations may dramatically increase the capital available to conduct
repairs to the factory. This in turn creates jobs in the village. As in essential services projects, the economic
project may serve as a means to gather intelligence for an upcoming raid, reconnoiter for a cordon
and search, serve as a deception for a sniper team, or be used to position forces for an attack. Units may
decide not to conduct an offensive operation due to the economic impact of the operation.
CONDUCT INFORMATION ENGAGEMENT
5-224. All tactical unit offensive operations must consider and incorporate information engagements.
Options range from simple explanation of the purpose of a raid to the head of the household, to handing
out leaflets as part of the outer cordon, to using tactical PSYOP teams to keep the population from
interfering with operations, to attending a city council meeting to explain a recent raid. In each endeavor,
the counterinsurgent force must use information tasks to increase the HN government’s legitimacy, isolate
the insurgent, and garner the support of the population.
SUMMARY
Offensive operations are a critical part of counterinsurgency and help Host Nations establish civil security
and civil control. Key operations include search and attacks, cordon and searches, searches, raids,
ambushes, and COIN patrols, especially in the “clear” phase of a clear-hold-build operation. Offensive
operations can support other LOEs such as support Host Nation security forces and restore essential
services. Commanders conduct offensive operations in COIN with constant considerations of the
population in support of the seven COIN LOEs. |
3-24.2 | 165 | Chapter 6
Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
“A defensive attitude is almost always to be deprecated and only under certain
special circumstances is it to be recommended. The operations of regular troops
in such warfare (small wars) must never be allowed to stagnate; the troops must be
up and doing, striking their adversaries when these attempt resistance, hunting them
down when they shun combat.”
COL C. E. Callwell, Small Wars, 1896
Insurgents will not passively let counterinsurgent forces disrupt their plans
and isolate them from the populace. They will attack counterinsurgent forces when
they feel that they have a good chance of success. Additionally, the insurgents will
choose targets with an eye towards reducing the legitimacy of the established
government. The conduct of defensive operations in COIN is very much like that in a
conventional defense. However, in COIN, the counterinsurgent must be concerned
with securing the HN population, HN government, and infrastructure. This chapter
will examine defensive operations, defensive operations as they apply specifically
to establishing civil security and civil control, defensive operations as they apply to
the other lines of effort, and security operations.
Section I—OVERVIEW
Tactical formations conduct three types of defensive operations in every environment—area defense, mobile
defense, and retrograde. At the tactical level, counterinsurgency units focus mostly on executing an area
defense, although, there may be instances where mobile defense or retrograde are appropriate.
AREA DEFENSE
6-1. This type of defensive operation concentrates on denying enemy forces access to designated
terrain for a specific time rather than destroying the enemy outright (FM 3-0). In counterinsurgencies, both
the insurgency and the counterinsurgent are vying for the support of the population as if it were terrain.
The focus of the area defense is on retaining terrain where the bulk of the defending force positions itself
in mutually supporting, prepared positions. In counterinsurgencies, commanders choose an area defense
to secure the population by living among the population employing the seven COIN lines of effort.
Examples of an area defense in counterinsurgencies are a combat outpost next to a city market, a
permanent squad position at an electrical plant, and a checkpoint near a police station.
MOBILE DEFENSE
6-2. This type of defensive operation concentrates on the destruction or defeat of the enemy through a
decisive attack by a striking force (FM 3-0). The mobile defense focuses on defeating or destroying the
enemy by allowing him to advance to a point where he is exposed to a decisive counterattack by the
striking force. Mobile defense operations are less common in counterinsurgencies, because insurgents
rarely mass. However, strike operations can be useful in destroying guerrilla bases. Another example of a
mobile defense at the tactical level is the use of quick reaction forces to exploit tactical intelligence. |
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RETROGRADE
6-3. This type of defensive operation involves organized movement away from the enemy (FM 3-0).
The enemy may force these operations, or a commander may execute them voluntarily.
In counterinsurgencies, retrograde operations are generally conducted intentionally after a unit
is transitioning responsibility of an area of operations to a Host Nation security force or a relief in place
with another US unit.
MAJOR COUNTERINSURGENCY OPERATIONS
6-4. In clear-hold-build operations, defensive operations are foremost in the “hold” phase, although
operations occur during all three phases. These operations help to establish and maintain civil security
and civil control, enabling units to set conditions across the seven COIN LOEs. Defensive operations in the
“hold” phase deal primarily with securing the HN population and isolating insurgents from their support.
6-5. In strike operations and populace and resource control operations, defensive operations are
conducted in concert with stability and offensive operations. In strike operations, units conduct defensive
operations to establish bases where they can conduct offensive operations. In PRC operations, units
conduct defensive operations to protect the populace and its materiel resources from insurgents, to deny
insurgents access to the populace and materiel resources and to identify and eliminate the insurgents, their
organization, their activities, and influence while doing so.
Section II—CIVIL SECURITY AND CONTROL
Tactical units conduct most defensive operations under either the establish civil security or establish civil
control lines of effort. In COIN operations, especially clear-hold-build operations, the most common method
that tactical units employ to secure the population is the establishment of bases. Units use site selection
techniques to decide where to put bases and focus security. Certain defensive actions like counter—ambush,
counter—IED, and counter—sniper clearly contribute to increased civil security or increased civil control
as they reduce violence against HN and US forces, as well as the HN population. Throughout, units must use
appropriate protection measures.
SITE SELECTION
6-6. Brigades, battalions, and companies routinely possess enormous AOs during counterinsurgencies,
some as large as US states. Within these large AOs, there can be hundreds or thousands of essential service
structure, governmental infrastructure, economic assets, population centers, and important leaders that may
be targets for the insurgency. There are many techniques to conduct security operations at the tactical level.
Tactical units need a framework to decide how best to secure the HN population, and HN infrastructure.
6-7. It is not possible to protect every asset and every point. Eventually, the insurgent will attack.
A primary goal is to protect those vital assets and points to such a degree that, if they are attacked, the
damage to them is minimal, while the insurgent's losses are heavy. The CARVER-P Vulnerability
Prioritization Matrix is a method for units to help the HN government in deciding what HN assets
to protect.
CARVER-P RISK/VULNERABILITY PRIORITIZATION MATRIX
6-8. This matrix considers targets within the HN population, government, and infrastructure. It allows
leaders to identify target vulnerability, determine corresponding risk, and then prioritize security assets.
The matrix is based on seven criteria represented by the acronym CARVER-P (criticality, accessibility,
recuperability, vulnerability, effects, recognizability, and psychological impact). This matrix derives from
the Army risk-assessment process. Figure 6-1 shows an example format of the Carver-P matrix for the
vulnerability criteria. Figure 6-2 shows an example of the same matrix completed for a power plant. |
3-24.2 | 167 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 6-1. Example format for Vulnerability Prioritization Matrix.
Figure 6-2. Example completed CARVER-P Vulnerability Prioritization Matrix.
6-9. Complete the CARVER-P Vulnerability Prioritization Matrix using these five steps:
Step 1—Identification
6-10. Identify and continually reevaluate the key structures, capabilities, organizations, and individuals
in the AO that the insurgents may target. Record each target's name and location on a separate Carver-P
Risk/Vulnerability Prioritization Matrix. Figure 6-2 showed an example matrix completed for a
power plant.
Step 2—Evaluation
6-11. Evaluate this potential target using the Criteria Evaluation Tool shown in Figure 6-3. This tool
provides a simple means to determine risk either using the four generic risk statements of each criteria, or
by developing or modifying similar statements. |
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Step 3—Analysis
6-12. In the Criteria Evaluation Tool (Figure 6-3), for each criteria, choose an appropriate risk
statement, which corresponds to a risk level. Then, explain why and how you assessed the risk level, assign
a numerical value for each of the criteria and, if needed, identify the control and mitigation for each
assessment. Transfer this information to the matrix and sum the values. This sum represents the assessed
desirability of the potential target from the insurgent’s perspective. The higher the number the more likely
the insurgent will attack the target.
Step 4—Facilities Category
6-13. Using this sum, identify the facilities category (Figure 6-4). Both the identification and the
prioritization of vital assets and key points should be the responsibility of the Host Nation. However, US
commanders should participate in the planning process for assets within their area of operations. To assist
in this process, it is useful to have a simple method of categorizing the facilities to be considered.
Figure 6-4 shows a suggested method for categorizing facilities.
Step 5—Prioritization
6-14. Compare this target to others to determine priority.
CRITICALITY CRITERIA. Criticality refers to asset value. This is the primary consideration in targeting. A
target is critical when its destruction or damage has a significant impact on military, political, or economic
aspects of a community.
High effect on output, production, service, or mission ............................................................ High Risk
Moderate effect on output, production, service, or mission .................................................... Moderate Risk
Negligible effect on output, production, service, or mission .................................................... Low Risk
No significant effect on output, production, service, or mission .............................................. No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
ACCESSIBILITY CRITERIA. An asset is accessible when an insurgent can reach
the target with sufficient personnel and equipment to accomplish its mission.
Highly accessible: standoff weapons can be employed .......................................................... High Risk
Moderate accessibility: heavy barriers or protection can be employed .................................. Moderate Risk
Little accessibility: some barriers or protection employed ....................................................... Low Risk
Inaccessible or accessible only with extreme difficulty ........................................................... No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
Figure 6-3. Criteria evaluation tool. |
3-24.2 | 169 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
RECUPERABILITY CRITERIA. An asset's recuperability is measured in time. That is,
how long will it take to replace, repair, or bypass the destruction of or damage to the target?
High effect on replacement, repair, or substitution ................................................................. High Risk
Moderate effect on replacement, repair, or substitution ......................................................... Moderate Risk
Some effect on replacement, repair, or substitution ............................................................... Low Risk
No effect on replacement, repair, or substitution .................................................................... No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
VULNERABILITY CRITERIA. An asset is vulnerable if the insurgent has the means
and expertise to attack the target.
Vulnerable to small-arms fire, light antiarmor fire, or charges of 5 to 10 pounds ................... High Risk
Vulnerable to medium antiarmor fire, bulk charges of 10 to 30 pounds, or very careful
Moderate Risk
placement of smaller charges .................................................................................................
Vulnerable to heavy antiarmor fire, bulk charges of 30 to 50 pounds, or requires special
Low Risk
weapons ..................................................................................................................................
Invulnerable to all but the most extreme targeting measures ................................................. No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
EFFECTS CRITERIA. The effect of an asset attack is a measure of possible military,
political, economic, psychological, and sociological impacts at the target and beyond.
Overwhelmingly positive effects for insurgent; no significant
High Risk
negative effects .......................................................................................................................
Moderately positive effects for insurgent; few significant negative effects ............................. Moderate Risk
No significant effects; neutral .................................................................................................. Low Risk
Overwhelmingly negative effects for insurgent; no significant positive effects ....................... No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
Figure 6-3. Criteria evaluation tool (continued). |
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RECOGNIZABILITY CRITERIA. An asset's recognizability is the degree to which an insurgent or
intelligence-collection and reconnaissance assets can recognize it under
varying conditions.
The target is clearly recognizable under all conditions and from a distance. Requires little
High Risk
or no training for recognition ...................................................................................................
The target is easily recognizable at small arms range. Requires a small amount of
Moderate Risk
training for recognition ............................................................................................................
The target is hard to recognize at night or in bad weather, or might be confused with other
Low Risk
targets or target components. Requires some training for recognition ...................................
The target cannot be recognized under any conditions, except by experts ............................ No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT CRITERIA. An asset's psychological impact is the degree
to which it affects the local population and that population's perception of the government.
Overwhelmingly negative effects on population's perception of government ......................... High Risk
Moderately negative effects on population's perception of government ................................. Moderate Risk
Little negative effects on population's perception of government ........................................... Low Risk
Overwhelmingly negative effects on population's perception of government ......................... No Risk
Why and how Value Controls and Mitigation
Figure 6-3. Criteria evaluation tool (continued).
Figure 6-4. Facility categories. |
3-24.2 | 171 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
PROTECTION
6-15. Protection is the preservation of the effectiveness and survivability of mission-related military
and nonmilitary personnel, equipment, facilities, information, and infrastructure, deployed or located
within or outside the boundaries of a given operational area (JP 3-0). The elements of protection are the
same in concept between conventional operations and COIN. However, one important aspect is that,
counterinsurgents are responsible for protecting local citizens. By ensuring that the local population
is secure, counterinsurgents increase their effectiveness in all other tasks and gain allies who will provide
information and cooperation. This increases the security of tactical units.
TECHNIQUE CONSIDERATIONS DURING COUNTERINSURGENCIES
6-16. Individual and small groups of Soldiers, leaders, and civilians are targets for the insurgents. This
targeting not only includes lethal operations, such as attacks against an individual, but also nonlethal
operations such as kidnapping, subversion or character attacks. Established individual protection measures
remain the first line of defense. Basic site-protection operations, a building block to secure the population,
include the following:
Static Posts or Bases
6-17. Each static post has a full-time detachment at the location of the vital asset. The size of the
detachment is determined by the size of the vital asset, the threat, and the distance to the nearest available
reserve. Consideration must be given to conserving manpower by employing surveillance devices
and intruder alarms.
Observation Post
6-18. Although an OP has too little combat power to secure the vital asset, it can immediately call
for support.
Vehicle Patrols
6-19. Vehicle patrols may be used to give periodic coverage to many low category vital assets. Timings
for patrols must be varied to prevent the likelihood of ambush and to retain the element of surprise. Patrols
should be strong enough to deal with anticipated threats and they must be supported by a local reserve.
Foot Patrols
6-20. Foot patrols also give periodic coverage to low category vital assets. Foot patrols will be
particularly valuable at vital assets where movement is congested, observation is difficult, and concealment
is easily afforded to enemy forces, such as those in busy city blocks.
Airmobile Patrols
6-21. Airmobile patrols may be used as a supplement to vehicle and foot patrols. They will be valuable
for checking vital assets over extended distances or where access is difficult.
RANDOM ANTITERRORISM MEASURES
6-22. One means to disrupt insurgent attack plans is to implement random antiterrorism measures
(RAMs). These consistently change the look of a security posture to defeat surveillance attempts
and introduce uncertainty to a site's overall security plan, thereby making it difficult for the enemy
to accurately predict friendly actions. Examples of RAMs are—
• Moving Jersey barriers, vehicular barriers, Class IV objects, or objects in other classes to route
traffic around base.
• Starting random security patrols in the surrounding blocks.
• Installing floodlights that operate at random times.
• Changing guard shift at random times. |
3-24.2 | 172 | Chapter 6
• Changing access time for entry points.
• Changing access procedures at random.
• Changing the way personnel are searched on a random basis.
• Observing surrounding areas with UAS or JLENS at random times.
Armor Protection
6-23. Vehicle and personnel armor protection saves lives and makes it more difficult for an insurgent
to conduct a lethal attack. However, the added weight will cause vehicles, especially the engine, to wear
out much faster than normal. Individual body armor also contributes substantial weight to the Soldier
and degrades his maneuverability and endurance.
Hardening
• Hardening vehicles or static sites—Increases protection.
• Makes an insurgent attack more difficult.
• Uses natural or man-made materials to protect personnel, equipment, or facilities.
(cid:131) Concrete or expedient barriers.
(cid:131) Sandbags, walls, shields, berms, or some other type of physical protection.
• Protects resources from blast, direct and indirect fire, heat, radiation, or electronic warfare.
• Concrete and expedient barriers.
• Is intended to defeat or negate the effects of an attack.
Combat Identification
6-24. CID is the process of attaining an accurate characterization of detected objects in the OE sufficient
to support an engagement decision (JP 3-0). These objects, all of which are potential targets, must be
quickly discriminated as friendly, enemy, or neutral. This is necessary to ensure that enemy forces can be
destroyed, friendly entities can be identified and prevented from becoming fratricide victims, and neutral
entities can be identified to prevent collateral damage. Common combat identification techniques include
the use of—
• Glint tape.
• Infrared lights and strobes.
• Heat sources.
• VS-17 panels.
• Flares.
COUNTERINSURGENCY BASES
6-25. US counterinsurgency forces operate within a Host Nation and must have a base from which
to operate. Typically, bases try to secure the population and isolate the insurgency from its support. A base
is a locality where operations are projected or supported (JP 1-02). All bases must be securable
and defendable. Bases vary in accordance with the size of the unit occupying the base and the mission
of the units using the base. All types of bases require clear command relationships. In counterinsurgencies,
forward operating bases (FOBs), combat outposts, and patrol bases are three types of bases.
FORWARD OPERATING BASES
6-26. Normally, each AO has at least one FOB. The size of the area, its physical characteristics, and the
number and size of the units operating within the area often require additional operating bases. The FOBs
established by a brigade or battalion are often semipermanent and provide deployed units with command,
control, and communications facilities; sustainment; personnel systems support; staging areas;
and intelligence activities. They provide units with relatively secure locations from which to plan
and prepare for operations. During counterinsurgency operations, they also aid in limiting insurgent
mobility nearby, and providing security to the local population. |
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6-27. Some differences exist between brigade and battalion FOBs. Brigade FOBs are larger than
battalion FOBs, and they provide a rear location for elements of battalions such as forward support
companies. A battalion FOB is normally staffed with the minimum personnel needed to operate
and provide security. It should also maintain two methods for sustainment: road and either air or water.
COMBAT OUTPOSTS
6-28. This is a reinforced observation post that can conduct limited combat operations (FM 3-90).
In counterinsurgency operations, combat outposts are often company and platoon-sized bases inside
of insurgent-influenced territory. They represent a cornerstone of counterinsurgency operations, in that
they are a means to secure the population. Located in strategically important areas, a combat outpost
provides security in its immediate area and direct contact with the local populace. These benefits are
unavailable from remote bases. Although the strategy carries with it potential downsides in terms
of increased protection concerns and limiting flexibility, the bases provide a huge increase in overall
security in the area.
6-29. Properly placed combat outposts often increase overall security. Emplacing a company or platoon
combat outpost in sector is a deliberate operation requiring detailed planning and additional logistical
support. The unit must first decide the task and purpose of the outpost by analyzing their sector.
Purpose
6-30. Outposts may be employed—
• To secure key lines of communication or infrastructure.
• To secure and co-opt the local populace.
• To gather intelligence.
• To assist the government in restoring essential services.
• To force insurgents to operate elsewhere.
Priorities of Work
6-31. For the initial establishment of combat outposts, priorities of work need to be considered. Some
considerations include—
• Ensuring the position is free of noncombatants. Removing them from the area of operations
before occupying the position.
• Selecting key weapons and crew-served weapon positions to cover likely mounted
and dismounted avenues of approach.
• Clearing fields of fire. Prepare loopholes, aiming stakes, sector stakes, and target reference
point markings. Construct positions with overhead cover and camouflage.
• Identifying and securing supra- and subsurface avenues of approach such as rooftops, sewers,
basements, and stairwells.
• Constructing barriers and emplacing obstacles to deny the enemy any access to streets,
underground passages, and buildings, and to slow his movement in general.
• Integrating barriers or obstacles with key weapons.
• Improving and marking movement routes between positions, as well as to alternate
and supplementary positions.
• Stockpiling ammunition, food, firefighting equipment, and drinking water.
PATROL BASES
6-32. When a patrol halts for an extended period, it takes active and passive measures to provide
maximum security by occupying a patrol base. A patrol base can be permanent or temporary. |
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Situations
6-33. Common situations that require establishing a patrol base include—
• A requirement to cease all movement to avoid detection.
• A requirement to hide the unit during a lengthy, detailed reconnaissance of the objective area.
• A need to prepare food, maintain weapons and equipment, and rest after extended movement.
• A need to formulate a final plan and issue orders for actions at the objective.
• A requirement for reorganization after a patrol has infiltrated the enemy area in small groups.
• A need for a base where several consecutive or concurrent operations, such as ambush, raid,
reconnaissance, or surveillance patrols, can be conducted.
Purposes
6-34. In counterinsurgency operations, collocating patrol bases in population centers enables
combined forces—
• To deny the insurgent access to the local population.
• To influence and assist the local government.
• To provide security.
• To help Host Nation security forces provide their own unaided security.
Methods of Establishment
6-35. Patrol bases, in the current fight, can be established using either of two methods. The same
priorities of work described for combat outposts apply also to patrol bases:
• Move in with the indigenous population. The advantages of the first method are that Soldiers
will have more direct contact with the local government, the locals will identify combined
forces with the emerging Host Nation government, and the construction will be less intensive.
The disadvantages are that Soldiers may live in unsanitary conditions, the mass base
or auxiliary may inform insurgents about outgoing patrols with relative ease, attacks on the
base will have collateral damage considerations, and houses are often not suited for defense.
• Build a new patrol base. Although more isolated from the population, new patrol bases are
usually on chosen ground and, therefore, easier to defend. Additionally, they are far more
resource and personnel intensive during construction. It is generally advisable to set aside
detailed planning time before sending a combined force to occupy the terrain.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR A BASE DEFENSE
6-36. Regardless of the ongoing operation, the type of base, or the location of a base, the characteristics
of the defense do not change. The best technique for base defense is the perimeter defense.
TERRAIN
6-37. Proper evaluation and use of the terrain in the area is essential to hold down the number
of additional forces required for base defense. Key terrain factors to consider include the following:
• Use of the terrain's natural defensive characteristics.
• Use of artificial obstacles to enhance the terrain's natural defensive characteristics.
• Control of all roads and waterways leading into the base.
• Control of military lines of communications and civilian commerce routes.
• Control of land areas surrounding the base to a range beyond that of enemy mortars
and rockets.
HOST NATION SECURITY FORCES
6-38. The base commander should consider the integration of Host Nation security forces in the overall
base defense effort. Particular emphasis is on integration of host country forces in patrol and populace
control activities. Both host and third country forces provide local security for their own units. However, |
3-24.2 | 175 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
to ensure maximum benefit, all such local plans should be coordinated and integrated with the base master
defense plan.
COMMUNICATION
6-39. Control is the key to a successful base defense. To achieve the necessary control, a
communication capability must be established between the base defense operations center and sector
commanders, and between the sector commander and his bunkers, towers, and reserve. Bunkers or Towers
within each section can communicate laterally within the sector, and flank bunkers of one sector can
communicate with flank bunkers of adjacent sectors.
SUSTAINMENT
6-40. Depending on the mission and status of the battalion, the type of transport available, the weather,
and the terrain, resupply may be by air or ground. The availability of landing zones and drop zones
protected from the enemy's observation and fire is the main consideration if selecting organizing aerial
resupply.
PROTECTION
6-41. All units in the base area are responsible for preserving its fighting potential. Protective measures
reduce the probability (and the effects) of damage caused by hostile action. Responsibility for the conduct
of protective measures is assigned to fire fighting units, chemical units, medical units, and other units.
In addition, all units assigned to the base are tasked to conduct activities such as dispersion, camouflage,
blackout, field discipline, and use of shelters.
SECURITY
6-42. Early warning of pending actions ensures the base commander time to react to any insurgent
threat. Outposts, patrols, ground surveillance and countermortar radar, military working dogs teams,
and air reconnaissance and surveillance provide early warning. Information provided by civilians
and actions of indigenous personnel near the base are excellent indicators of pending enemy actions.
All-round security is essential.
DEFENSE IN DEPTH
6-43. Alternate and supplementary positions, observation posts, and mutually supporting strong points
in front of the base forward defense area extend the depth of the defense. The commander plans fires
throughout the defensive area up to the maximum range of available weapons. Portable obstacles may be
placed around critical targets during reduced visibility to disrupt the enemy’s plan and add depth to the
defense.
PATROLS
6-44. Base defense operations to counter small groups of enemy forces include aggressive, frequent
patrolling by squad—and platoon-size forces to detect, capture, or destroy small groups of insurgents.
Dogs, if available, may be used to add security and additional detection ability to patrol operations.
Populated areas near the base are searched, and surprise checkpoints are established along known
or suspected routes of insurgent movement.
MAXIMUM USE OF OFFENSIVE ACTION
6-45. Since the objective of the base defense is to maintain a secure base, the defender maximizes the
use of offensive actions to engage enemy forces outside the base. On initial occupation of the base site,
friendly forces take offensive actions to destroy enemy forces in the immediate area. The area commander
employs patrols, raids, ambushes, air attacks, and supporting fires to harass and destroy any remaining
enemy force. Once the enemy has been cleared from the area, the base can be defended by a smaller force.
The base commander maintains constant liaison with major tactical unit commanders in the area to stay
abreast of efforts to remove the threat. |
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MUTUAL SUPPORT
6-46. Defending forces are positioned to ensure mutual employment of defensive resources that include
fires, observation, and maneuver elements. Mutual support between defensive elements requires careful
planning, positioning, and coordination because of the circular aspects of the base area. Surveillance,
obstacles, prearranged fires, and maneuvers are used to control gaps.
ALL-AROUND DEFENSE
6-47. In defensive planning, the base commander must be prepared to defend against enemy attack from
any direction. Plans are sufficiently flexible, and reserves are positioned to permit reaction to any threat.
Base defense forces are assigned primary and alternate positions and sectors of responsibility. All
personnel are assigned duty stations or shelters.
RESPONSIVENESS
6-48. Attacks against a base may range from long-range sniper, mortar, or rocket fire to attacks by
suicide bombers or major forces. The insurgent has the advantage of deciding when, where, and with what
force he will attack. The defender positions his forces and plans fires and movement so he can respond to
the widest possible range of enemy actions. The defender prepares plans, to include counterattack plans,
and rehearses, evaluates, and revises them as necessary.
QUICK REACTION FORCE
6-49. A QRF is a designated organization for any immediate response requirement that occurs in a
designated area of operation (FM 3-90.6). A QRF increases the overall flexibility of a base defense
and is available for contingencies. Usually a battalion will maintain a platoon sized QRF.
COMBAT OUTPOST CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
6-50. Building a combat outpost is a complex task that must be well thought-out, with a clear vision
from the beginning for expansion and development. It is always best to have trained engineers, either
military or civilian construct the base. Heavy consideration must be given to using local companies
or personnel in constructing the base. This will benefit the local economy; however, it will also increase the
security risk. Figure 6-5 shows a typical combat outpost construction in Iraq. The following considerations
are critical:
PROTECTION
6-51. Protection involves enemy and security considerations.
Enemy
• Coverage of dead spaces.
• Creation of a safety zone to prevent rocket attacks.
• Emplacement of IEDs along routes.
• Observation. |
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Figure 6-5. Typical US combat outpost design.
Security
• Position concrete block guard towers at each corner and reinforce with sandbags.
• Use chain-link screens to protect positions from rocket-propelled grenades and hand grenades.
WORK AND SLEEP AREAS
• Separate work areas from sleeping and eating areas for sanitation and health concerns.
• Develop a basing strategy that—
(cid:131) Projects where facilities will be located.
(cid:131) Identifies areas for expansion is required.
COMBAT OUTPOST EQUIPMENT
6-52. Standard equipment for the base includes—
• Kitchen sets.
• Motor pool assets.
• Gym sets.
• Power generators.
• Earth-moving equipment. |
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STORAGE
• Create storage space by using military van containers (MILVANs).
• Use MILVANs for bunkers, portable housing, and work units.
ELECTRICAL
6-53. When initially developing combat outposts—
• Envision the proper wiring and layout of zone power grids.
• Consider using generators for backup.
• Consider hiring contract electricians and construction workers, which can assist greatly in the
development of this system.
PLUMBING
• Field sanitation is paramount to the health and safety of personnel on the combat outpost.
• Bulk water from locally drilled wells is typically the main source of water.
FUEL
• Fuel stands are required for storing and distributing bulk fuel assets.
COUNTERINFILTRATION AND EARLY WARNING
6-54. The key to an effective combat outpost defense lies in identifying the threats. Among the most
dangerous threats are infiltrators. The best defense against these threats is the population that surrounds the
combat outpost. As described in Chapter 1, internally displaced people, merchants, or shopkeepers are
potential sources of intelligence about insurgent attacks on bases. Soldiers from the combat outpost must
talk to their neighbors.
BASE DEFENSE
6-55. This includes both normal and emergency military measures taken to nullify or reduce the
effectiveness of enemy attacks or sabotage. The base commander is responsible for the local defense of the
base and provision of resources for other activities within the overall area of operations. The base defense
force commander executes base defense operations. Operations are conducted to ensure the continued
effectiveness of base facilities and units to fulfill their missions. The area commander’s responsibilities
include protecting the resources of his area from interruptions caused by enemy activities. Figure 6-6
shows a possible organization of a base command. |
3-24.2 | 179 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 6-6. Organization of base command.
BASE COMMANDER
6-56. The mission of the base commander is to exercise command, control, and administration of the
base and to exercise necessary control of resident and transient units not a part of the base command.
A base commander may also be the area commander. The base commander’s responsibilities include
establishing the overall defense organization as well as planning, preparing, and executing all defense
measures.
BASE DEFENSE COMMANDER
6-57. A base defense commander is appointed to supervise the preparation of detailed defense plans
including establishing defense sectors, conducting required training, providing for or coordinating
logistical support, and controlling base defense operations through an operations center. As the base
commander’s special representative, the base defense commander coordinates the planning efforts
and operations of all elements that are to participate in the base defense.
BASE DEFENSE ELEMENTS (FORCES)
6-58. Three categories of elements that conduct base defenses are shown in Figure 6-7. The term
elements is used in place of the term units, because base operations are often executed ad hoc: |
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Figure 6-7. Base defense elements forces.
KEY BASE DEFENSE STRUCTURES
6-59. The key base defense positions consist primarily of bunkers and towers in the base perimeter area.
The positioning of bunkers and towers affords maximum observation and mutually supporting fires over
the area forward of the perimeter to include the perimeter barrier and sensor system. See FM 3-34.300
for specifics on the construction of defensive positions associated with base defense (Figure 6-8).
Figure 6-8. Key base defense structures.
BASE DEFENSE EXERCISES
6-60. All base defense plans must be rehearsed, and should include the testing of the base defense alarm
and communication systems. Diverse elements of the defense force must be trained to act in a coordinated
effort. These exercises familiarize all elements of the defense force and base tenant units with their
assignments in base defense. Exercises must be conducted frequently under various weather conditions
during daylight and darkness. Defense exercises include the following:
• Defense of sectors of responsibility, to include—
(cid:131) Rehearsing counterattacks.
(cid:131) Manning defense positions.
• Employment of the reserve for counterattacking and for reinforcing the defense positions.
• Coordination of supporting fires and other means of support.
• Mass casualty exercises.
• Coordination with other forces assigned to base that may be used in a ground defense role.
• Command post exercises. |
3-24.2 | 181 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
In 1965, the Marine Corps created the Marine Combined Action Program (CAP) in Vietnam. The plan
was to incorporate a Marine Squad with a Vietnamese Popular Defense Force platoon on the Fort Page
firebase.
On June 10, 1965, 12 Marines from C Company, 1st Battalion, 7th Marines were placed with a
Vietnamese Popular Defense Force platoon of about 30 men in a village. Binh Nghia had long been a
"hotbed" of Viet Cong activity. Aggressive patrols and intelligence gained by the Popular Defense Force
soldiers immediately disrupted Viet Cong Operations, and the sector grew quiet. The Viet Cong
requested support from the 409 North Vietnamese Army Battalion. They planned to attack Fort Page and
destroy the CAP. This would free the Viet Cong to resume regular operations.
On September 14, 1965, the CAP was conducting normal night patrols, leaving Fort Page with only 6
Marines and 12 Vietnamese soldiers. Forgetting that the CAP's presence was responsible for the lull in
Viet Cong activity, the squad leader lowered American security from 2 Marines to 1 Marine per guard
shift. This left Vietnamese Soldiers almost completely in charge of Fort Page security. Viet Cong Sappers
infiltrated that night and killed 6 Vietnamese Soldiers and 5 Marines. A reserve squad from a nearby
Marine company firebase arrived on scene after the NVA battalion withdrew. The Viet Cong thought they
had won.
The next morning, the Marine Division Commander asked remaining Marines if they wanted to stay. To a
soldier, they did. At night, the Marines and Vietnamese soldiers doubled their security, and Viet Cong
operations came to a complete stop.
In March 1967, the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army planned another attack on Fort Page. The
CAP had reliable intelligence about the attack, and sent out two patrols to provide early warning. Fearing
a repeat of the 1965 attack, Marine commanders ordered the CAP to retire under threat of court martial.
The Marine squad leader asked his squad what they thought.
One said, “They’re not getting this fort. They’re not getting this ville. I’m not leaving here, no matter what.”
The Marines stayed. When one of the CAP patrols killed the NVA battalion scout, the rest of the battalion
withdrew.
Fort Page was never again threatened. By the time the Marines withdrew from Binh Nghia, the
Vietnamese soldiers were patrolling in buddy teams on their own.
COUNTER AMBUSH
6-61. Ambushes are a basic tactic commonly used by guerrilla forces. As such, counterinsurgent forces
must continually operate under the understanding that they will encounter an ambush. Counterinsurgent
forces must therefore develop specific local procedures to both react to and to counter ambushes. Typical
complex insurgent ambushes involve IEDs, small arms fire, mortars, and sniper fire.
CONSIDERATIONS DURING COUNTERINSURGENCIES
6-62. The goal for tactical units is to identify and attack or disrupt the ambush force before it can initiate
the ambush. Additionally, if the insurgents’ kill zone can be identified before the insurgents are in position,
then the ambushers can be attacked as they move into position. Any counterinsurgency unit that
is ambushed must immediately return fire and assault the ambushers. Specific considerations include—
• Avoid massing personnel or vehicles.
• Prepare a reaction plan that includes assaulting the ambushers.
• Ensure only part of the element is in a kill zone at the same time (usually means dispersion).
• Maintain control of your immediate tactical space (within 100 meters).
• Where insurgents are likely to establish ambushes, establish counter ambushes.
• Emplace sniper teams or other forces to overwatch likely insurgent routes to ambush sites. |
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MOUNTED PROCEDURES
6-63. The following procedures may be used when reacting to an ambush while mounted:
• Immediately return fire and assume a covered position if possible.
• If you are in the kill zone, leave rapidly.
• If you are not in the kill zone, use fire and maneuver to destroy the enemy if possible.
• Scan your area and prepare for additional attacks, especially—
(cid:131) An IED.
(cid:131) An enemy moving to flank.
(cid:131) An enemy moving to engage you with RPGs or antitank weapons.
• Report contact to higher HQ.
• Follow directions of the vehicle or convoy commander.
COUNTERING IEDS
6-64. An improvised explosive device (IED) is "a device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner
incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy,
incapacitate, harass, or distract. It may incorporate military stores, but it is normally made from nonmilitary
components" (JP 3-07.2). IEDs are key components of insurgent ambushes. (See also FM 3-90.119.)
CONSIDERATIONS DURING COUNTERINSURGENCY
6-65. Between 2001 and 2007, US forces were attacked by over 81,000 IEDs. IEDs are the most
dangerous and effective weapon system faced by Coalition Forces in Iraq. They have inflicted more
casualties than all other weapon systems combined.
TECHNIQUES
6-66. Wide usage, a destructive nature, and the resulting overall impact on military operations makes
the IED a significant factor for tactical units. For this reason, leaders at all levels must consider IEDs. At a
tactical level, a unit has three major techniques for defeating IEDs. They are—
• Attack the network.
• Defeat the device.
• Train the force.
Attack the Network
6-67. This method is used to defeat the complex network of IED makers, financiers, emplacers,
suppliers, and others before the IED is emplaced. It includes actions and activities against networks
designed to interrupt the enemy’s chain of IED activities by identifying and exploiting vulnerabilities
and enabling offensive operations. This effort is accomplished through intelligence, surveillance,
reconnaissance, counter bomber targeting, device technical and forensic exploitation, disposal
of unexploded and captured ordnance, persistent surveillance directed toward defeat of the enemy’s
capabilities, and the execution of information tasks which includes command and control warfare, military
deception, and, especially, information engagements. Search operations and operations to kill or capture
network members provide the final, critical step in the process. It is better to find 100 detonators in a cache
than to deal with 100 IEDs on the battlefield.
6-68. Several analytical tools can be used by tactical units to detect members of an IED network
and synchronize all information gained through various sources. They are part of the targeting process,
which is discussed in Chapter 4. By correctly synchronizing intelligence at all levels, leaders can better
apply combat power to attacking the IED network. The three major tools are imagery and geospatial
intelligence analysis, pattern analysis, and link analysis. |
3-24.2 | 183 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Imagery and Geospatial Intelligence Analysis
6-69. Analysis of an AO where IEDs are employed would be incomplete without the use of imagery
and geospatial intelligence. Imagery products include both aerial photography and satellite imagery.
In many cases, tasked aerial reconnaissance platforms, including UASs, respond directly to the
commander, thus ensuring timely and focused data collection.
Pattern Analysis
6-70. Units use pattern analysis to determine many of these patterns and predict potential hazards.
Pattern analysis is the ability to observe a selection of events or actions over a period of time in a defined
location or area. It is used to discover likely patterns or similarities that lead to a logical conclusion that the
action or event will occur again in the same location. The two most common forms are coordinates register
and pattern-analysis plot sheet.
Considerations
6-71. For IED analysis, commanders and staffs use pattern analysis to determine the—
• Types of IEDs.
• Locations where IED incidents have occurred.
(cid:131) Characteristics of the IED sites.
(cid:131) Sizes of the IEDs.
(cid:131) Distance from road, mosque, other natural or man-made objects.
(cid:131) Type of terrain the threat prefers.
(cid:131) Other obstacles used in conjunction with IEDs.
(cid:131) Routes to and from the IED sites (worn paths, other).
• Distance from the IED site to the possible cache.
• Types of munitions and whether one or more types were used.
• Whether the IEDs used explosively formed penetrators (EFPs).
• Whether the IEDs used shape charges.
• Other IED main components such as—
(cid:131) Main charge (explosive)
(cid:131) Casing (materials around the explosives)
(cid:131) Initiators.
• Methods of initiation, such as—
(cid:131) Command wired.
(cid:131) Radio controlled.
(cid:131) Victim operated.
(cid:131) Timed.
Coordinates Register
6-72. A coordinates register shows cumulative events that have occurred within the AO and focuses on
the “where” of an event. Figure 6-9, which is an example of a coordinates register, is also known as an
incident map. |
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Figure 6-9. Coordinates register.
Pattern-Analysis Plot Sheet
6-73. A pattern-analysis plot sheet focuses on the time and date of each serious incident that occurs
within the AO. The rings show days of the month; the segments show the hours of the day. As shown in
the plot sheet's legend, the chart shows the actual events; it identifies each by using an alphanumeric
designation that directly corresponds to the legend used on the coordinates register. The legend icons can
be changed to show other types of incidents such as vehicle-borne IEDs (VBIEDs), command-wired IEDs
(CWIEDs), and radio-controlled IEDs (RCIEDs). Figure 6-10 shows an example pattern-analysis plot
sheet.
Note: List daily entry number on calendar. In journal, cross-reference each incident to the
incident overlay. |
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Figure 6-10. Example pattern-analysis plot sheet.
Link Analysis
6-74. Link analysis is used to show contacts, associations, and relationships between persons, events,
activities, organizations. The two most effective types of link analysis tools are the activities
and association matrixes and the link diagram.
Activities and Association Matrixes
6-75. Using the activities and association matrixes, the analyst can pinpoint the optimal targets
for further intelligence collection, identify key personalities within an organization, and considerably
increase the analyst's understanding of an organization and its structure. The activities matrix is used
to determine connectivity between individuals and any organization, event, address, activity, or any other
nonpersonal entity. The association matrix is used to determine existence of relationships between
individuals. Figure 6-11 shows an example activities matrix, and Figure 6-12 shows an example
association matrix. |
3-24.2 | 186 | Chapter 6
Figure 6-11. Example activities matrix.
Link Diagrams
6-76. Often, the link analysis is the most effective method to show the connections between people,
groups, or activities. An example of a link diagram is shown in Figure 6-13. The analyst can easily
determine from the diagram that A knows B, and that B knows C and D. B is suspected of knowing E,
and C knows D, B, and E. Although the same information could be shown on a matrix, it may be easier
to understand when shown on a link analysis diagram. As situations or investigations become more
complex, the ease in understanding a link analysis diagram becomes more apparent. In almost all cases, the
available information is first shown and analyzed on both types of matrixes, which are then used
to construct a link analysis diagram for further analysis. |
3-24.2 | 187 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 6-12. Example association matrix.
Figure 6-13. Example link diagram. |
3-24.2 | 188 | Chapter 6
Defeat the Device
6-77. In order to enhance commanders’ freedom of maneuver for safe operations, actions taken to
discover IEDs and activities reduce the effects of IED detonation at the point of attack by defeating the
device. They include rapid identification, development, acquisition, and delivery of capabilities for route
clearance, device neutralization, explosive detection, military explosive ordnance disposal, and vehicle
and personnel protection. Additional considerations should address new technologies to include electronic
warfare capabilities. Two techniques for defeating the device are dismounted patrols and route clearance.
Dismounted Patrols
6-78. Dismounted patrols are especially useful in countering IEDs. Use of dedicated counter IED
patrols, especially along main supply routes, is an important technique to reduce the threat of IEDs along
those routes. A great way to counter IEDs is to eliminate the popular support or acquiescence to the IED
cell through regular engagements. If that is not possible, then identify, and neutralize the kill zones.
Route Clearance
6-79. Route clearance teams (RCTs) are used to thwart ambushes, clear natural or man-made obstacles,
and detect IEDs. RCTs are comprised of engineers, EOD personnel, mechanical devices, and specialized
robotics to increase standoff from the IED threat. The purpose of route clearance is to eliminate
concealment for IEDs and munitions caches and to conduct the systemic detection and deterrence sweeps
along the cleared routes.
6-80. Route clearance missions consist of the following two phases: right-of-way clearance and route
maintenance and sweep operations. Right of way clearance is the removal of rubble, debris, berms, holes,
trenches, vegetation, and trash from the medians and shoulders of routes. Right-of-way clearance can be
conducted with special equipment such as an up-armored bulldozer. Cleaning the right of way in this
manner serves multiple purposes: IED-detection devices become more effective; it is more difficult for the
enemy to emplace IEDs; and all counterinsurgent forces can more easily identify IEDs should the enemy
attempt to emplace them again. Another technique is to use by local national labor, which employs the
population. Units should then conduct a deliberate route reconnaissance, identify and record the location
of man-made objects (buried pipes and cables), and investigate suspicious areas. Route maintenance
and sweep operations are when units conduct systemic, random detection sweeps of the cleared areas
and progress to detection and deterrence sweeps along the cleared route. A visual detection sweep should
focus on changed conditions.
Train the Force
6-81. Mitigating the effects of enemy IED employment through comprehensive training of our forces
puts troops in the field who are situationally aware and who know their gear. This includes, but is not
limited to, multiechelon and multicomponent training, training on new gear, information management
and dissemination, strategic communications, doctrinal and institutional training changes, and unit mission
rehearsals at Service combat training centers. All soldiers need to be trained in basic techniques, actions
while mounted, and dismounted actions.
Individual Techniques
6-82. Counter-IED operations at the soldier level revolve around several principles. (See
GTA 90-10-046 for information on combined arms improvised explosive device defeat operations.) Units
need to know, control, and identify when something is out of place in their area of operations. Insurgents
adapt their techniques based off of counterinsurgent unit actions. These principles are the following:
• Maintain an offensive mindset.
• Develop and maintain situational awareness.
• Stay observant.
• Avoid setting patterns.
• Maintain 360-degree security. |
3-24.2 | 189 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
• Maintain tactical dispersion.
• Use blast and fragmentation protection.
• Use technology, such as electronic warfare capabilities, thermals, or other devices.
• Look for the triggerman.
Mounted Actions
6-83. Mounted action includes actions before encountering an IED and actions after encountering
an IED.
Precautionary Actions while Mounted
6-84. Consider the following while conducting mounted operations:
• Alert all crewmembers of possible IED and its location.
• Never stop a vehicle within 50 meters of a suspected IEDs. The driver should speed up or back
away to quickly move through the danger area. Minimum open area safe distance is 300 meters.
• Watch for approaching vehicle borne IEDs (VBIEDs). All personnel should be alert
and constantly aware of any vehicle approaching or parked along the route
• Threats should be addressed with a direction, a short description, and an estimated distance.
When time is limited, only the direction need be given: RIGHT FRONT or RIGHT FRONT
MERGING TRUCK 200 METERS.
• Vehicle commands to the driver should be short, giving only a direction and a desired action:
TURN RIGHT, SPEED UP, SLOW DOWN or STOP.
• Gunners should respond by scanning the sector (weapon ready) indicated in the threat alert.
Reaction to IED while Mounted
6-85. The following procedures may be used when reacting to an IED while mounted:
• Immediately establish security and scan for secondary IEDs.
• Scan your area and be ready for any follow on attacks, especially any additional IED or enemy
moving to engage you with small arms, RPG, or antitank weapons. If necessary, use
obscurants.
• Look for the triggerman or for anyone trying to escape the area.
• Conduct five and twenty-five meter vehicle perimeter checks.
• Report IED to higher HQ. If found before detonation, use the 9-line IED/UXO report.
• Follow directions of the vehicle/convoy commander.
Dismounted Actions
6-86. Dismounted actions include actions before encountering an IED and actions after encountering
an IED.
Precautionary Actions while Dismounted
6-87. Consider the following while conducting dismounted operations:
• Alert patrol members of possible IED and its location.
• Never stop within 50 meters of a suspected IED. Move out of the danger area. Minimum open
area safe distance is 300 meters.
• Watch for approaching VBIEDs or PBIEDs. All personnel should be alert and constantly aware
of any vehicle approaching or parked along the route
• Threats should be addressed with a direction, a short description and estimated distance. When
time is limited, only the direction need be given: RIGHT FRONT or RIGHT FRONT
ONCOMING TRUCK 200 METERS.
• All Soldiers should respond by scanning the sector (weapon ready) indicated in the threat alert. |
3-24.2 | 190 | Chapter 6
Reaction to IED While Dismounted
6-88. The following procedures may be used when reacting to an IED while dismounted:
• Establish security and scan for secondary IEDs (5m and 25m sweeps).
• Report IED to higher HQ. If found before detonation, use a 9-line IED/UXO report.
• Maintain security in case of an ambush.
• Follow the directions of the team/squad leader.
React to a Suspected Person-Borne Improvised Explosive Device
6-89. The following procedures may be used to react to a suspected person-borne IED (PBIED):
• Alert unit members of suspect and evacuate area if possible.
• Issue a verbal command in a loud and firm voice to the suspect to stop. Weapon should be
trained on the suspect.
Note: After these actions, there is a high probability that the suicide bomber will attempt to detonate
the explosive device. Use deadly force in accordance with the Theater ROE. Physically
restraining the suspect from detonating the device requires coordination with other Soldiers
and is inherently very dangerous.
• Direct the suspect to show hands palms up. The suspect must show palms and fingers spread,
so it can be verified if the suspect is palming a detonator. Be advised that there may be a remote
detonator.
• Tell the suspect to ground all carried items and step two paces away from them.
• Direct the suspect to remove outer clothing and place garments on the ground.
• Direct the suspect to raise or remove any undershirt, and to hold it up while turning a
complete circle.
• Direct the suspect to lie face down, with arms outstretched palms up, and face turned away
from you. DO NOT approach, even if the suspect is injured. Maintain cover and wait for the
arrival of explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel.
• Report suicide bomber to higher HQ using the 10-line explosive hazard spot report.
• If the suspect is noncompliant, deadly force will be used in accordance with the theater ROE.
• Evacuate the area around the suspect (minimum 300 meters or METT-TC) to any hard cover
available.
• Establish security and scan for secondary PBIEDs.
• Maintain security in case of possible ambush.
• Follow the directions of the vehicle/squad leader.
COUNTERSNIPER OR SNIPER DEFEAT
6-90. The first step in countering snipers is for commanders, leaders, and Soldiers at all levels to be
aware of the sniper threat. Plans to counter the sniper threat and protect friendly forces from insurgent
snipers must be integrated into all counterinsurgent operations during the early stages of planning. Enemy
snipers in a counterinsurgency environment vary from well-trained sniper teams to individuals taking shots
of opportunity. US counterinsurgency forces must be prepared for both.
6-91. Figure 6-14 shows the three types of snipers an insurgent can employ. Identifying the type that
is on the battlefield can aid a commander in deciding what countermeasure to use. |
3-24.2 | 191 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 6-14. Types of snipers.
CONSIDERATIONS DURING COUNTERINSURGENCIES
6-92. Sniper operations have the same effect in insurgencies as they do in conventional warfare, but the
purpose is different. For example, in conventional warfare, a sniper targets leaders in order to cause
confusion on the battlefield and disrupt operations. In an insurgency, a sniper will still target leaders, but
more for use in propaganda that can be used after a successful attack. Additionally, he can create the
attitude that the area of his operations is not secure and the Host Nation government is powerless to stop
him. Since the sniper has the initiative, leaders must enforce compliance with the countermeasures.
Implementing countermeasures halfheartedly invites casualties from snipers who can wait hours for the
moment when a unit’s guard is down. US forces have two categories of sniper countermeasures: active
countermeasures and passive countermeasures. Each has its place, depending on the METT-TC mission
variables.
Active Countermeasures
6-93. Active countermeasures seek to detect and destroy the sniper before he can fire, or engage
and neutralize him after he fires.
Observation Posts and Observers
6-94. Observation posts should have access to powerful spotting telescopes, medium power binoculars,
night observation devices (thermal, if possible), and remote control closed circuit cameras. Additionally,
laser countermeasure should be employed, such as laser protective glasses, binoculars with laser filters,
and indirect-view optics to protect observers. Additionally, many electronic detection devices are available
to aid in the detection of snipers such as acoustic devices. Once detected, snipers can then be neutralized
or forced to withdraw. Observers can maintain a constant surveillance over potential sniper positions
and detect snipers as they attempt to move into position for a shot. Constantly scanning an area for the
minute movements made by a well-trained sniper is exhausting. Therefore, personnel on static OP duty
should rotate frequently. Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and rotary wing aircraft should be integrated
into an OP plan to give it depth.
Patrols
6-95. Constant reconnaissance and security patrols around a unit’s position hinder a sniper from getting
into a firing position undetected. Small patrols are usually more effective than large ones. A moving sniper
who has been discovered by a patrol is at a great disadvantage since he lacks the firepower to fight a long
engagement. Small night reconnaissance patrols using night vision devices can be very effective
in disrupting and interdicting a sniper. Reconnaissance patrols should move by covered and concealed
routes to good observation points; should stop and observe; and then should move to another position. The
patrol routes and times must vary, and a reaction force or supporting weapons must be ready if the patrol
makes contact. A variation of the ambush patrol is the stay-behind ambush. A small ambush element
moves as part of a larger patrol and occupies its position without being observed. It then observes its kill
zone, which may be very large if the element has a sniper team with it, and engages enemy snipers as they
attempt to move into position. Currently, SKTs, SCTs, or small observation teams (SOTs) conduct
ambushes of likely sniper positions. |
3-24.2 | 192 | Chapter 6
United States Sniper Teams
6-96. US sniper teams can be a very effective counter to enemy snipers. Not only do they have expert
knowledge of sniping and likely enemy hiding places, they can normally engage enemy snipers
or marksmen at a greater range than the enemy sniper can engage US forces. Their precision fires are also
much less likely to cause civilian casualties than dozens of rounds from other weapons.
Return Fire and Maneuver
6-97. Before a unit encounters an enemy sniper, the unit must not only understand the rules
of engagement but also war-game the rules of engagement to ensure the authorized level of responses are
sufficient. Although the ROE and the tactical situation determine the response, ideally authorization should
include the ability to respond with fire from all the units light weapons. If a unit can determine the general
location of a sniper, it should return suppressive fire while maneuvering to engage the sniper from close
range. This is not always successful because a well-trained sniper often has a route of withdrawal already
chosen. Fire without maneuver will not be successful in defeating snipers.
Obscurants
6-98. Projected smoke that builds quickly is a good response to protect a unit from further casualties
if engaged by an enemy sniper. It greatly limits his ability to acquire targets. The closer the smoke is placed
to the sniper’s location, the more effective it is. If the location of the sniper is unknown or cannot be
reached by projected smoke, a smoke cloud established near the unit can be effective in reducing the
sniper’s chances of hitting a target and allowing a unit to conduct first aid and CASEVAC.
Passive Countermeasures
6-99. Passive countermeasures prevent the sniper from acquiring a clear target and prevent his fires
from causing casualties. Passive countersniper measures are rarely successful by themselves. If passive
measure are the only measures enacted, they may also create a siege mentality and pass the initiative over
to the sniper. They include—
Limiting Sniper Exposure
6-100. If Soldiers limit their sniper exposure, they can marginalize snipers operations. Some examples
include using covered and concealed routes, avoiding lighted areas at night, moving tactically while using
traveling or bounding overwatch, and staying away from doors and windows.
Wearing Protective Equipment
6-101. Other sniper protective measures include wear of the Kevlar helmet, protective eyewear, and body
armor systems. These should be worn any time Soldiers are exposed to potential sniper fire. This decreases
the snipers' casualty-producing target area, which limits his effectiveness.
Using Armored Vehicles
6-102. Whenever possible, move around in the urban area in a protected vehicle with as little exposure
as possible. Avoid open-sided cargo vehicles. Requisition or improvise vehicular armor against small-arms
fire for all unarmored vehicles. This technique limits a unit’s ability to interact with the population,
and should be used as a last resort.
Erecting Screens and Shields
6-103. Use simple canvas or plastic screens to make a dangerous alleyway or street crossing safer
for foot traffic. Adapt screens on windows to allow vision out while hiding personnel inside. Use moveable
concrete barriers to provide protection for personnel at static positions. Use common items, such
as rubble-filled 55-gallon drums and sandbags, to provide cover. |
3-24.2 | 193 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Denying Enemy Use of Overwatching Terrain
6-104. Either occupy overwatching terrain with friendly forces, or modify it to make it less useful to an
enemy sniper. Pull down likely hiding places. Clear bushes and rubble. Board or brick up windows. Pile up
earth and rubble in front of buildings to block lines of sight for snipers. Ensure all actions are
in accordance with the laws of war.
TECHNIQUE CONSIDERATIONS
6-105. Countersniper actions have two parts: find and eliminate the sniper.
Find the Sniper
6-106. Once a unit determines it has a sniper or a sniper team in its AO, the unit should implement
countersniper immediate action drills. Allowing the enemy sniper to fight another day is mission failure.
First, the unit must find the sniper or the sniper team. Techniques for detecting a sniper consist
of identifying likely sniper locations, focusing observation on sniper movement, and seeking audible and
visual signs. Backtracking, which involves integrating the following techniques, is used to find the sniper:
Identify Likely Sniper Locations
6-107. A sniper is a line-of-sight asset. The larger the sniper kill zone, the closer or the higher he must
position himself to cover it. Smaller sniper kill zones create for a narrow, if not linear, line of sight. In such
cases, the sniper will always choose a position that offers that offers a line of sight, such as a road or alley,
or maybe inside a building, shooting through a window, doorway, or other opening.
Focus Observation on Sniper Movement
6-108. Snipers always plan infiltration and exfiltration routes. After identifying possible sniper locations,
a unit commander can focus observation on these routes and deny a sniper the ability to reposition. Snipers
operate slowly, with calculated movements, to avoid detection. The movement the sniper makes may not
be easily detected. Units should look for movement that does not "fit" the environment.
Seek Audible/Visible Signs
6-109. Audible/visual indicators help find snipers based on the sniper's firing a shot. Actually, firing a
weapon is a sniper’s greatest moment of risk; it offers the best opportunity to locate him or his team. The
acoustic, light and heat signatures associated with the projection of the bullet from his rifle are his greatest
vulnerabilities. The muzzle flash can be detected with infrared sensors out to a kilometer. Often the muzzle
flash and the blast can throw dust into the air. Acoustic sensors can detect a muzzle blast from several
hundred meters to more than a kilometer. The bullet’s shock wave is a mini-sonic boom. This noise, caused
by the bullet travelling faster than the speed of sound, can sometimes be heard more than a kilometer away.
Backtrack Sounds, Sights, and Angles
6-110. In a city, the backtracking process is complicated by buildings that obstruct the view of the
sniper’s position. Backtracking is challenging, but it is how you relate shot angles, kill zones, movement,
and audible and visible signs to help you find the sniper. Experience and training play a major role
in accurate backtracking.
Eliminate Sniper
6-111. Once spotted, the enemy sniper must be killed or forced to surrender. To be successful in this
goal, the unit must rapidly locate, fix, and finish an active enemy sniper to ultimately kill or capture him. |
3-24.2 | 194 | Chapter 6
Avoid the Kill Zone
6-112. Figure out his kill zone and stay out of it. A unit may also want to eliminate or at least reduce his
targets. If a unit removes its targets, the unit curtails mission success; the sniper will need to move, or at
least adjust his position, to remain effective.
Maneuver Rapidly
6-113. When contact is made, the on-scene commander needs to rapidly calculate the disposition of his
forces, the quick reaction force (QRF), and adjacent friendly forces and factor in time/space considerations
to determine how to neutralize the threat. Because of the fleeting nature of the sniper, it is often preferable
for the on-scene commander to begin to maneuver against the hostile sniper with an unengaged portion
of his own force rather than wait for a QRF.
Consider Sniper Hunting with Another Sniper
6-114. Throughout history, many units engaged in urban combat often employed direct and indirect
supporting arms, close air support, or large numbers of ground forces to counter urban snipers. However,
the Russian and German forces of World War II found that the best solution to a sniper threat was the
employment of their own snipers in a countersniper role. Advantages to using a trained sniper to counter
enemy snipers include—
• The relative ease of movement over the urban battlefield of a sniper team versus that of a larger
ground formation.
• Countersnipers who “know the habits and modus operandi” of their enemy counterparts.
• The ability to deliver “precision fire” and the resulting reduction in collateral damage
or civilian and friendly casualties.
Confirm that Enemy Sniper is Neutralized
6-115. In this context, neutralization means that the sniper is killed or captured. A dead or captured
enemy sniper, besides ending that threat, can be a valuable source of intelligence.
COUNTERING DRIVE-BY SHOOTINGS
6-116. A drive-by shooting is the firing of small arms by an occupant(s) of a vehicle as [the vehicle]
drives past an area, followed by the vehicle's immediate departure of the area. This is an effective
technique for an insurgent, because it allows rapid infiltration and exfiltration, requires little logistical
support, has a chance of success, and has little chance of resulting in a decisive engagement. Any structure
or location near a roadway is a target for a drive-by shooting. Usual targets for drive-by shootings are
vulnerable, easily escapable spots. Attackers avoid well-defended locations.
CONSIDERATIONS
6-117. Establishing static checkpoints or closing roads near a high threat area often prevents further
drive-by attacks along a specific avenue of approach. However, the insurgents are not eliminated and they
will then look for new or different ways to attack. Timely and accurate reporting by subordinate units can
allow higher headquarters to integrate UAS and rotary wing aircraft to track vehicles after a drive-by
attack. This will open insurgents up to targeting counterinsurgent forces.
TECHNIQUES
6-118. One technique is to conduct mobile checkpoints. If effective, they can disrupt the ability
of insurgents to transport weapons in vehicles. Random snap checkpoints may encourage drive-by shooters
to look elsewhere for targets. |
3-24.2 | 195 | Defensive Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Section III—OTHER LINES OF EFFORT
In a counterinsurgency, defensive operations are conducted to prevent insurgents from attacking security
forces, attacking the population, or disrupting actions along the seven COIN lines of effort. This section
discusses special defensive operation considerations for the remaining five lines of effort.
SUPPORT HOST NATION SECURITY FORCES
6-119. The success or failure of a counterinsurgency falls heavily on the competence and capability
of Host Nation security forces. When insurgent forces are stronger than the Host Nation security forces,
insurgents focus on the destruction of weak Host Nation units to control terrain and consolidate gains
through deliberate attacks on a Host Nation base, combined combat outpost, combined patrol base,
or combined command post. In this situation, extra defensive efforts need to be applied to give time for the
Host Nation security forces to develop. When Host Nation forces are stronger than insurgent forces,
insurgents attempt to delegitimize Host Nation security force operations through attacks focused on
lessening security. Then, defensive considerations need to be applied to enable Host Nation forces
to increase the efficiency of their operations.
SUPPORT TO GOVERNANCE
6-120. This line of effort relates to the Host Nation governments' ability to gather and distribute resources
while providing direction and control for society. By disrupting the Host Nation government’s ability
to conduct these functions, an insurgency can delegitimize the government. An example is the local
security of a key judge who has been instrumental in issuing verdicts against criminal activities
of insurgents in order to prevent his assassination. Defensive efforts may need to be applied so that a
government can conduct its basic functions which include—
• Controlling military and police activities.
• Establishing and enforcing the rule of law.
• Public administration.
• Justice (a judiciary system, prosecutor/defense representation, and corrections).
• Property records and control.
• Civil information.
• Historical, cultural, and recreational services.
• An electoral process.
• Disaster preparedness and response.
RESTORE ESSENTIAL SERVICES
6-121. A common insurgent technique is to create a dissatisfied population by preventing the Host
Nation from meeting the population’s basic needs. An easy way for an insurgent to do this is to disrupt the
population from receiving sewage, water, electrical power, and medical services. Units should apply
defensive considerations for any attempt by combined or Host Nation security forces to build or restore
those services. For example, a poorly planned generator drop allows an insurgent to attack and destroy the
generator. Now, instead of restoring an essential service and reinforcing the legitimacy of the Host Nation
government as intended, the insurgent has demonstrated the weakness of the Host Nation government.
Instead, US and Host Nation security forces need to secure, protect, and prevent insurgents from
influencing projects that restore essential services.
SUPPORT TO ECONOMIC AND INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT
6-122. A poor and unemployed population is naturally dissatisfied. The major pool of insurgent recruits
are unemployed, young, adult males. The primary motivation for a young male to join an insurgency
is often the wage that it provides. Sometimes insurgencies foster the conditions to keep an economy |
3-24.2 | 196 | Chapter 6
stagnant. Naturally, the Host Nation and combined forces will conduct stability operations to create
situations where businesses can thrive. An example is conducting route security, so that insurgents cannot
interfere with the transportation of products to a market. Economic infrastructure that might need defensive
considerations include—
• Natural resources.
• Industries such as manufacturing and transportation.
• Agriculture and livestock—crops, products, and storage facilities.
• Local merchants and markets.
• Credit associations.
CONDUCT INFORMATION ENGAGEMENT
6-123. Information engagement is deliberately integrated into defensive operations to compliment
and reinforce the success of operations. Exploiting insurgent violent tactics, behaving harshly towards the
HN population, and failing to achieve their goals are matters of precise timing and coordination. Some
units have chosen to prepare an information engagement plan to provide an immediate response
to insurgent attacks or propaganda such as sending a field-grade officer to the site of an insurgent attack
to talk with the local media and get the correct story out. These efforts may go far to influence the populace
to provide information, either for reward or anonymously, that may break apart insurgent networks.
Specifically, information supplied by the populace is critical in countering ambushes, IEDs, snipers, and
drive-by shootings. It does this by interrupting the insurgent decision cycle.
SUMMARY
General Clutterbuck in the Malayan emergency said, “(A Village police post)… was the only thing that
could provide security against the threat that really mattered in the villages—the man with the knife, who
lived in the village and prowled the streets at night seeking out those people who had actively supported
the government or betrayed the guerrillas during the day.” This chapter identified defensive operations
as they apply specifically to establishing civil security and civil control, and the other LOEs. Defensive
operations in COIN must secure the population, Host Nation security forces and government, and US
forces from the actions of insurgents. |
3-24.2 | 197 | Chapter 7
Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
“Internal Warfare within a population, particularly in cities, generally involves an
extensive police operation. There is also an intensive propaganda effort, destined
primarily to make the steps that are taken understood [by the population]. A broad
social program follows, the objective of which is to give the people the material
and moral assistance necessary to permit them to resume their normal activities
quickly after operations are over.”
Trinquier, Roger. Modern Warfare—A French View of Counterinsurgency, 1964.
Stability operations encompass various military missions, tasks, and activities
conducted outside the United States in coordination with other instruments
of national power to maintain or reestablish a safe and secure environment, provide
essential governmental services, emergency infrastructure reconstruction,
and humanitarian relief (JP 3-0). They leverage the coercive and constructive
capabilities of the military force to establish a safe and secure environment; facilitate
reconciliation among local or regional adversaries; establish political, legal, social,
and economic institutions; and facilitate the transition of responsibility to a legitimate
civilian authority (FM 3-07). In the absence of HN civil government, military forces
will have to fulfill this role until HN, UN, or other US Government agencies assume
these responsibilities. FM 3-07 describes in detail the requirements that may fall upon
the Soldiers and leaders to perform.
Section I—OVERVIEW
During an insurgency, stability operations are executed simultaneously with offensive and defensive operations.
They compliment and reinforce offensive and defensive operations. Because they begin to address the root
causes that lead to the insurgency, stability operations are often the most critical for defeating an insurgency.
There are five primary tasks within stability operations—establish civil security, establish civil control, support
to governance, restore essential services, and support to economic and infrastructure development. Two
additional tasks— support Host Nation security forces and conduct information engagement are added
to produce the seven COIN lines of effort. HN security forces are discussed in Chapter 8, while information
engagements are in Chapter 4. These seven COIN LOEs are a means for tactical units to manage a stability
operation’s numerous tasks, achieve unity of effort, and restore the legitimacy of a Host Nation government.
The stability tasks fall into three categories. This chapter will focus on the first two tasks:
• Military forces retain primary responsibility.
• Civilian agencies/organizations likely retain responsibility, but military forces prepared
to execute.
• Tasks for which civilian agencies or organizations retain primary responsibility.
NATURE OF STABILITY OPERATIONS
7-1. The stability tasks and their interrelation with the COIN LOEs are not sequential in nature.
They must be continually assessed and re-evaluated. This iterative process occurs because units do not
have the manpower to apply the same effort along each stability task. As in the rheostat, discussed
in Chapter 3, success in the establish civil security LOE may cause units to apply more pressure along the
restore essential services LOE. Figure 7-1 shows an example of a brigade that incorporated the five
primary stability tasks into the seven COIN LOEs. At the commander’s discretion, this brigade has chosen
to combine the establish civil security and establish civil control LOEs. |
3-24.2 | 198 | Chapter 7
Figure 7-1. Example BCT using LOEs.
CLEAR-HOLD-BUILD OPERATIONS
7-2. In a clear-hold-build operation, stability operations are conducted in the “clear” phase, “hold”
phase, and the “build” phase. In the “build” phase, which focuses on building HN capacity and capabilities,
stability operations are primary, although offensive operations and defensive operations occur
simultaneously. Stability operations address multiple COIN LOEs.
Section II—FIVE PRIMARY STABILITY TASKS
All five primary stability tasks are used during counterinsurgency operations, normally as individual lines
of effort. However, since each counterinsurgency, each insurgency, and even individual units and leaders are
different, how these five stability tasks are applied and managed as individual lines of efforts may vary
considerably. The five stability tasks follow:
• Establish civil security.
• Establish civil control.
• Support to governance.
• Restore essential services.
• Support to economic and infrastructure development.
ESTABLISH CIVIL SECURITY
7-3. Counterinsurgent forces seek to create a safe, secure, and stable environment for the local
populace. Key to this is the development of security institutions, or in their absence performing the duties
normally associated with those institutions until those capabilities are developed or transitioned to HN, UN
or other US agencies. Ultimately, the Host Nation must secure its own people. Civil security involves
protecting areas, resources, and the populace from both external and internal threats. Ideally, Army forces
focus on the external threats while police and security elements address internal security threats by |
3-24.2 | 199 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
criminals and small, hostile groups. However, during an insurgency, the Army must now also address the
internal security threats by criminals and small, hostile groups—notably the armed insurgents.
SUBORDINATE TASKS
7-4. Typical civil security subordinate tasks a counterinsurgent unit may perform are as follows
(combat-oriented techniques for establish civil security are covered in Chapter 6):
• Enforce cessation of hostilities.
• Enforce peace agreements and other arrangements.
• Conduct disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration
• Conduct border control, boundary security, and freedom of movement.
• Support identification.
• Protect key personnel and facilities.
• Clear explosive and CBRN hazards.
ENFORCE CESSATION OF HOSTILITIES, PEACE AGREEMENTS, AND OTHER ARRANGEMENTS
7-5. These tasks aid in providing security and stability after an armed conflict, while at the same time
setting the conditions needed to start disarming, demobilization, and reintegration. These tasks are critical
to providing effective security for the local populace by reducing their exposure to the threat of violent
conflict. The tasks help military forces establish a sustained peace by focusing on processes and activities
fundamental to conflict transformation. In COIN, most efforts focus on identifying and neutralizing
potential adversaries. For instance, in Iraq from 2003 to 2005, US forces fought a Sunni insurgency
comprised of many members of the former regime’s security apparatus. The list of essential tasks
may include—
• Enforce cease fires.
• Supervise disengagement of belligerent forces
• Identify and neutralize potential adversaries.
• Provide security for negotiations.
Conduct Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration
7-6. These tasks are fundamental to establishing stability and lasting peace. It includes physically
disbanding guerrillas and reintegrating them into society. Other elements do not carry weapons; however,
they support the guerrilla forces. Their communities and families perceive them as part of the insurgency.
Together, the tasks of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration reduce a potential resurgence
of insurgency. These tasks provide a means for these individuals and groups to reenter society
as contributing members. Some of these tasks could also be used for the demobilization of HN paramilitary
forces. For more on HN paramilitary forces, see Chapter 8. Essential tasks may include—
• Negotiate arrangements with insurgents.
• Establish and enforce weapons control programs, including collection and destruction.
• Provide reassurances and incentives for disarmed groups.
• Establish a monitoring program.
• Ensure adequate health, food, and security for former insurgents.
• Disarm former insurgents or HN paramilitary forces.
• Reduce availability of unauthorized weapons.
• Reintegrate former insurgents and HN paramilitary forces and dislocated civilians into society.
• Secure, store, and dispose of weapons.
• Develop HN arms control capacity. |
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Establish Border Control, Border Security, and Freedom of Movement
7-7. A central component of civil security is the ability of the HN to monitor and regulate its borders.
Generally, border and coast guard forces secure national boundaries while customs officials regulate the
flow of people, animals, and goods across state borders. These border controls are necessary to regulate
immigration, control the movements of the local populace, collect excise taxes or duties, limit smuggling,
and control the spread of disease vectors through quarantine. In COIN, the ability for the counterinsurgent
to control the borders reduces the effectiveness of the external support for the insurgency. Essential tasks
may include—
• Establish border control and boundary security.
• Establish and disseminate rules relevant to movement.
• Dismantle roadblocks and establish checkpoints.
• Ensure freedom of movement.
Support Identification
7-8. This task complements efforts to vet Host Nation personnel, encourage participation
in representative government, resolve property disputes, and validate professional credentials. Although
vital to other programs for rebuilding a functioning civil society, identification programs are equally
important to civil security. After the collapse of an authoritarian or hostile regime, these programs ensure
that potential adversaries do not inadvertently reintegrate into society. Thus, they are deprived of the ability
to sow the seeds of a future insurgency. It is a key part of populace and resource control operations.
Tactical units often do this by conducting a census with biometric assets. Essential tasks may include—
• Secure documents relating to personal identification, property ownership, court records, voter
registries, professional certificates, birth records, and driving licenses.
• Establish identification program.
• Ensure individuals have personal forms of identification.
Protect Key Personnel and Facilities
7-9. In COIN, military forces may extend protection and support to the HN population to ensure their
continued contribution to the overall stability operation. In the interest of transparency, military forces
specifically request and carefully negotiate this protection. Similarly, the long-term success of any
counterinsurgency often relies on the ability of the security force to protect and maintain critical
infrastructure until the HN government can resume that responsibility. Essential tasks may include
identifying, securing, protecting, and coordinating disposition for stockpiles of munitions and CBRN
materiel and precursors; facilities; and adversaries with technical expertise as well as the following:
• Protect—
(cid:131) Government-sponsored civilian reconstruction and stabilization personnel.
(cid:131) Contractor and civilian reconstruction and stabilization personnel and resources.
• Protect and secure—
(cid:131) Places of religious worship and cultural sites.
(cid:131) Critical infrastructure, natural resources, civil registries, and property ownership documents.
(cid:131) Strategically important institutions (such as government buildings; medical and public health
infrastructure; the central bank, national treasury, and integral commercial banks;
museums; and religious sites).
(cid:131) Military depots, equipment, ammunition dumps, and means of communications.
• Build Host Nation capacity to protect—
(cid:131) Civilian reconstruction and stabilization personnel.
(cid:131) Infrastructure and public institutions.
(cid:131) Military infrastructure. |
3-24.2 | 201 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Clear Explosive and CBRN Hazards
7-10. To an HN combatting an insurgency, the presence of explosive hazards (including minefields,
IEDs, and unexploded ordnance) and CBRN hazards (resulting from intentional or accidental release)
inflicts stress that the surviving institutions cannot bear. These hazards restrict freedom of movement,
hinder international trade, and detract from the ability of an HN government to secure its population
and borders. Military forces may clear unexploded ordnance and other explosive hazards to facilitate
capacity-building activities. Removing these hazards ensures the safety, security, and well-being of the
local populace. Essential tasks may include—
• Establish an explosive hazards coordination cell.
• Conduct emergency clearing of mines, IEDs, unexploded ordnance, and other explosive
hazards.
• Map, survey, and mark mined areas, unexploded ordnance, and other explosive hazards.
• Remediate hazards remaining from the release of CBRN hazards and radiological fallout,
as well as provide decontamination support.
• Create Host Nation capacity to conduct demining.
• Build Host Nation capability to export demining expertise.
ESTABLISH CIVIL CONTROL
7-11. This task regulates selected behavior and activities of individuals and groups. This control reduces
risk to individuals or groups and promotes security. Civil control channels the population’s activities
to allow provision of security and essential services while coexisting with a military force conducting
operations (FM 3-0). A top priority for military forces conducting stability operations during a
counterinsurgency will be the re-establishment of legal and justice systems to help aid with security sector
reform. Units may find themselves involved with corrections activities, establishing public order
and safety, resolving property disputes, and supporting reconciliation efforts. Most military efforts focus on
building temporary or interim capabilities until more permanent capabilities are put in place by either the
Host Nation or US and international agencies.
SUBORDINATE TASKS
7-12. Typical civil control subordinate tasks a counterinsurgent unit may perform are—
• Establish public order and safety.
• Establish interim criminal justice system.
• Support law enforcement and police reform.
• Support judicial reform.
• Support property dispute resolution processes.
• Support corrections reform.
• Support public outreach and community rebuilding programs.
Establish Public Order and Safety
7-13. These tasks provide a broad range of activities to protect the civilian populace, provide interim
policing and crowd control, and secure critical infrastructure. These essential tasks represent actions that
must occur during and after an insurgency to ensure the long-term sustainability of any reform efforts. The
speed and effectiveness in performing these tasks directly correlates with the length of time to defeat the
insurgency. Executing these tasks as soon as practical after intervening reduces the time required
for related efforts and allows the mission to be accomplished far sooner. However, the military’s legal
authorities for all activities in the justice sector, particularly involving enforcement and adjudication of the
law, must be clear. Essential tasks may include—
• Secure the population.
• Ensure humanitarian aid and security forces reach endangered populations and refugee camps.
• Perform civilian police functions, including investigating crimes and making arrests. |
3-24.2 | 202 | Chapter 7
• Locate and safeguard key witnesses, documents, and other evidence related to key ongoing
or potential investigations and prosecutions.
• Control crowds, prevent looting, and manage civil disturbances.
• Secure facilities, records, storage equipment, and funds related to criminal justice and security
institutions.
• Build Host Nation capacity to protect military infrastructure.
• Build Host Nation capacity to protect infrastructure and public institutions.
• Build Host Nation capacity for emergency response.
• Fostering sustainability where military forces identify modernization needs and the means
to achieve them.
Establish Interim Criminal Justice System
7-14. Often in COIN, establishing or reestablishing an interim justice system is a prerequisite. This
restoration requires a wide range of skilled professionals working under a clearly defined legal authority:
judges, prosecutors, court administrators, defense lawyers, corrections personnel, law enforcement,
and investigators. These personnel—and the institutions they represent—provide a temporary respite that
allows the Host Nation to restore its legal system. Essential tasks may include an initial response in which
military forces—
• Assess current laws and need for modifications or adoption of internationally accepted codes.
• Assess Host Nation capacity to combat crime.
• Deploy interim justice personnel to complement Host Nation criminal justice system.
• Establish mechanisms to review the legality of detentions and minor cases to minimize pretrial
detention.
• Enact interim legal codes and procedures permitted by international law.
Support Law Enforcement and Police Reform
7-15. US military forces provide support to law enforcement and policing operations, which is integral
to establishing civil control. HN police may provide this capability if the security environment permits.
Usually in insurgencies, the HN police may have become corrupt or failed altogether. In failed states,
especially during and immediately after conflict, military police forces are the only organizations able
to fill this void. At times, HN police augment military forces, rather than the other way around. The
preferred providers of civilian law enforcement services are HN police, augmented as required by military
and paramilitary police units with policing capabilities. Civilian agencies typically provide training
and capacity-building support for law enforcement services. However, US and HN military forces may be
required to perform these services in the interim, until the situation permits transition of this function
to civilian agencies or organizations. Essential tasks may include the following:
• Identify, secure, and preserve evidence of—
(cid:131) War crimes.
(cid:131) Crimes against humanity.
(cid:131) Corruption.
(cid:131) Transnational crime such as terrorism, organized crime, human trafficking, and narcotics.
• Identify and detain perpetrators of these offenses.
• Support vetting, checking credentials, and accounting for HN police forces.
• Inventory and assess police facilities and systems.
• Train and advise HN police forces.
• Rehabilitate or construct necessary facilities.
• Establish police academies. |
3-24.2 | 203 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Support Judicial Reform
7-16. The reform of judicial bodies is integral to rule of law and provides the necessary framework
for broader security sector reform. The support provided to judicial institutions parallels efforts with police
and security forces to enhance the state’s capability to maintain civil control and security. Under most
circumstances, other agencies organizations typically support the development of the judicial branch
of government. In a failed state, however, military forces may initially perform these functions until they
can be transitioned to an appropriate civilian agency or organization. Essential tasks may include—
• Identify Host Nation legal professionals.
• Educate criminal justice personnel on interim legal codes and international human rights
standards.
• Inventory and assess courts, law schools, legal libraries, and bar associations.
• Deploy judicial advisors and liaisons.
• Rehabilitate or construct necessary facilities.
• Support vetting of Host Nation legal professionals.
Support Property Dispute Resolution
7-17. A vital service of the judiciary branch is to resolve property disputes. One of the causes of an
insurgency might be old disputes over ownership and control of property. Authorities must implement
dispute resolution mechanisms. This prevents the escalation of violence that can occur in the absence
of law order as people seek resolution on their own terms. Typically, the military’s role in resolving
disputes is limited to transitional military authority where these mechanisms are implemented in the
absence of a functioning Host Nation government. Essential tasks may include an initial response in which
military forces—
• Implement mechanisms to prevent unauthorized occupation or seizure of property.
• Publicize dispute resolution process.
• Coordinate dispute resolution process to deter violence and retribution.
Support Corrections Reform
7-18. When the goal in COIN is to criminalize the insurgency and prosecute insurgents in the HN court
system, corrections reform is an integral component of broader security sector reform. Corrections reform
tasks focus on building HN capacity in the penal system, restoring the institutional infrastructure,
and providing oversight of the incarceration process. Tasks also include a comprehensive assessment of the
prisoner population to help reintegrate political prisoners and others unjustly detained or held without due
process. Essential tasks may include—
• Identify and register all detention, correction, or rehabilitative facilities.
• Preserve and secure penal administrative records and reports.
• Inventory and assess prison populations and conditions.
• Implement humanitarian standards in prisons.
• Provide emergency detention facilities.
• Vet corrections personnel.
• Deploy penal trainers and advisors.
• Refurbish prison facilities at key sites.
• Coordinate jurisdiction and handover.
• Facilitate international monitoring.
• Rebuild corrections institutions.
• Train and advise corrections personnel to internationally accepted standards.
• Develop reconciliation, parole, and reintegration mechanisms. |
3-24.2 | 204 | Chapter 7
Support Public Outreach and Community Rebuilding Programs
7-19. These programs are central to the reconciliation process in a counterinsurgency, and to promoting
public respect for the rule of law. They provide the HN populace with a means to form a cohesive society.
While these programs generally do not involve substantial military involvement, some activities require the
force’s support to achieve success. Essential tasks may include an initial response in which military
forces—
• Establish broad public information programs to promote reconciliation efforts.
• Assess needs of vulnerable populations.
TECHNIQUES
7-20. Most combat-oriented techniques for performing establish civil control-type tasks are covered
in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6. Checkpoint operations and vehicle searches help establish public order
and safety by limiting the insurgent’s freedom of movement.
Establish Checkpoint (Control Traffic)
7-21. A checkpoint is a manned position, usually at a chokepoint on a main thoroughfare, which can
control all vehicular and pedestrian traffic passing along that road. A checkpoint may stop and check all
vehicles or only a selected few. A checkpoint is not a roadblock. A roadblock prevents all vehicular
or pedestrian traffic along a thoroughfare.
7-22. Checkpoints may be temporary, semipermanent, or permanent. A common discriminator between
a temporary and a semipermanent checkpoint is its manning requirements. A temporary checkpoint has no
shift requirements—the same individuals can establish, operate, and then break down the checkpoint.
A semipermanent checkpoint requires at least one additional ‘shift’ of personnel to operate it for the length
of time required. Over time, a semipermanent checkpoint may turn into a permanent checkpoint.
A permanent checkpoint usually has no set end time. Most nations have permanent checkpoints, especially
at international border crossings or at key access control points. Common reasons for establishing a
checkpoint during counterinsurgency operations include—
• Demonstrating the presence and authority of the host government.
• Checking vehicles for explosive devices.
• Maintaining control of vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
• Apprehending suspects.
• Preventing smuggling of controlled items.
• Preventing infiltration of unauthorized civilians into or through a controlled area.
• Serving as an observation post.
Considerations
7-23. Checkpoints cause considerable inconvenience and sometimes fear to the population. Therefore, it
is important that the citizens understand that checkpoints are a preventive and not a punitive measure. The
use of a TPT to broadcast instructions and explanations and disseminate handbills to civilians waiting at a
checkpoint helps minimize negative reactions to the control measure and to ensure compliance.
7-24. The rapid establishment of a temporary checkpoint can support a host of counterinsurgency
operations. The two types of checkpoints follow:
Snap Checkpoint
7-25. This is a rapidly established, temporary checkpoint. If time allows, a designated, mobile unit
is trained and resourced for this mission. Then, with little warning, this unit can establish a snap checkpoint
almost anywhere. |
3-24.2 | 205 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Enduring Checkpoint
7-26. This is often established initially as a snap checkpoint. As the site is further developed, an
enduring checkpoint becomes semipermanent.
7-27. Insurgent forces often target traffic checkpoints with harassing sniper or indirect fire. A plan
to quickly locate and react to these threats often reaps great benefit. Additionally, checkpoints are often
targeted by insurgent snipers or by a scripted traffic incident. The insurgent's goal is to induce the
counterinsurgent to overact and then to exploit the overreaction in the media.
Locations
7-28. The precise location and degree of visibility of a checkpoint reflect its purpose. A highly visible
checkpoint is often located where traffic can avoid it. This works well for entry-control points and border
crossings. A concealed checkpoint is often located where traffic cannot avoid it by bypassing, turning
around or getting off the road without being observed and, if ordered, detained. Figure 7-2 and Figure 7-3
show possible setups for snap and enduring checkpoints.
Conduct Vehicle Searches
7-29. Any unit may be tasked to conduct the routine search of vehicles. If there is a high probability that
vehicles may be wired with explosives, then an EOD team should lead the search effort. All vehicles
should be screened before entering the search area. Usually screening is done at the initial barrier and IAW
local screening criteria. Vehicles are then directed either through the search area or to one of the search
sites. Normally passenger vehicles are segregated from commercial vehicles as part of the screening
process.
PLANS
7-30. Determine the specific purpose of the checkpoint. The purpose influences the location, degree
of individual checks, length of time, resources, and manpower required.
• Define the parameters of searches—this includes whether to search all pedestrians and all
vehicles. For vehicles, determine whether to search the vehicle, the occupants, or a
combination. Determine the search method and level of search detail. Distribute a “Be on the
look out” (BOLO) list, if available.
• Establish the screening criteria for searches and the method of screening. This can reduce time
and manpower requirements.
• Determine the in-effect time. Checkpoints lasting longer than 12 hours will require shifts.
Consider placing rest areas for shifts near the search area so they can be used as a reserve force.
• Establish both near and far security. Near security protects the checkpoint force. Far security,
often concealed, prevents the escape of any vehicle or person attempting to turn back upon
sighting the checkpoint. Plans must include the actions taken when this happens.
• Establish and brief the ROE and EOF procedures including warning signs.
• Rehearse checkpoint operations, especially EOF procedures.
• Design the checkpoint layout and gather the needed materials before arrival.
• Determine the personnel requirements.
• Emplace in positions where traffic cannot easily bypass the checkpoint.
• After it can operate on its own, determine if the HN security force should man the checkpoint. |
3-24.2 | 206 | Chapter 7
Figure 7-2. Well-equipped snap checkpoint layout. |
3-24.2 | 207 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
Figure 7-3. Typical enduring checkpoint layout.
MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
7-31. Consider equipment, for example—
• Equipment, such as speed bumps or filled barrels, to slow and canalize vehicles. |
3-24.2 | 208 | Chapter 7
• Protection items, which may include both lethal and nonlethal munitions.
• Concertina wire to control movement around the checkpoint.
• Sandbags and wood for defensive positions or bunkers.
• Binoculars, night vision devices, and flashlights.
• Long-handled mirrors (for inspecting vehicle undercarriages).
• Logs and checklists for inspectors, supervisors, and so on.
• Caution flags and unit signs.
PERSONNEL CONSIDERATIONS
7-32. Consider each element:
• Command element.
• Security element.
• Search element.
• Linguists and Host Nation representation.
• Military police.
• Medical personnel.
• Communications personnel.
• Tactical PSYOP team.
• HCTs.
• Military working dog teams.
• HN security force personnel.
ESTABLISHMENT
7-33. Position a combat vehicle off the road, but within sight, to deter resistance.
• Keep this vehicle in a hull-down position and protected by local security. It must be able
to engage vehicles attempting to break through or bypass the checkpoint.
• Place obstacles in the road to slow or canalize traffic into the search area.
• Establish a reserve, if applicable.
• Establish a bypass lane for approved convoy traffic.
• Designate the vehicle search area.
• Establish a parking area adjacent to the search area.
• Designate male and female search areas near the vehicle search area. Normally, search women
using a metal detector, searched by a female Soldier or searched by a Host Nation female.
• Consider a controlled bypass lane for HN civilians with medical emergencies, HN civilian
officials, or other HN population concerns
• Consider the effect on the local population to include market times, sporting events, holidays,
and collateral damage
OPERATION
7-34. Screen all vehicles IAW with established, preferably written, criteria. Establish observation
for vehicles or occupants attempting to avoid the checkpoint. This includes—
• Exiting a vehicle and walking away or around the checkpoint.
• Having a lead vehicle signal a following vehicle to avoid the area.
• Creating a distraction to allow the vehicle or occupants to slip away.
SCREENING CONSIDERATIONS
7-35. In addition to having a basic published list of criteria—
• Note the number of occupants.
• Note the type or color of the vehicle.
• Devise a method of managing important changes or alerts. |
3-24.2 | 209 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
• Observe all vehicles and all occupants.
• Always maintain some element of randomness.
Basic Levels
7-36. The three basic levels of vehicle searches follow:
Initial
7-37. This is a cursory search that is the same for all stopped vehicles. This relatively quick check
should take no more than two minutes. It may be combined with initial vehicle screening. Basic vehicle
initial search procedures include—
• Ensure at least two people conduct the search:
(cid:131) One guard (driver and occupants)
(cid:131) One searcher (vehicle)
• Stop the vehicle at the search site.
• Have all occupants exit the vehicle and move them to one location.
• Instruct the driver to turn off the engine, and then open the hood, trunk, and all doors.
• Continue the search once the above is complete.
• Question or search of the driver and occupants is optional.
• Begin and end the exterior search at the front of the vehicle, moving in a clockwise direction.
• Visually search of the exterior and top of the vehicle.
• Visually search of the underside of the vehicle.
• Search the interior starting at the front compartment, then the right side, then the rear
compartment, then the left side, ending at the front.
• Complete the search.
• Instruct the driver and occupants to continue.
Primary
7-38. This is a full search of select vehicles. Vehicles may be selected randomly, IAW screening
guidelines or due to similarities to vehicles associated with previous events (a be-on-the-look-out,
or BOLO list.) This search usually entails checking the interior, exterior, engine and trunk compartments
and mirror checks of the vehicle underside. It should take two to five minutes. Primary search include
those of those of the initial search and may add the following—
• Question or search the driver and occupants.
• Check the inside of the front hood.
• Check the rear compartment.
Secondary
7-39. This is a detailed search of a suspect vehicle. A vehicle becomes suspect usually due to screening
or discovery of items during a primary search. This thorough search is manpower and time intensive. It
may include disassembling panels, checking interiors of wheels, and so on. At the basic level, to conduct a
secondary search of a vehicle—
• Ensure at least four people conduct the search:
(cid:131) Two for the driver and occupants.
(cid:131) Two more for the vehicle.
• Assume that the driver and occupants or the vehicle itself is suspect.
• If possible, have the vehicle stop in a safe and secure location.
• Instruct the driver to turn off the engine, open the hood, open the trunk, and open all doors.
• Obtain the keys from the driver.
• Move the driver and occupants to a separate location.
• Detain and search driver and occupants while searching the vehicle. |
3-24.2 | 210 | Chapter 7
• Begin the vehicle search at the front and end at the rear.
(cid:131) One searcher searches the right front, right side, and right rear.
(cid:131) The other searcher searches the left front, left side, and left rear.
• Conduct a visual search of the exterior and top.
• Conduct a visual search of the underside of the vehicle.
• Without entering, conduct a visual search of the interior of the vehicle.
• Ensure the engine is off, and then ensure the hood, trunk, and all doors are open.
• Check the inside of the front hood.
• Check the interior left and right sides.
• Check the rear compartment.
• Complete the search.
• Return keys to driver.
• Instruct driver and occupants to continue.
Vehicle Types
7-40. Vehicles are generally categorized into four types: automobiles (cars), motorcycles and bicycles,
buses, and heavy goods vehicles (trucks). Search considerations for the car are covered above as part
of basic vehicle considerations. Search considerations for the three additional vehicles follow:
Motorcycles and Bicycles
7-41. Basic motorcycle and bicycle search procedures include—
• Ensure at least two people conduct the search.
(cid:131) One for the driver and passenger.
(cid:131) One for the vehicle.
• Have the driver or a passenger turn off the engine and dismount.
• Visually inspect the vehicle and any compartments on the vehicle.
• Complete the search.
• Instruct driver and passenger to mount up and continue.
Buses
7-42. Basic bus search procedures include—
• Ensure at least four people conduct this search.
(cid:131) Two for the driver and occupants.
(cid:131) Two for the bus itself.
• Set aside an area to search buses due to their length, potentially large number of occupants,
and lots of luggage.
• Instruct only the driver to turn off the engine and open all exterior compartments.
• Initially, board the bus, check all occupants' identification, note seating arrangements,
and check carry-on baggage.
• If a full search is required, have all occupants exit the bus with their baggage, and then detain
them while you search the bus and baggage.
• Complete the search.
• Instruct driver and occupants to reload and continue.
Heavy Goods Vehicles (Trucks)
7-43. Basic heavy goods (truck) vehicle search procedures include—
• Ensure at least three personnel conduct the search.
(cid:131) One for the driver and occupants.
(cid:131) Two for the vehicle.
• Set aside an area to search these vehicles due to their length and amount of cargo.
• Instruct the driver to turn off the engine, open the hood, and open all doors. |
3-24.2 | 211 | Stability Operations Considerations in Counterinsurgency
• Check the driver’s credentials and cargo manifests.
• Inspect to the degree required for the cargo.
• Complete the search.
• Instruct driver and occupants to secure load and continue.
SUPPORT TO GOVERNANCE
7-44. This helps build toward effective, legitimate governance. Specifically, it focuses on restoring
public administration and resuming public services, while fostering long-term efforts to establish a
functional, effective system of political governance. In every case, for the counterinsurgent to develop a
long-term solution, unit actions must strengthen the Host Nation government and reinforce its legitimacy
with the people (Figure 7-4). The formation of an effective local government is critical to the success
of any counterinsurgency operation because they provide the foundation for legitimate governance at the
national level. Additionally, effective local governments promote social stability when people have a say
in their own government. They also increase financial transparency, which helps fight corruption. At the
local level, the formation of local neighborhood councils serves as an excellent starting point
for supporting governance. Units may have to initiate these efforts without an external agency support.
Neighborhood and district councils are effective because they empower the population on many levels.
They help the populace devise local solutions to local problems and help citizens and community leaders
build skills in community decision making. All involved parties learn to resolve conflicts peacefully
and in a transparent fashion. Local councils also help leaders at the local level develop skills that can help
them serve at higher levels of government.
SUBORDINATE TASKS
7-45. Typical tasks include—
• Support transitional administrations.
• Support development of local governance.
• Support anticorruption initiatives.
• Support elections.
Figure 7-4. Legitimate governance. |
3-24.2 | 212 | Chapter 7
THE CHALLENGES OF GOVERNANCE IN IRAQ
In 2003, perhaps the most volatile site for this ethnic conflict was the city of Kirkuk, located
in northern Iraq about 150 miles north of Baghdad. The city was located in what was historically
Kurdish territory, but its population had long been a mix of Kurds, Arabs, Assyrian Christians,
and Turkoman. Situated in the heart of Iraq’s oil fields, Kirkuk had strategic importance for much
of the 20th century. Partly for that reason, in the 1970s and 1980s Saddam attempted to “Arabize”
Kirkuk by forcing Kurds to leave and moving Arab groups in. The arrival of Coalition troops in the
city in May 2003 opened up the possibility for the Kurdish population to take control once again over
an important cultural and economic center.
The 173d Airborne Brigade (173d ABN) took responsibility for the city soon after the toppling of the
Saddam regime. In May 2003, Soldiers of the brigade found themselves attempting to mediate
between groups of armed Arabs moving north to ensure the Kurds did not overwhelm the city
and the Kurdish groups that had begun flexing their muscles by forcibly evicting some Arabs. On 17
May 2003, this conflict became violent with firefights erupting in the streets of Kirkuk.
Colonel William Mayville, the brigade commander, recalled that this event served as the “really big
first lesson into, or insight into what some of the social dynamics in this community at play were.”
He added, “If you did not address [these dynamics], the consequences could be very, very violent.”
Instead of finding citizens eager for democracy, the Soldiers of the 173d ABN discovered a
multiethnic populace interested in removing all vestiges of Baathist power and solving the problems
of Saddam’s Arabization policies, while also ensuring their ethnic group retained its social,
economic, and political position in the city. This presented a complex problem to the Soldiers of the
brigade, the large majority of whom had no experience in politics of any type.
One of the first recommendations made by brigade officers was the establishment of a multiethnic
city council that could help redress the grievances of the various groups and begin moving the city
forward. By the end of May 2003, less than 6 weeks after the brigade arrived in Kirkuk, Mayville
and his governance team selected 300 delegates from the city, who elected a 30-seat council,
which included 6 representatives from each of the 4 ethnic groups.
Working with civilian contract consultants who had partnered with USAID, brigade officers
convinced the city council to establish a new structure that included five directorates: employment,
public safety, public works, budget office, and resettlement. The employment directorate would play
a direct role in enforcing the de-Baathification process and US officers hoped the resettlement
office could work with both Arabs and Kurds to defuse the tensions caused by land disputes. RTI
consultants and CA officers also helped the new Kirkuk budget office prepare the city’s budget
for 2004 and established a citizen’s bureau to help handle complaints from the public.
Adapted from "On Point II: Transition to the New Campaign: The United States Army in Operation
IRAQI FREEDOM," May 2003—January 2005
Support Transitional Administrations
7-46. When the HN government has collapsed or been deposed, counterinsurgency efforts focus on
immediately filling the void in governance. In either situation, the reliability and trustworthiness of local
officials is suspect; due care and prudence are necessary to avoid empowering officials whose interests
and loyalties are inconsistent with those of the occupying force. For example, a tactical unit may struggle
with identifying and emplacing a good neighborhood council leader. Tasks may include—
• Vet Host Nation officials.
• Reconstitute leadership at local levels of government.
• Establish interim legislative processes. |
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