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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
early 15c., from Old French paternal "of a father" (12c.), from Medieval Latin paternalis, from Latin paternus "of a father, fatherly," from pater (see father (n.)).
paternal pa·ter·nal (pə-tûr'nəl)adj.
Relating to or characteristic of a father or fatherhood.
Received or inherited from a father.
Related through one's father.
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Friday, August 19, 2011
Definitions for runic
- Having some secret or mysterious meaning.
- Consisting of or set down in runes.
- Referring to an interlaced form seen on ancient monuments, metalwork, etc., of the northern European peoples.
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Citations for runic
And he dances, and he yells; keeping time, time, time, in a sort of runic rhyme.
To that end, he hid the secret in this runic code.
Origin of runic
Runic comes from the Old English rūn, "secret."
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asexual reproduction n.
Reproduction occurring without the sexual union of male and female gametes.
|asexual reproduction |
See under reproduction.
The kind of reproduction in which it is not necessary to have two parents to produce offspring. The reproduction of single-celled organisms through fission, and the production of spores in some plants and plantlike organisms, are examples of asexual reproduction.
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any of various methods of colouring cloth in a pattern by pretreating designed areas to resist penetration by the dye. To obtain a two-colour pattern on goods already dyed in one colour, a dye paste is applied in the desired design; the paste contains a substance resistant to a second dye, which is then applied to the cloth, developing colour only in the areas not covered by the paste. Batik and tie-dyeing (qq.v.) are examples of resist printing.
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Any network which provides similar services within an organisation to those provided by the Internet outside it but which is not necessarily connected to the Internet. The commonest example is the use by a company of one or more World-Wide Web servers on an internal TCP/IP network for distribution of information within the company.
Since about 1995, intranets have become a major growth area in corporate computing due to the availability of cheap or free commercial browser and web server software which allows them to provide a simple, uniform hypertext interface to many kinds of information and application programs.
Some companies give limited access to their intranets to other companies or the general public. This is known as an "extranet".
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the parents of the Virgin Mary, according to tradition derived from certain apocryphal writings. Information concerning their lives and names is found in the 2nd-century-AD Protevangelium of James ("First Gospel of James") and the 3rd-century-AD Evangelium de nativitate Mariae ("Gospel of the Nativity of Mary"). According to these sources, Anne (Hebrew: Hannah) was born in Bethlehem, Judaea. She married Joachim, and, although they shared a wealthy and devout life at Nazareth, they eventually lamented their childlessness. Joachim, reproached at the Temple for his sterility, retreated into the countryside to pray, while Anne, grieved by his disappearance and by her barrenness, solemnly promised God that, if given a child, she would dedicate it to the Lord's service. Both received the vision of an angel, who announced that Anne would conceive and bear a most wondrous child
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(Or "Operator overloading"). Use of a single symbol to represent operators with different argument types, e.g. "-", used either, as a monadic operator to negate an expression, or as a dyadic operator to return the difference between two expressions. Another example is "+" used to add either integers or floating-point numbers. Overloading is also known as ad-hoc polymorphism.
User-defined operator overloading is provided by several modern programming languages, e.g. C++'s class system and the functional programming language Haskell's type classes.
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Chinese stringed instrument of the dulcimer, or struck zither, family. The yangqin is played with bamboo beaters having rubber or leather heads. Its trapezoidal wooden body is strung with several courses (from 7 to 18 sets) of strings on four or five bridges. The sets of strings on each bridge are pitched whole steps apart and neighbouring sets of strings on adjacent bridges are pitched a fifth apart; this arrangement enables a musician to play a chromatic scale in all keys. The range of the yangqin covers one octave below middle C and two and a half octaves above it.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
Old English heorð "hearth, fire," in transferred use "house, home," from West Germanic *hertho "burning place" (cf. Old Saxon and Old Frisian herth, Middle Dutch hert, Dutch haard, German Herd "floor, ground, fireplace"), from PIE *kerta-, from root *ker- "heat, fire" (see carbon).
Heb. ah (Jer. 36:22, 23; R.V., "brazier"), meaning a large pot like a brazier, a portable furnace in which fire was kept in the king's winter apartment. Heb. kiyor (Zech. 12:6; R.V., "pan"), a fire-pan. Heb. moqed (Ps. 102:3; R.V., "fire-brand"), properly a fagot. Heb. yaqud (Isa. 30:14), a burning mass on a hearth.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
endoscope en·do·scope (ěn'də-skōp')
An instrument for examining visually the interior of a bodily canal or hollow organ such as the colon, bladder, or stomach.
A medical instrument used for visual examination of the interior of a body cavity or a hollow organ such as the colon, bladder, or stomach. It is a rigid or flexible tube fitted with lenses, a fiber-optic light source, and often a probe, forceps, suction device, or other apparatus for examination or retrieval of tissue.
endoscopy noun (ěn-dŏs'kə-pē)
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
early 15c., from Medieval Latin aneurisma, from Greek aneurysmos "dilation," from aneurynein "to dilate," from ana- "up" (see ana-) + eurynein "widen," from eurys "broad, wide," from PIE root *were- "wide, broad" (cf. Sanskrit uruh "broad, wide").
aneurysm an·eu·rysm or an·eu·rism (ān'yə-rĭz'əm)
A localized, blood-filled dilation of a blood vessel caused by disease or weakening of the vessel wall.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
c.1300, "pale," from Old Norse bleikr "pale, whitish, blond," from Proto-Germanic *blaika- "shining, white," from PIE root *bhel- (1) "to shine, flash, burn" (see bleach (v.)). Later "bare, windswept" (1530s). Sense of "cheerless" is c.1719 figurative extension. The same Germanic root produced Old English blac "pale," but this died out, probably from confusion with blæc "black;" however bleak persisted, with a sense of "bare" as well as "pale."
(Alburnus alburnus), small, slender fish of the carp family, Cyprinidae, found in rivers and lakes of England and Europe. A silvery-green fish, it grows to a maximum length of about 20 centimetres (8 inches). It lives in schools, usually near the surface, and eats aquatic invertebrates. The bleak is edible but bony. Its scales are used in eastern Europe for the manufacture of artificial pearls.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
c.1300, "attendant in a noble household," of unknown origin, perhaps a contraction of Old English iunge man "young man," or from an unrecorded Old English *geaman, equivalent of Old Frisian gaman "villager," from Old English -gea "district, village," cognate with Old Frisian ga, ge, from Proto-Germanic *gaujan.
Sense of "commoner who cultivates his land" is recorded from early 15c.; also the third order of fighting men (late 14c., below knights and squires, above knaves), hence yeomen's service "good, efficient service" (c.1600). Meaning "naval petty officer in charge of supplies" is first attested 1660s. Yeowoman first recorded 1852: "Then I am yeo-woman O the clumsy word!" [Tennyson, "The Foresters"]
in English history, a class intermediate between the gentry and the labourers; a yeoman was usually a landholder but could also be a retainer, guard, attendant, or subordinate official. The word appears in Middle English as yemen, or yoman, and is perhaps a contraction of yeng man or yong man, meaning young man, or attendant. Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (late 14th century) depicts a yeoman who is a forester and a retainer. Most yeomen of the later Middle Ages were probably occupied in cultivating the land; Raphael Holinshed, in his Chronicles (1577), described them as having free land worth 6 (originally 40 shillings) annually and as not being entitled to bear arms
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
Old English sceadwe, sceaduwe "the effect of interception of sunlight, dark image cast by someone or something when interposed between an object and a source of light," oblique cases ("to the," "from the," "of the," "in the") of sceadu (see shade (n.)). Shadow is to shade (n.) as meadow is to mead (n.2). Cf. Old Saxon skado, Middle Dutch schaeduwe, Dutch schaduw, Old High German scato, German schatten, Gothic skadus "shadow, shade."
From mid-13c. as "darkened area created by shadows, shade." From early 13c. in sense "anything unreal;" mid-14c. as "a ghost;" late 14c. as "a foreshadowing, prefiguration." Meaning "imitation, copy" is from 1690s. Sense of "the faintest trace" is from 1580s; that of "a spy who follows" is from 1859.
As a designation of members of an opposition party chosen as counterparts of the government in power, it is recorded from 1906. Shadow of Death (c.1200) translates Vulgate umbra mortis (Ps. xxiii:4, etc.), which itself translates Greek skia thanatou, perhaps a mistranslation of a Hebrew word for "intense darkness." In "Beowulf," Gendel is a sceadugenga, a shadow-goer, and another word for "darkness" is sceaduhelm. To be afraid of one's (own) shadow "be very timorous" is from 1580s.
Middle English schadowen, Kentish ssedwi, from late Old English sceadwian "to protect as with covering wings" (cf. also overshadow), from the root of shadow (n.). Cf. Old Saxon skadoian, Dutch schaduwen, Old High German scatewen, German (über)schatten. From mid-14c. as "provide shade;" late 14c. as "cast a shadow over" (literal and figurative), from early 15c. as "darken" (in illustration, etc.). Meaning "to follow like a shadow" is from c.1600 in an isolated instance; not attested again until 1872. Related: Shadowed; shadowing.
: They put a shadow on the suspectverb
To follow a person secretly; do physical surveillance; tail (1872+)
[verb sense found by 1602 in an isolated instance]
used in Col. 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:1 to denote the typical relation of the Jewish to the Christian dispensation.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
1813, name for various kinds of liquor drinks, or for intoxicating drinks generally, possibly a variant of switchel "a drink of molasses and water" (often mixed with rum), first attested 1790, of uncertain origin. Swizzle-stick attested by 1859.
To convert external names, array indices, or references within a data structure into address pointers when the data structure is brought into main memory from external storage (also called "pointer swizzling"); this may be done for speed in chasing references or to simplify code (e.g. by turning lots of name lookups into pointer dereferences). The converse operation is sometimes termed "unswizzling".
See also snap.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
language, database (DML, or Data Management Language) A language for the manipulation of data in a database by applications and/or directly by end-users. SQL contains DML commands such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE. See also Data Definition Language (DDL). (1999-04-26)
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
1839, American English, from Mexican Spanish cafeteria "coffee store," from café "coffee" (see coffee) + Spanish -tería "place where something is done" (usually business). The ending came to be understood popularly as meaning "help-yourself" (as though café + -teria) and was extended to new formation with that sense from c.1923.
Allowing a range of choice; Smorgasbord: cafeteria insurance plans (1980s+)
self-service restaurant in which customers select various dishes from an open-counter display. The food is usually placed on a tray, paid for at a cashier's station, and carried to a dining table by the customer. The modern cafeteria, designed to facilitate a smooth flow of patrons, is particularly well-adapted to the needs of institutions-schools, hospitals, corporations-attempting to serve large numbers of people efficiently and inexpensively. In addition to providing quick service, the cafeteria requires fewer service personnel than most other commercial eating establishments.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
1610s, "action of nodding," from Latin nutationem (nominative nutatio), noun of action from past participle stem of nutare "to nod," from PIE *neu- "to nod" (see numinous). Astronomical use is from 1715. Related: Nutational.
nutation nu·ta·tion (nōō-tā'shən, nyōō-)
The act of nodding the head, especially involuntarily.
in astronomy, a small irregularity in the precession of the equinoxes. Precession is the slow, toplike wobbling of the spinning Earth, with a period of about 26,000 years. Nutation (Latin nutare, "to nod") superimposes a small oscillation, with a period of 18.6 years and an amplitude of 9.2 seconds of arc, upon this great slow movement. The cause of nutation lies chiefly in the fact that the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 from the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The Moon's orbital plane precesses around the Earth's in 18.6 years, and the effect of the Moon on the precession of the equinoxes varies with this same period. The British astronomer James Bradley announced his discovery of nutation in 1748.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
in Anglo-American property law, delivery of specific goods by one person, called the bailor, to another person, called the bailee, for some temporary purpose such as storage, transportation, deposit for sale, pawn or pledge, repair or loan for use, with or without compensation. Formerly the bailee's responsibility for goods varied with the benefit he derived from the bailment. In present-day law, it is generally held that the bailee owes such duty of care as becomes the reasonably prudent man "under the circumstances." The purpose and advantage anticipated from the bailment are considered as circumstances governing the extent of care owed by the bailee.
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
late 13c., "to bar or exclude temporarily from some function or privilege, to cause to cease for a time," from Old French suspendre, from Latin suspendere "to hang, stop," from sub "up from under" (see sub-) + pendere "cause to hang, weigh" (see pendant). The literal sense of "to cause to hang by a support from above" is recorded from mid-15c. Suspenders is attested from 1810, American English. Suspended animation first recorded 1795.
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OBITUARY: Henry Guinness
Tuesday 12 March 1996
He had been born in Kaifeng, in central China, where his parents had moved just after the notorious Boxer Rebellion in which 75 missionaries and countless Chinese Christians were slaughtered. The Guinness family is noted for achievement, chiefly in the fields of banking, brewing and missionary work. Henry Guinness came from the Grattan line of the family, who tended towards mission work, and his father had moved to China in 1900 for this purpose. His mother came from a noble Swedish family. Ill- health separated him from them early. Dust and dirt and Yellow River floods combined to make life in Kaifeng "nasty, brutish and short". The death of his father when he was 17 made him look at the purpose of life, and led to his resolve to become a missionary.
Back in Kaifeng for the China Inland Mission (known today as OMF International), his work among boys received impetus from his fascination with anything that worked, from pinhole cameras to aeroplane propellers. But a cholera epidemic, an earthquake, and repeated crop failures also called for an empathy with a tortured community, whose lives were made worse by the Japanese invasion of 1933.
Conscious of his need for a co-worker, Guinness prayed for one to be sent. That night a burglar broke into the house. Guinness confronted him in his pyjamas, sat him down, and taught him from the Gospel of St John. The man professed to become a Christian, and in the morning Guinness went out, left the man to get the lunch, and trusted him with the house. This man became the co-worker.
In 1938 Guinness married Mary Taylor, a doctor, and the young couple had to cope with famine, drought, locusts, raging inflation and war. When parents abandoned their children for lack of food, the Guinnesses rescued those they could. Two of their own three sons died in Honan Province, and the couple had to flee from war the day after the second son died.
The years from 1945 to 1947 were spent in Dublin, where Guinness represented the China Inland Mission in Ireland. In 1947, the Guinnesses returned to China, playing a key role in work among students. Thousands of students were converging in Nanjing at the time, following the 1947 Intervarsity Conference, and the Guinnesses ran Bible study classes until indoctrination began. After a short three years, Communism came and missionaries had to leave. The Guinnesses moved to Scotland, where many students and prospective missionaries tasted their hospitality, until they were able to return to East Asia, to serve in Malaysia and then in Taiwan.
In the early Seventies, I had the privilege of travelling around Taiwan with Henry Guinness, who was directing the work of the OMF there. Then in his sixties, he had lost none of his get up and go. "Getting up" might be four in the morning and "going" might be travelling all day, perhaps snacking on lychees bought through the bus window as we went.
On one occasion in China, he arrived at an inn late at night. Preparing to sleep, he heard bandits in the next room discussing how to dispose of his body, and how much they could get for his boots. Opening the door of his room and moving slowly towards the toilet, Guinness scanned the high wall for a foothold, sprang up and leapt over into the fields. Despite a chase by the bandits, he made it to another village four miles away.
Henry Guinness's bravery and love of adventure was balanced by a deep faith, and a caring heart that continued until his last days. His wife died in 1993 and he is survived by his son, Oswald, a well-known author and Christian apologist, who lives in the United States.
Henry Whitfield Guinness, missionary: born Kaifeng, Honan Province, China 18 April 1908; married 1938 Dr Mary Taylor (died 1993; one son, and two sons deceased); died Pembury, Kent 17 February 1996.
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government of Thailand...While almost every government since 1932 has accepted constitutional authority, the country has had 17 constitutions, the most recent drafted in 2007. All of these documents have provided for a National Assembly with a prime minister as head of government. Power is exercised by the bicameral National Assembly, the Council of Ministers, and the courts in accordance with the provisions of the...
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discussed in biography...from the capital, and the new appointment signified a promotion. As always, his moral courage and outspoken manner did not endear him to his colleagues. He was first ordered to write the Xintangshu (“New History of the Tang Dynasty”). In 1057 he was placed in charge of civil service examinations. He favoured those who wrote in the “ancient style” but...
Work by Ouyang Xiu
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1950 Takaoa Japanese Panorama Map of Hakone, Japan
Description: A rare panoramic view of Hakone, Japan, dating to the 1950s. This map was drawn by Tomiteru Takaoa. Shows railways and roads well as topography. Mt. Fuji rises in the distance. This uncommon type of map evolved from the exposure of traditional Japanese view-style cartography to western technology. Views like this began to appear in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea in the early 20th century. Generally speaking such maps coincided with the development of railroad lines throughout the once vast Dai Nippon Teikoku or Japanese empire. It is a distinctive style full of artistic flourish that at the same time performs a practical function. This particular example is both relatively early and exceptionally beautiful. It was printed via a multi-color chromolithographic process with delicately shaded tones and an easily comprehensible intuitive design. essentially a transportation map, it shows the major and minor rail lines throughout Hakone.
Hakone (Hakone-machi) is a town in Ashigarashimo District in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Hakone is located in the mountainous far west of the prefecture, on the eastern side of Hakone Pass. Most of the town is within the borders of the volcanically active Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, around Lake Ashi, shown here at top center. Hakone is the location of a noted Shinto shrine, the Hakone Gongen, which is mentioned in Heian period literature. During the Gempei War, Minamoto no Yoritomo prayed at this shrine for victory over his enemies. As with the rest of Sagami Province, the area came under the control of the late Ho-jo- clan of Odawara during the Sengoku period. After the start of the edo period, Hakone-juku was a post station on the To-kaido highway connecting edo with Kyoto. It was also the site of a major barrier and official checkpoint on the route known as the Hakone Checkpoint (Hakone sekisho), which formed the border of the Kanto- region. Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, all travelers entering and leaving edo along the To-kaido were stopped here by officials, where their travel permits and baggage were examined. After the start of the Meiji Restoration, Hakone became a part of the short-lived Ashigara Prefecture before becoming part of Ashigarashimo District in Kanagawa prefecture in August 1876. Hakone attained town status in 1889. After merger with five neighboring towns and villages in September 1956, it reached its present boundaries.
Date: 1950s (undated)
Cartographer: Japanese cartography appears as early as the 1600s. Japanese maps are known for their exceptional beauty and high quality of workmanship. Early Japanese cartography has its own very distinctive projection and layout system. Japanese maps made prior to the appearance of Commodore Perry and the opening of Japan in the mid to late 1850s often have no firm directional orientation, incorporate views into the map proper, and tend to be hand colored woodblock prints. This era, from the 1600s to the c. 1855, which roughly coincides with the Tokugawa or Edo Period (1603-1886), some consider the Golden Age of Japanese Cartography. Most maps from this period, which followed isolationist ideology, predictably focus on Japan. The greatest cartographer of the period, whose work redefined all subsequent cartography, was Ino Tadataka (1745 -1818). Ino's maps of Japan were so detailed that, when the European cartographers arrived they had no need, even with their far more sophisticated survey equipment, to remap the region. Later Japanese maps, produced in the late Edo and throughout the Meiji period, draw heavily upon western maps as models in both their content and overall cartographic style. While many of these later maps maintain elements of traditional Japanese cartography such as the use of rice paper, woodblock printing, and delicate hand color, they also incorporate western directional orientation, projection systems, and structural norms. Click here for a list of Japanese maps.
Size: Printed area measures 29 x 20 inches (73.66 x 50.8 centimeters)
Condition: Very good condition. Minor wear on original fold lines.
Printable Info Sheet
Code: Hakone-takaoa-1950s (to order by phone call: 646-320-8650)
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Details about The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800:
In the twenty-first century, China has emerged as the leading challenger to U.S. global dominance. China is often seen as a sleeping giant, emerging out of poverty, backwardness, and totalitarianism and moving toward modernization. However, history shows that this vast country is not newly awakening, but rather returning to its previous state of world eminence. With this compelling perspective in mind, D. E. Mungello convincingly shows that contemporary relations between China and the West are far more like the 1500-1800 period than the more recent past. This fully revised second edition retains the clear and concise qualities of its predecessor, while developing important new social and cultural themes such as gender, sexuality, music, and technology. Drawing from the author's thirty years of experience teaching world history, this book illustrates the importance of history to students and general readers trying to understand today's world.
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Ancient tomb remains a mystery (China)
The remains, excavated since 2008 in Anyang, Central China's Henan Province, are a source of intrigue.
A large tomb complex with 1800 years of history was dug up in 2008, and officials from the cultural relics administration of Henan Province said Sunday that the tomb most likely belonged to Cao Cao because the words "King Wu of Wei," which some believe to be Cao's title, were found among the markers. Some bones were also found in that tomb.
The position of the tomb is in line with historical recordings and ancient books from Cao Cao's time, the report said.
While the location of Cao's tomb is still a mystery, that of his son, Cao Zhi, triggers less controversy. There are four to five tombs believed to belong to Cao Zhi, and scholars believe in the authenticity of the one found in Yushan, Shandong Province in 1951.
Many archaeologists and Internet users expressed doubt at the announcement of Anyang tomb to be Cao Cao's.
Some of them suggested they compare the DNA with the bones found in Anyang, with that of his son.
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Chinese economic reform
|History of the People's
Republic of China (PRC)
|Generations of leadership|
The Chinese economic reform (simplified Chinese: 改革开放; traditional Chinese: 改革開放; pinyin: Gǎigé kāifàng; literally: "Reform & Opening up") refers to the program of economic reforms called "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" in the People's Republic of China (PRC) that was started in December 1978 by reformists within the Communist Party of China (CPC) led by Deng Xiaoping.
China had one of the world's largest and most advanced economies prior to the nineteenth century, while national product per capita remained average in global terms. The economy stagnated since the 16th century and even declined in absolute terms in the nineteenth and much of the twentieth century, with a brief recovery in the 1930s.[not in citation given]
Economic reforms introducing market principles began in 1978 and were carried out in two stages. The first stage, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, involved the decollectivization of agriculture, the opening up of the country to foreign investment, and permission for entrepreneurs to start businesses. However, most industry remained state-owned. The second stage of reform, in the late 1980s and 1990s, involved the privatization and contracting out of much state-owned industry and the lifting of price controls, protectionist policies, and regulations, although state monopolies in sectors such as banking and petroleum remained. The private sector grew remarkably, accounting for as much as 70 percent of China gross domestic product by 2005. From 1978 until 2013, unprecedented growth occurred, with the economy increasing by 9.5% a year. China's economy surpassed that of Japan in 2010 as Asia's largest economy and became the second largest after the United States and is projected to become the world's largest economy by 2025. The conservative Hu-Wen Administration more heavily regulated and controlled the economy after 2005, reversing some reforms.
The success of China's economic policies and the manner of their implementation has resulted in immense changes in Chinese society. Large-scale government planning programs alongside market characteristics have reduced poverty, while incomes and income inequality have increased, leading to a backlash led by the New Left. In the academic scene, scholars have debated the reason for the success of the Chinese "dual-track" economy, and have compared them to attempts to reform socialism in the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union, and the growth of other developing economies.
- 1 Chinese economy prior to reform
- 2 Course of reforms
- 3 Economic performance since reform
- 4 Reforms in specific sectors
- 5 Reasons for success
- 6 Effect on inequality
- 7 Comparison to other developing economies
- 8 Legacy and criticism
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Sources
- 12 External links
Chinese economy prior to reform
During the 1930s, China developed a modern industrial sector, which stimulated modest but significant economic growth. Before the collapse of international trade that followed the onset of the Great Depression, China’s share of world trade and its ratio of foreign trade to GDP achieved levels that were not regained for over sixty years.
The economy was heavily disrupted by the war against Japan and the Chinese Civil War from 1937 to 1949, after which the victorious communists installed a planned economy.[not in citation given] Afterwards, the economy largely stagnated and was disrupted by the Great Leap Forward famine which killed between 30 and 40 million people, and the purges of the Cultural Revolution further disrupted the economy. Urban Chinese citizens experienced virtually no increase in living standards from 1957 onwards, and rural Chinese had no better living standards in the 1970s than the 1930s.[not in citation given] One study noted that average pay levels in the catering sector exceeded wages in higher education.[relevant? ]
The economic performance of China was poor in comparison with other East Asian countries, such as Japan, South Korea and rival Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China. The economy was riddled with huge inefficiencies and malinvestments, and with Mao's death, the Communist Party of China (CPC) leadership turned to market-oriented reforms to salvage the failing economy.
Course of reforms
Economic reforms began after Deng Xiaoping and his reformist allies ousted the Gang of Four Maoist faction. By the time Deng took power, there was widespread support among the elite for economic reforms. As the de facto leader, Deng's policies faced opposition from party conservatives but were extremely successful in increasing the country's wealth.
Deng's first reforms began in agriculture, a sector long neglected by the Communist Party. By the late 1970s, food supplies and production had become so deficient that government officials were warning that China was about to repeat the "disaster of 1959", the famines which killed tens of millions during the Great Leap Forward. Deng responded by decollectivizing agriculture and emphasizing the household-responsibility system, which divided the land of the People's communes into private plots. Farmers were able to keep the land's output after paying a share to the state. This move increased agricultural production, increased the living standards of hundreds of millions of farmers and stimulated rural industry.
Reforms were also implemented in urban industry to increase productivity. A dual-price system was introduced, in which state-owned industries were allowed to sell any production above the plan quota, and commodities were sold at both plan and market prices, allowing citizens to avoid the shortages of the Maoist era. Private businesses were allowed to operate for the first time since the Communist takeover, and they gradually began to make up a greater percentage of industrial output. Price flexibility was also increased, expanding the service sector.
The country was opened to foreign investment for the first time since the Kuomintang era. Deng created a series of special economic zones for foreign investment that were relatively free of the bureaucratic regulations and interventions that hampered economic growth. These regions became engines of growth for the national economy.
During this period, Deng Xiaoping's policies continued beyond the initial reforms. Controls on private businesses and government intervention continued to decrease, and there was small-scale privatization of state enterprises which had become unviable. A notable development was the decentralization of state control, leaving local provincial leaders to experiment with ways to increase economic growth and privatize the state sector. Township and village enterprises, firms nominally owned by local governments but effectively private, began to gain market share at the expense of the state sector. Conservative elder opposition, led by Chen Yun, prevented many major reforms which would have damaged the interests of special interest groups in the government bureaucracy. Corruption and increased inflation increased discontent, contributing to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and a conservative backlash after that event which ousted several key reformers and threatened to reverse many of Deng's reforms. However, Deng stood by his reforms and in 1992, he affirmed the need to continue reforms in his southern tour. He also reopened the Shanghai Stock Exchange closed by Mao 40 years earlier.
Although the economy grew quickly during this period, economic troubles in the inefficient state sector increased. Heavy losses had to be made up by state revenues and acted as a drain upon the economy. Inflation became problematic in 1985, 1988 and 1992. Privatizations began to accelerate after 1992, and the private sector grew as a percentage of GDP. China's government slowly expanded recognition of the private economy, first as a "complement" to the state sector (1988) and then as an "important component" (1999) of the socialist market economy.
In the 1990s, Deng forced many of the conservative elders such as Chen Yun into retirement, allowing radical reforms to be carried out. Despite Deng's death in 1997, reforms continued under his handpicked successors, Jiang Zemin and Zhu Rongji, who were ardent reformers. In 1997 and 1998, large-scale privatization occurred, in which all state enterprises, except a few large monopolies, were liquidated and their assets sold to private investors. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of state-owned enterprises decreased by 48 percent. During the same period, Jiang and Zhu also reduced tariffs, trade barriers and regulations, reformed the banking system, dismantled much of the Mao-era social welfare system, forced the PLA to divest itself of military-run businesses, reduced inflation, and joined the World Trade Organization. These moves invoked discontent among some groups, especially laid-off workers of state enterprises that had been privatized.
The domestic private sector first exceeded 50% of GDP in 2005 and has further expanded since. Also in 2005, China was able to surpass Japan as the largest economy in Asia. However, some state monopolies still remained, such as in petroleum and banking.
The conservative Hu-Wen Administration began to reverse some of Deng Xiaoping's reforms in 2005. Observers note that the government adopted more egalitarian and populist policies. It increased subsidies and control over the health care sector, halted privatization, and adopted a loose monetary policy, which led to the formation of a U.S.-style property bubble in which property prices tripled. The privileged state sector was the primary recipient of government investment, which under the new administration, promoted the rise of large "national champions" which could compete with large foreign corporations.
Economic performance since reform
China's economic growth since the reform has been very rapid, exceeding the East Asian Tigers. Economists estimate China's GDP growth from 1978 to 2013 at between 9.5% to around 11.5% a year. Since the beginning of Deng Xiaoping's reforms, China's GDP has risen tenfold. The increase in total factor productivity (TFP) was the most important factor, with productivity accounting for 40.1% of the GDP increase, compared with a decline of 13.2% for the period 1957 to 1978—the height of Maoist policies. For the period 1978–2005, Chinese GDP per capita increased from 2.7% to 15.7% of U.S. GDP per capita, and from 53.7% to 188.5% of Indian GDP per capita. Per capita incomes grew at 6.6% a year. Average wages rose sixfold between 1978 and 2005, while absolute poverty declined from 41% of the population to 5% from 1978 to 2001. Some scholars believed that China's economic growth has been understated, due to large sectors of the economy not being counted.
Impact on world growth
China is widely seen as an engine of world and regional growth. Surges in Chinese demand account for 50, 44 and 66 percent of export growth of Hong Kong, Japan and Taiwan respectively, and China's trade deficit with the rest of East Asia helped to revive the economies of Japan and Southeast Asia. Asian leaders view China's economic growth as an "engine of growth for all Asia".
Reforms in specific sectors
After three decades of reform, China's economy experienced one of the world's biggest booms. Agriculture and light industry have largely been privatized, while the state still retains control over some heavy industries. Despite the dominance of state ownership in finance, telecommunications, petroleum and other important sectors of the economy, private entrepreneurs continue to expand into sectors formerly reserved for public enterprise. Prices have also been liberalized.
During the pre-reform period, Chinese agricultural performance was extremely poor and food shortages were common. After Deng Xiaoping implemented the household responsibility system, agricultural output increased by 8.2% a year, compared with 2.7% in the pre-reform period, despite a decrease in the area of land used. Food prices fell nearly 50%, while agricultural incomes rose.
A more fundamental transformation was the economy's growing adoption of cash crops instead of just growing rice and grain. Vegetable and meat production increased to the point that Chinese agricultural production was adding the equivalent of California’s vegetable industry every two years. Growth in the sector slowed after 1984, with agriculture falling from 40% of GDP to 16%; however, increases in agricultural productivity allowed workers to be released for work in industry and services, while simultaneously increasing agricultural production. Trade in agriculture was also liberalized and China became an exporter of food, a great contrast to its previous famines and shortages.
In the pre-reform period, industry was largely stagnant and the socialist system presented few incentives for improvements in quality and productivity. With the introduction of the dual-price system and greater autonomy for enterprise managers, productivity increased greatly in the early 1980s. Foreign enterprises and newly formed Township and Village Enterprises, owned by local government and often de facto private firms, competed successfully with state-owned enterprises. By the 1990s, large-scale privatizations reduced the market share of both the Township and Village Enterprises and state-owned enterprises and increased the private sector's market share. The state sector's share of industrial output dropped from 81% in 1980 to 15% in 2005. Foreign capital controls much of Chinese industry and plays an important role.
From virtually an industrial backwater in 1978, China is now the world's biggest producer of concrete, steel, ships and textiles, and has the world's largest automobile market. Chinese steel output quadrupled between 1980 and 2000, and from 2000 to 2006 rose from 128.5 million tons to 418.8 million tons, one-third of global production. Labor productivity at some Chinese steel firms exceeds Western productivity. From 1975 to 1992, China's automobile production rose from 139,800 to 1.1 million, rising to 9.35 million in 2008. Light industries such as textiles saw an even greater increase, due to reduced government interference. Chinese textile exports increased from 4.6% of world exports in 1980 to 24.1% in 2005. Textile output increased 18-fold over the same period.
This increase in production is largely the result of the removal of barriers to entry and increased competition; the number of industrial firms rose from 377,300 in 1980 to nearly 8 million in 1990 and 1996; the 2004 economic census, which excluded enterprises with annual sales below RMB5 million, counted 1.33 million manufacturing firms, with Jiangsu and Zhejiang reporting more firms than the nationwide total for 1980. Compared to other East Asian industrial growth spurts, China's industrial performance exceeded Japan's but remained behind South Korea and Taiwan's economies.
Trade and foreign investment
Scholars find that China has attained a degree of openness that is unprecedented among large and populous nations, with competition from foreign goods in almost every sector of the economy. Foreign investment helped to greatly increase quality, knowledge and standards, especially in heavy industry. China's experience supports the assertion that globalization greatly increases wealth for poor countries. Throughout the reform period, the government reduced tariffs and other trade barriers, with the overall tariff rate falling from 56% to 15%. By 2001, less than 40% of imports were subject to tariffs and only 9 percent of import were subject to licensing and import quotas. Even during the early reform era, protectionist policies were often circumvented by smuggling. When China joined the WTO, it agreed to considerably harsher conditions than other developing countries. Trade has increased from under 10% of GDP to 64% of GDP over the same period. China is considered the most open large country; By 2005, China’s average statutory tariff on industrial products was 8.9 percent. For Argentina, Brazil, India, and Indonesia, the respective percentage figures are 30.9, 27.0, 32.4, and 36.9 percent.
China's trade surplus is considered by some in the United States as threatening American jobs. In the 2000s, the Bush administration pursued protectionist policies such as tariffs and quotas to limit the import of Chinese goods. Some scholars argue that China's growing trade surplus is the result of industries in more developed Asian countries moving to China, and not a new phenomenon. China's trade policy, which allows producers to avoid paying the Value Added Tax (VAT) for exports and undervaluation of the currency since 2002, has resulted in an overdeveloped export sector and distortion of the economy overall, a result that could hamper future growth.
Foreign investment was also liberalized upon Deng's ascension. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) were created in the early 1980s to attract foreign capital by exempting them from taxes and regulations. This experiment was successful and SEZs were expanded to cover the whole Chinese coast. Although FDI fell briefly after the 1989 student protests, it increased again to 160 billion by 2004.
In the 1990s, the financial sector was liberalized. After China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), the service sector was considerably liberalized and foreign investment was allowed; restrictions on retail, wholesale and distribution ended. Banking, financial services, insurance and telecommunications were also opened up to foreign investment.
China's banking sector is dominated by four large state-owned banks, which are largely inefficient and monopolistic. China's largest bank, ICBC, is the largest bank in the world. The financial sector is widely seen as a drag on the economy due to the inefficient state management. Non-performing loans, mostly made to local governments and unprofitable state-owned enterprises for political purposes, especially the political goal of keeping unemployment low, are a big drain on the financial system and economy, reaching over 22% of GDP by 2000, with a drop to 6.3% by 2006 due to government recapitalization of these banks. In 2006, the total amount of non-performing loans was estimated at $160 billion. Observers recommend privatization of the banking system to solve this problem, a move that was partially carried out when the four banks were floated on the stock market. China's financial markets, the Shanghai Stock Exchange and Shenzhen Stock Exchange, are relatively ineffective at raising capital, as they comprise only 11% of GDP.
Due to the weakness of the banks, firms raise most of their capital through an informal, nonstandard financial sector developed during the 1980s and 1990s, consisting largely of underground businesses and private banks. Internal finance is the most important method successful firms use to fund their activities.
In the pre-reform era, government was funded by profits from state-owned enterprises, much like the Soviet Union. As the state sector fell in importance and profitability, government revenues, especially that of the central government in Beijing, fell substantially and the government relied on a confused system of inventory taxes. Government revenues fell from 35% of GDP to 11% of GDP in the mid-1990s, excluding revenue from state-owned enterprises, with the central government's budget at just 3% of GDP. The tax system was reformed in 1994 when inventory taxes were unified into a single VAT of 17% on all manufacturing, repair, and assembly activities and an excise tax on 11 items, with the VAT becoming the main income source, accounting for half of government revenue. The 1994 reform also increased the central government's share of revenues, increasing it to 9% of GDP.
Reasons for success
Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain the success of China's economic reforms in its move from a planned economy to a socialist market economy despite unfavorable factors such as the troublesome legacies of socialism, considerable erosion of the work ethic, decades of anti-market propaganda, and the "lost generation" whose education disintegrated amid the disruption of the Cultural Revolution.
One notable theory is that decentralization of state authority allowed local leaders to experiment with various ways to privatize the state sector and energize the economy. Although Deng was not the originator of many of the reforms, he gave approval to them. Another theory focuses on internal incentives within the Chinese government, in which officials presiding over areas of high economic growth were more likely to be promoted. Scholars have noted that local and provincial governments in China were "hungry for investment" and competed to reduce regulations and barriers to investment to boost economic growth and the officials' own careers. A third explanation believes that the success of the reformists are attributable to Deng's cultivation of his own followers in the government. Herman Kahn explained the rise of Asian economic power saying the Confucian ethic was playing a "similar but more spectacular role in the modernization of East Asia than the Protestant ethic played in Europe".
The collapse of the Soviet Bloc and centrally planned economies in 1989 provided renewed impetus for China to further reform its economy through different policies in order to avoid a similar fate. China also wanted to avoid the Russian ad-hoc experiments with market capitalism under Boris Yeltsin resulting in the rise of powerful oligarchs, corruption, and the loss of state revenue which exacerbated economic disparity.
Effect on inequality
The economic reforms have increased inequality dramatically within China. Despite rapid economic growth which has virtually eliminated poverty in urban China and reduced it greatly in rural regions and the fact that living standards for everyone in China have drastically increased in comparison to the pre-reform era, the Gini coefficient of China is estimated to be above 0.45, comparable to some Latin American countries and the United States.
Increased inequality is attributed to the disappearance of the welfare state and differences between coastal and interior provinces, the latter being burdened by a larger state sector. Some Western scholars have suggested that reviving the welfare state and instituting a re-distributive income tax system is needed to relieve inequality, while some Chinese economists have suggested that privatizing state monopolies and distributing the proceeds to the population can reduce inequality.
Comparison to other developing economies
China's transition from a planned economy to a socialist market economy has often been compared with economies in Eastern Europe that are undergoing a similar transition. China's performance has been praised for avoiding the major shocks and inflation that plagued the Eastern Bloc. The Eastern bloc economies saw declines of 13% to 65% in GDP at the beginning of reforms, while Chinese growth has been very strong since the beginning of reform. China also managed to avoid the hyperinflation of 200 to 1,000% that Eastern Europe experienced. This success is attributed to the gradualist and decentralized approach of the Chinese government, which allowed market institutions to develop to the point where they could replace state planning. This contrasts with the "big bang" approach of Eastern Europe, where the state-owned sector was rapidly privatized with employee buyouts, but retained much of the earlier, inefficient management. Other factors thought to account for the differences are the greater urbanization of the CIS economies and differences in social welfare and other institutions. Another argument is that, in the Eastern European economies, political change is sometimes seen to have made gradualist reforms impossible, so the shocks and inflation were unavoidable.
China's economic growth has been compared with other developing countries, such as Brazil, Mexico, and India. GDP growth in China outstrips all other developing countries, with only India after 1990 coming close to China's experience. Scholars believe that high rates of investments, especially increases in capital invested per worker, have contributed to China's superior economic performance. China's relatively free economy, with less government intervention and regulation, is cited by scholars as an important factor in China's superior performance compared to other developing countries.
Legacy and criticism
The government retains monopolies in several sectors, such as petroleum and banking. The recent reversal of some reforms have left some observers dubbing 2008 the "third anniversary of the end of reforms". Nevertheless, observers[who?] believe that China's economy can continue growing at rates of 6–8 percent until 2025, though a reduction in state intervention is considered to be necessary for sustained growth.
Despite reducing poverty and increasing China's wealth, Deng's reforms have been criticized by the Chinese New Left for increasing inequality and allowing private entrepreneurs to purchase state assets at reduced prices. These accusations were especially intense during the Lang-Gu dispute, in which New Left academic Larry Lang accused entrepreneur Gu Sujung of usurping state assets, after which Gu was imprisoned. The Hu-Wen Administration adopted some New Left policies, such as halting privatizations and increasing the state sector's importance in the economy, and Keynesian policies that have been criticized by some Chinese economists who advocate a policy of deregulation, tax cuts, and privatization.
Other criticisms focus on the effects of industrialization on public health and the environment. Scholars believe that public health issues are unlikely to become major obstacles to the growth of China’s economy during the coming decades, and studies have shown that air quality and other environmental measures in China are better than those in developed countries, such as the United States and Japan, at the same level of development.
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) is thecapitalof Japan. Ten percent (10%) of theJapanesepeople live inTokyo, and as many as twenty percent (20%) of the population live around it. As of 2007, the population was 12,790,000. Tokyo is the center of business, trade, andindustryof Japan and also of Asia.Tokyo is in a part of Japan called the Kanto plain. It faces Tokyo bay. Tworiversrunthrough Tokyo. One is the Sumida River which runs from the north to the south, andflows into Tokyo bay. The other is the Tama River which runs from the west to the east.The Tama River is a border between Tokyo and its neighbor city, Kawasaki.Tokyo means "the Eastern capital" inJapanese. It became the capital of Japan in themiddle of 19th century, when its name changed from "Edo" to "Tokyo". Before then,Kyotowas the capital of Japan. Theemperor of Japan,Tenno,lived in Kyoto. Edo wasthe place where the TokugawaShogunslived. The city grew up under the control of theShoguns. Before then it was a small town on the sea. Edo means "the mouth of a river"in Japanese.Tokyo was destroyed by fires started by the Great KantoEarthquakein1923. It was also badly damaged by bombsduringWorld War II. The most famous bombing was onMarch 10,1945. After Japan lost the war, the city was rebuilt.Tokyo held theOlympic Gamesin the summer of 1964.
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Chinese calligraphy is a form of calligraphy widely practiced in China and revered in the Chinese cultural sphere, which often includes Japan, Taiwan, Korea and Vietnam. The calligraphic tradition of East Asia originated and developed from China. There is a general standardization of the various styles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related, since they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Chinese painting and calligraphy distinguish themselves from other cultural arts because they emphasize motion and are charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients." Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones.
- 1 Definition and classification
- 2 Evolution and styles
- 3 Materials and tools
- 4 Technique: principles
- 5 Study
- 6 Evaluation and appreciation
- 7 Influences
- 8 Notable calligraphers
- 9 Gallery
- 10 See also
- 11 References
- 12 External links
Definition and classification
The local name for calligraphy is Shūfǎ 書法 in China, literally "the way/method/law of writing"; Shodō 書道 in Japan, literally "the way/principle of writing"; and Seoye (서예) 書藝 in Korea, literally "the skill/criterion of writing". The calligraphy of Chinese characters is an important and appreciated aspect of Chinese culture. Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the "arts" (Chinese 藝術 pinyin: yìshù) in the countries where it is practiced.
- As a practice
As a discipline calligraphy is, at the basic level, a pursuit －書法 pinyin: shūfǎ, "the rules of writing Han characters"－ focused on writing well. Students aim to obtain the writing characteristics of exemplary pieces of writing. Elementary school students practice calligraphy in this way, as do elders practicing temporary calligraphy, without aspiring to artistic creation.
- As an art
Evolution and styles
- Ancient China
Chinese characters can be retraced to 4000 BC signs (Lu & Aiken 2004). The contemporary Chinese characters set principles were already visible in ancient China's Jiǎgǔwén characters carved on ox scapulas and tortoise plastrons around 14th - 11th century BCE (Lu & Aiken 2004). Brush-written examples decay over time and have not survived. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.(Keightley, 1978). With the development of Jīnwén (Bronzeware script) and Dàzhuàn (Large Seal Script) "cursive" signs continued. Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.
- Imperial China
In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BC, and in Xiaozhuan style — are still accessible.
In about 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized Xiǎozhuàn characters. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, little paper survives from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.
Kǎishū style (traditional regular script) — still in use today — and attributed to Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303-361) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926-933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in Kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed shapes to stabilize. The Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China. But small changes have been made, for example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order is still the same, according to old style.
Styles which did not survive include Bāfēnshū, a mix of 80% Xiaozhuan style and 20% Lishu. Some Variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, were incorporated in the Simplified Chinese character set.
- Cursive styles and hand-written styles
Cursive styles such as Xíngshū (semi-cursive or running script) and Cǎoshū (cursive or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement are visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from Clerical script, in the same time as Regular script (Han Dynasty), but Xíngshū and Cǎoshū were used for personal notes only, and were never used as standard. Caoshu style was highly appreciated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (140 BC−87BC).
- Printed and computer styles
Materials and tools
The ink brush, ink, paper, and inkstone are essential implements of Chinese calligraphy. They are known together as the Four Treasures of the Study. In addition to these four tools, a water-dropper, desk pads and paperweights are also used by calligraphers.
The brush is the traditional writing implement in Chinese calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from either bamboo, or rarer materials such as red sandalwood, glass, ivory, silver, and gold. The head of the brush can be made from the hair (or feathers) of a wide variety of animals, including the weasel, rabbit, deer, chicken, duck, goat, pig, tiger, wolf, etc. There is also a tradition in both China and Japan of making a brush using the hair of a newborn, as a once-in-a-lifetime souvenir for the child. This practice is associated with the legend of an ancient Chinese scholar who scored first in the Imperial examinations by using such a personalized brush. Calligraphy brushes are widely considered an extension of the calligrapher's arm.
Today, calligraphy may also be done using a pen, but pen calligraphy does not enjoy the same prestige as traditional brush calligraphy.
Paper nowadays is frequently sold together with a paperweight and desk pad.
Special types of paper are used in Chinese calligraphy.
In China, Xuanzhi (宣紙), traditionally made in Anhui province, is the preferred type of paper. It is made from the Tatar wingceltis (Pteroceltis tatarianovii), as well as other materials including rice, the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), bamboo, hemp, etc. In Japan, washi is made from the kozo (paper mulberry), ganpi (Wikstroemia sikokiana), and mitsumata (Edgeworthia papyrifera), as well as other materials such as bamboo, rice, and wheat.
Paperweights are used to hold down paper. A paperweight is often placed at the top of all but the largest pages to prevent slipping; for smaller pieces the left hand is also placed at the bottom of the page for support. Paperweights come in several types: some are oblong wooden blocks carved with calligraphic or pictorial designs; others are essentially small sculptures of people or animals. Like inkstones, paperweights are collectible works of art on their own right.
- Desk pads
The desk pad (Chinese T: 畫氈, S: 画毡, Pinyin: huàzhān; Japanese: 下敷 shitajiki) is a pad made of felt. Some are printed with grids on both sides, so that when it is placed under the translucent paper, it can be used as a guide to ensure correct placement and size of characters. However, these printed pads are used only by students. Both desk pads and the printed grids come in a variety of sizes.
Ink and inkstick
The ink is made from lampblack (soot) and binders, and comes in inksticks which must be rubbed with water on an inkstone until the right consistency is achieved. Much cheaper, pre-mixed bottled inks are now available, but these are used primarily for practice as stick inks are considered higher quality and chemical inks are more prone to bleeding over time, making them less suitable for use in hanging scrolls. Learning to rub the ink is an essential part of calligraphy study. Traditionally, Chinese calligraphy is written only in black ink, but modern calligraphers sometimes use other colors. Calligraphy teachers use a bright orange or red ink with which they write practice characters on which students trace, or to correct students' work.
Made from stone, ceramic, or clay from the banks of the Yellow River, inkstone is used to grind the solid inkstick into liquid ink and to contain the ink once it is liquid. Chinese inkstones are highly prized as art objects and an extensive bibliography is dedicated to their history and appreciation, especially in China.
Seal and seal paste
Calligraphic works are usually completed by the calligrapher putting his or her seal at the very end, in red ink. The seal serves the function of a signature.
The shape, size, stretch and type of hair in the brush, the color and density of the ink, as well as the absorptive speed and surface texture of the paper are the main physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher also influences the result by the quantity of ink/water he lets the brush take up, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, acceleration and deceleration of the writer's moves, turns, and crochets, and the stroke order give the "spirit" to the characters by influencing greatly their final shape.
Traditionally, the bulk of the study of calligraphy is composed of copying strictly exemplary works from the apprentice's master or from reputed calligraphers, thus learning them by rote. The master showing the 'right way' to draw items, which the apprentice have to copy strictly, continuously, until the move becomes instinctive and the copy perfect. Deviation from the model is seen as a failure. Competency in a particular style often requires many years of practice. Correct strokes, stroke order, character structure, balance, and rhythm are essential in calligraphy. A student would also develop their skills in traditional Chinese arts, as familiarity and ability in the arts contributes to their calligraphy.
Since the development of regular script, nearly all calligraphers have started their study by imitating exemplary models of regular script. A beginning student may practice writing the character 永 (Chinese: yǒng, eternal) for its abundance of different kinds of strokes and difficulty in construction. The Eight Principles of Yong refers to the eight different strokes in the character, which some argue summarizes the different strokes in regular script.
How the brush is held depends on the calligrapher and which calligraphic genre is practiced. Commonly, the brush is held vertically straight gripped between the thumb and middle finger. The index finger lightly touches the upper part of the shaft of the brush (stabilizing it) while the ring and little fingers tuck under the bottom of the shaft, leaving a space inside the palm. Alternatively, the brush is held in the right hand between the thumb and the index finger, very much like a Western pen. A calligrapher may change his or her grip depending on the style and script. For example, a calligrapher may grip higher for cursive and lower for regular script.
In Japan, smaller pieces of Japanese calligraphy are traditionally written while in seiza. In modern times, however, writers frequently practice calligraphy seated on a chair at a table. Larger pieces may be written while standing; in this case the paper is usually placed directly on the floor, but some calligraphers use an easel.
Basic calligraphy instruction is part of the regular school curriculum in both China and Japan and specialized programs of study exist at the higher education level in China, Korea, and Japan. In contemporary times, debate emerged on the limits of this copyist tradition within the modern art scenes, where innovation is the rule, while changing lifestyles, tools, and colors are also influencing new waves of masters.
Evaluation and appreciation
What is considered good calligraphy often varies depending on individual preferences. However, there are established traditional rules which cannot be violated. Violation of these rules will render a calligraphic work unable to be considered good calligraphy. Those who repeatedly violate these rules are not considered legitimate calligraphers. Among these rules are:
- The characters must be written correctly. A correctly written character is composed in a way that is accepted as correct by legitimate calligraphers. Calligraphic works often use variant Chinese characters, which are deemed correct or incorrect case-by-case, but in general, more popular variants are more likely to be correct. Correct characters are written in the traditional stroke order and not a modern standard (See Stroke Order per Polity).
- The characters must be legible. As calligraphy is the method of writing well, a calligraphic work must be recognizable as script, and furthermore be easily legible to those familiar with the script style, although it may be illegible to those unfamiliar with the script style. For example, many people cannot read cursive, but a calligraphic work in cursive can still be considered good if those familiar with cursive can read it.
- The characters must be concise. This is in contrast to Western calligraphy where flourishes are acceptable and often desirable. Good Chinese calligraphy must be unadorned script. It must also be in black ink unless there is a reason to write in other ink.
- The characters must fit their context. All reputable calligraphers in China were well educated and well read. In addition to calligraphy, they were skilled in other areas, most likely painting, poetry, music, opera, martial arts, and chess. Therefore, their abundant education contributed to their calligraphy. A calligrapher practicing another calligrapher's characters would always know what the text means, when it was created, and in what circumstances. When they write, their characters' shape and weight agrees with the rhythm of the phrases, especially in less constrained styles such as semi-cursive and cursive. One who does not know the meaning of the characters they write, but varies their shape and weight on a whim, does not produce good calligraphy.
- The characters must be aesthetically pleasing. Generally, characters that are written correctly, legibly, concisely, and in the correct context are also aesthetically pleasing to some degree. Characters that violate the above rules are often less aesthetically pleasing.
Japanese and Korean calligraphies
Japanese and Korean people developed specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphies, as well as applying to specific scripts. Japanese calligraphy extends beyond Han characters to also include local scripts such as hiragana and katakana.
The existence of temporary calligraphy is also to be noted. This is the practice of water-only calligraphy on the floor which dries out within minutes. This practice is especially appreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in public parks of China.
Calligraphy has influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including Ink and wash painting, a style of Chinese, Korean, Japanese painting, and Vietnamese painting based entirely on calligraphy.
- Wei Shuo 衛鑠 (272–349)
- Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (303–361)
- Wang Xianzhi 王獻之 (344–386)
- Wang Xun 王珣 (349–400)
- Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641)
- Yu Shinan 虞世南 (558–638)
- Chu Suiliang 褚遂良 (597–658)
- Emperor Taizong of Tang 唐太宗 李世民 (599–649)
- Zhang Xu 張旭 (658–747)
- Yan Zhenqing 顏真卿 (709–785)
- Huai Su 懷素 (737–799)
- Liu Gongquan 柳公權 (778–865)
- Cai Xiang 蔡襄 (1012–1067)
- Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037–1101)
- Huang Tingjian 黄庭堅 (1045–1105)
- Mi Fu 米黻 (1051–1107)
- Emperor Huizong of Song 宋徽宗 趙佶 (1082–1135)
- Emperor Gaozong of Song 宋高宗 趙構 (1107–1187)
- Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫 (1254–1322)
- Ni Zan 倪瓚 (1301–1374)
- Tang Yin 唐寅 (1470–1524)
- Wen Zhengming 文徵明 (1470–1559)
- Dong Qichang 董其昌 (1555–1636)
- Huang Ruheng 黃汝亨 (1558–1626)
- Wang Duo 王鐸 (1592–1652)
- Zheng Xie 鄭燮 (1693–1765)
Part of a stone rubbing of 黄庭经 by Wang Xizhi
A copy of 上虞帖 by Wang Xizhi
A Tang Dynasty copy of 新婦地黃湯帖 by Wang Xianzhi
Part of a stone rubbing of 雁塔聖教序 by Chu Suiliang
Part of a stone rubbing of 顏勤禮碑 by Yan Zhenqing
Cry for noble Saichō by Emperor Saga
A work by Emperor Huizong of Song
Buiseonrando by Kim Jeonghui
- Chinese art
- Chinese calligraphy
- Chinese character
- East asian script styles
- Eight Principles of Yong
- Ink and wash painting
- Japanese art
- Korean art
- Stroke order
- Three perfections - integration of calligraphy, poetry and painting
- Wonton font
- Vietnamese art
- (Stanley-Baker 2010a)
- 書 being here used as in 楷书/楷書, etc, and meaning "writing style".
- Wang Li et al. (2000). 王力古漢語字典. Beijing: 中華書局. p. 1118. ISBN 7101012191.
- Shu Xincheng 舒新城, ed. Cihai (辭海 "Sea of Words"). 3 vols. Shanghai: Zhonghua. 1936.
- 田蘊章《每日一題每日一字》 - Internet video series on Chinese calligraphy
- Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987) . Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-89659-774-7.
And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, the Sān Chāng, containing 3,300 characters
- Blakney, p6 : R. B. Blakney (2007). A Course in the Analysis of Chinese Characters. Lulu.com. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-897367-11-7.
- 康熙字典 Kangxi Zidian, 1716. Scanned version available at www.kangxizidian.com. See for example the radicals 卩, 厂 or 广, p.41. The 2007 common shape for those characters does not clearly show the stroke order, but old versions, visible on the Kangxi Zidian p.41 clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.
- "Chinese - Brushwasher in the Form of a Leaf". The Walters Art Museum.
- Li, Wendan (2009). Chinese writing and calligraphy. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-8248-3364-0.
- (Stanley-Baker 2010b, pp. 9–10)
- "New calligraphy classes for China's internet generation". BBC NEWS ASIA-PACIFIC. 27 August 2011. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
- Daniels O, Dictionary of Japanese (Sōsho) Writing Forms, Lunde Humphries, 1944 (reprinted 1947)
- Deng Sanmu 鄧散木, Shufa Xuexi Bidu 書法學習必讀. Hong Kong Taiping Book Department Publishing 香港太平書局出版: Hong Kong, 1978.
- Qiu Xigui, Chinese Writing, Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 2000. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.
- Ouyang, Zhongshi & Fong, Wen C., Eds, Chinese Calligraphy, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2008. ISBN 9780300121070
- Burckhardt, O. “The Rhythm of the Brush” Quadrant, Vol 53, No 6, (June 2009) pp. 124–126. A review-essay that explores the motion of the brush as the hallmark of Chinese calligraphy.
- Emmanuelle Lesbre, Jianlong Liu: La Peinture Chinoise. Hazan, Paris, 2005, ISBN 978-2-850-25922-7.
- Stanley-Baker, Joan (2010/05), Ink Painting Today 10 (8), Centered on Taipei, pp. 8–11 Check date values in:
- Stanley-Baker, Joan (2010/06), Ink Painting Today 10 (9), Centered on Taipei, pp. 18–21 Check date values in:
- Lu, W; Aiken, M (2004), "Origins and evolution of Chinese writing systems and preliminary counting relationships", Accounting History 9 (3), pp. 25–51
- Liu , Shi-yee (2007). Straddling East and West: Lin Yutang, a modern literatus: the Lin Yutang family collection of Chinese painting and calligraphy. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588392701.
- Chinese Calligraphy - Dao of Calligraphy in English & Mandarin Chinese
- Chinese Calligraphy at China Online Museum
- Chinese calligraphy
- Styles of Chinese calligraphy
- Models of Chinese calligraphy - Generator of Chinese calligraphy model
- History of Chinese Calligraphy
- History of Calligraphy in Vietnam
- Basic Calligraphy Styles From Taoism contains introductory comparisons of different calligraphy styles of basic characters.
- The History of Chinese Calligraphy at BeyondCalligraphy.com
- Introduction of Chinese Ground Calligraphy or Dishu - mildchina
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|Huangpu River (黄浦江)|
|Pu Jiang (浦江)
Chunshen Jiang (春申江)
Shen Jiang (申江)
A view of the Huangpu River as it flows through downtown Shanghai.
|- left||Suzhou Creek|
|- location||Zhujiajiao, Qingpu, Shanghai, China|
|Length||113 km (70 mi)|
|- average||180 m3/s (6,357 cu ft/s) |
|Postal Map||Whangpoo River|
The Huangpu (help·info), formerly romanized as Whangpoo, is a 113 kilometres (70 mi)-long river flowing through Shanghai, China that was first excavated and created by Lord Chunshen, one of the Four Lords of the Warring States during the Warring States Period (475 BC - 221 BC). It is the last significant tributary of the Yangtze before it empties into the East China Sea. The Bund and Lujiazui are located along the river.
The Huangpu is the largest river in Shanghai, with Suzhou Creek being its major tributary. It is on average 400 meters wide and 9 meters deep. It divides the city into two regions: Pudong to its east and Puxi to the west. (Dong and Xi mean 'East' and 'West' respectively in Mandarin Chinese.)
In February and March 2013, thousands of pig carcasses were found floating in the Huangpu River in Shanghai. Some of the pigs carried ear tags saying they were from Jiaxing, so that city in Zhejiang may be the source; however local farmers deny that.
Many lines of the Shanghai Metro cross underneath the river.There are also many tunnels crossing under the river.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Huangpu River.|
- (四)水文 (Chinese)
- "The New Huangpu River Both Banks". Retrieved Apr 16, 2014.
- Hook, Leslie (May 14, 2013). "China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth". Financial Times. Retrieved 2013-05-15.
- Barboza, David (March 14, 2013). "A Tide of Death, but This Time Food Supply Is Safe". New York Times.
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Literary and Colloquial Pronunciations of the Peking Mandarin Noted by Joseph Edkins in Romanized Chinese Book
Wong , Ling Yann (2011) Literary and Colloquial Pronunciations of the Peking Mandarin Noted by Joseph Edkins in Romanized Chinese Book. In: The 29th of International Conference on Chinese Phonology, 11-12 Mac 2011, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan. pp. 41-70. (Unpublished)
A Progressive Lessons in the Chinese Spoken Language is a romanized Chinese book compiled by Joseph Edkins in the middle of the nineteenth century, this book is provided to foreigners who stayed in China at that time for learning the Peking Mandarin. The characteristics of the pronunciations which reflected in the “Lessons”（《課文》）and the“List of Common Words and Phrases”（《編目表》）in this book have shown differentiated, the former refered to the classical rhyming book namely as Wufang Yuanyin （《五方元音》）to form the literary pronunciation of Mandarin, Joseph Edkins believed that this sound system which has been noted in this rhyming book is used to form the literary pronunciation of the Peking Mandarin, and it is the standard Mandarin Orthography；however the latter reflected the colloquial pronunciation of the Peking Mandarin which spoken by the local people, this actual sound is originated from the Peking dialect. The basic sound systems which have been formed in the “Lessons”and the“List of Common Words and Phrases”are differentiatied, thus both sound systems have shown the different characteristics in consonants, rhymes and tones. This study also found that the sound systems of this Chinese book are not originated from the Nanking Mandarin, but its based on the written language of the classical rhyming book and the Peking dialect to form the literary and colloquial pronunciation of the Peking Mandarin.
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Since the end of the Korean War, some Americans maintain a false sense of reality toward North-South Korean tensions. What most Americans fail to realize is that the Korean Peninsula has, for many years, experienced a plethora of military engagements between the Republic of Korea Army (South) and the Democratic Peoples Republic in Korea (North).
As tensions brew on the Peninsula, more and more Westerners are getting heated with great concern toward the possibility of all-out war. Some reasoning of concern makes total sense. Let's face it, North Korea's new leader Kim Jong Un has went far beyond pushing and poking the boundaries to start a second Korean conflict/war.
It's critical however to look at some incidents that occurred in the past. These incidents demonstrate that a unique military culture of tolerance exists between North and South Korea. "Will that tolerance continue to exist" remains unknown but it is safe to say, for now, the answer is "yes."
In 1987, a Korean Air commercial passenger jet exploded over the Andaman Sea off the coast of Burma. All 115 persons on board were killed. The bombing was a North Korean attack against the South in protest of the Seoul Olympics.
After flying into North Korean airspace, a US Army Kiowa helicopter was shot down in 1994. One pilot was killed while the other lived. Thirteen days later, the living pilot was released from North Korean captivity.
Four years later in 1998, South Korea engaged a North Korean submarine that "intruded deep into South Korean territories." A team of North Korean "spies" escaped the sinking vessel and the body of at least one frogman was found near the site.
In 2010, a South Korean Island known as Yeonpyeong was struck by dozens of North Korean artillery shells. Two South Korean soldiers were killed and more than a dozen persons were injured. The atrocity raised international brows waiting for South Korea to retaliate.
The list of military hostilities between North Korea and South Korea are in many ways, "endless." According to a 2003 Congressional Research Report titled North Korea: Chronology of Provocations, 1950 - 2003, there have been well over 100 incidents or provocations between North and South Korea since 1950. Yet not one of these incidents was significant enough to start the second Korean War.
Tensions are high on the Korean Peninsula but is anything taking place there really new? That answer is obvious. Nothing taking place between the two Koreas is new. Hopefully, the culturally accepted principle of tolerance on the Peninsula goes unchanged as well.
Kerry Patton, a combat disabled veteran, is author of Contracted: America's Secret Warriors.
Follow Kerry Patton on Twitter: www.twitter.com/kerpat14
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China is a huge country, about the same size as the USA or Europe, with the greatest range of weather of any country on the planet. So, before you travel to China, it is recommended that you check the weather conditions. China is vast, and the climate and conditions vary widely from region to region.
Climates range from desert in Xinjiang (the Northwest), to Inner Mongolian grasslands, to temperate and alpine forests and farmlands, to rice paddies and sub-tropical vegetation, to tropical rainforest, to sunny beaches. There is the vast high-altitude plateau of Tibet and archipelagos of tropical islands.
Along with the seasons, latitude and altitude affect the temperature dramatically, with temperatures as low as -40°C (-40°F) in the north and as high as 40°C (104°F) in the south.
BeijingandXi'anare dry, hot in summer and cold in winter. Shanghai (along with nearby Hangzhou, Suzhou and the Yellow Mountains), Guilin, andHong Kong all experience monsoon rains in the spring and summer, with hot summers and milder winters.
Tourists visit Harbin in winter for its ice festival and ski slopes. Tibet has clear skies and big daily temperature differences and is best avoided in the frigid winter. The Silk Road in the Northwest is also best explored in the warmer months, when the deserts and barren vistas are at their best.
Tropical Hainan is a sunny escape for holidaymakers at any time of year. Chengdu is the overcast city, with muggy hot summers and cold dreary winters, and Kunming is the "Spring City" with pleasant mild weather all year round.
In general China’s weather is colder and drier the further north and west you go…
North China is similar in climate to Nebraska and Kansas, with much less snow and rain during the winter. Dry with hot summers and cold winters, late winter and early spring bring regular dust storms and haze.
Northeast China (Shenyang, Harbin) is similar to Minnesota. Dry with a short warm summer, and a long and very cold winter.
Xinjiang (China's Northwest: Urumqi, Kashgar, etc.) experiences severe desert conditions with dramatic daily temperature swings. Summer can get very hot during the day, but generally cools off at night. Similarly, winter temperatures warm up during the day but plummet at night. In dramatic contrast to the desert are the snowcapped Heavenly Mountains, with their verdant pastures, near Urumqi.
Tibet (Central West China: Lhasa, Shigatse, etc.) also sees marked daily temperature changes. When the sun shines (and Tibet is known for its blue skies), temperatures reach the mid 80s Fahrenheit (around 30°C) in the summer and the mid-60s (around 20°C) in the winter. At night, or when it rains or snows, temperatures drop rapidly, maybe by 40 or 50°F (20 or 30°C). Precipitation is minimal in the winter; summer showers are more common, but occur mainly at night.
South and Central East coastal China (Shanghai to Guangzhou) is comparable to the Gulf Coast states, through winter storms do not occur as often. Rainfall is concentrated in the stormy monsoon months from late spring through summer, leaving autumn and winter relatively dry and settled. Summer is hot and humid. Winter is shorter, cool, and often overcast with drizzle.
Further west in the southern half of China there is less rain, except in the mountains. So while Chongqing, Chengdu, Kunming, etc. feel the monsoon the effect is much less marked.
The summer rains are a factor that may affect your trip to the southern half of China. Cruises may be halted if the Li River or the Yangtze is in flood, flights may be delayed by typhoons, and any outdoor activity may be rendered less enjoyable by a downpour.
The monsoon is generally greater in intensity the further southeast (or up in the mountains) you go. Hong Kong has the most rainfall, and in Xi’an, and further north, the summer rains are hardly worth mentioning.
Typhoons can occur from mid-summer to early winter, usually from July to November, affecting particularly the southern and eastern coasts (Shanghai to Hong Kong). Flights may be affected. You should monitor weather forecasts if traveling in affected areas.
If typhoons are forecast to affect your trip, your China Highlights travel advisor can change your itinerary to make sure your tour won't be affected. If already in an affected area, our tour guides also have the flexibility to take you to visit places indoors instead on bad weather days. We suggest you don’t go to isolated or remote places if a typhoon is forecast.
Areas near rivers may be subject to flooding during their respective rainy seasons, and this may affect tourist activities on or near rivers.
Landslides are more likely to happen in southwestern China's mountainous areas, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guizhou provinces, and Tibet, as well as Guilin’s mountainous areas, from April to September. This may interrupt essential services and accessibility to tourist destinations, e.g. Longsheng.
The worst tourist cities in China for air quality are Tianjin (worst), Chongqing (second worst), Xi'an, Luoyang, Datong, Beijing, Zhengzhou, Lanzhou, and Urumqi; mostly in North China. Smoggy weather may occur in any month, but the most serious months are from October to January.
If it’s smoggy you could buy pick up a 3M n95 mask for 18 yuan. China Highlights provide dust masks for our customers if pollution is high, or, if the smog is very serious, we are flexible to change your itinerary. If you have severe breathing-related health issues or feel Beijing is not an option, we suggest touring fresher Hong Kong or Shanghai or smaller tourist cities.
In southern cities the air quality is much better, such as in Shanghai, Hangzhou, Chengdu, Guilin, and Guangzhou. But don’t expect the sky to be as clear as in Western cities.
China's remote southwest, west and Hainan Island are currently "free from air pollution issues". Places with good air quality include the ethnic culture areas: Yunnan Province (Kunming, Dali, Lijiang), Tibet, and Guizhou Province (Kaili, etc.).
Continue to read Top 5 Cleanest Cities in China
Cities in North China, such as Beijing and Tianjin may be affected by dust storms in early March or April, but it is not common.
Sichuan Province has experienced two sizable earthquakes in recent years. The 2013 quake caused some disruption to tourism around the Panda Research Base and Leshan, but no tourists were injured. Most recent quakes occurred in remote mountainous areas of West China with no effect on tourism.
Choosing the best time to visit China depends on which places you wish to visit, and what type of weather you enjoy. May, September, and October are the months when the weather is most comfortable at most of China’s tourist destinations, but they are more crowded. See more, including why the summer months are rated second, on The Best Time to Travel to China.
The low season arrives in late November, and continues through the winter when there are fewer crowds and prices are lower. Also read Why Travel in China's Winter Low Season?
The best time to see fall colors in China is from late September to late November. Fall is later the further south you go.
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© All Rights Reserved jamie_ca
Nanjing (南京), literally meaning Southern Capital, is one of the most important cities in Chinese history. It also an amazing place to visit and the current day capital of Jiangsu province. The city is located on the lower bends of the Yangtze River making its location extremely important throughout Chinese history. In addition to this these facts, that Nanjing was the capital of China for 6 dynasties and during the Republic of China only gives it more prestige.
The city was first settled in 495 BC and became the capital of China in 229 AD during the 3 Kingdoms period. Although this title was lost at the beginning in of the Sui Dynasty in 581 AD when the city was brunt to the ground. During the late Tang Dynasty the city was rebuilt and it became the capital for the Southern Tang Dynasty (937 to 975). Although at the beginning of the Song Dynasty the capital was moved again. Nanjing then became the capital of China again during the early part of the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1421), until the capital was moved to Beijing.
The next major moment for the city's history was in 1910 when the Republic of China was founded. The capital was moved again in 1912 to appease the Emperor into abdicating from the thorn. In 1927 General Chiang Kai-shek moved the captial again to Nanjing and started what was called the Nanjing Decade, which lasted until the capital was moved because of advancing Japanese forces. The capital was relocated, briefly, to Nanjing, after the World War II until 1949. During World War II Nanjing was the site of one of the most horrific instances ever committed during a war. The brutality of the Nanjing Massacre, or Rape of Nanjing, can still be felt in the city to this day.
After the communist took power in 1949 Nanjing quickly became an important east coast city. Today it is a major economic centre and is also a very popular place with tourists. It is also an education centre because it is the home to several very high ranking Chinese Universities. Nanjing is a great place to spend two or three days exploring the palaces, gardens and even the wonderful green space of Purple Mountain.
© All Rights Reserved heidigras
© All Rights Reserved e1quarnst
Nanjing has a humid subtropical climate. Summers are from late May to mid-September with average highs between 26 °C and 32 °C and lows of 20 °C-24 °C. Winters are from December to February with average highs between 7 °C and 10 °C and nights mostly around zero or slightly below. Some snow is possible during these months, though winters are comparatively dry. Most of the rain falls during the warmer months, peaking in June and July with almost 200 mm a month. Average precipitation a year is over 1,000 mm.
|Avg Max||7 °C||8.4 °C||13.5 °C||20.1 °C||25.3 °C||29 °C||32 °C||32.2 °C||27.2 °C||22.1 °C||15.9 °C||9.7 °C|
|Avg Min||-1.6 °C||0 °C||4.4 °C||10.3 °C||15.7 °C||20.4 °C||24.6 °C||24.2 °C||19.1 °C||12.6 °C||6.1 °C||-0.1 °C|
|Rainfall||29 mm||48 mm||69 mm||87 mm||96 mm||159 mm||188 mm||124 mm||95 mm||60 mm||56 mm||25 mm|
Nanjing Lukou International Airport (IATA: NKG, ICAO: ZSNJ) (南京禄口国际机场) is located about 35 kilometres from the downtown area of the city towards the southeast. In 2008 the airport handled almost 9 million passengers and is one of the top 20 busiest airports in China. There are daily flights to almost every major and medium sized city in China with several flights a day to Beijing. There is also limited international service to Macau, Seoul, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Osaka, Tokyo, Frankfurt and Singapore. Recently cross-strait charter service has begun with Taipei, but these flights are very hard to book for international travellers.
For the more intense traveller there is direct bus service from Shanghai Pudong International Airport to and from Nanjing. Remember that this is a long bus ride that is 5 hours or more and might not want to be done if a long international flight is involved. Better to spend some time in Shanghai before or after travelling to Nanjing.
Nanjing Train Station (南京火车站) is one of the largest train stations in the area. It is centrally located and has connections to every major and minor city in China. Located near one of the few bridges over the Yangtze River this train station is a major hub. There are now fast trains connecting Nanjing with Shanghai, Beijing and Hangzhou. Remember that the taxi pick-up area is in the basement and the taxi's hanging near the ground level entrance tend to scam people.
There are several bus stations in town but the main one is located near downtown and has several daily buses to cities throughout the area, including Suzhou and Shanghai.
Nanjing is now home to a great subway system. Currently the lines are pretty limited but growing every day! Nanjing Metro Line 1, started service on May 15, 2005. Line 2 and the extension of Line 1 officially opened to passenger service on May 28, 2010.
Nanjing has a few culinary specialties that are typical of the region, with duck more widely available here than in most other parts of the country. Some of the specialities you should try are:
This has been Nanjing's traditionally nightlife area that runs along the Qinhuai River. These night markets, restaurants and pubs have thrived for several years making it a popular place. It is also a place that has traditionally been the home for upper-class prostitution until prostitution was banned by the Communists.
This night life area is more popular with foreigners and younger Chinese. It hosts a variety of bars, clubs and restaurants that have a thriving younger culture. This place is fun every night of the week.
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|Nanjing Fuzimiao International Hostel||Fuzimiao, No.68 Ping Jiang Fu Road||HOSTEL||75|
|Nanjing Jasmine International Youth Hostel||HeQun Xin Chun #7, Shanghai Rd||Hostel||70|
|Sunflower International Youth Hostel||RD.80 ZHANYUAN FUZIMIAO||Hostel||73|
|Nanjing Tian An International Hotel apartment||No 108 South Zhongshan Road||Hotel||-|
|Nanjing Li Jing International Hotel Apartment||west of Dan Feng Road Gu Lou District||Hotel||-|
|Smart Inn ( Changhong Road )||No.4 Changhong Road||Hostel||-|
|Travelers' Soul Inn Nanjing||B5, Chengguan Science and Creativity Park||HOSTEL||71|
|Nanjing Time Youth Hostel||NO.6 MeiYuan New Village Yongyuan of Xuanwu Area||HOSTEL||72|
Wangba (联网) means internet bar in Chinese. Almost every town will have an internet bar or gaming center. The best way to spot an internet bar is to look for the 网(ba) character, which means net, and large digitized images of computer game characters. Often, there will be a sign saying Green Power in English at the entrance. Most gaming centers cost about RMB3 an hour. You prepay at the main desk and are then given a plastic card or a piece of paper. Once you are done you return the card or piece of paper and get reimbursed for the money you didn't spend. Be prepared for a place that might be dingy, basic and messy. Internet bars in China tend to get crowded starting in the late afternoon to the late evenings.
Some hotels provide access from the rooms that may or may not be free; others may provide a wireless service or a few desktops in the lounge area.
Also, quite a few cafes provide free wireless Internet service. Some cafes, even provide a machine for customer use.
See also: International Telephone Calls
The country calling code to China is 86. To make an international call from China, the code is 00.
When making international phone calls it is best to buy an IP card. They typically have a value of ¥100 but sometimes can be had for as little as ¥25. The cards have printed Chinese instructions, but after dialing the number listed on the card English-spoken instructions are available. As a general indication of price, a call from China to Europe lasts around 22 minutes with a ¥100 card. Calls to the U.S. and Canada are advertised to be another 20% cheaper. There is no warning before the card runs out of minutes.
If you already have a GSM 900/1800 cellphone, you can roam onto Chinese networks, but calls will be very expensive (¥12-35/minute is typical). If you're staying for more than a few days, it will usually be cheaper to buy a prepaid Chinese SIM card; this gives you a Chinese phone number with a certain amount of money preloaded. Chinese tend to avoid phone numbers with the bad-luck digit '4', and vendors will often be happy to offload these "unsellable" SIM-cards to foreigners at a discount. If you need a phone as well, prices start around ¥100/200 used/new. Chinese phones, unlike those sold in many Western countries, are never "locked" and will work with any SIM card you put in them. China's two big operators are China Mobile and China Unicom. Most SIMs sold by the two work nationwide, with Unicom allowing Hong Kong/Macau/Taiwan usage as well. There is usually a surcharge of about ¥1/min when roaming outside the province you bought the SIM, and there are some cards that work only in a single province, so check when buying.
China Post (中国邮政) is the official postal service of the People's Republic of China, operated by the State Postal Bureau of the People's Republic of China (website in Chinese only), and has more details about price to send letters, postcards and parcels, both domestically as well as internationally. The Chinese postal service is very good. Remember that in more remote places usually only one post office in a city can handle sending international boxes or letters. Also many times it might be worth having the name of the country you are trying to send to in Chinese characters, because small town people might not know what Estonia is in English. Post offices have a striking green logo and can easily be found everywhere in the cities. They are mostly open every day (including weekends!) from 8:00am to 6:00pm, though small offices might have shorter opening times, while the bigger ones in central and touristic areas are sometimes open during evenings as well.
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In the Yellow River region of China, farming, based on millet cultivation, is the backbone of the economy, and small towns and villages dot the landscape. The larger settlements are surrounded by thick beaten-earth walls, an indicator of endemic warfare. Elaborate burials for the elite suggest that the region is home to competing chiefdoms, ruled by warlike aristocracies. Even at this ancient period of China's history, pottery shards carry inscriptions which include composite ideographs, conveying simple meanings. These show that the Chinese system of writing is gradually developing. The long history of China's civilization is dawning.
In the Yangtze region, wet-rice cultivation predominates. As in the north, farming villages have become established here, often on lake sides where paddy fields can most easily be laid out.
In the hills and forests to the south of the Yangtze region, tribal peoples such as the Tai live lives largely based on hunting, gathering and fishing. Wet-rice cultivation is gradually penetrating this region as well, and farming settlements have reached the south China coast.
The Yellow river region of China is now ruled by the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BC), the first of a long series of Chinese dynasties which is illuminated by the light of written history. This region is home to a flourishing Bronze Age civilization. The first real cities of ancient East Asia, housing tens of thousands of inhabitants, have appeared here.
Although the kings of the Shang dynasty probably exercise real authority over only a part of the region, their authority is acknowledged over a much larger area of northern and central China through subordinate lords and tribal chiefs who rule virtually independently in their own areas.
A system of writing, which in all essentials is the modern Chinese script, is already in use at this ancient period. Bronze technology is well developed. Indeed, the Chinese are already making some of the finest bronzes ever produced in world history.
Cultural influences eminating from the Yellow river region are bringing a more advanced material culture to the Yangtze region, and this is leading to population expansion. A distinctive, non-literate but materially advanced culture is developing here.
The Shang dynasty has been replaced by the Zhou dynasty as rulers of ancient China (1122 BC). The Zhou will be the longest-enduring dynasty in China's history. Their ancestors had previously ruled a border territory regarded as semi-barbarian by the Shang court. However, the change of dynasty has seen no sharp decline in material culture.
The Zhou dynasty kings have distributed territory to a large number of princes of the Zhou clan and other loyal followers, and royal power has thus become divided amongst more than a hundred subordinate fiefs. At the same time, the Zhou state has expanded, both outwards into surrounding lands and also internally as Zhou lords annex “barbarian” territory still remaining within the borders. As a result, this is a crucial period for the expansion of early ancient Chinese civilization.
In the Yangtze Valley, a mixed culture is growing up, in which Zhou and native features mingle. Further south, tribal peoples are coming under increasing pressure from the more settled peoples of the north, and some tribes begin migrating south and west, into South East Asia; there they will become the ancestors of the Mon and Khmer peoples. The history of South East Asia will be repeatedly affected by developments in southern China.
This is a time of great upheaval, but also of great creativity, in Ancient China's history. The many fiefs into which earlier Zhou dynasty kings had divided their realm have, through a process of warfare and annexation, been absorbed into a few larger political units. These can now fairly be called states in their own right, only loosely acknowledging the authority of the Zhou kings.
These states have developed well-organized armies, and sophisticated tax systems to pay for them, staffed by officials appointed for their ability and loyalty rather than their noble birth. Technological and economic advances have led to the expansion of commerce, the growth of towns, a flourishing merchant class, the introduction of metal coinage and, centuries before the west, the invention of cast iron. Into this fluctuating environment comes one of the most influential philosophers in world history, Confucius (551-479 BC). In this time of change he calls people back to their ancient duties of honour and obedience.
The organized state pattern of the Yellow River region has penetrated the Yangtze Valley. Peoples formally regarded as “barbarian” by the Zhou are being absorbed into Chinese civilization. Throughout much of southern China, however, native peoples cling to their former way of life. A major people in southern China at this ancient period are the Thais.
The return of urban civilization to ancient India has been followed by a creative period in its history, with the founding of Buddhismclick to view India and South Asia 500BC
The Malays and Javanese now inhabit their modern homes, and the Iron Age has come to the regionclick to view South East Asia 500BC
The past 300 years have been tumultuous ones for China. Indeed, this period of ancient Chinese history is traditionally known as the age of the “Warring States”. The competition between the states increased, and armies grew much larger, with professional generals, often of humble origin, commanding massed ranks of infantry and cavalry. The smaller states were swallowed up in the larger, until only six powerful kingdoms were left. Then, starting in the 250s BC, one of these states, Qin, conquered all the others, one by one.
The rulers of the Qin dynasty were thus the first in China's history to rule a unified Chinese empire. The Qin ruthlessly imposed a rigid centralization upon the vast country. Their empire lasted barely a generation, however, before it dissolved into anarchy. Out of this chaos one leader eventually emerged victorious. He was the founder of the long-lasting Han dynasty.
The ruler, who takes the reign-name Gaozu, has adopted much the same centralized system of government as the Qin, but in a milder form. Taxes and labour services were less onerous than under his predecessors, and the laws less severe. He has thus successfully established his rule over the entire country, and the Han dynasty he founds will rule ancient China for 400 years.
The history of ancient India has seen the great Mauryan empire cover much of the subcontinentclick to view India and South Asia 200BC
Korea is covered by many warlike tribal kingdomsclick to view Korea 200BC
Indian traders are bringing Hinduism, Buddhism and other elements of Indian civilization to South East Asiaclick to view South East Asia 200BC
The past two centuries have been a tranquil period in Ancient China's history. The Han dynasty emperors have expanded their empire's borders on all fronts. Under the emperor Wudi (141-86 BC), in particular, the Xiongu were subdued, and north-west China garrisoned and colonized; northern Korea was conquered and the annexation of south China completed. Internally, however, China has seen nearly two centuries of peace and stability.
The vast country has increasingly come under the control of the elaborate and well-run Han bureaucracy. Officials are normally recruited from the wealthy landowning class. They are highly educated: under the Han, Confucianism has been installed as the official ideology of the ruling class, and their education is based on a rigorous study of the Confucian classics. Officials are promoted on recommendation, which brings many very able men to high office. These are developments which will influence Chinese history for more than 2000 years.
The Han dynasty marks the high point of Ancient China. The peace of the Han era has encouraged commerce and industry to flourish, and agriculture has also expanded. Much new land has been brought under cultivation, especially in border regions; and continued technological advance has seen the introduction of, amongst other innovations, the seed drill and the wheelbarrow.
The Mauryan empire has vanished, and ancient India sees a new chapter in its history with invasions from Central Asiaclick to view India and South Asia 30BC
Northern Korea is occupied by the Han empireclick to view Korea 30BC
The first urban civilization of South East Asia has appeared, in Burmaclick to view South East Asia 30BC
A great chapter in the history of ancient China is coming to an end, with the Han dynasty now in its death throes.
About 200 years after the founding of the Han dynasty (202 BC), a succession of weak emperors led to the usurpation by the chief minister Wang Mang (reigned AD 9 – 27). He attempted some radical reforms, which caused first confusion, then a destructive civil war, and finally the restoration of the Han dynasty. This was followed by years of reconstruction, renewed economic expansion and restored imperial power. It was during this period that paper was invented, to meet the needs of the civil servants.
Latterly, however, the foundations of the later Han empire have been undermined by a succession of child-emperors. This has resulted in unchecked factionalism at the Han court, and in the provinces, an increasingly corrupt bureaucracy. As a direct result, widespread peasant revolts have broken out, causing immense destruction.
At the same time, a renewed barbarian threat has emerged with the reunification of the Xiongnu nomads.
The Han dynasty is now in terminal decline, and has only twenty years to go before it succumbs to these many dangers. Chinese history is entering a troubled period.
The Kushana empire of ancient India is important to world history as a centre for the spread of Buddhismclick to view India and South Asia 200AD
Powerful and well-organized kingdoms are beginning to emerge in Koreaclick to view Korea 200AD
Indian-style kingdoms and principalities are appearing in South East Asiaclick to view South East Asia 200AD
The Han dynasty, whose empire marked the high point of ancient Chinese history, fell in AD 220. It was followed by almost three centuries of division, invasion and, in the north, barbarian rule. Unlike with the western Roman empire, however, the fall of the Han empire did not lead a steep decline in material civilization.
The Northern Wei, who are of Mongolian origin and who have ruled northern China since their conquest in AD 425-435, have ended the worst of the divisions and have brought more than half a century of peace and stability to the region. Of all the barbarian dynasties, they have pursued a policy of Sinicisation most purposefully, giving their state a much greater degree of strength and durability than its rivals and predecessors.
Southern China has been unified under one government since the fall of the Han. Despite the succession of weak, faction-ridden dynasties, this region, spared the upheavals to the north, has seen considerable economic expansion and population growth.
This period of India's history has seen the rise of the Gupta dynasty, under whom ancient Indian civilization reaches its peakclick to view India and South Asia 500AD
Powerful and well-organized kingdoms are beginning to emerge in Koreaclick to view Korea 500AD
Indian civilization exerts a deep influence upon the kingdoms and peoples of South East Asiaclick to view South East Asia 500AD
After centuries of division, China was again unified by the Sui dynasty in 589. This dynasty did not last long, however, and after a brief civil war the Tang dynasty came to power in 618, one of the most brilliant dynasty's in China's history.
The Tang emperors brought stability and good government to China, as well as pushing out the frontiers of the Chinese empire further than ever before. The great Taizong (624-49), who set the dynasty on strong foundations, was succeeded by less capable emperors, but this allowed one of the most remarkable personalities in all Chinese history to exercise power, the empress Wu (649-705, first as concubine of the emperor, then as wife, and finally, after 690, in her own right). Under her son, the emperor Xuanzong (712-56), the Tang empire has reached a peak of power.
Culturally, Xuanzong’s reign is later seen as a golden age, particularly in the field of poetry. However, there are causes for concern. Over-powerful generals now control the frontiers, and the elderly emperor is increasingly withdrawing from affairs of state, under the spell of a beautiful concubine. This situation will very soon lead to one of the most terrible rebellions in China's history, bringing disaster for the Tang dynasty and for the whole of China.
At this stage in India's history, powerful regional kingdoms divide the subcontinentclick to view India and South Asia 750AD
click to view South East Asia 750AD
The kingdom of Silla has united most of the Korean peninsula under its ruleclick to view Korea 750AD
In 755, one of the most disastrous events in China's history occured when a powerful frontier army commander, An Lushan, revolted and seized the capital, Loyang. His rebellion was not crushed until 763, after causing great destruction and loss of life throughout China. The later Tang emperors were unable to assert the same degree of control over their empire as their predecessors had done, and the centralized rule of the early Tang was never fully restored. Eventually, the familiar tale of child-emperors, factionalism at court and widespread peasant revolt led to the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, and China again fragmented into several states.
This period of division did not last nearly as long as the earlier one in China's history, following the fall of the Han dynasty. By 969 China was largely reunified under the Song dynasty.
In northern China, however, two barbarian dynasties reign, the Liao and the Western Xia (the latter founded as a recognized dynasty in 1038, but existing as a state from the mid-10th century). In the Liao, a small ruling nomad group governs the state along Chinese lines, and under them Chinese gentry families participate fully in the Chinese culture of the period. The Western Xia is a more purely nomadic tribal confederation.
This period of its history sees the south emerging as a major centre of Indian civilizationclick to view India and South Asia 979AD
Old kingdoms are disappearing and new ones emergingclick to view South East Asia 979AD
The Koryo dynasty has now united all Korea under its ruleclick to view Korea 979AD
The Song dynasty has been on the Chinese throne since the late tenth century, though it no longer rules the entire country. In 1135 a major invasion by the Jurchen, a people from central Asia, took the entire northern part of the country from the Song. These have formed the Jin empire, which, while ruled by a small minority of nomadic descent, functions as a Chinese state. The Song dynasty of this period is therefore give the label “Southern Song”.
The Southern Song dynasty has been left with by far the richest and most populous part of China, and under them one of the most progressive periods of China's history, which began under the early Song, has continued. The Song centuries have seen unprecedented economic growth and population expansion. A revolution in farming, based largely on wet-rice cultivation, has greatly increased crop yields, and has been accompanied by dramatic commercial and industrial expansion, both within China itself and throughout South East Asia. This has been the great age of Chinese technological innovation, with printing, gunpowder, shipbuilding techniques, the compass, paper money and porcelain all either appearing for the first time or seeing great advances.
In their internal policies, the Song emperors have expanded the examination system as a means of recruiting officials, and China is now administered largely by a class of professional scholar-officials.
India has entered a new phase in its history as Muslim states establish themselves over much of the north.
click to view India and South Asia 1215AD
The Khmer empire is at the height of its power, and the great temple of Angkor Wat has been builtclick to view South East Asia 1215AD
A military government now rules Koreaclick to view Korea 1215AD
The past few centuries have been ones of great upheaval in Chinese history. The Mongols from central Asia conquered northern China in the 1230s, annexing it to their empire which stretched as far west as the Middle East and (within a few years) Russia. Southern China fell to them in the 1270s. The Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan (reigned 1260-94), presented himself as a legitimate Chinese ruler, of the Yuan dynasty, and maintained the traditional Chinese bureaucracy, though with Mongols in the topmost positions.
After Kublai Khan, the Mongols weakened and their vast empire fragmented into separate states. Yuan dynasty China was one of these. From the 1330s, an increasing number of rebellions culminated in the expulsion of the Mongols from China. Native Chinese rulers of the Ming dynasty were installed on the throne.
The Ming emperors have restored the Confucian bureaucracy, along with the examination system, to its predominant position in the state. In the early 15th century they briefly sent out a number of major naval expeditions to South East Asia and beyond, reaching as far as Africa. In Inner Asia, however, the Mongols remain a dangerous threat to China, and the Ming have completely rebuilt the Great Wall - one of the greatest feats of engineering in world history.
Internally, the country is largely tranquil, and the economy and population is expanding strongly.
The history of India has entered a new phase with the dominance of Muslim-ruled states throughout most of the subcontinent.click to view India and South Asia 1453AD
Muslim merchants have established a network of small sultanates in the regionclick to view South East Asia 1453AD
The Ming dynasty presided over a reasonably tranquil period in Chinese history. However, the Ming emperors, for the most part nonentities, fell increasingly under the control of eunuch factions at court. These factions were frequently in bitter conflict with the scholar-officials of the imperial bureaucracy. The turbulence of life at the centre meant that some deep-seated problems in the administration of the Ming empire were not addressed properly.
In the 16th century the Ming dynasty showed the classic symptoms of dynastic decline, repeated at regular intervals throughout China's history: corrupt and ineffective administration in the provinces, famine and floods inadequately dealt with, peasant revolt and invasion from across the frontiers.
One group of invaders are a people from the northern steppes who, having developed a Chinese-style state in Manchuria (hence the name by which they are known to history, the Manchus), have taken advantage of rising chaos in China to march on the capital and seize the throne (1644). They have thus established a new dynasty, the Qing ("brilliant"), and, under their regent, Dorgon, are now in the process of pacifying the entire country. After initial struggles a final, glorious phase in China's imperial history will begin.
The Mughal empire now rules much of the sub-continent, marking a high point in the history of Indian civilizationclick to view India and South Asia 1648AD
Europeans are beginning to make their presence felt in this regionclick to view South East Asia 1648AD
Korea is the first country in the world to build iron warshipsclick to view Korea 1648AD
The Qing (Manchu) dynasty has ruled China for the past 150 years, though it was not until 1680 that the country was fully in their hands. Although of foreign origin, the Qing have established an orthodox Confucian state, complete with bureaucracy, examination system, and law code. However, Manchu officials serve alongside Chinese in all the topmost posts, and the Chinese male population are required to wear their hair in a queue as a sign of their subjection.
In one of the most remarkable succession of rulers in all world history, China has been governed for more than a century by just three very able rulers, the Kangxi emperor (1667-1722), the Yongzheng emperor (1722-35) and the Qianlong emperor (1736-95). These emperors have pushed out the frontiers of the Qing empire to include vast areas of central Asia, never previously under Chinese rule. They have centralized power, ensured high standards of administration, and presided over a prolonged period of peace. Due largely to this peace, but also to new crops introduced from America (maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts), migration to hitherto under-developed areas and the bringing of much new land into cultivation, and productivity gains in Chinese farming methods, the 18th century has seen a doubling of the population. From 150 millions in the late 17th century it has grown to 300 millions. Commerce has expanded considerably, especially long-distance trade within the empire, and industries such as porcelain, steel and textiles have flourished.
India has entered a new chapter in its history with the expansion of the British empire in the subcontinentclick to view India and South Asia 1789AD
Dutch commercial and political influence now spreads far and wide throughout the islands and coasts of South East Asiaclick to view South East Asia 1789AD
Korea is a tributary state of the Chinese empireclick to view Korea 1789AD
China in the period of the later Qing dynasty was by now showing signs of strain. Despite the expansion of food production in China, by the end of the 18th century there were clear indications that it was not able to keep pace with the continuing rise in population. Each acre was having to feed more people, and standards of living - especially amongst already-poor peasants - were slipping. These adverse trends manifested themselves in a fashion repeated throughout the history of China: rural disorder and banditry leading to full-scale peasant uprisings. Such uprisings began to break out in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The White Lotus rebellion took the Qing government several years to bring under control (1796-1804). However, at this date these episodes were comparatively local affairs.
At the same time, the Qing government was getting increasingly concerned with the rise in opium smuggling into the country, and the spreading addiction to the drug at all levels of society. Opium was being brought to China by British merchants in ever-larger quantities, both because the Chinese government placed severe restrictions of legitimate trade and because China's economy was so self-sufficient that it had little need for the kind of goods British merchants had to offer. Such was the scale of the problem that by 1837 the senior Qing dynasty ministers were concluding that the Opium trade had to be stamped out once and for all.
The British empire now dominates most of India, marking the most radical change in the long history of the subcontinentclick to view India and South Asia 1837AD
The British are acquiring more territories in the regionclick to view South East Asia 1837AD
Korea remains a tributary state of the Chinese empireclick to view Korea 1837AD
The history of imperial China has now entered its final phase. Tensions over trade between China and Britain, particularly over the role of British merchants in bringing illegal opium into the country, led to the outbreak of the first Opium War (1839-42). In this, the superiority of Western forces over Chinese told, and the treaty which ended it was the first of several "unequal treaties" China would be forced to sign, favorable to foreign interests. The most enduring result of this one was the establishment of Hong Kong as an outpost of the British empire.
Continuing population growth and spreading poverty within the Chinese empire led to the outbreak of the most destructive uprising in China's history (and in world history as well). This was the Taiping rebellion, which began in 1850, and was aimed at driving the Qing dynasty from China. Within a couple of years, the Qing government had lost control over a large part of southern and central China. Then, with the rebels undefeated and another major revolt breaking out further north, China found herself at war with Britain (and now France) again (1858-60). This led to the emperor's Summer Palace in Beijing being burnt down - and of course, to another "unequal treaty". More rebellions broke out in various provinces of the empire, and rebel forces roamed, apparently at will, through the length and breadth of China. The Qing dynasty found itself facing challenges on all sides, not least because the Chinese people were increasingly thinking of the Qing, who had originally come from outside China, as part of the problem.
By the time the Taiping rebellion had been crushed (1864), 20-30 million lives had been lost. There followed a period of rebuilding, which was remarkably successful given the circumstances, and included the resettlement of large areas of depopulated lands. Some attempts at modernizing China's armed forces were also made.
The history of British India almost ended in a great rebellion, but the British were able to regain controlclick to view India and South Asia 1871AD
European power is growing in South East Asiaclick to view South East Asia 1871AD
Korea remains secluded from the outside worldclick to view Korea 1871AD
The long imperial era of China's history has ended and the last of its dynasties has left the stage.
In 1894-5, a war with Japan ended in humiliating defeat for the China. Japan gained Taiwan and other territories, and other foreign powers joined in a free-for-all at China's expense: they demanded (and got) more ports along the coast of China and claimed wide "spheres of influence" around them. The complete dismemberment of the Chinese empire was only averted by rivarlies between the great powers of the day.
These developments undermined support for the Qing dynasty, now widely seen as puppets of the foreign powers, and they deepened the already bitter hatred of foreigners within China. The last years of the 19th century saw the rise of a particularly violent anti-foreign movement known as the Boxers, and many Western missionaries were killed. The Qing court seemed to endorse the movement, and the foreign community in Beijing came under threat from Boxer groups. The Western powers sent an international force to protect their compatriots, which sacked Beijing (1901). The foreign governments then demanded a huge indemnity from China.
At this point the Qing court enacted a wide range of modernizing measures, but these were too little, too late to save the last of China's imperial dynasties. In 1911 some Qing policies aimed at bolstering their rule sparked opposition throughout the country, and local garrisons and provincial assemblies one by one seceded from the empire. The commander of the army in Beijing declared a Republic on January 1st, 1912.
The history of the British empire in India reaches its height - but it will shortly come to an endclick to view India and South Asia 1914AD
The European powers have shared out most of South East Asia amongst themselvesclick to view South East Asia 1914AD
Defeat at the hands of tiny Japan have highlighted the need for change in Russiaclick to view Russia 1914AD
Korea is now under Japanese ruleclick to view Korea 1914AD
The years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the founding of the Chinese republic were some of the most turbulent in China's history.
Within a few years of its proclamation in 1912, the government of the republic had lost control of the country, and China fell into chaos. Some measure of order was restored by the Nationalist Party (the Goumindang) in 1926, but then a bitter struggle broke out between it and the rising Communist Party. The Nationalists gained the upper hand, and, hard pressed by Goumindang forces, the Communists carried out a gruelling treck - the "Long March" - from their bases in southern China, to link up with more of their forces to the north (1934-6). This event consolidated Mao Zedong's leadership of the Party.
For the next ten years, until the end of World War 2, all Chinese forces were committed to fighting the Japanese. Immediately this fighting was concluded, however, the struggle between the Communists and the Goumindang resumed. By 1949 the Communists had control of all China except for Taiwan, to which the Goumindang had fled. The Communists proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic of China.
Under Communist rule, China has been transformed. The gentry class, throughout China's history the mainstay of imperial China, has been eliminated, farmland had been collectivized, women have been given equal rights with men, and under Mao's "Great Leap Forward", China is straining to create an industrial socialist utopia.
The long history of India and South Asia has entered a new chapter with the replacement of the British empire by independent republicsclick to view India and South Asia 1960AD
The countries of South East Asia have become independent from their Western mastersclick to view South East Asia 1960AD
Korea is now divided into North and South Koreaclick to view Korea 1960AD
The history of Communist China since 1960 has been in two distinct phases, the first one of upheaval, the second one of great economic expansion.
The "Great Leap Forward" (1956-60) ended in the deadliest famine of the 20th century. Some years of economic recovery followed before China suffered a second great upheaval, the Cultural Revolution (1966-76). "Red Guards" - school and university students - roamed the country meeting out violence and extreme humiliation to anyone they deemed too conservative. Half a million lives were lost, and millions of other lives were greatly disrupted.
Mao Zedong died in 1976. Immediately the pent-up disgust with the radicals saw the rise of Deng Xiaoping, who dominated Chinese politics until his death in 1997. He opened up China's economy to the outside world, and since then China has seen the most dramatic economic expansion in world history. It has not been accompanied by political liberalization, as was shown most famously in 1989, when student demonstrations in favour of democracy in Beijing's Tiananmen Square ended in a violent clamp-down. Nevertheless, countless millions of people have been lifted out of poverty and gained a measure of prosperity, which their parents and grandparents could never have dreamt of.
The return of Hong Kong from Britain (1997) and Macao from Portugal (1999) to China finally ended European rule on Chinese soil.
Korea remains secluded from the outside worldclick to view Korea 2005AD
The history of India and Pakistan has been characterised by mutual hostilityclick to view India and South Asia 2005AD
South East Asia has experienced dramatic economic growthclick to view South East Asia 2005AD
Hover MAP for summary and tap to zoom. MAP < and > buttons change date. TIMELINE icons jump to date. See below for historical summary.
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Karate Do has its origins in Okinawa and not China as it is often displayed in the media. Karate Do was known simply as Te (hand) on Okinawa long before the chinese influence on Te took pace and developed Okinawa Te. Karate Do was used primarily by peasants and working class people to defend themselves against marauding samurais and plunderers. The possession of weapons was prohibited and carrying weapons was sentenced with death. The the nobility and army were the only ones allowed to carry weapon because of the threat of peasant revolts and uprisings. So common people learned the way of the empty hand in secret and this art was kept secret untill the 20th century when Karate Do opened itself to the world.
Karate – Do = Kara (empty) Te (hand) Do (way)
Karate Do is literally the way of the empty hand. The origins and the trainingstyle are explained here.
Gichin Funakoshi is the father of modern Karate
Gichin Funakoshi was born in Okinawa in the year 1868 and was trained in Shuri Te style by Yasutsune Azato and in Naha Te style by Ysutsune Itosu. He developed the Shotokan style out of the other two Karate Do styles, which is nowadays the most prominent Karate Do style in the world. The word Shotokan consists of Shoto, “rushing of the needles in the pine wood“ which also was Funakoshis pen name, and kan, “house“ and although he never used the name himself and just called his style Karate Do. His students invented the name Shotokan to honor their master Gichin Funakoshi. He is the man who introduced Karate Do to Japan and demonstrated his combat art to the emperor and the royal family after which he decided to stay in Japan and to spread the knowledge of Karate Do. Master Gichin Funakoshi died at the age of 88 in the year 1957 and you can read his story and the origin of Shotokan Karate in his autobiography “Karate Do: My Way of Life“ it was a very good book which I really enjoyed to read.
Karate training consists of Kihon, Kata, Kumite
Karate Do training consist of three different training phases aside from warming up warming down.
- Kihon means basic training where students train the basic techniques and movements of the way of the empty hand countless times to perfection. The basic blocks, kicks and punches are trained here without a training partner to be able to concentrate on oneself without the distraction of facing an opponent.
- Kumite means partner training and forms he second part of Karate Do training. It is separated into different difficulty levels dependent on the skill of the Karateka, “Karate scholar“, and goes from ritualized Kihon Kumite, where every movement and action is performed step by step and ritualized, to Randori which is open sparring against each other. Another form is Hapo Kumite where a single Karateka stand in the middle of a circle and has to defend against several opponents from all sides which can freely attack.
- Kata is called the kind discipline of Karate and was the only form tot rain at the beginning of the combat art as it was not allowed to train any form of combat art for peasants and common people. They used Kata as a disguise to train Karate without the fear of punishment as Kata looks like a ritualized dance for someone who does not know Karate Do. So basically Kata is series of combined ritualized techniques where the Karateka fights against several opponents.
Here I included a Youtube stream of the first Kata called Heian Shodan. I am walking the Karate Do now for six years and I still do not have the feeling of doing the first Kata right as there is always something to improve.
The Heian Shodan
The Karate Kid series has a true core concerning Karate Do
On the one hand no one can possibly learn Karate in a couple of weeks but on the other the training methods of Mr. Miyagi make sense and his sayings in the Movie bear some truth in them. The first rule of Karate Do is „ Karate Do ni ente nashi“, Karate does not know a first attack, and because of this every Kata starts with a block. Another rule is „Karate-Do wa rei ni hajimari, rei ni owaru koto wo wasuruna“, never forget that Karate starts and ends with respect, which is also taught to Daniel by Mr. Miyagi. Do not think about winning only think about not losing, „Katsu kangae wa motsu na makenu kangae wa hitsuyo“ ist what Mr. Miyagi tells Daniel when he is about to lose the final fight.
Gichin Funakoshi taught his students 20 rules of how to train and live Karate Do and many are quoted in the Karate Kid Movies. Concerning Mr. Miyagis trainings is to say that they are very clever as he included Karate Do in Davids everyday life by letting him do work around his house and Daniel did not recognise the Karate behind it at first but only later on. Everyone can train Karate by washing his windows or polishing his car because you only need to focus your mind on what you do and why you do it.
Basic equipment for Karate Do
Every Karateka needs a special training uniform called Karategi or Gi which somehow looks like a white bathrobe. The whole training uniform consists a of the „Ugawi“, suit, the „Zubon“, trouser, and the „Obi“, belt. The colour of the belt designated the skill level of the Karateka and ranges from white, the entrance level to yellow, orange, green, two times blue, three times brown to black belt the master level. Next to the uniform the Karateka should buy a pair of Karate gloves for Kumite training. I would also recommend to buy a book about Karate Kata and a book about Kihon, Kumite and Kata to read look up things which were not understand during the training or afterwards came to mind.
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Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere: An Illustrated Introduction
provides a complete foundation in the practice of one of the most distinctive and effective Japanese martial arts. Aikido was created in Japan in the 1920's by Morihei Ueshiba, also known as Osensei. To possess the skills, techniques and attitude of the true practitioner of aikido, one must achieve a very high level of integration of the powers of mind and body, the harmonious combination of physical means and ethical motives. By controlling body position and learning how to harmonize vital physical and mental powers, anyone (regardless of size, strength or weight) can fend off attacks using this sophisticated martial art.
Written and illustrated by husband/wife team, Oscar Ratti and Adele Westbrook, Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere
, with over 1,200 illustrations, includes many Aikido techniques in chapters such as:
- What is Aikido?
- The Foundations of Aikido
- The Practice of Aikido
- The Basic Techniques of Neutralization
- Advanced Practice
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Chinese: of uncertain origin, originating in
Shaanxi province. It may be a variant of another name from the same
region and pronounced the same way (see 4 below, ).
Chinese: the origin of this name is closely tied up
with that of Zhuang. During the Spring and Autumn period
(722–481 bc), many members of the ruling class of the state
of Chu adopted as their surname Zhuang, the posthumously given
name of a king of Chu. The name Zhuang was kept until the Eastern Han
dynasty (25–220), when, to avoid a taboo on having the same name as
the ruler (then Liu Zhuang), many people changed their surname from
Zhuang to Yan.
Chinese: from the ‘style name’
Yan. Yi Fu, a descendant of the grantee of the fief of Zhu (see
Zhu 1) during the Zhou dynasty had the ‘style name’ Yan.
Descendants adopted his style name as their surname.
Chinese: there are two accounts of the origin of this name: one a
place named Yan Village and the other Yan Town. Both places existed
during the Zhou dynasty (1122–221 bc).
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The practice of painting marks on porcelain on a regular basis was established during the Xuande reign near the beginning of the Ming period, in the early 15th century. The mark usually consisted of the reign title of the emperor and the name of the dynasty. The Qing dynasty adopted this practice which continued for 500 years, enjoying a brief revival in 1915.
The style of writing of Qing reign marks varies, but can be separated into two broad divisions within which there are further sub-divisions.
In the first division written in ‘kai-shu’ (regular or modern script), the mark consists of six characters written in two columns of three characters. It is read from right to left and in descending order. The first character reads ‘da’ (great), followed by ‘qing’ (pure), the official name of the alien Manchu dynasty. This is followed by the two characters giving the reign title of the ruling emperor. The fifth character reads ‘nian’ (year) and the final character reads ‘zhi’ (made/manufactured).
The mark below should be read as follows:
This translates as “made in the reign of Kangxi (reign title of the second Qing emperor) in the Great Qing dynasty”.
The second broad division of reign marks is written in ‘Zhuan’ (archaic seal script). It reflects the eighteenth century’s obsession with the archaic style. The seal script reign marks are translated in exactly the same way as in the ‘kai-shu’ script.
The Kangxi reign mark in seal script reads;
As Qing dynasty emperor succeeded emperor styles of marks varied and some of these variants deserve attention.
The reign marks of Shunzhi (1644-1662), the first Qing emperor, are known to be on a rare group of violet-blue glazed dishes. However, the practice of writing the mark on the base of an artefact only became common in the Kangxi period (1662-1722). In the early part of this reign conditions were unsettled in China. and the use of reign marks on porcelain was prohibited. The prohibition must either have been rescinded or ignored because large quantities of non-imperial commercial wares with the Kangxi mark have survived.
The majority of Kangxi marks can be divided into three chronological groups on the basis of their calligraphy, provided allowances are made for the style, shape and size of the object to which the marks are applied. Large, bold, freely written marks are rather loose and untidy. The calligraphy of the third group tends to be precise, tighter, rather small and less ‘free’ than the other two groups. The third style is especially common on a small group of imperial wares usually small in size and of superb quality; for example the ‘peach bloom’ pieces, with their rich but subtle copper-derived glaze and the ‘month cups’. These small fine pieces were probably produced later in the reign.
Another well-known group of the late Kangxi imperial pieces exhibit a character variant. These pieces decorated in famille-rose enamels have the ‘kai-shu’ character ‘nian’ replaced by ‘yu’ (imperial). They are believed to have been decorated at the Peking Palace workshops rather than at Jingdezhen, where most of the Qing imperial wares were produced and decorated.
One suspect belief is that when a piece has a Kangxi mark written in three columns of two characters rather than two columns of six, it may be Yongzheng.
‘Zhuan’ archaic seal script marks do appear on some pieces of Kangxi porcelain but only become common in the succeeding reign of Yongzheng (1723-1735). As previously stated, they are a reflection of the self-conscious archaism of the age. They are also frequently associated with specific shapes and glazes.
Vases from the Yongzheng and Qianlong periods, which are inspired by archaic forms and have cervine or elephant-head handles, often have ‘Zhuan’ seal marks. The marks appear on the base in underglaze blue or are incised or moulded. Seal marks were often used on certain types of glaze including those similutating bronze, iron and on robin’s egg – the archaic influence again.
The archaic seal mark really came to prominence on an even greater range of ceramic wares in the Qianlong period (1736-1795), largely ousting the regular script. Ceramic production at the Imperial kiln was enormous in the eighteenth century, it has been suggested that the painting of reign marks was entrusted to a very few calligraphers. The study of marks found on Yongzheng and Qianlong porcelain reveals certain distinctly recognisable hands.
Qianlong seal marks are often written in iron-red or gilt as well as underglaze blue. They can also be incised, stamped or moulded in relief. On a small group of porcelain, the so-called ‘Gu yue’ wares, puce and overglaze blue enamel marks appear. Seal marks can be found in a cartouche on the neck of a vase, where the seal has been broken up and is presented in a horizontal format from right to left.
The details of the calligraphy depend on the method used to apply the mark. These details also altered from one reign to the next, and sometimes these anachronistic quirks indicate if the mark is contemporary with the period rather than being nineteenth century or later. For example, during the Qianlong period, the six character ‘zhi’ (manufactured) when written in underglaze blue should have a small trident with five prongs. In the copies we usually find only three prongs. In the execution of the water radical of the Qing character there are similar anomalies in style that betray a later date. In genuine pieces the size of the seal should be in proportion to the base upon which it is written and the rows of the characters tend to be regular. The marks of the Yongzheng period often have a greater elegance than those of the Qianlong period, which can appear stilted. One common feature of the nineteenth century copies of the earlier Qing reigns, is that the characters are composed of ‘hollow lines’ filled with watery interiors, which are easily seen with a magnifying glass. These ‘hollow lines’ result from inferior mixing of the cobalt blue. It is also believed that the cobalt available in the nineteenth century was not of such good quality.
Comparing the underglaze-blue seal marks of the various Qing emperors, one can recognise distinct changes. These are especially noticeable in the ‘qing’ character and again, more prominently, in the water radical of this character. Typical forms of writing the water radical are shown below:
N.B. There are no recorded archaic seal marks on Kangxi porcelain.
Before 1800 and for a large part of the nineteenth century the Imperial factory employed specialist calligraphers, and as a result marks on imperial porcelain are extremely well written. In contrast the quality of the marks produced by the commercial factories, for private consumption, varied greatly. In some instances marks were not readily decipherable. Certain pieces bearing marks in aubergine enamel are thought to be items destined for burial rites and internment with the dead. This type of mark is often seen on a range of small yellow ground dishes decorated on the ‘biscuit’ with aubergine and green dragons.
In the reign of Jiaqing (1796-1820) and Daoguang (1820-1850) the bulk of the imperial wares are marked with the archaic seal, a continuation of its popularity from the Qianlong period. On the Xianfeng (1851-1861) imperial wares it is equally common to find the regular ‘kai-shu’ marks. In the last three reigns of the Qing period we find the seal script has all but vanished although there are a few Guangxu (1875-1908) pieces which are known to be modelled on a well-known type of the Jiaqing period which is inscribed with a poem on the preparation and drinking of good tea.
From the reign of Xianfeng (1851-1861) onwards a great many non-imperial wares bear perfunctory stamped marks in iron-red. These are of little calligraphic interest and the wares on which we find these marks are almost always of negligible quality.
Qing period marks are fascinating. Their more important characteristics are outlined above. This broad, and by no means exhaustive, categorization of the marks should form a good basis for further study.
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The People's Republic of China Zhonghua renming gongheguo 中华人民共和国 (PRC) is the present form of government in mainland China. The People's Republic was founded in 1949 by the Communist Party of China (Zhongguo gongchandang 中国共产党) that is still the single ruling party of China.
After almost 30 years of civil war and war against the Japanese occupation the Communist Party and its People's Liberation Army (Renmin jiefang jun 人民解放军) were able to force the National Army under the party Kuo-min-tang (KMT, Guomindang 国民党) into submission or to flee to the island of Taiwan, where the Republic of China continued to exist and transformed into a real democracy in the 1990s.
The history of the People's Republic can be divided into the Maoist era, and the era of Reform and Opening.
The internal politics of party chairman and state president Mao Zedong 毛泽东 was characterized by an exaggerated idealism that began with the "Hundred flowers" movement (1952-1953) thought to instigate suggestions from the side of the literati but that resulted in harsh critiques. The next step was, backed by the successful launch of the Sputnik satellite in the Soviet Union in 1957, the Great Leap Forward (dayuejin 大跃进, 1958-1959) by which the steel output of China was to reach that of Great Britain. Instead, the peasantry was deprived of their livelihood, resulting to the starvation of an estimated 20 million people. Forced to retreat from the office of president, chairman Mao planned his comeback outside the Party that he thought being controlled by reactionary bureaucrats and "Chinese Khrushchevs". The Great Cultural Revolution (wenhua da geming 文化大革命) elevated Mao to the status of a demigod. It was mainly carried out by students criticizing authories like teachers and party members. Began in 1966, the Cultural Revolution ended in a thorough chaos of "ten lost years". Only with the death of the senile Mao Zedong in 1976, his protégés of the Gang of Four (sirenbang 四人帮) were arrested and the Cultural Revolution declared ended.
In the field of foreign politics the People's Republic tried to head countries of the "Third World" in a political way between the United States and the Soviet Union. This attempt was not very successful, except in the early 1950s, because China tried to dominate India and African countries. China's army was instrumentalized by Stalin to launch the Korean war (1950-1953). With the ideological break-off with the Soviet Union in 1962, China was internationally isolated. In 1972 President Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic and so paved the way for a new political orientation of the Communist Party.
After a short interlude under Hua Guofeng 华国锋 (r. 1976-1981), a new politbureau under the domination of General Secretary Deng Xiaoping 邓小平 proclaimed the program of Reform and Opening (gaige kaifang 改革开放) and the Four Modernizations (si ge xiandaihua 四个现代化). Private entrepreneurship was allowed first in agriculture, and then in trade and industry. In a two-track model the state-owned enterprises were gradually privatized, except key industries and the financial business. Most important was the creation of special economic zones at the coast in which foreign enterprises were allowed to invest. China was so able to gain access to modern technologies that were instantly copied. Both China and foreign enterprises were able to profit immensely. Deng Xiaoping, the practitioner, had foreseen that the highly discredited Communist Party would only survive if the living standard of the Chinese people would considerably increase.
Yet with increasing wealth, inflation and corruption plagued the urban population. It was especially academicians some of which also claimed a "fifth" modernization, namely more democracy, a claim that the Communist Party during the 1980s several times declined. In May and June 1989 protests against inflation and corruption culminated in the so-called incident of the Tian'anmen Square 天安门广场 that was bloody suppressed. By this over-reaction the leaders clearly showed that the Communist Party would not be willing to cede power to anyone else. Under General Secretary Jiang Zemin 江泽民 (r. 1989-2002) the economic reforms were restrengthened. The Party had learnt from 1989 and virtually bought the people's loyalty with wealth. Yet wealth was inequally distributed. While the urban population profited from the economical reform, the peasant villages remained poor and suffered from the drain of migrant workers that contributed to the prospering of the glittering cities at the coast.
The original ideology of the Communist Party, "communism", was gradually replaced by more practical assets. While the economic policy was called "socialism with Chinese characteristis", General Secretary Hu Jintao 胡锦涛 (r. 2002-2012) made use of new sentiments to win popular support for the Party: Economic strength as the world's second largest exporter, the successful launches of manned spaceships, and China's (s.l. the Party's) richness due to accumulated foreign reserves were important factors supporting an over-exaggerated national proud after almost two centuries of humiliation by Western "powers". The new nationalism sometimes bursts in a vehement national rhethoric, especially towards the arch-enemy Japan. Paired with a one-party system and an increasing militarism, the Communist Party more and more shows signs of what is normally perceived as fascism.
The so-called "harmonious society" (hexie shehui 和谐社会) is the guiding concept with which the Party tries to hide increasing social inequality and gender problems (more men than women) as the result of the one-child policy. Technological renommé projects like high-speed trains or skyscrapers are likewise used to cover grave problems resulting from a long-term economic growth of 10 per cent p.a.: serious environmental pollution, the lack of a well-founded domestic consumption, and an extreme income inequality. Local protests against corrupt local party cadres are a threat to party legitimacy. Yet the accumulated wealth enables the party to purchase more and more foreign enterises in their countries as a new method to gain access to latest technology. While Hong Kong and Macao "returned" to China in 1997 and 1999, respectivly, as a result of bargained treaties, Taiwan remains a independent country, inspite of the PRC's one-China policy. A military takeover of Taiwan is quite unlikely, yet the economic wealth of mainland China makes the democratic island more and more dependant of the authoritarian giant of the mainland.
Some analysts see China as the successor of the Soviet Union in a bipolar world, as antagonist or even an enemy of the United States. The Communist Party does not have the ambitions nor the power to politically dominate a hemisphere, and other countries, particularly China's neighbours, do not seem much attracted by the prospect of being China's vassals. Yet in fact, China is already exerting considerable dominance over some weaker states in Southeast Asia, particularly Laos and Burma, and interfers into the political affairs of some African countries. Inside China's own territory, the heritage of the Qing empire includes Xinjiang and Tibet and the ethnic problems of these regions. Only with a harsh politics of colonization China is able to appease the local population. The argument of terrorism, used since September 11, is a welcome excuse of getting rid of Muslim insurgents in the Uyghur country.
Map and Geography
Government and Administration
Literature and Philosophy
Technology and Inventions
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Koreans are people who live in or come from Korea (usually South Korea a.k.a. Republic of Korea, because most North Koreans are not allowed to travel abroad). But here we will deal with the ones in the United States of America, including those whose family currently lives in Korea.
There are all kinds of Koreans, but to name a few:
American-Koreans (so-called twinkies/bananas)
people who have spent their entire lives in America. Usually US born and second- or third-generation immigrants. They either can't speak Korean at all or understand very little of it; but they do have impeccable English speaking skills and lots of white friends. Most feel uncomfortable around other types of Koreans and/or some older relatives. Very Americanized, with no understanding of Korean tranditions or Korean pop culture. Less intense when it comes to school and work; only few of them tend to show outstanding academic performance. They all have English first names.
include Koreans who came to America as kids or those who have spent many years at American schools. Many have English first names but some choose to keep their Korean names. Good English, but their English speaking abilities depend on the number of years spent in America or the number of American friends they have. Most are academically successful and get straight A's. There is 90% chance that a given Korean-American plays a musical instrument and/or excels in math or science. Some can be good atheletes. Some have families living in Korea and go home once or twice a year; these ones develop immunities to long flights or jet lags. Although most of them are good at making friends and approachable, sometimes they might find it hard to belong to a certain social group; they often have to deal with identity problems. But there are some Korean-Americans who are completely nerdy with no trace of coolness and fail to make friends.
The ones who want to look cool and dress nicely; most of them don't. They tend to be less intelligent and less hard-working. Always in search of hot girlfriends and love fast, good-looking cars. Easy to become friends with, although some of them are cocky.
Fashionable, usually good-looking Korean girls who are rather skanky. Not as academically successful as many Koreans are, but many Asian boys or white boys with yellow fever would do anything to date them. Good dancers with good make-up skills that make their eyes look bigger; they might be shallow. But party on.
The very Korean ones who just arrived in America. They have thick accent or do not speak much English and like to play their Korean music. They don't really participate in atheletic events or social gatherings. No dance parties. Usually hang out with other Koreans or Asians with accents. Despite their rather horrible English speaking ability, they are amazingly expert in English grammar. Even better in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Basically the only mathematicians who can beat them are either Chinese or Indian. Very competitive people who sometimes appear to be selfish, but many are actually nice and straighforward.
(There are many individuals who do not fall into any of these categories. Each and every one of these individualities, which only have their Korean-ness in common, should be respected. These are just streotypes I came up with to make the article interesting.)
A: Where are you from?
B: I'm from Seoul.
A: Oh, is that in China or Japan?
(If you're a Korean you might want to stop wasting your time talking to someone so ignorant.)
B: It's the biggest city in Korea. (and pretty awesome)
A: Are you from North or South Korea?
(Now is the time to leave.)
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- Government and society
- Cultural life
- The first historical dynasty: the Shang
- The Zhou and Qin dynasties
- The Han dynasty
- The Six Dynasties
- The Sui dynasty
- The Tang dynasty
- The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms
- The barbarians: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen
- The Song dynasty
- The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty
- The Ming dynasty
- The early Qing dynasty
- Late Qing
- The early republican period
- The late republican period
- Establishment of the People’s Republic
- The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76
- China after the death of Mao
- Leaders of the People’s Republic of China since 1949
The reign of Taizong (626–649), known traditionally as the “era of good government of Zhenguan,” was not notable for innovations in administration. Generally, his policies developed and refined those of his father’s reign. The distinctive element was the atmosphere of his administration and the close personal interplay between the sovereign and his unusually able team of Confucian advisers. It approached the Confucian ideal of a strong, able, energetic, yet fundamentally moral king seeking and accepting the advice of wise and capable ministers, advice that was basically ethical rather than technical. Some important changes in political organization were begun during his reign and were continued throughout the 7th century. The court remained almost exclusively the domain of men of aristocratic birth. But Taizong attempted to balance the regional groups among the aristocracy so as to prevent any single region from becoming dominant. They comprised the Guanlong group from the northwest, the Daibei group from Shanxi, the Shandong group from Hebei, and the southern group from the Yangtze valley. The most powerful Hebei clans were excluded from high office, but Taizong employed members of each of the other groups and of the lesser northeastern aristocracy in high administrative offices as well as in his consultative group of scholars.
A second change was the use of the examination system on a large scale. The Sui examinations had already been reestablished under Gaozu, who had also revived the Sui system of high-level schools at the capital. Under Taizong the schools were further expanded and new ones established. Measures were taken to standardize their curriculum, notably completing an official orthodox edition of the Classics with a standard commentary in 638. The schools at the capital were mostly restricted to the sons of the nobility and of high-ranking officials. Other examination candidates, however, came from the local schools. The examinations were in principle open to all, but they provided relatively few new entrants to the bureaucracy. Most officials still entered service by other means—hereditary privilege as sons of officials of the upper ranks or promotion from the clerical service or the guards. The examinations demanded a high level of education in the traditional curriculum and were largely used as an alternative method of entry by younger sons of the aristocracy and by members of lesser families with a scholar-official background. Moreover, personal recommendation, lobbying examiners, and often a personal interview by the emperor played a large part. Even in late Tang times, not more than 10 percent of officials were recruited by the examinations. The main effect of the examination system in Tang times was to bring into being a highly educated court elite within the bureaucracy, to give members of locally prominent clans access to the upper levels of the bureaucracy, and in the long term to break the monopoly of political power held by the upper aristocracy. Employing persons dependent for their position on the emperor and the dynasty, rather than on birth and social standing, made it possible for the Tang emperors to establish their own power and independence.
In the early years there was a great debate as to whether the Tang ought to reintroduce the feudal system used under the Zhou and the Han, by which authority was delegated to members of the imperial clan and powerful officials and generals who were enfeoffed with hereditary territorial jurisdictions. Taizong eventually settled on a centralized form of government through prefectures and counties staffed by members of a unified bureaucracy. The Tang retained a nobility, but its “fiefs of maintenance” were merely lands whose revenues were earmarked for its use and gave it no territorial authority.
Taizong continued his father’s economic policies, and government remained comparatively simple and cheap. He attempted to cut down the bureaucratic establishment at the capital and drastically reduced the number of local government divisions. The country was divided into 10 provinces, which were not permanent administrative units but “circuits” for occasional regional inspections of the local administrations; these tours were carried out by special commissioners, often members of the censorate, sent out from the capital. This gave the central government an additional means of maintaining standardized and efficient local administration. Measures to ensure tax relief for areas stricken by natural disasters, and the establishment of relief granaries to provide adequate reserves against famine, helped to ensure the prosperity of the countryside. Taizong’s reign was a period of low prices and general prosperity.
Taizong was also successful in his foreign policy. In 630 the eastern Turks were split by dissension among their leadership and by the rebellion of their subject peoples. Chinese forces invaded their territories, totally defeated them, and captured their khan, and Taizong was recognized as their supreme sovereign, the “heavenly khan.” A large number of the surrendered Turks were settled on the Chinese frontier, and many served in the Tang armies. A similar policy of encouraging internal dissension was later practiced against the western Turks, who split into two separate khanates for a while. In 642–643 a new khan reestablished a degree of unified control with Chinese support and agreed to become a tributary of the Chinese. To seal the alliance, Taizong married him to a Chinese princess.
The eclipse of Turkish power enabled Taizong to extend his power over the various small states of the Tarim Basin. By the late 640s a Chinese military administration had extended westward even beyond the limits of present-day Xinjiang. To the north, in the region of the Orhon River and to the north of the Ordos (Mu Us) Desert, the Tang armies defeated the Xueyantou (Syr Tardush), former vassals of the eastern Turks, who became Tang vassals in 646. The Tuyuhun in the region around Koko Nor caused considerable trouble in the early 630s. Taizong invaded their territory in 634 and defeated them, but they remained unsubdued and invaded Chinese territory several times.
The Chinese western dominions now extended farther than in the great days of the Han. Trade developed with the West, with Central Asia, and with India. The Chinese court received embassies from Sāsānian Persia and from the Byzantine Empire. The capital was thronged with foreign merchants and foreign monks and contained a variety of non-Chinese communities. The great cities had Zoroastrian, Manichaean, and Nestorian temples, along with the Buddhist monasteries that had been a part of the Chinese scene for centuries.
Taizong’s only failure in foreign policy was in Korea. The northern state of Koguryŏ had sent tribute regularly, but in 642 there was an internal coup; the new ruler attacked Silla, another Tang vassal state in southern Korea. Taizong decided to invade Koguryŏ, against the advice of most of his ministers. The Tang armies, in alliance with the Khitan in Manchuria and the two southern Korean states Paekche and Silla, invaded Koguryŏ in 645 but were forced to withdraw with heavy losses. Another inconclusive campaign was waged in 647, and the end of Taizong’s reign was spent in building a vast fleet and making costly preparations for a final expedition.
Taizong’s last years were also marked by a decline in the firm grasp of the emperor over politics at his court. In the 640s a bitter struggle for the succession developed when it became clear that the designated heir was mentally unstable. The court split into factions supporting various candidates. The final choice, Li Zhi, prince of Jin (reigned 649–683; temple name Gaozong) was a weak character, but he had the support of the most powerful figures at court.
1Statutory number; includes 36 seats allotted to Hong Kong and 12 to Macau.
|Official name||Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo (People’s Republic of China)|
|Form of government||single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National People’s Congress [3,0001])|
|Head of state||President: Xi Jinping|
|Head of government||Premier: Li Keqiang|
|Official language||Mandarin Chinese|
|Monetary unit||renminbi (yuan) (Y)|
|Population||(2014 est.) 1,364,038,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||3,696,100|
|Total area (sq km)||9,572,900|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2013) 52.6%|
Rural: (2013) 47.4%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2009) 72.4 years|
Female: (2009) 76.6 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: (2010) 97.1%|
Female: (2010) 91.3%
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2013) 6,560|
| 4 |
Useful Notes: Sanada Yukimura
An enduringly popular figure of Japanese historical legend, Sanada Yukimura was a Sengoku/early Edo Era general who reached Folk Hero
status with record speed after his death. His usual appellations are "the bravest warrior in Japan" and "crimson war demon." He owes his fame mostly to his badassery
during the Siege of Osaka.
Yukimura's real name was Sanada Nobushige — the romantic name "Yukimura" is a later construction, and it was never used during his life. His youth was a turbulent time for the Sanada: as the second son of a highly respected samurai and tactician, Sanada Masayuki, a vassal of Takeda Shingen
, he was first sent to the Uesugi as a hostage in return for military assistance, and later he was sent to serve Toyotomi Hideyoshi
while the rest of the Sanada allied directly with Tokugawa Ieyasu
. During the first Eastern-Western conflict Yukimura and his father sided with Ishida Mitsunari
, but Ieyasu emerged victorious and Yukimura was exiled, barely avoiding execution (his older brother Nobuyuki, Ieyasu's son-in-law, interceding on his behalf). He spent the next 14 years in exile, until he received a secret message that the remaining Toyotomi allies were regrouping to rise against Ieyasu.
During the first campaign of the Siege of Osaka (1614-15, also known as the Toyotomi clan's last stand) Yukimura was in charge of planning the defense of Osaka castle, which he did so well that the castle was nigh impregnable. After the two sides signed a temporary peace agreement the outer defenses of the castle were destroyed, so Yukimura saw a lot more action in the second campaign. His most famous fight was the battle of Tennouji, the last desperate effort of the Toyotomi army. When it became apparent that they weren't going to win, Yukimura reportedly said: "Well, the war is over - all that is left for us is to fight to our hearts' content.
Our goal is Tokugawa Ieyasu's head!" He launched a head-on assault and managed to break through the defenses of Tokugawa Ieyasu's personal army, tore down his flag and forced Ieyasu to flee and even consider seppuku. However, the Tokugawa forces greatly outnumbered Yukimura's already tired troops, and once they got over the panic the tables were turned. Reinforcements were late, and in the end Yukimura himself was too exhausted and bleeding from too many wounds to go on - most accounts say that unable to fight any longer, he let himself be killed by the enemy soldiers. His death completely demoralized the Toyotomi forces, and by the next day the siege was over.
Yukimura's bravery at Osaka earned him his enemies' respect
. Tokugawa Ieyasu regarded him as the most dangerous general in the enemy camp (he even tried to get Yukimura to switch sides, to no avail), and later claimed that Yukimura was the one he most wanted to have a drink with in the afterlife. Date Masamune
was likewise impressed, and after Yukimura's death he allowed his vassal clan, the Katakura, to shelter three of Yukimura's children by adopting/marrying them into the family. Shimazu Tadatsune, famous badass in his own right, gave Yukimura the epithet "bravest warrior in Japan".
However, almost immediately after his death rumors began circulating about Yukimura. Many people said he only faked death to escape with Toyotomi Hideyoshi's heir so that the Toyotomi may rise once again. Other rumors said he went into hiding to prepare for revenge on the Tokugawa. Word of mouth embellished his heroics in battle
, and legends were born about his death.
In record time the badass but humble general Sanada Nobushige had transformed into Sanada Yukimura, model samurai, passionate and fearless warrior, loyal unto death
, with a heartwrenchingly tragic fate
. Unsurprisingly he was especially popular among those who opposed the Tokugawa shogunate (causing some headache to his brother Nobuyuki), but the shogunate also made a point of praising his loyalty and steadfastness. During and after the Meiji Restoration
Yukimura gained a more general appeal, getting younger and younger in the process, so in less historically accurate works he's often depicted as a young man. (The real Yukimura died at 49.)
Due to his historical red armor, in fictional works Yukimura normally wears red. He's usually the Red Oni if there is a Blue Oni available
, is Hot-Blooded
and associated with fire
. He also tends to use fancy spears
, historically his weapon of choice. It's common for him to be assisted by a group of fictional ninja called the Sanada Ten Braves whose most prominent members are Sarutobi Sasuke
, Kirigakure Saizo and Kakei Juzou. He usually wears the Sanada clan's crest: six coins to pay for crossing the river of the underworld, which symbolizes the motto "Always ready to die for a worthy cause."
Examples of works referencing Yukimura:
- Sanada Sandaiki is a late 17th century novel responsible for codifying many Yukimura tropes and legends, such as the Sanada Ten Braves. It spans three generations of Sanada: Masayuki, Yukimura and Yukimasa (one of Yukimura's sons who died at Osaka) and their fight against the Tokugawa. (Note that it was written less than two generations after Yukimura's death.)
- There are a number of anime/manga characters named Sanada and/or Yukimura as an often tongue-in-cheek nod. Examples include Sanada Yuki in Tsuritama, Sanada Genichirou and Yukimura Seiichi from Prince of Tennis (who are often shipped together as Sanada/Yukimura), Yukimura Seiichirou from Kaichou Wa Maid Sama, etc.
- Samurai Warriors takes the usual Yukimura tropes and plays them mostly straight. He starts out serving Takeda Shingen, which is more than a little anachronistic, since historically Shingen died when Yukimura was a small child. Here he has a single female Kunoichi (that's what she's called) standing in for the Sanada Ten Braves.
- Samurai Warriors 2 isn't much more accurate, as it has Yukimura being one of the Takeda cavalrymen at Nagashino only a few years after Shingen's death. He's still starting amongst the Takeda in Samurai Warriors 4, along with his big bro Nobuyuki.
- In Pokémon Conquest he's basically the same as above, except that they play up his association with fire by giving him Charizard as his best link Pokemon. Incidentally though, he's not quite as Hot-Blooded as one would probably expect, he's more of an honourable Worthy Opponent. (which, coincidentally, is often how the Pokedex portrays Charizard) He even speaks quite politely, using 'watashi' and honourific language.
- Sengoku Basara takes the usual Yukimura tropes (plus a good dose of wide-eyed naivety) and turns them Up to Eleven, presenting Yukimura as a ridiculously Hot-Blooded young warrior with two spears, fire powers, and a tendency to scream at the top of his lungs. He serves Takeda Shingen, who regularly punches him in the face, and has a ninja squad led by Sarutobi Sasuke serving under him. He also has a (completely historically inaccurate) rivalry with Date Masamune. Also reached Memetic Mutation status whenever he and Shingen start a series of Say My Name in the form of "OYAKATA-SAMA!" "YUKIMURA!" "OYAKATA-SAMA!" "YUKIMURA!" "OYAKATA-SAMA!" "YUKIMURA!" (rinse and repeat). His voice actor is Soichiro Hoshi.
- Ironically, this version of Yukimura also shares a voice actor in English with the Samurai Warriors version, Johnny Yong Bosch.
- Brave 10 on the other hand, gleefully subverts the "model samurai" stereotype, portraying Yukimura as a lazy, calculating Chess Master. In the anime he's voiced by Toshiyuki Morikawa.
- In Samurai Deeper Kyo he's a cheerful, easy-going Bishounen (who is a lot older than he seems), and a genius tactician who wants to take over Japan. Is very fond of adding little hearts to his sentences. Voiced by Megumi Ogata.
- Hyakka Ryouran Samurai Girls features a gender-flipped loli version, voiced by Rie Kugimiya.
- Ryo/Sanada Ryou in Ronin Warriors is modelled on Yukimura, complete with fire element. Takeshi Kusao voiced Ryo here, possibly making an Actor Allusion when he did Yukimura in Samurai Warriors.
- In Gate 7 by CLAMP he's... a teacher at a day care nursery. Also, an Extreme Doormat, though he can be quite badass if need be.
- He also appears in the first Kamen Rider Den-O movie, portrayed by Jinnai Tomonori.
- There are two musicals about Yukimura performed by the Takarazuka-esque group Osaka Shochiku Revue: Sanada Yukimura ~Yume Moyuru~ ("Burning Dream") and YUKIMURA ~waga kokoro honoo no gotoku~◊ ("My heart is like a blaze"). Needless to say they're not going for historical accuracy.
- A Gender Flipped version is a member of the StuG III crew in Girls und Panzer.
- In Joujuu Senjin Mushibugyou he's one of the main antagonists, reappearing a century after his supposed death as a sort of insect-human mutant with butterfly wings. He has flaming red hair and eyes, has the Sanada crest tattooed on his cheek, and he is followed by his usual entourage now called the Sanada Ten Great Insects (also in insect form). He doesn't care about protecting the weak, and wants to lead the world into a new era. In the anime his voice actor is Junichi Suwabe.
- The 1959 Toei Animation anime Shonen Sarutobi Sasuke (release in the US in 1961 as Magic Boy) shows him as a fairly bland Prince Charming type who helps Sarutobi Sasuke defeat an evil witch and her bandit gang.
| 4 |
This month has seen the death of two men who have undoubtedly influenced and shaped the way their countries interact with the outside world. However, they will be remembered in two completely different ways: one as a hero of democracy, the other as contributing to the continuation of his country’s Stalinist ideology and almost complete isolation. Without doubt the world will look at their legacies very differently.
The first of these two men, and the one whose life is sure to create debate for many years to come, is Kim Jong Il. The North Korean leader, known for his hardline, autocratic dictatorship and almost manic personality cult, died after an apparent heart attack in his home country on the weekend. North Korean media reported that Kim died while on a train to a “field session” with some of his people. However, like his life, Kim’s death may remain shrouded in mystery and propaganda. Over the last 20 years, his political ideologies have seen him cement North Korea as one of the few communist strongholds in the world. While lauded by his country’s media and people, Kim will be best remembered in South Korea as the man who insisted on developing a nuclear program while many of his people starved.
Kim’s secretive and obsessive character has without question, been the keystone in keeping the country isolated from most of the world (with the noted exception of China). However the effect his death will have, including the uncertain transition to a new leadership under his son and anointed successor Kim Jong Un, is something that remains to be seen over the coming months and years. After hearing the news, the general feeling in South Korea was one of shock, and initial general reactions were hard to ascertain. Across the rest of the world, governments were adopting a “wait and see” approach on what effect the transition will have on the country. Despite the chances of destabilisation, many world political figures will be silently pleased that this difficult and dangerous leader’s passing has come.
In complete contrast, the death of Vaclav Havel just a day before has evoked many memories of his leadership and courage in taking his country Czechoslovakia (later the Czech Republic) to freedom from the Warsaw Pact and its style of government. Havel was a Czech dissident, playwright, and also the first leader of the country after it was released from the shackles of communist oppression in the 1989 Velvet Revolution. He dedicated much of his life and work against the Soviet-style form of government that gripped much of Central and Eastern Europe from the end of the war until the late 1980s and his sad passing is a timely reminder of the good that people can do. He was a leader and a figurehead for the Czech people and served as a model for revolutions to come. Having been imprisoned for his beliefs, he also worked tirelessly against unfair punishment.
His outlook could not have been further from that of Kim Jong Il, and he fought to give people the political freedom which remains absent under Kim’s rule in North Korea. Condolences from political leaders from all over the world have remembered Havel as a great man whose life and work have positively influenced millions of people, something that will be absent when remembering Kim Jong Il.
It remains to be seen how Kim Jong Il’s death will affect North Korea. The hope is that the regime will come to an end at some point and that political freedom will be introduced to the country, but this remains an idealistic view. However, after such a long period of oppression it is very hard to tell how events will unfold. Changes will not happen overnight and the news of his death will need time to settle.
Whilst to many outsiders he was a bizarre and problematic character whose legacy will be remembered as detrimental to the country, as with the Soviet regime in Europe, there are a many followers who believed that his was the right way forward and will look to continue with the regime Kim Jong Il adopted and developed from his father. Some though are predicating change and view his death as a potential turning point, however the South Korean military have been placed on alert according to reports, ready to react to any circumstance. The year 2011 has seen a lot of political change throughout the globe, with the downfall of Gaddafi and the uprising in Egypt two key examples and we will see if this unrest and change spreads to this part of the world.
Havel’s legacy has lived on, and while Russia is still heavily influenced by its past, the rest of Europe has looked to move on. In the last 20 years it has prospered politically. Havel is remembered positively, whereas I suspect Kim Jong Il is destined to be remembered along with the people Havel fought bravely against. Hopefully, as was the case with Europe, democracy will be introduced and the country will adopt and follow a similar path to that of the south. It will certainly be an interesting period in history and the following months and years will without doubt be closely monitored around the world.
It is early days, but the death of these two figures is extremely significant, and it is interesting that two men who have influenced countries in entirely different ways should die at the same time. Kim Jong Il’s death has reminded us further of the tyrannous regime he held in his country and the devastation it has caused. However, in contrast, Vaclav Havel’s passing has reminded all of us of the work and effort he put in to ending such regimes, and that there is hope that they will fall once again.
ⓒ Jeju Weekly 2009 (http://www.jejuweekly.com)
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| 4 |
- North Korea calls the armistice celebration 'Victory Day'
- Parade features references to "U.S. aggressors" and a crumpled U.S. flag
- Military hardware on display will be scrutinized worldwide for signs of advancement
Two hours of tanks, bands and goose-stepping under a blazing sun.
Mass military parades are a North Korean specialty, but this year had added meaning: the 60th anniversary of the end of the Korean War that Pyongyang calls "Victory Day."
Thunderous applause and shouts of "Mansei," meaning "Live long and good health," signaled the arrival of the country's leader Kim Jong Un, accompanied by Chinese Vice President Li Yuanchao.
Men and women alike raised their hands to applaud Kim. When he waved to the assembled crowd, thousands waved back.
Peace is precious to North Korea. This is how one army officer summed up the speech given by Vice Marshal Choe Ryong Hae.
The officer claimed there was no mention of the United States or South Korea, both considered enemies of the state, meaning the rhetoric is vastly different to a few months ago when nuclear was threatened.
Tensions have eased significantly recently, with the North Korean military saying it wants to resume joint recovery work with the United States to search for the remains of around 8,000 Americans still missing in action in the country sixty years later.
The parade looked to the past and present of the military. A dozen trucks filled with Korean War veterans drove slowly through Kim Il Sung Square past Kim Jong Un and the leadership with the elderly fighters dressed in uniform smiling and waving energetically. Many would have been in their 80s or 90s.
Soldiers then filed past in perfect unison armed with the weapons used in the 1950-1953 war. A highly choreographed event with barely a step out of place. The military practices two or three times a week for up to four months for this one day, according to the officer.
Even though there was no verbal anti-American rhetoric, the visual messages were clear.
On the front of every tank a special message has been painted in Korean. It said "let us annihilate U.S. aggressors, blood enemy of the Korean people." And one of the floats showed an American flag crumpled beneath a model of a Korean tank.
Messages from helicopters flying overhead read: "We will defend Kim Jong Un to the death." Helicopters also staged a dramatic fly by, flying between buildings in pairs to pass just a few hundred feet from the leader. Fighter jets flying overhead drew a gasp from the enraptured crowd.
Bronze statues of the country's founder, Kim Il Sung, and his son, Kim Jong Il, were paraded through the capital's main square as were giant photos of the former leaders.
And the part of the parade that will be scrutinized around the world for any sign of new technology was the display of missiles in Pyongyang's arsenal. An army officer pointed to one that looked like a mid-range missile and said it could reach the U.S. island of Hawaii.
The military parade was the center piece of celebrations surrounding the 60th anniversary. Saturday is a national holiday in North Korea and tens of thousands of residents who joined in the public procession waved plastic flowers above their heads as they ran past the leader's balcony smiling and cheering.
It is an emotionally charged time for North Koreans attending the official festivities. The parade follows the opening of a Korean War cemetery Thursday and the Arirang mass games Friday night.
| 4 |
The image above is a sketch based on an early stone-rubbing showing one
of the ten Chinese suns crossing the heavens.
The Ten Chinese Suns
Antique inscriptional documents tell us how during the time of the Chou dynasty
(c. 1027-221 B.C.), Chinese people believed that there existed ten suns that
appeared in turn in the sky during the Chinese ten-day week. Each day the ten
suns would travel with their mother, the goddess Xi He in a chariot drawn by 6
horse-dragons, to the Valley of the Light in the East. There, Xi He would wash her children in the lake and put them in the branches of an enormous mulberry tree called fu-sang.
From the tree, only one sun would move off into the sky for a
journey of one day, to reach the mount Yen-Tzu in the Far West. Tired of this routine, the ten suns decided to appear all together. The combined heat of the ten suns made life on the Earth
unbearable. The rocks were melting and the plants withering. To prevent the
destruction of the Earth, the emperor Yao, who was ruling in that period, asked
Di Jun, the father of the ten suns to persuade his children to appear one at a
But the suns did not listen to their father. Finally, Di
Jun sent from heaven the archer, Yi, armed with a magic bow and ten arrows to
frighten the disobedient suns. However, Yi shot nine suns, letting the
three-legged crows hidden in the suns fall to the earth with their breasts
perforated by the Yi's arrows.
Only the Sun that we see today remained in the sky, because the emperor wisely sent one of his courtiers to steal an arrow from the archer's quiver. Di Jun was so angry for the death of nine of his children that he condemned Yi to live as an ordinary mortal in the earth.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!
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Seppuku is a ritual form of committing suicide in the Japanese society. Behind this gruesome and barbaric act lies the concept in Japanese thinking that an honorable death is more desirable than a life in shame.
First Publication: April 2003
Latest Update: May 2013
The earliest reliable reports about seppuku are from the 11th century, when several powerful family clans fought for supremacy in feudal Japan. But the habit of committing suicide on the battlefield to avoid being captured by the enemy is certainly much older.
The way of ritual seppuku came up probably during the period of the civil wars in the 15th and 16th century.
With the final unification and pacifying of Japan under Tokugawa Ieyasu, 1543-1616, and the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Seppuku was no longer officially supported. It was even forbidden by two decrees - in 1603 and in 1663. But the practice continued to exist nevertheless. It was again officially abolished by the Meiji government in 1868.
The latest known case is from 1970, when Yukio Mishima, a well-known but rather nationalist writer in Japan, committed suicide in seppuku manner. The act caused worldwide attention in the Western media.
Seppuku was considered a privilege for the samurai class and the nobility. Feudal Japanese history is full of cases of defeated enemies, who were 'forced' by their conquerors to commit suicide. This was considered as a grace. The looser received a chance to keep his honor.
If the circumstances allowed it, the ritual suicide was executed in a formal, procedural manner. Even spectators were not uncommon. The suicide candidate was clad in a white kimono. Before the final act, he was expected to write his death poem, formerly a practice common for the higher social classes.
Now the seppuku candidate was supposed to take a short dagger and cut his abdomen by slicing it from the left lower part of his upper body upwards in right direction. This must have been extremely painful. Then the candidate was supposed to lower his neck. This was the sign for the assistant, the kaishakunin, who stood behind him, to proceed to the last step - to blow off the seppuku candidate's head - possibly with one blow of his sword.
The kaishakunin could be a person close to him, sometimes his best friend. The kaishakunin had it in his hands to shorten the suffering of the suicider by executing a strong and swift blow.
Suicide was often committed by samurai warriors and noblemen on the battlefield. Then there was no time for the above ritual and seppuku was done hastily.
The reasons to commit suicide were manifold.
Suicide was not unique for men. For women existed the practice of stabbing into the heart with a knife or a long and sharp hair-pin.
A number of suicides that took actually part in history, became legend and subject to Kabuki plays and thousands of book and ukiyo-e illustrations.
When Yoshitsune was surrounded in his last castle resort by hostile troops sent by his own brother, he killed first his wife and his own children. Then he committed seppuku. This happened in 1189.
In 1582, the reckless tyrant Oda Nobunaga was forced to commit suicide after one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide, had successfully revolted against him.
The most spectacular case were the 47 ronin - masterless samurai. The real events happened in 1701 and 1702. Their lord, Asano, had been forced by the Shogun to commit an unjustified suicide for the sole reason of a heated sword duel, that resulted in some minor bruises. The opponent, Kira, had provoked the duel by his rude behavior, but got away without any punishment. The 47 vassals of the dead Asano vowed revenge. In the end, they raided Kira's mansion during a night assault and decapitated Kira with the very same sword used for Asano's suicide. The 46 ronin (one had died before) were arrested and forced to commit seppuku themselves in spite of an outcry of the public.
In 1877 Saigo Takamori, the leader of a rebellion against the imperial Japanese government, was defeated in the battle of Satsuma in Southern Japan. He was wounded and committed seppuku in samurai manner on the battlefield. He became a folk hero for the Japanese people. The story of Saigo Takamori later became the not historically correct background story for the film The Last Samurai.
In 1895, fourty men of the Japanese military protested against the return of the Liaotung peninsula to China by committing seppuku. The Japanese had gained an unexpected and easy victory against the Chinese in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894/1895. The peninsula had been returned as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, hammered by mediation of the USA.
When Emperor Meiji died in 1912, general Nogi committed seppuku.
Seppuku is a rather frequent topic in Japanese Kabuki and Noh plays. Compared to Western theater plays by Shakespeare or Schiller or Italian operas, this is nothing unusual. Outstanding however is the frequent depiction of suicide scenes in the visual arts of Japan - mainly on ukiyo-e, the traditional woodblock prints. But most seppuku scenes are images, which illustrate Kabuki plays.
Seppuku scenes were designed by all major artists who took commissions from the Kabuki theaters - among them Kunisada Utagawa, 1786-1865 and Kuniyoshi Utagawa, 1797-1861. These images are characterized by the use of a lot of red color for the blood. Among the artists of Japanese woodblock prints, Yoshitoshi Tsukioka, 1839-1892 has a reputation for especially bloody prints.
Until today, suicide plays a special role in the Japanese society. Students commit suicide because of a botched university examination, businessmen for the shame of bancrupcy and company employees because they lose their job. The Japanese suicide rate is the highest among industrialized countries.
The suicide rate in Japan is 17 compared to 11 per 100,000 in the USA. On the other hand the murder rate in Japan is only 1 compared to 7 in the USA. Combined chances to die by suicide or by murder are the same in both countries with 18 per 100,000.
Author: Dieter Wanczura
This video found on Youtube is a short and concise documentary about samurai seppuku. Thanks to Neil Castillo for sharing this with us.
The images on this web site are the property of the artist(s) and or the artelino GmbH and/or a third company or institution. Reproduction, public display and any commercial use of these images, in whole or in part, require the expressed written consent of the artist(s) and/or the artelino GmbH.
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More on Chinese History
Last updated by khattaky2k5 at 2014/10/20
Origin of the Title "Huang Di"
"Huang Di", a name addresses by people in ancient times, was originated from "San Huang and Wu Di", means three emperors and five monarchs. The three emperors refer to the Emperor of Heaven, Emperor of Earth, and Emperor of Human Being. They are three leading figures in ancient legends. "Di" in "Five Di" refers to the supreme dominator of the universe known as Tian Di, having supreme power, is one of the five monarchs. The rest of the four honored themselves as Xi Di (Monarch in the West), Dong Di (Monarch in the East), Zhong Di (Monarch in the Middle), and Bei Di (Monarch in the North) respectively, when chaos happened due to war among different countries. In this way, the term "Di" as a legend appeared to the world and became a divine name of king. Some people say that "Di" refers to Huang Di, Yan Di and Chi Yao.
When Ying Zheng, the founder of Qin Dynasty, unified the whole country, he considered himself to be the one who made larger contribution as compare to "San Huang and Wu Di", the three emperors and five monarchs. And thus, he privileged himself with a combined title of "Hung and Di", i.e., Huang Di. After that, the emperor of each dynasty is named Hung Di.
Yellow Color and Emperor
Yellow color was considered as a symbol of imperial power by the people in ancient times. In fact, this idea was originated from the philosophy of worshipping of earth by the people, living on agriculture. According to the traditional school of Yin and Yang, the yellow color stands for earth, one of the five elements of philosophy. As this earth is at the center of the universe, so, it receieved more respect and honor.
Huang Di and the Number "nine"
In ancient China, the number "nine" was considered as the apex of Yang numbers, in other words, "nine" is the biggest number among singulars. Therefore, "nine" is often associated with emperors and the things related to them, for instance, the title or position of empror was Jiu Wu "九五", Jiu means nine in Chinese.
The other examples relating to number "nine", associated with imperial power, are: Bronze ware known as Jiu Ding; there were nine ministers around the emperor; there were Nine Grade Official Ranks; the Forbidden City has 9999 and a half rooms; Tiananmen Square has nine-rooms; the doornails on the door of Forbidden City, Imperial Garden, and Xanadu palace are all 81 in number, the product of nine multiplying by nine.
Whenever, there were celebrations of Emperor's birthday at large scale, there were 99 kinds of performances, such as acrobatics and lantern show, etc. and was called as 'Nine-nine Grand Celebration'. The number of tributes to imperial officials on their birthday parties or during Spring Festival was also counted by nine. But for the average person, including nobles or landlords, their daily necessities were, of course, never counted by number "nine".
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Shinto, Buddhism and the Japanese belief system
Religion in Japan is a wonderful mish-mash of ideas from Shintoism and Buddhism. Unlike in the West, religion in Japan is rarely preached, nor is it a doctrine. Instead it is a moral code, a way of living, almost indistinguishable from Japanese social and cultural values.
Japanese religion is also a private, family affair. It is separate from the state; there are no religious prayers or symbols in a school graduation ceremony, for example. Religion is rarely discussed in every day life and the majority of Japanese do not worship regularly or claim to be religious.
However, most people turn to religious rituals in birth, marriage and death and take part in spiritual matsuri (or festivals) throughout the year.
Religion and the Emperor
Until World War Two, Japanese religion focused around the figure of the Emperor as a living God. Subjects saw themselves as part of a huge family of which all Japanese people were members.
The crushing war defeat however, shattered many people's beliefs, as the frail voice of the Emperor was broadcast to the nation renouncing his deity. The period since has seen a secularisation of Japanese society almost as dramatic as the economic miracle which saw Japan's post-war economy go into overdrive.
However, much of the ritual has survived the collapse of religious belief. Today, religion defines Japanese identity more than spirituality, and at helps strengthen family and community ties.
Shintoism versus Buddhism
Shintoism is Japan's indigenous spirituality. It is believed that every living thing in nature (e.g. trees, rocks, flowers, animals - even sounds) contains kami, or gods.
Consequently Shinto principles can be seen throughout Japanese culture, where nature and the turning of the seasons are cherished. This is reflected in arts such as ikebana (flower arranging) and bonsai, Japanese garden design and the annual celebration of sakura - or cherry blossom.
Shinto only got its name when Buddhism came to Japan by way of China, Tibet, Vietnam, and ultimately Korea. Buddhism arrived in the sixth century, establishing itself in Nara. Over time Buddhism divided into several sects, the most popular being Zen Buddhism.
In essence, Shintoism is the spirituality of this world and this life, whereas Buddhism is concerned with the soul and the afterlife. This explains why for the Japanese the two religions exist so successfully together, without contradiction. To celebrate a birth or marriage, or to pray for a good harvest, the Japanese turn to Shintoism. Funerals, on the other hand, are usually Buddhist ceremonies.
Shrines versus temples
As a general rule of thumb, shrines are Shinto and temples are Buddhist. Shrines can be identified by the huge entrance gate or torii, often painted vermillion red. However you'll often find both shrines and temple buildings in the same complex so it is sometimes difficult to identify and separate the two.
To appreciate a shrine, do as the Japanese do. Just inside the red torii gate you'll find a water fountain or trough. Here you must use a bamboo ladle to wash your hands and mouth to purify your spirit before entering.
Next, look for a long thick rope hanging from a bell in front of an altar. Here you may pray: first ring the bell, throw a coin before the altar as on offering (five yen coins are considered lucky), clap three times to summon the kami, then clasp your hands together to pray.
At a temple, you'll need to take your shoes off before entering the main building and kneeling on the tatami-mat floor before an altar or icon to pray.
Luck, fate and superstition are important to the Japanese. Many people buy small charms at temples or shrines, which are then attached to handbags, key chains, mobile phones or hung in cars to bring good luck. Different charms grant different luck, such as exam success or fertility.
Prayers are often written on votive tablets: wooden boards called ema that are hung in their hundreds around temple grounds. At famous temples such as Kyoto's Kiyomizu-dera, you'll see votive tablets written in a variety of languages.
A final way to learn your destiny is to take a fortune slip. Sometimes available in English, a fortune slip rates your future in different areas: success, money, love, marriage, travel and more. If your fortune is poor, tie your slip to a tree branch in the temple grounds; leaving the slip at the temple should improve your luck.
The most important times of year in the Japanese calendar are New Year, celebrated from the 1st to the 3rd of January, and O-Bon, usually held around the 16th of August. At New Year the Japanese make trips to ancestral graves to pray for late relatives. The first shrine visit of the New Year is also important to secure luck for the year ahead.
At O-Bon it is believed that the spirits of the ancestors come down to earth to visit the living. Unlike Halloween, these spooky spirits are welcomed and the Japanese make visits to family graves.
Births are celebrated by family visits to shrines. The passing of childhood is commemorated at three key ages: three, five and seven, and small children are dressed in expensive kimono and taken to certain shrines such as Tokyo's Meiji Shrine. Coming of age is officially celebrated at 20. In early January, mass coming of age ceremonies (like graduations) are held in town halls followed by shrine visits by young people proudly dressed in bright kimono.
In Japan today, marriage ceremonies are a great clash of East meets West. A Japanese wedding may have several parts, including a Shinto ceremony in traditional dress at a shrine as well as a Western-style wedding reception in a hotel or restaurant. In the second part it is now popular for a bride to wear a wedding gown for a howaito wedingu (white wedding).
Funerals are overseen by Buddhist priests. 99% of Japanese are cremated and their ashes buried under a gravestone. To better understand Japanese funerals, InsideJapan Tours highly recommend the Oscar-winning film Okuribito, or Departures, about a concert cellist who goes back to his roots in Yamagata and retrains as an undertaker.
Japanese matsuri are festivals connected to shrines. In a tradition stretching back centuries matsuri parades and rituals relate to the cultivation of rice and the spiritual wellbeing of the local community.
According to Article 20 of the Japanese constitution, Japan grants full religious freedom, allowing minority religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism to be practiced. These religions account for roughly 5-10% of Japan's population. However, the spiritual vacuum left by the Emperor's renunciation was also rapidly filled by a plethora of new religions (shin shukyo) which sprung up across Japan.
Mainly concentrated in urban areas, these religions offered this-worldly benefits such as good health, wealth, and good fortune. Many had charismatic, Christ-like leaders who inspired a fanatical devotion in their followers. It is here that the roots of such famous "cults" as the "Aum cult of the divine truth", who perpetrated the Tokyo subway gas attack of 1995, can be found.
However, the vast majority of new religions are focused on peace and the attainment of happiness, although many Japanese who have no involvement appear suspicious of such organisations. Tax-dodging or money-laundering are, according to some, par for the course.
Some of the new religions, such as PL Kyoden (Public Liberty Kyoden) and Soka Gakkai, have, however, become very much a part of the establishment in Japan, and it seems their role in politics and business is not to be underestimated.
Where to visit?
For those who have an interest in Buddhism or Shinto, Japan is full of fascinating places to visit. Nara, in the Kansai region near Osaka, is thought to be the original home of Buddhism in Japan and features an extensive museum of Buddhist art and artifacts, as well as the huge statue of Buddha that is Nara's central visitor attraction.
Kyoto is full of beautiful shrines and temples and can provide a unique look back through history to a time when religious belief was a more significant part of everyday life, as well as being simply stunning to behold. In fact, everywhere you go in Japan, you will see the face of the country's religious heritage.
A classic 14-night adventure introducing the traditional side of Japan, from Japanese-style inns to time-honoured cuisine and ancient temples.
14 nights: US$2736 Read more >
- Mount Koya
- Kawayu Onsen
- Yunomine Onsen
Join the ranks of the junreisha, or pilgrims, as you explore Ise, Mount Koya and the ancient paths of the Kumano Kodo on this classic trip.
14 nights: US$3552 Read more >
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The most common traditions for Mid-Autumn Festival are eating mooncakes and gazing at the moon. Ethnic minority people has their own customs to celebrate the festival.
A new way of celebrating in recent years, as mobile phone have become ubiquitous in China, is sending text messages to wish to each other well. See Mid-Autumns Greetings for some of the types of messages that are sent.
The origins of appreciating the moon as a custom can be traced back to the Tang Dynasty (618–907).
Nowadays, people still like appreciating the moon on Mid-Autumn Festival in China. Chinese family members have dinner together in the evening of Mid-Autumn Festival. After the dinner, they may talk about their work, the children, and their future plans. Sometimes, people go to a park to see the decorations made for the festival.
Eating mooncakes is the most popular celebration of the day. Mooncakes are traditionally Chinese pastries, which is made of wheat flour and sweet stuffings such as sugar and lotus seed powder. Moon cake is a symbol of family reunion, and the cake is traditionally cut into pieces that equal to the number of people in the family.
Mid-Autumn lanterns are not as colorful as those of the Lantern Festival. There is no big lantern party during Mid-Autumn Festival, but children like making colorful lanterns very much. They make lanterns of different shapes and let them float on the rivers. They don’t leave the riverside until the light of the lanterns disappears. Sometimes, they make Kongming (Hung Ming) lanterns, which can fly because the burning candles heat the air in the lantern. The lantern rises with the heated air.
On the evening of the Moon Festival, moon worship is popular among the Dai people in Yunnan.
Based on the Dai legend, the moon was once Yan Jian, the third son of the Emperor of Heaven. Yan Jian was a heroic and strong youth who led the Dai people to beat enemies and won Dai folks over. Later, after his unfortunate death, he became the moon and rose into the sky giving off the soft moonlight and giving light to the Dai people in the dark.
Every Mid-Autumn Festival, in order to hunt for festival game men go up onto the hills and shoot fire finches and pheasants with powder shotguns early in the morning. Young women are busy going to lakes and ponds catching fish, and preparing for festival dinners. Grannies are busy pounding glutinous rice and cooking food of various sizes. They put a circular glutinous rice pie on each corner of the table and imbed a stick of unlit joss stick in each pie. Once the moon comes up over the mountain forest, they will light the joss sticks and all family members will start to "worship the moon". Then they'll fire powder shotguns to the sky to honor Yan Jian, the hero. Finally, all family members will happily sit at the little square table, tasting food, talking, laughing and enjoying the moon. They don’t finish until they have enjoyed themselves to the full.
In sacrificing to the moon, Oroqen people put a basin of water in the open, set offerings there, and then kneel down before the basin and kowtow to the moon. Tu people fill the basin with clear water so that the reflection of the moon can project into the basin, and then, people ceaselessly strike the moon in the basin with little stones, which is called "striking the moon".
The activity of "sacrificing to the moon and inviting gods" of Zhuang people in West Guangxi is more typical. In the middle of the eighth month of the lunisolar calendar, on the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, at the village head and end people will set an altar, placing the sacred offerings and censers, and erect a branch or bamboo pole, about one foot high, symbolizing Sheshu (referred to a proper tree planted in a proper place), which is also used as a ladder for the Moon Goddess to descend to the world and go back to heaven. Here is preserved the details of the ancient lunar myth. The overall activity is divided into four stages: 1) inviting the Moon Goddess to descend to the world, which requires one or two women to be the spokespeople of the Moon Goddess; 2) antiphonal singing between the goddess and people; 3) divination and fortune-telling by the Moon Goddess; and 4) a mantra of farewell to the goddess sung by singers, sending the Moon Goddess back to heaven.
Mongolians"chase the moon". On the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mongolians enjoy playing the game of "chasing the moon". People will mount their horses, galloping on the grasslands under the silver-white moonlight. They gallop towards the west, with the moon rising in the east and setting in the west. Tenacious Mongolian riders will not stop "chasing the moon" until the moon sets in the west.
Tibetans"look for the moon". The custom for Tibetan people in some areas of Tibet to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival is called "looking for the moon". On that night, young men, women and children search for the moon’s reflection in ponds, following the reflection of the moon in the water along the river, and then go home for reunions and moon cakes.
The Hezhe people enjoy "moon worship". In the Hezhe settlements of the northeast of China, every Mid-Autumn Festival, people will pick grapes and worship the moon. It is said to be in commemoration of a clever and laborious Hezhe wife. She could not suffer her mother-in-law's sadism and escaped to the riverside to beg for the moon's help. Finally, she ran onto the moon.
De'ang people enjoy "dating under the moon (chuanyue or chuanyueliang)", a De’ang courtship custom. Young De'ang men and women in Luxi, Yunnan, go out once on every Mid-Autumn Festival, with a big and extraordinarily bright moon hanging in the sky. From hilltops to village edges, there comes a melodious sound of gourd pipe music from time to time, as the young men and women are "dating under the moon" together and unburdening themselves to each other. Some of them also deliver orange areca nuts and tea in order to woo their date.
A'xi people, a branch of the Yi ethnic group, "dance in the moon". "Dancing in the moon" is the traditional custom of A'xi people at Mid-Autumn Festival. On the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, people from every village will gather on the open ground of the mountain village. Girls in veils dance, as do the guys carrying the big sanxians (three-stringed Chinese instruments) on their shoulders. However, more intriguing still is the antiphonal singing as young men and women express their loving feelings to each other.
Miao peopleenjoy "teasing in the moon (naoyue)". On the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, the Miao people will stream along the narrow paths in the silk-like moonlight, playing the melodious lusheng (a wind instrument with multiple bamboo pipes) and dancing Miao dances with songs. Young men, during the activity of "teasing in the moon", will look for their lovers, express their affections and then marry forever, just as the moon marries with the clear water.
The Gaoshan people "admire the full moon". Gaoshan people live in the mountainous regions of Taiwan Province. At Mid-Autumn Festival, with the bright moon riding high in the sky and the radiance lighting up the earth, they, dressed in national costumes, sit around together, singing and dancing, drinking and admiring the full moon, sharing the happiness of a family union.
On the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, a funny custom of "stealing moon vegetables" is popular in Dong villages in Hunan.
According to a legend, on the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, fairies from the Moon Palace would descend to the world and spread nectar over the mortal world. The nectar from fairies is selfless. Therefore, people in that evening might share the fruit and vegetables with nectar together. Dong people named this custom "stealing moon vegetables".
On the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival, Dong girls with umbrellas will choose garden lands of their own lovers to pick melons and vegetables and it would not be considered as "stealing". "Hey! Your melons and vegetables have been taken by me. You please go to my home to have oil-tea!" they also intentionally yell. First, they place red string as if they are fairies from the Moon Palace. If they pick a twin vegetable or fruit, it signifies that they will have happy affections. So, cow peas growing in pairs have become the picking targets. Sisters-in-law also go to others’ garden lands to "steal moon vegetables" this night. However, they wish to pick the fattest melon or a handful of fresh green soybeans, because this symbolizes stout and strong children (maodou,green soybean in Chinese, sounds similar to a word for‘children’in Chinese). Guys also have the custom of "stealing moon vegetables" because they wish fairies from the Moon Palace to grant them happiness as well. However, they can only cook them up to eat in the wild rather than bring them home. "Stealing moon vegetables" gives the Dong village unbounded joy and a magical touch on the evening of the Mid-Autumn Festival.
Hakka people's customs, such as eating mooncakes and admiring the full moon, are almost identical to those in other places of our country. Hakka call it "Eighth Month Festival" or "Mid Eighth Month".
When the full moon rises on Mid-Autumn Festival night, Hakka people will place mooncakes, peanuts and pomelos to prepare for the activity of "moonlight piety" in courtyards, pavilions or grain drying areas in front of houses facing the moon.
After the worship of the moon, the whole family will admire the full moon and eat outside. Admiring the full moon is an adult affair. Generally kids won't sit still there and admire the full moon, but chase and play with each other in the bright and clear moonlight, which is their way of enjoying the moment. There is something special about eating things. Parents tend to want everybody to eat those offerings used to worship Luna (the Moon Goddess) first. Chinese sacrificial culture has such a tradition that liberalists often still share the offerings and eat after the gods, so that they end up part of the whole sacrificial ceremony. The shared food, has received Luna's blessings and has performed the traditional sacrificial culture. Meixian people's belief is that anyone who ate those offerings would be "better-behaved, more blissful and propitious".
In Meizhou, except for mooncakes, the traditional Mid-Autumn food with universal significance, the pomelo is an essential festival food, including golden pomelo (Shatian pomelo), honey pomelo or Shuijing pomelo. Eating pomelos has some beliefs attached to it. For example, cutting the pomelo is called sha you (killing the pomelo) which has a meaning of exorcism. It is also said that peeling the pomelo skin off is ‘ghost skin peeling' which signifies the attempt to get rid of ghosts and disasters.
Moon cakes in Hakka regions, apart from common moon cakes, have "five-kernel moon cakes" and a kind of round cake made with glutinous rice flour and sugar, compressed into different size. Though the social economy progresses continually, Hakka people are always passing down their traditional catering culture, as well as developing folk catering culture.
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British Presence in IndiaEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
The first British outpost in South Asia was established by the English East India Company in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. The British subsequently expanded their influence in India, and by the 1760s they controlled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. In 1858, Parliament transferred political power from the East India Company to the Crown. At that time Great Britain began administering most of India directly, while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.
Great Britain’s interest in India can be linked to the revenue India brought to the British. The revenue of India for the year 1852 to 1853 was over ₤21 million sterling. However, this staggering amount was offset by expenditures of ₤20.5 million sterling and a debt of a little over ₤48 million sterling.
Part of the expenditure was ascribed to maintaining an army for the protection of the East Indian provinces. In 1852 the army consisted of an effective force made up of British, native, and contingent troops. There were 1,569 engineers, 16,440 artillery men, 34,984 cavalry men, 229,406 infantry men, 1,763 warrant officers, and 4,124 veterans for a total military force of 289,529.
Source: India Geographical, Statistical and Historical. London: George Watts. 1858. [BYU book #DS452.25x1858]
- This page was last modified on 10 May 2013, at 17:46.
- This page has been accessed 2,724 times.
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IF there is a point on which all Afghans unite, it is on the Durand Line. The British-drawn frontier is more than a century old and has been accepted by the world community as an international border. But Afghans to this day have shied away from recognising this reality. On Oct 21, Marc Grossman said in a TV interview that the US considered the Durand Line an international frontier. A few days later, the Kabul government rejected the views of America’s special envoy, prompting the State Department to reiterate its position by upholding Mr Grossman’s declaration. On Thursday, the Foreign Office reaffirmed Islamabad’s position on the issue and said the international frontier between Pakistan and Afghanistan was “a closed and settled issue”.
Irrespective of tribal, ethnic, political and ideological differences, the Afghans speak with one voice on the Durand Line and refuse to abandon a stance that has been rendered obsolete by the march of time. Since 1947, Afghanistan has seen governments that differed in internal makeup and foreign policy orientations. The overthrow of the monarchy by Daud Khan, Zahir Shah’s cousin, and the establishment of a republic made no difference to Kabul rulers’ stand on the border with Pakistan, and the four communist rulers who followed them — Nur Mohammad Taraki, Hafizullah Amin, Babrak Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah — shared the royalty’s view of the border drawn as far back as 1893. Because Kabul’s communist rulers received greater support than before from the Soviet Union, their stance on the Durand Line and the issue of Pakhtunistan was hawkish. True, their views were echoed by many Pakhtun nationalists here but the bigger challenge of militancy among Pakhtuns has now taken precedence. Understandably upsetting for Pakistan, the victorious Mujahideen showed no interest in having the issue resolved and accepting the line. Even the Taliban, perceived to have been created, funded, armed and trained by Pakistan, showed little gratitude towards their hosts and preferred to follow their royal and communist predecessors in rejecting the status of the Durand Line.
The Durand Line is a fact, and no day passes without Kabul acknowledging its de facto existence by talking about cross-border incursions. One can understand Kabul’s anti-colonial approach in the 19th and early part of the 20th century. But cataclysmic events have unleashed new forces, altered the area’s geopolitical picture and rendered old concepts incongruous. Manned checkpoints on both sides testify to Kabul’s de facto recognition of the line. President Hamid Karzai should realise that official recognition of the Durand Line would serve as a confidence-building measure, remove a source of friction and help in fighting a common enemy.
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- Sakuntala definition, a Sanskrit drama written in the 6th century or earlier by Kalidasa. See more.
- Essentials of Free and Fair Elections Dr. Sakuntala Kadirgamar
- Dr. Sakuntala Kadirgamar-Rajasingham. Head South Asia Program.
- Kalidasa and Bharata
- particularly the Sakuntala, his most renowned work, and examining the influence of the. Natyasastra on them.
- Sakuntala Narasimhan, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Empowering
- Sakuntala Narasimhan, Empowering Women, An Alternative Strategy from. Rural India, New Delhi: Sage, 1999, 236 pp., Price £27.
- SAKUNTALA y los tonos dramáticos occidentales
- 1 Kalidasa: Sakuntala; drama en siete actos, Textos españoles y prólogo de Emilio Cf.
- Kalidasa. Shakuntala translated by. Arthur W.
- Citizens help desk in police office
- Meanwhile, police nabbed Satun Khatun Sakuntala Sharma and Dinesh Sahani of Biratnagar-15, and Alin Chaudhary of Biratnagar-18 on the charge of involving in the smuggling of banned drugs marijuana.
- Deep humanity combined with a reticent, yet refined skill
- Book facts: On The Streets and Other Revelations - by Sakuntala Sachithanandan. Reviewed by Prof. Ashley Halpé.
- We have been “collection-ed.”
- By Sakuntala Narasimhan BMTC fares went up a month ago, and hikes in petrol/diesel prices were cited as the reason. The story is more complicated than that.
- Music to the ears
- Parents like Kee Yong Chen and Sakuntala Manikkam share the hope that their Down syndrome sons will find a niche in music.
- Shakuntala - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Károly Goldmark, the Hungarian composer (1830-1915) wrote the Sakuntala Overture The Recognition of Sakuntala: famous Sanskrit play written by Kalidasa.
- Kalidasa: The Recognition of Sakuntala
- Jan 3, 2002 Sakuntala is by far the best-known of Kalidasa's plays. In Delhi there is a modern auditorium called the "Sakuntalam Theater.
- Sakuntala - Laura Gibbs websites
- Oct 16, 2007 SAKUNTALA.
- Sakuntala and the Ring of Recollection - Kalidasa
- A review, and links to other information about and reviews of Sakuntala and the Ring of Recollection by Kalidasa.
- Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama, in seven acts. The Deva-Nagari
- Mar 18, 2010 Ebook and Texts Archive > California Digital Library > Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama, in seven acts. The Deva-Nagari recension of the text, ed.
Sakuntala is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Sakuntala books and related discussion.
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This week the historical Second Arya Kshema Winter Dharma Gathering for nuns began at Tergar Monastery in Bodhgaya. The annual gathering brings together Karma Kagyu nuns in a program focused on advanced training in philosophy and debate.
“When we initiated this Winter Dharma Gathering for nuns the primary aim was to strengthen the education within Kagyu nunneries,” the Gyalwang Karmapa said. “Another aim was that the nuns would be able to take responsibility not just for activities within their own nunneries, but also take wider responsibility for upholding the teachings.”
“Monks and nuns are the same in being able to uphold the Buddha’s teachings, and have the same responsibility to do so,” he continued. “However there has been a period when nuns have not really had the opportunity to uphold the teachings, and this has been a loss for all of us.”
This year around 400 nuns from 9 different nunneries in India, Nepal, and Bhutan have gathered. The two-and-a-half week Read the rest of this article
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Hampi (in Bellary, Karnataka). the erstwhile capital of the mighty Hindu Kingdom, the Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1565), is one of the World Heritage Sites in India. Vijayanagara, the City of Victory, is now totally in ruins and uninhabited. What had happened to the magnificent city?
The Vijayanagara Empire of Hampi (1336-1565):
The Vijayanagara Kingdom emerged during the later years of the reign of Sultan Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq, and dominated Southern India for more than two-hundred years. There are many stories and traditions regarding the origin of the Empire: According to the popular tradition, "two brothers named Harihara and Bukka, who had been in the service of the king of Warangal, at the time of the destruction of that kingdom by the Muslims in 1323, fled to Anegundi and took service under the Raja of Anegundi. The brothers rose to be minister and treasurer respectively at Anegundi. In 1334, the Raja gave shelter to Baha-ud-din, nephew of Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq, and was attacked by the Sultan. After the fall of Anegundi, the Sultan left Mallik as its governor. Mallik found the people too strong for him, and eventually the Sultan raised the two brothers to be Raja and minister respectively". The rulers of the Vijayanagara empire were known as Rayas. There were four dynasties ruled over Vijayanagar and they are: Sangama Dynasty (1336-1490), Saluva Dynasty (1490-1509), Tuluva Dynasty (1503-1570) and Aravidu Dynasty (1565-1646).
Sangama Dynasty (1336-1490): Harihara Raya (1336-1343) was the first ruler of the Sangama dynasty. Harihara was succeeded by his brother Bukka Raya (1343-1379) in 1343. He conquered almost all kingdoms of the Southern India. During his reign, in 1347, the Bahmani Kingdom emerged on the other side of the river (and they were frequently at war with each other). According to Ferishta, "the Bahmani Kings maintained their superiority by valour only; for in power, wealth, and extent of country, the Rayas of Vijayanagar greatly exceeded them". Bukka was succeeded by his son Harihara II (1379-1399), who assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Harihara II was succeeded by his son, Bukka Raya II (1399-1406) and then by Deva Raya I (1406-1412), Bukka's brother. During his reign, Firuz Shah Bahmani invaded Vijayanagar and he had to sign a treaty by giving his daughter in marriage to Firuz. Deva Raya was succeeded by Vira Vijaya (1413-1419) and then by Deva Raya II (1419-1444). During his reign, the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak visited Vijayanagar. There is no satisfactory records after Deva Raya II's reign; it is supposed that Virupaksha Raya was the last ruler of Sangama Dynasty.
Saluva Dynasty (1490-1509): Saluva Narasimha (1490-1491), the vassal of Vijayanagara usurped the throne after the death of Virupaksha Raya in 1490. Narasimha died entrusting his two infant sons to his minister, Tuluva Narasa Nayaka (1491-1503). He seized the throne after murdering the two Princes. Vasco Da Gama landed in Calicut during his reign in 1498. After the death of Narasa Nayaka, his son Vira Narasimha (1503-1509) proclaimed himself as the ruler of Vijayanagar and established the Tuluva dynasty.
Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire: The Battle of Talikota (1565):
During his rule, Rama Raya interfered in the conflicts among the Deccan Sultanates, first, in alliance with one, and then with another. In the beginning he joined with Ahmednagar, Bidar and Golconda and fought with Bijapur. In 1558, he invaded Ahmednagar, joining with Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur and during this march, his army committed great outrages; they insulted the Muslim women, destructed Mosques and disrespected the holy Quran. This incensed the followers of Islam, even the allied troops of Bijapur. Meanwhile the Sultanates lost many of their dominions to Rama Raya. Ferishta tells us that Rama Raya daily continuing to encroach on the dominions of the Sultans, Ali Adil Shah resolved to curb his insolence and reduce his power by a league of the faithful against him; for which purpose he convened an assembly of his friends and confidential advisers. According to them the number of Rama's forces was too vast, against which no single Muhammadan monarch could hope to contend with the smallest prospect of success. Therefore, the Sultans decided to unite to reduce the power of Rama Raya. The political treaties and marriage agreements (Hussein Nizam Shah gave his daughter Chand Bibi in marriage to Ali Adil Shah and Huddeea Sultana, Ali's sister, was married to Murtaza Shah, son of Hussein Nizam Shah) were drawn out, and mutually confirmed by the most solemn oaths.
The Battle of Talikotta was fought between Rama Raya and the combined armies of the four Deccan Sultans, Hussein Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, Ibrahim Qutub Shah of Golconda, Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur and Ali Barid Shah of Bidar, on the banks of the river Krishna on 26 Jan 1565. Rama Raya entrusted his right wing to Tirumala, to oppose Qutb Shah, and his left wing to Venkatadry, against Ali Adil Shah, while Rama Raya, an old but energetic man in his seventy's, himself commanded the center. Rama Raya was seated himself on a rich throne set with jewels, under a canopy of crimson velvet, embroidered with gold and adorned with fringes of pearls, caused his treasurer to place heaps of money around him, that he might confer rewards on such of his soldiers as merited the distinction; rich ornaments of gold and jewels were also placed before him for the same purpose. Unfortunately, an elephant belonging to Nizam Shah, became wild and dashed towards him and he fell down from the palanquin. Before he could recover, he was bounded by ropes and taken to Nizam Shah and finally, he was beheaded. The Muslim army looted the city; people were slaughtered; temples and houses were burnt; the sacred Hindu idols were destroyed and the wealthy empire was plundered. The plunder was so great, that every private man in the allied army became rich in gold, jewels, tents, arms, horses, and slaves. The kingdom of Vijayanagara never recovered its ancient splendor!
Aravidu Dynasty (1565-1646): Although Vijayanagara was destroyed, Tirumala along with Sadashiva escaped to Penukonda where they tried to rebuild the empire. In 1568, Tirumala murdered Sadasiva, and seized the throne for himself (1568-1575). Tirumala was succeeded by his son Sri Ranga Raya (1575-1586) and later followed by his brother, Venkatapati Raya I (1586-1614) who shifted the capital from Penukonda to Chandragiri. During that time, the largest feudatories of the Vijayanagar empire; the Wodeyars of Mysore and the Nayakas of Ikkeri declared their independence. Venkatapati was succeeded by Sri Ranga Raya II in 1614 and later by Ramadeva (1617-1632). Venkata III (1632-1642) again shifted the capital to Vellore. Sri Ranga III (1642-1646) was the last ruler of the Vijayanagara empire.
The Vijayanagara kings celebrated Dasara on a grand scale which was then revived by the Wodeyars in 1610.
A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar By Robert Sewell
History of the Rise of Mahommedan Power in India By Ferishta
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(The views expressed in this column are the author's own and do not represent those of Reuters)
By C. Uday Bhaskar
India finally honoured its long ignored ‘shaheed' -- soldiers who had laid down their lives defending flag and national sovereignty -- in the brief war with China that began with the surprise People's Liberation Army (PLA) attack on under-equipped and ill-clad Indian troops on October 20, 1962.
Defence Minister A.K. Antony, accompanied by the three service chiefs and the venerable five-star Marshal of the Air Force, Arjan Singh (a World War II veteran), led the nation in laying a wreath at Delhi's war memorial at India Gate.
This has been described as a gesture of epic proportions, for ever since the humiliating defeat that India suffered with nearly 3,000 troops killed in the icy Himalayan heights, the Indian state led by former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru chose the path of obdurate and self-imposed amnesia.
A long festering border and territorial dispute that had its origins in the colonial-era demarcation (imposed on Tibet and China by imperial Britain during the heydays of the British Raj in India) was at the heart of the Sino-Indian dispute. The month-long war left India stunned and Nehru was taught a lesson by Mao. The war ended as suddenly as it began when China withdrew unilaterally.
The Indian troops, equipped with vintage World War II ordnance and cotton clothing, acquitted themselves with characteristic gallantry and raw courage. Certain battles such as Rezang La will compare with the legendary Thermopylae. However, there was an abysmal failure at the highest political level in India and PM Nehru and his abrasive and arrogant Defence Minister Krishna Menon were unable to cope with what Mao had unleashed.
To its shame, over the last 50 years, the Indian state chose not to acknowledge the death of its soldiers -- those who defended the nation to their peril. The unstated reason was it would sully the image of Nehru to recall or commemorate the 1962 war. India's distinctive strategic culture derived from the Buddha-Gandhi tradition of ‘ahimsa' and non-violence is reflected in the discomfiture of the Indian state in empathetically and astutely dealing with either military victory (the 1971 India-Pakistan war) or defeat and this is an abiding trait.
To their credit, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Antony took this brave decision to finally acknowledge the war by honouring those killed in 1962 -- and while it may not be the beginning of a long-awaited mea culpa, it is nonetheless welcome. The families of those who died may find some succour and the Indian military and its three million veterans, some solace.
Antony also briefly dwelt on the trauma of 1962 and asserted: "I would like to assure the nation that India of today is not the India of 1962. Over the years, successive governments learning lessons from the past strengthened our capabilities and modernised our armed forces ... we are confident our armed forces will be able to protect the border in event of any threat."
Fifty years after the October 1962 war, Sino-Indian relations are more stable, though the territorial and border dispute remains exactly where it was -- frozen in time. The complex Tibet issue and the presence of the Dalai Lama and his followers in India irks Beijing. India remains wary of Chinese intent and the received wisdom is that Beijing's deeper objective is to contain India in the subcontinent and that Pakistan is a useful strategic proxy.
The much hyped Asian century is predicated on the rise of China and India who have a combined population of more than two billion. Strategic restraint has been the lodestar for the political leadership since the 1993 peace accord signed by the two Asian giants.
Commercial and economic opportunities beckon and bi-lateral trade is expected to cross $100 billion soon. But for China and India, neither co-operation nor conflict is preordained.
Sino-Indian relations will be tested when a new leadership assumes the helm in Beijing in early November and defines the contours of its relations with Washington and New Delhi. India will have to review its past more objectively to manage its future orientation apropos China.
The first step was taken on Saturday.
(C. Uday Bhaskar is Distinguished Fellow, Society for Policy Studies, New Delhi.)
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Insight - Modi's popularity in rural India punctured by discontent, suicides Full Article
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The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture. With the coming of Muslims to India, many new features came to be introduced in buildings. The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture. The Imperial Style developed under the patronage of the Sultans of Delhi. The Mughal Architecture was a blend of the Islamic Architecture of Central Asia and the Hindu Architecture of India.
The Indo-Islamic style provided spaciousness, massiveness and breadth
to the Hindu architecture. In almost all the prominent buildings, the
arch, Minar and dome began to be used and the mosque or Masjid became a
part of the landscape. The chief means of decoration was surface
decoration through the use of geometry, arabesque and calligraphy. The
Muslims borrowed the design of kalash on the top of the Hindu temple by
placing a dome on the top of their buildings.
The most important symbol of Indo-Islamic architecture in India is the
tomb or the mausoleum which evolved from the basic cube and hemisphere
of the early phase into a more detailed form during the Mughal period.
In the Mughal period multiple chambers were made and tombs were set in
gardens, known as the Char-Bagh. The tomb chamber houses the cenotaph
below which is the grave. The most famous example of tomb in India is
The Mughal Architecture occupies a significant place in the history of
Indian Architecture. The Mughal architecture developed with the efforts
of Akbar. Akbar cleverly incorporated foreign influences into indigenous
style. Some of the basic features of the Mughal Architecture are the
round domes, high minarets, mehrabs, pillars, open courtyards etc. A
notable feature of the Mughal architecture was the use of red sandstone.
It is interesting to note that red sandstone was used for construction
of huge buildings and forts. However red sandstone was replaced with
white marbles replaced it during the later period when the stress was
more on beautifying of the buildings with the use of colored designs,
precious and semi-precious stones, gold and silver waters and minute
The outstanding examples of Indo-Islamic architecture are the Qutub
Minar, Alai Darwaza, Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Tughlaqabad Fort, Fatehpur
Sikri, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Red Fort Delhi etc.
Medieval Indian architecture is called as Islamic architecture or Indo-Islamic architecture. Have a look at some prominent features of Indo-Islamic architecture
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- The Namakarana Samskar is performed, normally on the tenth or twelfth day ..
- Nama Karana de Govinda
- Nama Karana de Govinda.
- Pt. Vilas Thuse Namakaran Vidhi Preparation Guidelines || Pooja
- Rites of Passage
- Namakarana, Name-Giving. (Pictured at left) The Hindu name-giving rite, namakarana samskara, is one of the essential rites of passage.
- The name-giving sacrament, the Namakarana Samskar, can take place at any. Hindu temple.
- PUNYAHA VACHANAM & NAMAKARANA - NJ Hindu Priest
- PUNYAHA VACHANAM & NAMAKARANA. Sl. No.
- Bangles that bring joy to fasting
- The idea of getting their names engraved struck when Amandeep got balloons with son, Tanav's name on them at his namakaran ceremony. Amandeep said he was unaware of Anubha's motive when she persisted to go to New Delhi to shop for Karva Chauth.
- Namakarana - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Namakarana (Sanskrit: नामकरण, Nāmakaraṇa) (literally, naming) is the fifth of the 16 saṃskāras (sacraments) performed by the Hindus to name the child.
- Indian Culture Online.Com - Namakarana
- Namakarana. The ceremony of naming a child. Nama literally means `name` and karana means `to make, to effect`.
- Hindu Name Giving Ceremony: Namakarana Samskara
- Feb 14, 2009 The Namakarana Samskara is a rite of passage in Hinduism.
- Namakarana - Naming ceremony
- May 17, 2009 Discussions, links and resources on Hinduism and Indian culture.
Namakarana is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Namakarana books and related discussion.
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|Indus River (Urdu: دريائے سِندھ (Darya-e Sindh)
Hindi: सिन्धु नदी (Sindhu Nadi))
Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Pakistan, India, and China.
|Country|| Pakistan (93%)
|- left||Zanskar River, Chenab River, Sutlej River, Soan River, Beas River, Ravi River, Dras River, Suru River, Jhelum River, Kishanganga River|
|- right||Shyok River, Gilgit River, Kabul River, Kurram River, Gomal River|
|Cities||Leh, Sukkur, Hyderabad, Dera Ismail Khan|
|Primary source||Sênggê Zangbo|
|- location||Tibetan Plateau|
|- location||Tibetan Plateau|
|- location||Indus River Delta, Pakistan|
|- elevation||0 m (0 ft)|
|Length||3,200 km (1,988 mi)|
|Basin||1,165,000 km2 (449,809 sq mi)|
|Discharge||for Arabian sea|
|- average||6,600 m3/s (233,077 cu ft/s)|
The Indus River is one of the longest rivers in Asia. It flows through Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir and western Tibet. Originating in the Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, towards Gilgit-Baltistan and then flows in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. The total length of the river is 3,180 km (1,980 mi). It is Pakistan's longest river.
The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2 (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3 (50 cu mi), making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. The Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left bank tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej. Its principal right bank tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal and the Kurram. Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu and the Iranian Zend Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both terms meaning "seven rivers"). The river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC.
- 1 Etymology and names
- 2 Description
- 3 History
- 4 Geography
- 5 Geology
- 6 Wildlife
- 7 Economy
- 8 People
- 9 Modern issues
- 10 See also
- 11 Notes
- 12 References
- 13 External links
Etymology and names
The word "Indus" is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word "Indós" (Ἰνδός), borrowed from the old Persian word "Hinduš", which in turn was derived from the Sanskrit word "Sindhu" (सिन्धु pronounced [sɪndʱuː]). The word "Sindhu" or "Sindh" is still the local appellation of the Indus River. The original Sanskrit word "Sindhu" is an amalgamation of two words, "sim" (region or entirety or border) and "dhu" (to tremble or shake) and means "a body of trembling water, river, stream or ocean".
Megasthenes's book Indica derives its name from the river's Greek name, "Indós" (Ἰνδός), and describes Nearchus's contemporaneous account of how Alexander the Great crossed the river. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians (people of present-day India and Pakistan) as "Indói" (Ἰνδοί), literally meaning "the people of the Indus". The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river.
Rigveda and the Indus
Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named "Sindhu". The Rigvedic "Sindhu" is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text – 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, as in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of Nadistuti sukta. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein but "Sindhu" is the only river attributed with a masculine gender. Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter.
In Urdu, the official language of Pakistan, the Indus is known as درياۓ سِندھ (Daryā-e Sindh). In other languages of the region, the river is known as सिन्धु नदी (Sindhu Nadī) in Hindi, سنڌو (Sindhu) in Sindhi, سندھ (Sindh) in Shahmukhi alphabet, ਸਿੰਧ ਨਦੀ (Sindh Nadī) in Gurmukhī alphabet, સિંધુ નદી (Sindhu) in Gujarati; اباسين (Abāsin, lit. "Father of Rivers") in Pashto, رود سند (Rūd-e Sind) in Persian, نهر السند (Nahar al-Sind) in Arabic, སེང་གེ།་གཙང་པོ (Sênggê Zangbo, lit. "Lion River") in Tibetan, 印度 (Yìndù) in Chinese, and Nilab in Turki.
The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan's economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers" and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.
The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailas) mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500–5,200 metres (15,000–17,000 feet) deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the Satnad River (sat = "seven", nadī = "river"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges of Tibet, the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and the Northern Areas of Pakistan. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake.
The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or "Lion's Mouth", a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senger Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.
- "That night in the tent [next to Senge Khabab] I ask Sonmatering which of the Indus tributaries which we crossed this morning is the longest. All of them, he says, start at least a day's walk away from here. The Bukhar begins near the village of Yagra. The Lamolasay's source is in a holy place: there is a monastery there. The Dorjungla is a very difficult and long walk, three days perhaps, and there are many sharp rocks; but it its water is clear and blue, hence the tributary's other name, Zom-chu, which Karma Lama translates as 'Blue Water'. The Rakmajang rises from a dark lake called the Black Sea.
- One of the longest tributaries — and thus a candidate for the river's technical source — is the Kla-chu, the river we crossed yesterday by bridge. Also known as the Lungdep Chu, it flows into the Indus from the south-east, and rises a day's walk from Darchen. But Sonamtering insists that the Dorjungla is the longest of the 'three types of water' that fall into the Seng Tsanplo ['Lion River' or Indus]."
Paleolithic sites have been discovered in Pothohar near Pakistan's capital Islamabad, with the stone tools of the Soan Culture. In ancient Gandhara, near Islamabad, evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at Mardan.
The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization extended from across Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Pakistan, Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India. There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90–96 of more than 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus.
The word "India" is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, but by 300 BC, Greek writers including Megasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.
The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh and the countries Afghanistan and India. It was crossed by the invading armies of Alexander, but after his Macedonians conquered the west bank—joining it to the Hellenic Empire, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander's Asian campaign . The Indus plains were later dominated by the Persian empire and then the Kushan empire. Over several centuries Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur crossed the river to invade the inner regions of the Punjab and points farther south and east.
- Nagar River
- Hunza River
- Astor River
- Balram River
- Dras River
- Gar River
- Ghizar River
- Gilgit River
- Gomal River
- Kabul River
- Kurram River
- Panjnad River
- Shigar River
- Shyok River
- Soan River
- Tanubal River
- Zanskar River
- Jhelum River
- Ravi River
- Chenab River
- Beas River
- Satluj River
The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth at around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time. Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time. The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border.
In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Baburnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species and 147 species, 22 of which are only found in the Indus.
The blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista indicus minor) is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund claims it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1000 still existing.
Palla fish Tenualosa ilisha of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including pomfret and prawns.
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meager in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus valley civilization, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430 ft) long – irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi).
After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India.
The Indus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal – linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers – extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi – standing 2,743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80-kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. It support the Chashma barrage near Dera Ismail Khan use for irrigation and flood control. for The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
The inhabitants of the regions through which the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India, live the Buddhist people of Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo-Aryan or Dardic stock and practising Buddhism and Islam. Then it descends into Baltistan, northern Pakistan passing the main Balti city of Skardu. On its course river from Dubair Bala also drains into it at Dubair Bazar. People living at this area are mainly Kohistani and speak Kohistani language. Major areas through which Indus river pass through in Kohistan are Dasu, Pattan and Dubair. As it continues through Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures – upon the western banks the population is largely Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranian stock, with close cultural, economic and ethnic ties to eastern Afghanistan. The eastern banks are largely populated by people of Indo-Aryan stock, such as the Punjabis and the Sindhis. In northern Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ethnic Pashtun tribes live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash, Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people.
Through its course in Punjab the people living along the Indus river are distinct from Punjabi and Pustoon. This distinction is not only based on language (Saraiki dialect) but these people also have a different genealogy. They are tall and slender, distinctively different from either pushtoon or Punjabi which have a sturdy built. These people live in Mianwali and Dera Ismail Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rahim Yar Khan and Rajan Pur in Punjab. In the province of Sindh, upper third of River indus is again inhabited by Saraiki speaking people up to Shikapur. The rest of the indus river valley is inhabited by Sindhis and Baloch of Sindhi language. Upon the western banks of the river live the Baloch and Pashtun people of Balochistan.
|This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2010)|
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's economy and society. After Pakistan and India declared Independence from the British Raj, also known as Indian Empire, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split – with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non-irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baglihar Project).
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards – although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
Recently, India's construction of dams on the river, which Pakistan claims is in violation of the Indus Waters Treaty reducing water flow into Pakistan, has caused Pakistan to take the issue to the international courts for arbitration.
Effects of climate change on the river
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
- "Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows.. In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River. Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril."
"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus," says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change," and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert [where], without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the answer to that question," he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned."
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus River Dolphin. The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Death of the Indus River Dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up. As a result, the government banned fishing from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur.
In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In Sindh, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi. In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh. As of September 2010[update], over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.
The 2011 Sindh floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab. The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres (690,000 ha; 2,700 sq mi) of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year's floods, which devastated a large part of the country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.
- 1974 Hunza earthquake
- Chura Sharif
- Ghaggar-Hakra River
- HMS Indus, ships named after the Indus River
- Indus Valley Civilization
- Indus Waters Treaty
- Sindhu Darshan Festival
- Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
- Encyclopædia Britannica.
- 70% of cattle-breeders desert Banni; by Narandas Thacker, TNN, 14 February 2002; The Times of India
- Lost and forgotten: grasslands and pastoralists of Gujarat; by Charul Bharwada and Vinay Mahajan; The forsaken drylands; a symposium on some of India's most invisible people; Seminar; New Delhi; 2006; NUMB 564, pages 35–39; ISSN 0037-1947, Listed at the British Library Online
- Albinia (2008), p. 307.
- Henry Yule: India, Indies. In Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903
- Clift, Peter D.; Blusztajn, Jerzy (15 December 2005). "Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five million years ago". Nature 438 (7070): 1001–1003. doi:10.1038/nature04379. PMID 16355221.
- Clift, Peter D.; Shimizu, N.; Layne, G.D.; Blusztajn, J.S.; Gaedicke, C.; Schlüter, H.-U.; Clark, M.K.; Amjad, S. (August 2001). "Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the Western Himalaya and Karakoram". GSA Bulletin 113 (8): 1039–1051. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1039:DOTIFA>2.0.CO;2.
- Zeitler, Peter K.; Koons, Peter O.; Bishop, Michael P.; Chamberlain, C. Page; Craw, David; Edwards, Michael A.; Hamidullah, Syed; Jam, Qasim M.; Kahn, M. Asif; Khattak, M. Umar Khan; Kidd, William S. F.; Mackie, Randall L.; Meltzer, Anne S.; Park, Stephen K.; Pecher, Arnaud; Poage, Michael A.; Sarker, Golam; Schneider, David A.; Seeber, Leonardo; and Shroder, John F. (October 2001). "Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion". Tectonics 20 (5): 712–728. doi:10.1029/2000TC001243.
- "Indus River". World' top 10 rivers at risk. WWF. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
- "WWF – Indus River Dolphin". Wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
- "Tarabela Dam". www.structurae.the cat in the hat. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
- "Indus Basin Project". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
- "Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official. Reported 18 August 2009". Google.com. 17 August 2009. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
- Pulitzercenter.org[dead link]
- "SEPA orders polluting factory to stop production". Dawn. 3 Dec 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
- "Fishing poison killing Indus dolphins, PA told". Dawn. 3/9/2012. Retrieved 28 June 2012. Check date values in:
- "'18 dolphins died from poisoning in Jan'". Dawn. 1 May 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
- "Threat to dolphin: Govt bans fishing between Guddu and Sukkur". The Express Tribune. 9 Mar 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
- Bodeen, Christopher (8 August 2010). "Asia flooding plunges millions into misery". Associated Press. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- Guerin, Orla (7 August 2010). "Pakistan issues flooding 'red alert' for Sindh province". British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
- "BBC News – Pakistan floods: World Bank to lend $900m for recovery". bbc.co.uk. 17 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- "BBC News – Millions of Pakistan children at risk of flood diseases". bbc.co.uk. 16 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- "Pakistan floods: Oxfam launches emergency aid response". BBC World News South Asia. 14 September 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
- "Floods worsen, 270 killed: officials". The Express Tribune. 13 September 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
- Government of Pakistan Pakmet.com.pk Retrieved on 19 September 2011[dead link]
- Albinia, Alice. (2008) Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River. First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-393-33860-7.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- World Atlas, Millennium Edition, pg 265
- Jean Fairley, "The Lion River", Karachi, 1978
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indus River.|
- Blankonthemap The Northern Kashmir WebSite
- Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library
- Northern Areas Development Gateway
- The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project
- Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)
- Indus Treaty
- Baglihar Dam issue
- Indus Wildlife at the Wayback Machine (archived October 7, 2006)
- First raft and kayak descents of the Indus headwaters in Tibet
- Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting's project on water issues in South Asia
| 5 |
The Caraka Samhita establishes that the causes of psychological disorders are due to the wrong use of the mind.
“Thinking is an object for the mind (it can be observed). Thus the wrong use of the mind creates abnormal mental conditions. The right use of the mind creates mental stability.” CS, Sutrasthana, Ch 8, 16
Caraka explains the cause of psychological problems in Chapter Eight of the Sutrasthana section. He states above in sutra number sixteen that: “Thinking is an object.”
This is very powerful. This means that we are not our thoughts because they can be observed. In Ayurveda that which moves through the Manovahasrota (channels of the mind) can be observed. This includes thoughts, feelings and emotions. This means that Caraka is telling us two things:
1. Whatever is observed is not the one observing it, e.g., not it
2. Thus, we are not our thoughts, feelings or emotions – they belong to us.
Essentially this means our identity as a human being is not what occurs in our minds. In other words our psychology is not who we are as human beings, rather it belongs to us and is a part of who we are.
Sutra sixteen goes on to say: “The wrong use of the mind creates abnormal mental conditions”. This means psychological disorders are a product of using our minds – basically Manas – incorrectly. So this means that if we have used it incorrectly then we should be able to use it correctly and change the problems. This is exactly the meaning of the last part of the sutra: “The right use of the mind creates mental stability”. So Caraka, in these few words, has explained how the human mind functions, becomes disturbed and how to correct psychological disorders.
Let us review the four parts of human psychology according to Indian thought. They are:
By examining the four aspects of the mind we can see that the root of all perceptions for humans come from Manas, the emotional and conditioned part of the mind. It is through the five senses that we take in the impressions that are received and in turn condition the mind or Manas. According to Ayurveda, the mind is a very sensitive organ that can be easily disturbed or traumatized by the impressions it receives. Things like car accidents, wars, murder, rape, and any form of mental / physical violence, damage the sensitivity of the emotional / conditioned mind.
Additionally, the mind, after receiving the information from the senses, interprets the information. This is the nature of the Manas – to interpret or translate – the information received. This natural function of Manas, to receive and interpret information, also provides the means to be conditioned by repetitive actions or behavior. In Sanskrit this process to develop habits or conditioning is called Samskara.
This conditioned mind then acts as a relay station between the outside world and the deeper levels of the mind – the intellect or Buddhi, the sense of ‘I’ or ego or Ahamkara, and the unconscious and subconscious minds or Chitta. All of these are influenced directly from the interpretations and conditioning of Manas. This is the primary role of Manas – to relay impressions and information to the other levels of the mind. This understanding of the four-dimensional mind does not exist clearly in Western psychology. Using this model we can penetrate to a deeper level of psychological understanding.
However, the weakness of Manas is that it interprets everything external according to its own conditioning. There is no other option open to Manas, the conditioned mind. This means that if I am a scientist I will tend to interpret the world – even personal relationships – from the conditioning of a logical, rational intellect. If I am an artist I will tend to interpret the universe as an expression of art and (hopefully) beauty. An athlete will tend to look at life from a competitive view and so on. In and of itself there is nothing wrong in this. Unfortunately the mind, once conditioned, cannot tell when it is appropriate to interpret one thing and not another.
A simple example is that which most modern people have experienced at least once or twice in their life – the confusion of the workplace with the home. On a professional level we are generally forced to behave in a certain manner, which is appropriate for our profession, be it window washing or management. However, humans often end up continuing to behave in the same manner at home with their spouse and children. This has been the cause of more than a few divorces. It is hard for the conditioned mind to change roles, and even harder to become aware of its own conditioning.
“Manas (mind) can observe thoughts, feelings, moods, meditation, determination, etc. so all these are objects. The mind transmits these objects to Buddhi (intellect) who then decides on the appropriate action.” CS, Sarirasthana, Ch 1, 20-23
The role of Manas is not to evaluate or make a decision on the information that is received. Manas reacts to data received from the five senses. If something cannot be processed by Manas it relays this information to Buddhi, the intellect. In human psychology it is the intellect, or Buddhi, that analyses and reflects on problems or issues that we confront in daily life. Buddhi is also capable of analysing the function of Manas. Buddhi has a higher and lower aspect to it. The lower side is a kind of dry, impersonal logic and uses the reasoning capacity of the intellect, but is almost inhuman in logic. By the use of the lower side a scientist can kill people for a long term goal to “help humanity”. With this lower aspect of reason and logic any kind of atrocity can be justified. However there is a higher side of Buddhi that is humanitarian and compassionate. These qualities do not lessen Buddhi’s ability to observe and reason out problems – on the contrary this aspect of Buddhi is balanced and capable of greater feats of reason and intellectual analysis.
It is only through developing the higher side of Buddhi that Manas (conditioning) can be observed. If the higher aspect of Buddhi is not developed then self-observation becomes difficult or impossible. Stronger demands on the conditioned mind make it harder for the Buddhi to function on its higher, discriminative level. One example of this could be a managerial position that has tremendous responsibilities. These responsibilities force the individual to increase the strength of Manas out of survival. Slowly the individual will lose self-observation unless a conscious effort is made to develop it directly. This is why many CEO types are very difficult to be around on a personal level. It must be emphasized that the Samkhya term of Buddhi, which we loosely translate as ‘intellect’, is the rational, logical intellect in its lower sense, and the feeling, discriminating fire of perception in its higher aspect.
The question then arises, “How to develop Buddhi?”. The primary method to develop Buddhi is through living correctly - or by following Dinacharya that is correct for your Prakriti. Living and thinking correctly is the best method to develop discrimination.
Copyright © 2015 Atreya Smith
| 5 |
28 September 1848|
Kedarpur, Baleswar, British India (now Odisha, India)
|Died||27 April 1908(aged 59)|
|Occupation||Inspector of School|
|Genre||Poet, novelist, short-story writer, essayist, playwright, educationist, cultural relativist, orator, song-writer.|
Radhanath Ray (Oriya: ରାଧାନାଥ ରାୟ) (28 September 1848 – 27 April 1908) is an Oriya poet of initial modernity era in Oriya poetry during the later part of nineteenth century, and is honoured in Oriya literature with the title Kabibara. In his early life, he composed in both Bengali and Oriya languages, but later he shifted his writings in Oriya only. He was born on 28 September 1848, at Kedarpur village in Baleswar district, Odisha. He has contributed verses and poetry for Oriya literature in the nineteenth century.
Role in the Oriya language movement
At Radhanath’s time, in Odisha, the Oriya language movement was active. Though the medieval Oriya literature was richer in comparison to that of Bengali literature, however some of the Bengali educationalists wanted to abolish Oriya language as the medium of teaching from schools. As Bengal was gripped by British Colonialism much before Odisha, the Bengalis had the privilege to motivate the Anglicist scholars to prove Oriya as a branch of Bengali language. John Beams, a British Officer of East India Company first tried to prove that Oriya is more ancient language than Bengali, and it had a richer literature which Bengali had not. In the Odisha division, there were only seven Oriya School teachers; Bengalis formed the majority of teachers, even in the remote areas. Consequently, Bengali text books were prescribed for Oriya students. At that time, Radhanatha was one of prime figure along with Fakir Mohan Senapati, who fought against the expansionism of Bengali educationalist to eradicate Oriya language from Odisha.He was the Inspector of Odisha Schools Association and along with Fakir Mohan Senapati and Madhusudan Rao, he tried to promote text book writings.
Radhanatha Ray’s first major work was Kabitabali, a collection of poems in Bengali written at the age of eighteen. It featured in most of the major newspapers and journals in Kolkatta during that time. His other Bengali poem was Lekhabali. Later, he switched over to Oriya language, and wrote famous Kavyas like Kedar Gauri, Nandikeshwari, Chilika, Mahajatra – Jajatikeshari, Tulasistabaka, Urbashi, Darabara, Dasaratha Biyoga, Savitri Charita and Mahendra Giri. Additionally, he wrote more than fifteen essays. Apart from his original works, he is also known for his translations and adaptations from the Latin Literature. They include Usha, Chandrabhaga and Parbati.
Father of Oriya modernism
His writings were inspired by many English Littérateurs like Keats, Scott and Wordsworth. He has contributed to Oriya poetry by introducing new forms. He has penned blank-verses, satire inspired by writings of Dryden and Alexander Pope, denunciation of despots, tyrants and oppressors, concern with social problems, a spirit of protest against conventional morality, a disbelief in the power of gods and goddesses, and patriotic sentiments, which finally brought him trouble from his employers. He was viewed as a national poet of the first order in Odisha.
Though Radhanatha contributed a lot to Oriya literature, however he was not accepted by the contemporary conservative readers of his time. Soon, he was dragged into a controversy. Sudhala Dev, the then king of Bamanda awarded the poet the title 'Kabibara', and the gesture made some of the critics and poets jealous. Some critics wrote that Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja is more powerful than Radhanatha, and these silly arguments turned into a serious topic of controversy like modernity versus tradition. Two of the literary journals The Indradhanu and The Bijali engaged in this controversy, and later all the intellectuals got entangled in this discussion. However, this literary controversy ended with a letter of Radhanath.
Confession of own love affairs
At the age of fifty-three, when Radhanatha was transferred to Burdwan in his service, he came into the contact of a Bengali poetess Ms. Nagendra Bala Ray, with whom a passionate love affair developed. Since Radhanatha was very orthodox, and had a god-fearing personality, this affair made him disturbed. In 1907, he could not resist himself and confessed his misdemeanour publicly, through press. He begged his readers to forgive him for his such behaviour. However, this ‘confession’ made him a saint among his readers of that period.
- Archived October 28, 2009 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 25 December 2007
- , accessed 25 December 2007
- Mayadhar, Mansingha :History of Oriya Literature : Sahitya Akademy, Delhi
- History of Oriya Literature by Dr. Natabar Samanta Ray)
- Atmakatha: A biography of Radhanath: Included in his “Granthabali”(ISBN :81-7403-004-2) published by M/s Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, Page 338,(Edition : 1998)
| 5 |
SRINGAR, INDIA—Locals call it paradise on earth, and it’s easy to see why. Cradled in the lap of the Himalayas, India’s Kashmir region is full of snow-capped peaks, shimmering lakes and flowering meadows.
Beyond the beautiful scenery, however, life is hard here in this disputed valley home of about 700,000. During the 1990s, India fought a violent war with Kashmiri separatists and Pakistani militants. Since then, residents have been forced to deal with the fallout from that bloody conflict, the trauma and limited job opportunities.
Women, in particular, have been hit hard by the war’s aftermath. Only about 60 percent of Kashmiri women can read, according to some government estimates, and many are widows, having lost their husbands to the conflict. Most work to support their families, but many of the available jobs involve farming and pay a low wage. Few of these women have any sort of say in how to run their households, let alone their villages and cities.
Now, however, a small but determined group of women are slowly climbing the professional ladder in a variety of previously male-dominated fields such as business and government. Perhaps out of necessity—the fighting left so many men dead or unable to work—women have managed to overcome deep-seated prejudices and help rebuild this war torn region.
“It is still a long way to go,” says Mehmood Bhatt, who lectures about history at a local college. “But some doughty women are beginning to showcase their talents.”
Take Shaheena Akhtar, 28, for example. The daughter of a poor day laborer, she grew up in the congested, hardscrabble neighborhood of Nowshera, where strikes and shutdowns enforced by militant groups and separatists are common.
Despite the odds, Akhtar graduated from a college for women in 2004 with a liberal arts degree. She wanted to go to graduate school, but her family was so poor, they needed her to work and help out at home.
Akhtar was disappointed, but undeterred. Juggling a domestic routine and enrolling in entrepreneurial classes, she soon mastered the art of shawl-making. The state government was so impressed by her skills—and her business acumen—that they gave her a grant to start her own pashmina shawl manufacturing business. Now some of her products adorn haute couture display windows in Paris and Rome. And while her family initially scolded her for starting a business she knew next to nothing about, today they’re proud and supportive of her.
Gazala Amin has a similar success story. Like Akhtar, she’s one of the few female entrepreneurs in Kashmir. A medical school graduate, Amin taught human anatomy at a local college. But several years ago, she realized she had a different calling. Today she runs a flourishing medicinal and aromatic plant business, and she recently became the treasurer of the Kashmir Chambers of Commerce and Industry, a local business lobby.
It wasn’t always possible for women like Amin to climb to such heights. Not only did they have to contend with the endless protests, curfews and killings in Kashmir, but they also had to deal with the assumption that women didn’t need to be educated, independent or have professional goals—especially entrepreneurial ones.
“In the area of business there is definitely a glass ceiling,” says Amin. “It seems that is the story all over the world, where business is a boys club.”
As a new generation grows up in this beautiful but war-torn state, however, that boys club is slowly becoming a thing of the past.
| 5 |
Making Real Change in Pakistan Through Trade and Investment
SOURCE: AP/Anjum Naveed
Pakistan’s historic election on May 11, 2013, has given Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s center-right political party, the Pakistan Muslim League, a decisive mandate to form a new government. The former and now re-elected prime minister can learn from his considerable experiences in government and as a successful businessman to embrace the country’s enormous potential by focusing on trade, infrastructure, and reducing tensions on Pakistan’s borders.
This critical moment in South Asia must be seized for both the young college graduate in Lahore looking for employment and for the rest of the world that looks at headlines from this region with increasing trepidation. While the challenges facing the nation remain daunting, the first transition of power between two democratically elected governments in Pakistan’s history gives hope for a new, more enlightened course of action that will improve the quality of life for hundreds of millions of people and create hope for more amicable interactions between India and Pakistan.
Enhancing trade is a tried-and-true starting point for achieving real change within a country. As history teaches us, strengthening bilateral economic relationships between countries is an important tool in addressing seemingly intractable difficulties. There are countless examples of nations developing a much different and more positive perception of a neighboring country as soon as goods and services begin to flow across their respective borders. After World War II, Western European leaders overcame a decade of conflict by developing a series of interlocking trade organizations. More than a half-century later, these economic ties have proven resilient through numerous recessions, political controversies, and changes in governments. Knowing that India and Pakistan have a tortured past, bettering trade relations between the two countries could ameliorate previous disputes and improve the situation both within each country and for global allies.
Over the past year a fair amount of progress has been achieved. In August 2012 the Reserve Bank of India announced that it would allow Indian entities to invest in Pakistan for the first time. The Reserve Bank of India, the country’s central bank, announced that it would work with India’s Finance Ministry to determine the exact rules for making investments in Pakistan and that representatives from the two nations would continue to work together over the coming years to improve trade relations between the two countries.
Discussions are also progressing between India and Pakistan to grant each other “most-favored nation status,” which would reduce key barriers to trade such as tariffs and quotas. India granted full status to Pakistan in 1996. The Pakistani cabinet approved the same status for India in principle in 2011 but has yet to fully execute the decision. Both countries have also simplified the visa requirements for business meetings, facilitating conferences taking place across borders. These actions have to be implemented entirely—and quickly—in order to fundamentally enhance the relationship between the second-most and sixth-most populated countries in the world.
Influenced by an estimate that cross-border trade could potentially grow somewhere between $30 billion to $50 billion if such actions are carried out, there is a strong desire by government leaders and business executives in both countries to develop a more organic and productive relationship. Last spring the Confederation of Indian Industry, which includes more than 40 Indian business leaders, traveled to Pakistan to push for increased bilateral trade, which was reported to be less than $3 billion in 2011. The confederation finds Pakistan’s markets particularly attractive because they are less restrictive from a regulatory standpoint and offer opportunities to meet the strong demand for quality goods in a variety of sectors. Conversely, Pakistani manufacturers can benefit from access to a significantly larger market and cheaper technology and machinery from India.
This enthusiasm for a changed relationship is also demonstrated in recent public statements by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, who both said that they want to bring their countries closer together. Prime Minister Singh has invited Prime Minister Sharif to visit India, which bodes well for the implementation of the trade policies announced by the previous Pakistani government. These leaders understand that while India and Pakistan have had difficult phases in their relationship, there are cultural, economic, and linguistic bonds between their people that have evolved over thousands of years. Some disputes have persisted, but there is much that brings the countries together.
This basic truth becomes more and more apparent every time I visit Pakistan. Recently, I visited a small market between Lahore and Islamabad. As an Indian, the entire experience—the crowds, the double-parked cars, the commotion, and an exchange between a merchant and a customer—felt very familiar. The topics on people’s minds involved day-to-day issues, from the appropriate use of fertilizers to the sturdiness of various crops. The commonalities of the people of India and Pakistan are far more compelling than their relatively recent religious or political strife. This is a culturally rich joint civilization that dates back to the Bronze Age.
Clearly, India and Pakistan have an important stake in increasing trade with one another and promoting commerce within the region. So too does the rest of the world. The question then becomes: How can the United States, working in close collaboration with other nations, help create a more prosperous regional economic climate and contribute to better political relations between two nuclear-armed countries with a very difficult recent past?
The solution begins with the international community embracing a new global economic imperative and making a decision to engage in era-altering change. Two common-sense focal points for such activity in Pakistan are infrastructure and small and medium-sized enterprises. Both can create employment and provide a “virtuous cycle” of economic benefits for the people of Pakistan.
The U.S. Congress has fostered growth in these two areas by allocating $80 million of assistance to be invested in venture-capital funds through the Pakistan Private Investment Initiative. Yet in order to achieve lasting success, this won’t be enough. There needs to be a larger and more global effort, both from a financial and a policy standpoint, to create a productive, well-integrated regional marketplace with the capacity to sustain a combined population of 1.4 billion people.
Given the economic disparity between the two countries, a special emphasis must be placed on the many needs of Pakistan to ensure its people are not given the short end of the stick. We must look beyond the current political and religious divisions between India and Pakistan and find a way to support Pakistani leaders in their quest to provide their people with what they really want: a decent and sustainable life. A widescale effort should be designed to invest in core needs such as energy, telecommunications, water, transportation, and education.
The private sector will, by necessity, be an integral part of such an era-altering effort. In the past developing economies relied on the public sector to run these nation-building programs. As was discovered time and again, this approach usually results in suboptimal outcomes, as governments do not focus on such essential criteria as return on capital employed—a measure of the profitability of a company’s investments. We should instead depend on private enterprises to be the lead equity and debt holders in these economic projects. (For disclosure, my firm has investments in a provider of wireless Internet access in Pakistan, as well as a Pakistani-based multinational educational company.)
The primary role of the national and provincial governments in both India and Pakistan should be to ensure smooth approvals of private business requests, simplify tax regimes, and avoid red tape on these projects. Multilateral agencies, such as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Finance Corporation, and Commonwealth Development Corporation, as well as the pension funds in the West and sovereign wealth funds, should all have a major role in these initiatives.
Smaller projects in manufacturing and services, such as restaurants, health care, and computer tablets, can easily be handled by existing venture capital and private-equity players. Pakistan, similar to many developing nations, is supply constrained. To make it all work, Pakistan needs to rapidly set up a legal framework and regulatory regime conducive to private capital. This should attract investors, help domestic production, eliminate supply constraints, and increase exports.
Shakespeare once wrote, “There is a tide in the affairs of men / Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune.” For Pakistan, the tide is now, and hopefully Prime Minister Sharif will fully leverage this moment to drive his 100-day plan and make a compelling argument to the rest of the world for rallying around the cause of greater prosperity in the region.
Parag Saxena is the founding general partner and CEO of New Silk Route, which has been one of the largest foreign investors in Pakistan over the past six years. He is a panelist for the Center for American Progress’s June 24, 2013, event, “U.S. Economic Statecraft in South Asia.”
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Sindhi is an Indo-Aryan language with about 17 million speakers in the south-eastern province of Sind in Pakistan and about 2.8 million people in India.
The Sindhi language first appeared in writing in the 8th century AD and a number of different scripts have been used to write it. Sindhi literature, in particular lyric poetry, began to appear towards the end of the 15th century.
This Khudawadi script, formerly known as the Sindhi script, was decreed a standard script for Sindhi by the Government of Bombay in 1868. It was was developed by Narayan Jagannath Mehta, the Deputy Educational Inspector in Sindh, and is based mainly on the old Khudawadi script, which was used in Hyderabad. It was officially known the 'Hindi Sindhi' or 'Hindu Sindhi' and was used in education and literature. It was eventually replaced by the Arabic script.
The modern Sindhi abjad is used in Pakistan and is based on the version of the Perso-Arabic script used to write Urdu. It was adopted, under British influence, in 1852.
Corrections provided by Lateef Sagar Shaikh
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
In India Sindhi is also written with a version of the Devanagari script.
Information about Sindhi
National Council for the Promotion of the Sindhi Language
Free Devanagari fonts
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Gandhi’s autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, 2 vol. (1927–29, originally published in Gujarati; reissued in 1 vol., 1983, and in numerous subsequent editions and reprintings), tells the story of his life up to 1921, and his Satyagraha in South Africa, 2nd rev. ed. (1961, reprinted 1972), illuminates the formative two decades he spent in South Africa. The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 100 vol. 6th rev. ed. (2000–01), includes all his writings, speeches, and letters.
A useful introductory volume is Judith M. Brown and Anthony Parel (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi (2011), which includes a biography of Gandhi and a selection of his writings. H.S.L. Polak, H.N. Brailsford, and Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Mahatma Gandhi (1949), reissued as Mahatma Gandhi: The Father of Modern India (1986), is also a good introduction for Western readers.
The biography Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1965–66), provides a richly documented chronicle of Gandhi’s early and last years written by his former secretary. Sudhir Ghosh, Gandhi’s Emissary (1967, reissued 2008), is an autobiographical memoir of Gandhi’s informal agent to the British government in 1945–48. Dinanath G. Tendulkar, Mahatma, rev. ed., 8 vol. (1960–63, reprinted 1969), tells the story of Gandhi’s life mostly in Gandhi’s own words extracted from his published writings. Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (1951, reissued 1997), is based largely on printed sources but includes the author’s vivid personal impressions of Gandhi and India in the 1940s; Bal Ram Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (1958, reissued 2008), is a story of Gandhi’s life as well as a critique of his thought and makes use of unpublished government records and correspondence of Gandhi. Penderel Moon, Gandhi and Modern India (1969), reflects a British administrator’s views on Gandhi the politician. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes, 2nd ed. (1984); and Geoffrey Ashe, Gandhi: A Study in Revolution (1968), are sympathetic and analytical studies. Robert Payne, The Life and Death of Mahatma Gandhi (1969, reissued 1997), is a well-researched biography, with emphasis on the personal rather than political aspect.
Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969, reissued 1993), illuminates Gandhi’s life and technique by bringing to bear on them the insights of psychoanalysis. Another psychological biography is E. Victor Wolfenstein, The Revolutionary Personality: Lenin, Trotsky, Gandhi (1967, reprinted 2015). Also informative are Joseph J. Doke, M.K. Gandhi: An Indian Patriot in South Africa (1909, reprinted 2006); Calvin Kytle, Gandhi: Soldier of Nonviolence, rev. ed. (1982); and Gerald Gold, Gandhi: A Pictorial Biography (1983, reissued 2009).
Robert A. Huttenback, Gandhi in South Africa: British Imperialism and the Indian Question, 1860–1914 (1971), is a study of the Indian community’s struggle in South Africa; and Shanti Sadiq Ali (ed.), Gandhi & South Africa (1994), is a collection of seminar papers. Judith M. Brown, Gandhi’s Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915–1922 (1972), and Gandhi and Civil Disobedience: The Mahatma in Indian Politics, 1928–34 (1977, reprinted 2008), present Gandhi’s role in Indian politics and the nationalist movement, and her Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope (1989, reprinted 1998), explores Gandhi’s personality. Susanne Hoeber Rudolph and Lloyd I. Rudolph, Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma (1983), which discusses Gandhi’s remaining influence, was expanded and revised as Postmodern Gandhi and Other Essays: Gandhi in the World and at Home (2006). Francis G. Hutchins, India’s Revolution: Gandhi and the Quit India Movement (1973), is an interpretive study of the campaign against British rule during World War II. Gene Sharp, Gandhi as a Political Strategist: With Essays on Ethics and Politics (1979, reissued 1999), is a study of the relation of pacifist principles to political techniques; and J.D. Sethi, Gandhi Today (1978), includes an analysis of Gandhian economics.
Among the books containing reminiscences of Gandhi, the more important are Millie Graham Polak, Mr. Gandhi: The Man, 2nd ed. (1950); Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography (1936, reissued 2004); S. Radhakrishnan (ed.), Mahatma Gandhi: Essays and Reflections of His Life and Work, 9th enl. ed. (1998); Chandrashanker Shukla (ed.), Incidents of Gandhiji’s Life (1949); Nirmal Kumar Bose, My Days with Gandhi (1953, reissued 1999); Eli Stanley Jones, Mahatma Gandhi: An Interpretation (1948); and Vincent Sheean, Lead, Kindly Light (1949). James D. Hunt, Gandhi in London, rev. ed. (1993), documents his five visits, with little-known details of those in 1906 and 1909. William L. Shirer, Gandhi: A Memoir (1979, reprinted 1993), is based on the author’s work as a journalist in India in the 1930s.
Among the books that are critical of Gandhi are B.R. Ambedkar, What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables (1945, reissued 2012); C. Sankaran Nair, Gandhi and Anarchy, 3rd ed. (1923, reprinted 2000); and Indulal K. Yajnik, Gandhi as I Know Him, ed. rev. & enl. (1943). Martin Green, The Challenge of the Mahatmas (1978), and Tolstoy and Gandhi: Men of Peace (1983), are the first and the last books of the author’s trilogy on great leaders and their influence. Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi (1973, reprinted 2000), compares his concepts with those of Western thinkers. Arne Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age (1965), and Gandhi and Group Conflict (1974), explore basic principles and assumptions of Gandhi’s philosophical system. Glyn Richards, The Philosophy of Gandhi (1982, reprinted 2001), explores the relation of his ideas to Hindu metaphysics and to contemporary philosophy. Ved Mehta, Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles (1977, reprinted 1993), examines the spread of Gandhi’s ideas.
There are numerous anthologies of Gandhi’s writings. Ronald Duncan (ed.), Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi (1951, reissued 2005); and Krishna Kripalani (ed.), All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as Told in His Own Words (1958), reissued as All Men Are Brothers: Autobiographical Reflections (2011), include judicious selections for the general reader. The Words of Gandhi (1982, reissued 2012) is an illustrated selection of quotations, collected and edited by Richard Attenborough.
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Source of the Ganges
Journey to the source of the Ganges -- where science and faith meet in concern over the shrinking glaciers of the Himalaya.
Gary Braasch trekked from Gangotri village to the glacier which gave the town its name, a journey which each year is a few meters longer as climate change takes its toll on the Himalaya. The Gangotri Glacier is the source of the Bhagirathi River, a mountain stream which joins with another river below to become the Ganges. The river, the water, the valley and the place where the water flows right out of the glacier are sacred to Hindus and central to the stories of the gods and creation of the river. More photographs from the Himalaya coming soon.
Upper valley of the Bhagirathi River, the main source of the Ganges River, flowing from glaciers of the Gharwhal Himalaya, India. The trek from Gangotri Village in Uttarakhand State to the front of the receeding glacier is now more than 18 km. The trail may be seen in the lower center of this view. In October, fall color is intense from poplar, birch, sumak and other trees. The valley, 6000+ meter peaks and glacier above are protected in Gangotri National Park.
Early dawn at Bhujbasa, India, a camp with a rough lodge and several ashrams, where trekkers and pilgrims rest before walking the final 4+ km to Gaumukh -- the sacred source of the Ganges River. "Gaumukh" means "cows mouth," from the appearance of a cave or hole in the glacier out of which flows the Bhagirathi river which becomes the Ganges. Under the glow of Orion and Taurus constellations and first light on one of the 6500 m Manda Peaks, early risers pass outside the lodge with flashlights.
With temperatures in late October well below freezing, crossing side streams is a challenge to a group of trekkers making their way from Bhujbasa camp to Gaumukh. Several km ahead the Bhagirathi Peaks which are over 6800 meters in height, show the location of the glacier. The valley of the Bhagirathi is a geologic book, clearly showing the history Gangotri Glacier by various maraines and terrace levels along the slopes. the highest terraces date from when the glacier filled the whole valley more than 8000 years ago.
At about 1500 m from the current terminus of the Gangotri Glacier (see the grey areas of ice below the peaks at upper left), a sivalingam, circle of stones and flags mark a shrine where the glacier was in the late 1960s to early 1970s. Holy men, sadhus, and devout Hindu travelers have been coming here for centuries, and the route is well marked with shrines.
Gaumukh, the sacred glacier source of the Ganges River, where the Bhagirathi River appears right out of the terminus of the Gangotri Glacier. Behind, the up to 6800 meter Bhagnirathi Peaks guard the valley. The glacier terminus is now at 30 degrees 55 minutes 34 seconds North and 79 degrees 4 minutes 48 seconds East -- and retreating approximately 18 meters a year. This is a slower rate than during the late 20th C, probably due to the heavy debris cover on the ice. Despite this, the glacier is rapidly thinning. Glaciologists and meteorologists continue to study to assess the state of climate change in the Himalaya.
The massive and fissured stone-like 40 m front of the Gangotri glacier at this time does not have a mouth or cave. Rather the lower section is solid greenish-blue ice with marble-like cracks. The river appears to well up a few meters out from the ice. Few people venture this close, and those who want to bathe or collect sacred water find it easier to do so a bit downstream.
View of the curving and melting side of the Gangotri glacier, with some of the thousands of enormous boulders which the moving ice has deposited in the stream bed. The Bhagnirathi River seems to well up out the earth a few meters out from the face of the glacier -- rather than flow out from an ice cave which has been the case for much of the glacier's recorded history. The water here is grey-green and apparently pure, but only a few kilometers below the human presence along the stream begins the process of the pollution which plagues the Ganges.
Photography and text Copyright © 2005 - 2015 (and before) Gary Braasch All rights reserved. Use of photographs in any manner without permission is prohibited by US copyright law. Photography is available for license to publications and other uses. Please contact [email protected]. View more of Gary Braasch's photography here.
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The Boy Who Got Tired of Posing
Bani Abidi b. 1971, Karachi, Pakistan
The Boy Who Got Tired of Posing
Three chromogenic prints and one inkjet print
three prints: 40 3/4 x 30 3/4 inches (103.5 x 78.1 cm) each and one print: 18 1/2 x 14 1/2 inches (47 x 36.8 cm)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Guggenheim UBS MAP Purchase Fund, 2012
The visual narrative that characterizes Bani Abidi’s practice takes a historical turn in the series The Boy Who Got Tired of Posing (2006), which is made up of two photographic sequences and a video. Through these related elements, the figure of Mohammad bin Qasim, considered Pakistan’s early colonial founder in state history, is brought to life in a lighthearted and candid portrayal that provides an opportunity to reflect on the history of the South Asian nation. A young general from Umayyad (an early Islamic caliphate), bin Qasim rose to prominence as leader of the successful capture of Sindh in 711 CE. Attributed to this conquest is the introduction of early Islamic practice and philosophy to the region, which in Pakistan’s history is credited as predicating the destiny of the nation. The significance of this narrative resides, firstly, in its status as an alternative to Western-centric postcolonial narratives of independence that privilege European expansionist forays in South Asia since the 17th century and, secondly, in its circumvention of the complex conditions under which Pakistan’s independence as a modern nation-state was achieved—via a separation of the Muslim League from the Indian National Congress in 1943 through to the triumphant and traumatic aftermath of the partition of South Asia on August 14, 1947, which established East and West Pakistan. Beyond its geographical specificity, the work suggests the challenges of such singular narratives, and the inevitability of the contestation of multiple historical narratives.
Abidi explores historical and contemporary representations of the figure of bin Qasim, and the proliferation of this narrative in state history and shared culture, through her fictional depictions of the hero in his emblematic form—wearing the Arabic keffiyeh, brandishing a sword, and riding a charging horse. In The Boy Who Got Tired of Posing, the artist plays on the trend of popular studio photography in 1980s Pakistan, which saw parents encourage their sons to dress up as bin Qasim for portrait shots. In the work’s final image, the subject, tired of performing, mischievously elects to exit the frame. In This Video is a Reenactment, the artist recalls Labbaik, a televisual dramatization of the colonial founder’s conquest, by excerpting a sequence showing the hero’s momentous horseback ride. In Abidi’s video, however, the act is slowed down, accentuating its histrionic impact on the nation. Finally, in a suite of eight monochrome photographs, The Ghost of Mohammed Bin Qasim, the artist monumentalizes the figure, who appears to haunt various sites of national significance around Karachi including the Lahore Fort, the tomb of Emperor Jahangir, and the National Mausoleum of the founder of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, or Mazar-e-Quaid. Yet on closer examination, these glimpses of the return of the historical figure contain various incongruities and awkwardnesses. A short fictional text reveals the story of how the haunting began with the conversion of a young man, Yusof Masih, to Islam, and his imagining himself as bin Qasim. The figure, juxtaposed with iconic contexts, raises questions of the roles of nationhood, nationalism, and narratives of origin in the trajectory of history.
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On the centenary of the Ghadar Party—which formed in North American to fight colonialism in British-controlled India—it's time to revisit the Air India to analyze political factors that contributed to the crime.
Twenty-eight years ago today, two Air India flights were targeted by bombers, leaving 331 people dead.
The June 23, 1985, crime was blamed on Sikh separatists, who were seeking revenge for ugly political events in India in 1984.
The Indian army had stormed the Golden Temple Complex, the holiest shrine of the Sikhs, in Amritsar that year to flush out religious extremists who had brought weapons into the place of worship.
As a result of this operation, then-Indian prime minister, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards.
That led to a well-organized anti-Sikh pogrom engineered by officials in Gandhi's Congress party, which enraged Sikhs around the world.
Sikh extremists in Canada openly called for revenge, boycotting Air India flights. The prime suspect in the bombings, Talwinder Singh Parmar, said that Air India planes will fall from the skies. Parmar later died at the hands of the Indian police in 1992.
The only man convicted in the crime, Inderjit Singh Reyat, is serving time for perjury. He lied under oath and did not reveal the identity of any other suspects.
If the political leadership of India had followed principles enunciated by the Ghadar Party, which was formed in 1913, the incidents of 1984 and subsequent Air India bombings would not have happened.
The party was established by South Asian immigrants who settled on the Pacific Coast of North America and it had a very big following in Vancouver.
These immigrants had moved to this part of the world for a better livelihood. Most came as British subjects, yet the British government never came to their rescue whenever they endured racism and discrimination.
They soon realized that the root cause of their sufferings in an alien land was slavery back home. These experiences transformed them into social-justice activists who formed the Ghadar Party.
Ghadarites were true secularists and staunchly opposed religious sectarianism. They kept religion and politics apart and denounced caste-based discrimination.
When India gained independence and was partitioned on sectarian lines in 1947 to create the Muslim country of Pakistan, Ghadarites risked their lives by saving Muslims from Hindu and Sikh fanatics.
A towering Ghadar leader, Sohan Singh Bhakna, received death threats for doing this. Ironically, Sikh separatists are trying to appropriate the Ghadar movement as a Sikh movement, whereas Ghadarites did not believe in theocracy. They never committed crimes against humanity.
Although a majority of Ghadarites were Sikhs, the party also had members from other communities.
However, the popular leadership of India, including the so-called secular Congress party, indulged in religion-based politics. In fact, the dangerous cocktail of religion and politics led to the emergence of Sikh extremists.
Both the Congress and the Akali Dal, a mainstream Sikh party of Punjab tried to use this element to outdo each other, and allowed the fortification of the Golden Temple.
The Congress's brand of communalism is more secular as compared to other theocratic political groups. It played both Sikh and Hindu cards as the situations demanded to attract votes.
These experiments not only divided people but culminated into the Air India tragedy.
The lesson to be learned is to disassociate religion and politics permanently. That's as true in India as it is in Canada—and Canadian politicians should desist from indulging in this dangerous cocktail.
Gurpreet Singh is a Georgia Straight contributor, and the host of a program on Radio India. He's working on a book tentatively titled Canada's 9/11: Lessons from the Air India Bombings.
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- Government and society
- Cultural life
- India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization
- The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 bce to c. 1200 ce
- The early Muslim period
- The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761
- Regional states, c. 1700–1850
- India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858
- British imperial power, 1858–1947
- The Republic of India
- Pre-Mughal Indian dynasties
- Prime ministers of India
In Rajasthan and central India there arose a number of small kingdoms ruled by dynasties that came to be called the Rajputs (from Sanskrit raja-putra, “son of a king”). The name was assumed by royal families that claimed Kshatriya status and linked their lineage either with the Suryavamshi (solar) or the Candravamshi (lunar), the royal lineages of the itihasa-purana tradition, or else with the Agnikula (fire lineage), based on a lesser myth in which the eponymous ancestor arises out of the sacrificial fire. The four major Rajput dynasties—Pratihara, Paramara, Cauhan, and Caulukya—claimed Agnikula lineage. The references in Rajput genealogies to supernatural ancestry suggest either an obscure origin—perhaps from semi-Hinduized local tribes who gradually acquired political and economic status—or else a non-Indian (probably Central Asian) origin.
The Caulukyas of Gujarat had three branches: one ruling Mattamayura (the Malava-Cedi region), one established on the former kingdom of the Capas at Anahilapataka (present-day Patan), and the third at Bhrigukaccha (present-day Bharuch) and Lata in the coastal area. By the 11th century they were using Gujarat as a base and attempting to annex neighbouring portions of Rajasthan and Avanti. Kumarapala (reigned c. 1143–72) was responsible for consolidating the kingdom. He is also believed to have become a Jain and to have encouraged Jainism in western India. Hemacandra, an outstanding Jain scholar noted for his commentaries on political treatises, was a well-known figure at the Caulukya court. Many of the Rajput kingdoms had Jain statesmen, ministers, and even generals, as well as Jain traders and merchants. By the 14th century, however, the Caulukya kingdom had declined.
Adjoining the kingdom of the Caulukyas was that of the Paramaras in Malava, with minor branches in the territories just to the north (Mount Abu, Banswara, Cungarpur, and Bhinmal). The Paramaras emerged as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas and rose to eminence during the reign of Bhoja. An attack by the Caulukyas weakened the Paramaras in 1143. Although the dynasty was later re-established, it remained weak. In the 13th century the Paramaras were threatened by both rising Yadava power in the Deccan and the Turkish kingdom at Delhi (see below The coming of the Turks); the latter conquered the Paramaras in 1305.
The Kalacuris of Tripuri (near Jabalpur) also began as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas, becoming a power in central India in the 11th century during the reigns of Gangeyadeva and his son Lakshmikarna, when attempts were made to conquer territories as far afield as Utkala (Orissa), Bihar, and the Ganges–Yamuna Doab. There they came into conflict with the Turkish governor of the Punjab, who briefly had extended his territory as far as Varanasi. To the west there were conflicts with Bhoja Paramara, and the Kalacuris declined at the end of the 12th century.
The Candellas, whose kingdom comprised mainly Bundelkhand, were feudatories of the Pratiharas. Among the important rulers was Dhanga (reigned c. 950–1008), who issued a large number of inscriptions and was generous in donations to Jain and Hindu temples. Dhanga’s grandson Vidyadhara (reigned 1017–29), often described as the most powerful of the Candella kings, extended the kingdom as far as the Chambal and Narmada rivers. There he came into direct conflict with the Turkic conqueror Maḥmūd of Ghazna when the latter swept down from Afghanistan in a series of raids. But the ensuing battles were indecisive. The Candellas also had to face the attacks of the Cauhans, who were in turn being harassed by the Turks. The Turkish kingdom at Delhi encroached into Bundelkhand, but the Candellas survived until the 16th century as minor chieftains.
The Gahadavalas rose to importance in Varanasi and extended their kingdom up the Gangetic plain, including Kannauj. The king Jayacandra (12th century) is mentioned in the poem Prithviraja-raso by Candbardai, in which his daughter, the princess Sanyogita, elopes with the Cauhan king Prithviraja. Jayacandra died in battle against the Turkish leader, Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām (Muḥammad of Ghūr), and his kingdom was annexed.
Inscriptional records associate the Cauhans with Lake Shakambhari and its environs (Sambhar Salt Lake, Rajasthan). Cauhan politics were largely campaigns against the Caulukyas and the Turks. In the 11th century the Cauhans founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century they captured Dhillika (Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some Tomara territory along the Yamuna River. Prithviraja III has come down both in folk and historical literature as the Cauhan king who resisted the Turkish attacks in the first battle at Taraori (Tarain) in 1191. Prithviraja, however, was defeated at a second battle in the same place in 1192; the defeat ushered in Turkish rule in northern India.
1Includes 12 members appointed by the president.
2Includes 2 Anglo-Indians appointed by the president.
3The first symbol for the rupee was officially approved in July 2010, and coins and banknotes with the new symbol began being issued in late 2011.
|Official name||Bharat (Hindi); Republic of India (English)|
|Form of government||multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses (Council of States ; House of the People )|
|Head of state||President: Pranab Mukherjee|
|Head of government||Prime Minister: Narendra Modi|
|Official languages||Hindi; English|
|Monetary unit||Indian rupee ₹3|
|Population||(2014 est.) 1,278,689,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||1,222,550|
|Total area (sq km)||3,166,391|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2012) 30.2%|
Rural: (2012) 69.8%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2011) 63.9 years|
Female: (2011) 67.1 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: (2007) 76.9%|
Female: (2007) 54.5%
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2013) 1,570|
| 5 |
Draupadi was extremely beautiful, intelligent and virtuous woman, with her body smelling like a fresh bloom lotus. There are few women in Hindu mythology who were aggressive and who spoke their mind in a world of men. Draupadi was one of them. She is considered by many as the first feminist of Indian mythology. At the time of her birth, a celestial voice had proclaimed: "This unparalleled beautyhas taken birth to uproot the Kauravas and establish the rule of religion". The circumstances leading toher birth began to take shape while her father was yet young.Drupad was the prince of Panchal. His father King Prushta sent him to the hermitage of sage Agniveshfor his education. There Drupad got acquainted with a brahmin, Drona, the son of sage Bharadwaj. In amoment of camaraderie Drupad swore that they would equally share whatever the two owned. Bothwent their different ways after completing their education.In due course Drupad became the king of Panchal. But life was not good to Drona and he was steepedin poverty. In despair he turned to Drupad, in hope for help, based on the promise once made byDrupad. However, Drupad insulted Drona and told him that friendship took place only between equalsand he could help Drona only if he came begging for alms, instead of quoting the promise of Drupad based on friendship. Drona left but the insult festered in his soul, waiting for an appropriate time to burst out.In time, Drona was appointed the instructor in warfare to the royal princes of Hastinapur, the sons of Pandu and Dhritarashtra. However, time could not douse the flames of revenge still burning within him.As gurudakshina (fees that were due to an instructor, after the students' education was complete) heasked the princes to get Drupad to him as a prisoner. The princes being skilled in the art of warfaresuccessfully brought King Drupad bound in chains to Drona. The brahmin laughingly said to the king,"Once you had promised me half your wealth, but had refused to redeem the pledge. Today I own allyour wealth, but I will honor our childhood bond, I will give half to you and let bygones be bygones."But Drupad was not willing to let bygones to bygones. It was now his turn to nurse the insult. He wastoo old himself to take revenge. None of his three sons, Shikhandi, Satyajit and Vikra, were skilledenough to defeat Drona. In order to obtain such an offspring he requested sage Yaja to conduct asacrifice. Yaja was assisted by his younger brother Upayaja (some text say that Yaja assisted Upayaja)and hence two offerings were prepared. From his first offspring to the sacrificial fire a full-grown sonemerged, armed with a sword and a bow. He was Drishtadyumna, destined to slay Drona. From thesecond offering a full-grown daughter emerged, whose dazzle blinded the eye. She was Draupadi.When Draupadi emerged from the fire there was an oracle that she would side with God against the evilKauravas.[Draupadi is the only instance we come across in epic mythology of a sati becoming a kanya. It isstated that in an earlier birth as Nalayani (also named Indrasena), she was married to Maudgalya, anirascible sage afflicted with leprosy. She was so utterly devoted to her abusive husband that when afinger of his, dropped into their meal, she took it out and calmly ate the rice without revulsion. Pleased by this, Maudgalya offered her a boon, and she asked him to make love to her in five lovely forms. Asshe was insatiable, Maudgalya got fed up and became an ascetic. When she remonstrated and insistedthat he continue their love-life, he cursed her to be reborn and have five husbands to satisfy her lust.Thereupon she practiced severe penance and pleased Lord Shiva with her prayers. He granted a boon toher. Nalayani said that she wanted a husband and to ensure that her request was heard, she repeated itfive times in all. Shiva then said that in her next life she would have five husbands. She obtained the boon of regaining virginity after being with each husband. ] Thus, by asserting her womanhood andrefusing to accept a life of blind subservience to her husband, Nalayani, the sati, was transformed intoYajnaseni, the kanya. Some sources have a slightly different narration. Draupadi made her request onlyonce but she added a long list of qualities that she wanted in her husband. Lord Shiva said that it would be impossible to find one man with all these qualities. Hence she would have five husbands in her nextlife. All of them together would posses the qualities she had enumerated. [According to BrahmavaivartaPurana, she is the reincarnation of the maya Sita (shadow Sita - wife of Lord Rama, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and hero of Ramayana) who, in turn, was Vedavati, reborn after molestation at Ravana'shands, and would become the "Lakshmi of the Indras"] (one of the forms of Goddess Lakshmi, eternalconsort of Lord Vishnu) in heaven.
| 5 |
|Affiliation||Avatar of Shesha or Vishnu|
Balarama (बलराम, Balarāma), also known as Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of Krishna (an avatar of the god Vishnu) and is regarded generally as an avatar of Shesha. He is also sometimes considered as the Sankarshana form of Vishnu and the eighth avatar of Vishnu.
He may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture and fertility hence his name Balaram (Rama with a plough). In scripture, Vishnu impregnated the belly of the goddess Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white. To ensure their safety, they were transferred before birth to Rohini. Krishna was born with darker complexion, while Balarama was fair. In Jainism he is known as Baladeva. He is often depicted with a drinking cup, pitcher, shield and sword.
Birth and origin
Balarama was a son of Vasudeva. The evil king Kansa, the brother of Devaki, was intent upon killing the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son.
Vishnu then impregnated the belly of the goddess Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white. To ensure their safety, their essence was transferred before birth to Rohini, who also desired a child. At birth, Krishna had a darker complexion, while Balarama was born fair. The other name of Balarama is also Sankarshana, meaning a spirit transferred between two wombs. According to Bhagavata Purana, the name Sankarshana means, one who brings together two different families of King Yadu's and King Nanda's dynasties.
He was named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama, Baladeva or Balabhadra, meaning "Strong Rama". He was born under Shravana nakshatra on Shraavana Purnima, or Raksha Bandhan.
He is often depicted with a drinking cup, pitcher, axe, shield and sword. Balarama may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture and fertility. In Jainism he is known as Baladeva.
Childhood and marriage
One day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Garga, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda, received him well and requested the naming ceremony. Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki, and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. Nanda therefore asked Garga to perform the ceremony in secret, and Garga did so:
Because Balarama, the son of Rohini, increases the transcendental bliss of others, His name is Rama, and because of His extraordinary strength, He is called Baladeva. He attracts the Yadus to follow His instructions, and therefore His name is Sankarshana.—Bhagavata Purana, 10.8.12
Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kansa, as well as Pralamba and Mushtika wrestlers sent by the king. After the evil king died, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani's at Ujjayini for study. He later married Revati, the daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kushasthali or Anarta
Kurukṣetra war of the Mahābhārata
Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama cared for both sides, and so remained neutral. When Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the groin with his mace, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of the vow of Bhima—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhima's wife Draupadi.
In the Bhagavata Purana, it is described that after Balarama took part in the battle causing the destruction of the remainder of the Yadu dynasty, and witnessing the disappearance of Krishna, he sat down in a meditative state and departed from this world.
Status as avatar
Narratives of Balarama are found in the Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana and other Puranas. The Bhagavata Purana suggests Balarama as incarnation of Vishnu. He is classified in the vyuha avathar Sankarshana, of Vishnu where in Adishesha and Lakshmana is part of.
An earlier reference to Balarama is in Kautilya's Arthashastra (13.3) Early individual Balarama worship was followed by obeisance to Balarama alongside Krishna in various Vaishnava sects. The most revered temple of Balarama is in Kendrapada and in Puri in Odisha.
Sage Atri's Samurtachanadhikara of Vaikhanasas, the most ancient school of Vaishnava theology, has described protocols for building temples and idols for Balarama and his consort. The Pancharatras, one of the earliest Vaishnava sects, worshiped Samkarshana as the second vyuha of Godhead. Krishna is usually depicted darker than Balarama. In Rama-lila, Balarama serves Ramachandra as his younger Brother, Lakshmana and in the current age (Kali yuga), Balarama spreads the 'Sankirtan movement' of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as his close friend Nityananda.
Gaudiya Vaishnavas believe Balarama to be the supreme divinity, and worship him in the same level of Krishna as Balaram is considered to be the source of all Vishnu forms.In their belief system, when Krishna is depicted, Baladeva is also always shown as his brother—sometimes elder, sometimes younger. They depict Balarama serving Krishna in all of his incarnations. Krishna has been described as creator, and Balarama his creative potency, with them being worshiped together as embodiment of Godhead.
Balarama is depicted as fair skinned, in contrast to his brother, Krishna, who is dark skinned, Krishna in Sanskrit means dark. His āyudhas, or weapons, are the plough hala and the gadā. He often wears blue garments and a garland of forest flowers. His hair is tied in a topknot, and he has earrings, bracelets and armlets, and he is known for his strength.
The Jain Puranas, notably, the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita of Acharya Hemachandra, narrate hagiographical accounts of nine Baladevas or Balabhadras, who are believed to be the śalākāpuruṣas (literally "torch-bearers, great personalities"). These nine Baladevas are: Achala, Vijaya, Bhadra, Suprabha, Sudarśana, Ānanda, Nandana, Padma (Rama in Hinduism) and Rāma (Balarama in Hinduism).
Baliyana Mandir, Bainsa (dist Nawanshahr) Punjab
|Part of a series on|
- "Lord Balarama is the original Vishnu; therefore anyone remembering these pastimes of Lord Balarama in the morning and the evening will certainly become a great devotee of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, and thus his life will become successful in all respects." - A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
- "The splendor of Lord Balarama's transcendental form eclipses many millions of glistening rising moons, and the slightest scent of His boundless strength is sufficient to destroy many armies of demons." - From Appreciating Sri Vrindavana Dhama, pg. 111
- Chandra, Suresh (Aug 15, 2012). Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Kindle Edition.
- Carl Woodham (2011). A God Who Dances: Krishna for You. Torchlight Publishing,. p. 104. ISBN 9780981727363.
- "Bhagavata Purana 10.8.12".
- Pargiter, F.E. (1922, reprint 1972). Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.98
- Varkey, C.P. (2001). A Pilgrimage Through The Mahabharata. Mumbai: St. Paul Society. pp. 148–149. ISBN 81-7109-497-X.
- Bhag-P 11.30.26
- A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1987). Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, ed. Srimad-Bhagavatam: Bhagavata Purana. ISBN 0892132507.
- Rangarajan, L.N. (1992) (edited, rearranged and translated), Kautilya — The Arthashastra, New Delhi: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-044603-6, p.518
- Joshi, Nilakanth Purushottam (1979). Iconography of Balarāma. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-107-5., p. 5
- A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1970). Krsna the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Los Angeles: ISKCON Books. p. 67. ISBN 0-912776-30-7.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Balarama.|
- Who is Lord Balarama (Overview)
- 1000 names of Lord Balarama
- Lord Balarama Homa – Attaining success In All Areas Of Life
| 5 |
Symbols In Hinduism
A selection of articles related to symbols in hinduism.
Original articles from our library related to the Symbols In Hinduism. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Symbols In Hinduism.
- Hinduism: An Overview
- Hinduism is believed to be the oldest organized religion in the world. It ranks as the third largest religion in the world after Christianity and Islam.
Religion & Philosophy >> Religions
- About Reiki Symbols
- "Instead of seeking many other medicines to cure their illness, I wish people would always honor their own body's healing ability and take good care of themselves." Meiji Emperor A symbol is a communication element intended to simply represent or...
Body Mysteries >> Reiki
- The Four Symbols of Usui Reiki Ryoho
- " It is not God's will merely that we should be happy, but that we should make ourselves happy." Immanuel Kant According to many traditional teachers the Reiki symbols are sacred and therefore secret and should only be seen by insiders, meaning...
Body Mysteries >> Reiki
- Discovery and Development of Reiki
- "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of wellbeing becomes." The Dalai Lama The traditional story of the discovery of Reiki is as historically correct as the biblical report of the life of Jesus - it is molded and...
Body Mysteries >> Reiki
- The Living Tradition of Thelema
- Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law. What Crowley began, others must continue and develop or Thelema will become but a memory in the history of the Western Mystery Tradition. Yes, he was a Prophet and the Ipsissimus that one could say invented...
Mystic Sciences >> Magick
- The Sacred Wheel: The Sabbats
- The Wheel of the Year honors the never ending cycle of life, death, and rebirth. It expresses the belief which Pagan religions hold that time is circular, not linear. The Sabbats are derived from the rich traditions of seasonal festivals as celebrated by...
Paganism & Wicca >> Holidays
- Hulse, David Allen
- >From an early age, David Allen Hulse has made a diligent study of the alphabets of the ancient world. Even as a child, David possessed a great affinity for the alphabets of Egypt, Phoenicia, and Greece. In college, a reading of MacGregor Mathers' Kabbalah...
Real Interviews >> Authors
Symbols In Hinduism is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Symbols In Hinduism books and related discussion.
Suggested Pdf Resources
- A Unit on Hindu symbolism in Indian art
- The goal of this unit is to define Hinduism via visual symbols where they appear in The mandala is a sacred symbol in Hinduism, as it is in many religions.
- SYMBOLISM IN HINDUISM (SANATANA DHARMA)
- 2. SYMBOLISM IN HINDUISM. Symbols indicate the inner vision and spiritual experiences of Rishis (seers) in their deepest states of meditation.
- Color Symbolism in Hinduism
- Color Symbolism in Hinduism.
- Symbolism in Religions Around the World
- historical Vedic tradition, Hinduism is often considered the oldest living major religion. There are many symbols used in Hinduism.
- M.K.V. Narayan: "Flipside of Hindu Symbolism"
- Flipside of Hindu Symbolism. – 3 –. Table of Contents.
Suggested News Resources
- How To Ward Off Spirits?
- Swastika- This is one of the most important symbols in Hinduism. The four blades of this symbol poins to four different directions. This also represents the sun and its power.
Suggested Web Resources
- Hindu Wisdom - Symbolism in Hinduism
- Hinduism is often labeled as a religion of 330 million gods. This misunderstanding arises when people fail to grasp the symbolism of the Hindu pantheon.
- Hindu Symbols - ReligionFacts
- Apr 17, 2004 Guide to the meaning and use of Hindu symbols, including Aum, the swastika, and the lotus.
- Major Hindu Symbols - What Are The Most Important Symbols of
- Hinduism employs the art of symbolism with amazing effect. No religion is so replete with symbols as this ancient religion.
- Heart of Hinduism: Hindu Symbols
- Hindu Symbols. Hinduism is rich in symbolism.
- Hinduism Symbolism
- One of the most common symbols in Hinduism is the Sanskrit letter om (or aum).
Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site.
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| 5 |
Senate of Pakistan
||This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. (August 2011)|
Leader of the House
Leader of the Opposition
PML (N) (26)
JUI (F) (5)
PML (Q) (4)
PML (F) (1)
Length of term
|Parliament of Pakistan|
|This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
The Senate (Urdu: سینیٹ, Seneṭ, IPA: [sɛneːʈ]) or the Upper House of Pakistan (Urdu: ایوانِ بالا پاکستان, Aiwān-i bālā Pākistān, IPA: [ɛːʋɑːn-e bɑːlɑ ˌpɑːkɪst̪ɑːn]) is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan. Elections are held every three years for one half of the Senate and each Senator has a term of six years. If the office of the President of Pakistan becomes vacant, or the President is unable to perform his functions, the Chairman of the Senate acts as President until a President is elected.
After Independence, the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, elected in December 1947 after partition, was assigned the task of framing the Constitution of Pakistan. This Assembly passed the Objectives Resolution on 12 March 1949, laying down principles which later became substantive part of the Constitution of Pakistan. However, before it could accomplish the task of framing the constitution, it was dissolved in October, 1954. Thereafter, the Governor General, convened the Second Constituent Assembly in May, 1955, which framed and passed the first Constitution of Pakistan on 29 February 1956. That Constitution was promulgated on 23 March 1956, which provided for a parliamentary form of Government with a unicameral legislature. However, from 14 August 1947 to 1 March 1956 the Government of India Act 1935, was retained as the Constitution of Pakistan.
On October 7, 1958, Martial Law was promulgated and the Constitution abrogated. The Military Government appointed a Constitution Commission in February, 1960 which framed the 1962 Constitution. That Constitution provided for a Presidential form of Government with a unicameral legislature. The 1962 Constitution was abrogated on 25 March 1969. The Civil Government, which came to power in December 1971 pursuant to 1970 elections, gave the nation an interim Constitution in the year 1972.
The 1970 Assembly framed the 1973 Constitution which was unanimously passed on 12 April and promulgated on 14 August 1973. The 1973 Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of Government with a bicameral legislature, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate.
The membership of the Senate, which was originally 45, was raised to 63 in 1977 and to 87 in 1985. The government of Gen. Pervez Musharraf raised the membership of the Senate from 87 to 100 through the Legal Framework Order (LFO), 2002, enforced on 21 August 2002 and the government of Asif Ali Zardari raised the membership of the Senate from 100 to 104 through the 19th amendment in 2011 (four minority members from four provinces).
Purpose and role
The main purpose for the creation of the Senate of Pakistan was to give equal representation to all the federating units since the membership of the National Assembly was based on the population of each province. Equal provincial membership in the Senate, thus, balances the provincial inequality in the National Assembly.
There are one hundred and four senatorial seats. There are 18 women Senators; Pakistani constitution requires that there be at least 17 women Senators. Members of the Senate are elected according to Article 59 of the Constitution.
President and Parliament
Under Article 50 of the Constitution, the Majlis-i-Shoora (Parliament) of Pakistan consists of the President and two Houses to be known respectively as the National Assembly and the Senate. The President is elected by members of both Houses of the Parliament and the Provincial Assemblies. The President may be removed from office or impeached through a resolution, passed by not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the Parliament in a joint sitting of the two Houses, convened for the purpose. The Constitution empowers the President to dissolve the National Assembly in his discretion if a situation has arisen in which the Government of the Federation cannot be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and an appeal to the electorate is necessary. The President in case of dissolution of National Assembly shall within fifteen days of the dissolution refer the matter to the Supreme Court and the Supreme Court shall decide the reference within thirty days whose decision shall be final. However, the Senate is not subject to dissolution.
In case the office of the President becomes vacant for any reason, the Chairman, or if he is unable to perform the functions of the office of the President, the Speaker, acts as President till such time that a President is elected. Same is the case when the President by reason of absence from Pakistan or any other cause is unable to perform his functions.
Relations between the Houses
Unless both the Houses pass a Bill and it receives President's assent it cannot become a law except in the case of a money bill which is the sole prerogative of the National Assembly. Through an amendment, the role of a Mediation Committee, composed of eight members of each House, has been introduced to evolve consensus on Bills, in case there is a disagreement between the two houses.
The Constitution provides that there shall be a Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister which is collectively responsible to the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is chosen from the National Assembly. The Federal Ministers and Ministers of State are appointed from amongst the members of Parliament. However, the number of Federal Ministers and Ministers of State who are members of Senate, shall not at any time, exceed one fourth of the numbers of Federal Ministers.
|Tribal Areas (FATA)||8||-||-||-||8|
|Islamabad Capital Territory||2||1||1||-||4|
- Four seats for non-Muslims increased through the Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 2010 (Act No. X of 2010).
(1) The Senate shall consist of 104 members, of whom:
- (a) 14 shall be elected by the members of each Provincial Assembly;
- (b) eight shall be elected by direct and free vote from the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, in such manner as the President may, by Order, prescribe;
- (c) two on general seats, and one woman and one technocrat including aalim shall be elected from the Federal Capital in such manner as the President may, by Order, prescribe;
- (d) four women shall be elected by the members of each Provincial Assembly;
- (e) four technocrats including ulema shall be elected by the members of each Provincial Assembly.
- (f) one seat in the senate is reserved for minorities in each province."
(2) Election to fill seats in the Senate allocated to each Province shall be held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
(3) The Senate shall not be subject to dissolution but the term of its members, who shall retire as follows, shall be six years:-
- (a) of the members referred to in paragraph (a) of clause (1), seven shall retire after the expiration of the first three years and seven shall retire after the expiration of the next three years.
- (b) of the members referred to in paragraph (b) of the aforesaid clause, four shall retire after the expiration of the first three years and four shall retire after the expiration of the next three years
- (c) of the members referred to in paragraph (c) of the aforesaid clause,-
- (i) one elected on general seat shall retire after the expiration of the first three years and the other one shall retire after the expiration of the next three years, and
- (ii) one elected on the seat reserved for technocrat shall retire after first three years and the one elected on the seat reserved for woman shall retire after the expiration of the next three years;
- (d) of the members referred to in paragraph (d) of the aforesaid clause, two shall retire after the expiration of the three years and two shall retire after the expiration of the next three years; and
- (e) of the members referred to in paragraph (e) of the aforesaid clause, two shall retire after the expiration of the first three years and two shall retire after the expiration of the next three years: Provided that the term of office of a person elected to fill a casual vacancy shall be the unexpired term of the member whose vacancy he has filled.
2015 party positions in Senate
2015 party position in Senate stood like this.
Seats in the Senate of Pakistan
|Political Party||Cumulative seat(s)||Graphing||Position|
|Pakistan Peoples' Party (PPP)||29||In Majority|
|Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N))||28||In Minority|
|Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM)||8||In Majority with PPP|
|Awami National Party (ANP)||7||In Majority with PPP|
|Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI)||6||In Minority|
|Jamiat-Ulema-e-Islam (F) (JUI-F)||5||In Majority with PPP|
|Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q)||4||In Majority with PPP|
|National Party (NP)||3||In Majority with PPP|
|PKMAP (PKMAP)||3||In Minority with PML (N)|
|Balochistan National Party (BNP (M))||4||In Minority with PML (N)|
|Pakistan Muslim League (F) (PML-F)||1||In Minority with PML (N)|
|Jamaat-e-Islami (JI)||1||In Minority with PTI|
|Independents||6||In caucuses with PPP|
|Total Senate Seats||106|
- Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan
- List of Senators of Pakistan
- List of committees of the Senate of Pakistan
- National Assembly of Pakistan
| 5 |
Ranakpur Temple is a beautiful structure carved in stone. Renowned for its fabulous architectural style, Ranakpur temple is situated in Ranakpur village that falls under Pali district of Rajasthan. For the followers of Jainism, Ranakpur temples are of great importance, as they make one of the five major pilgrimage sites. One can easily reach Ranakpur Temple from anywhere in Rajasthan. However, the nearest airport and railway station is made by the city of Udaipur. Acclaimed worldwide for its brilliant architecture, Ranakpur Temple is the largest and the most significant temples of the Jains.
Ranakpur Temple is thought to have been built by Seth Dharna Shah, who
was a prominent Jain businessman, with the help of Rana Kumbha in the
15th century. The king helped the Seth on a condition that the temples
would be named after him and accordingly the temples were tabbed. Sited
in a solitary valley on the western part of the Aravalli Hills, the
temples are undoubtedly laudable for their wonderful architecture. The
huge structure of the temple is entirely raised in light color marble.
One of the largest subterranean vaults makes the base of this colossal
temple sprawling in an area of 48000 sq ft.
The vast temple complex comprises Chaumukha Temple, Parsavanath Temple,
Amba Mata Temple and Surya Temple. Chaumukha Temple is the most
prominent amongst all of them. The term 'Chaumukha' means four-faced.
Lord Adinath (the first Jain 'Tirthankara') is the main presiding deity
of Chaumukha Temple. The complex structure of the temple has four
separate entrance doors to penetrate in the chambers. These chambers
lead to the main hall or 'Grabh-Griha', where the idol of Lord Adinath
The four-faced image of the Lord is facing all the four directions. This
image suggests the pursuit of Tirthankara's for the four directions and
eventually the cosmos. The idol of the Lord is encircled by many other
smaller shrines and domes. Again, one more array of cells with detached
roofs surrounds these small shrines and domes. The five spires raise
high in the sky and not less than 20 cupolas elevate from the roof the
main pillared hall. There is a shrine under each spire and the largest
spire houses the image of the Lord Adinath. The ceilings are decorated
with pliable scrollwork and geometric designs.
This magnum opus of architecture possesses around 1400 intricately
carved pillars. The temple comprises 24 pillared halls in the company of
80 domes, which are sustained by 400 columns. A series of brackets makes
a connection between the upper and lower parts of the domes. These
brackets have sculptures of deities on their surface. Apart for this,
the sight of carved nymphs at the height of 45 feet catches the main
attraction. It is startling to know that every single pillar is carved
gracefully and not one pillar resembles the other.
The 'mandap' or the prayer hall boasts of two colossal bells that weigh
108 kg each. Chaumukha Temple is shaped in the form of 'Nalinigulm
Vimana' (heavenly aircraft). This beautiful shape and structure provide
a celestial appearance to the temple. Perhaps, the temple took more or
less 65 years due to the convolution of its structure. Besides Chaumukha
Temple, Parsavnath Temple is another attraction of Ranakpur. This temple
was constructed in the mid 15th century and known for its carved
windows. In the vicinity of this temple, there are two other temples.
These temples are dedicated to Lord Neminath (the 22nd Tirthankara) and
Lord Surya Narayan (Sun God).
Distinguished for its architecture, Ranakpur Temple was also voted
amongst the top 77 wonders of the World. The religious intensity and
stunning architecture of the temple drag the pilgrims and tourists from
around the World to the lands of Ranakpur.
Ranakpur Temple is famous for its marvelous architecture. Read more about Ranakpur Temples of Rajasthan.
|Location:||In Ranakpur, near Sadri, in the Pali district of Rajasthan|
|Built by:||Seth Dharna Sah with the help from Rana Kumbha|
|Built in:||15th century|
|Dedicated to:||Lord Adinath|
|Significance:||One of the five major Jain pilgrimage sites|
|How to reach:||One can easily reach Ranakpur Temples by taking regular Buses or by hiring Taxis from anywhere in Rajasthan|
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Bal Thackeray’s death leaves a legacy of fear in India
Who was Bal Thackeray and how did his death rally millions to his procession and disrupt one of the biggest financial capitals in Asia?
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When Bal Thackeray, a one-time cartoonist turned Hindu fundamentalist leader of India, died on Saturday, the city of Mumbai came to a standstill. More than a million people came out to watch the procession, thousands of police, including the Rapid Action Force, were deployed to maintain calm, and commercial businesses chose to shut down.
So who was Bal Thackeray and how did his death rally millions to his procession and disrupt one of the biggest financial capitals in Asia?
The controversial leader was a popular figure, who formed Shiv Sena, the army of Shiva, in 1966 in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Over the years, Shiv Sena became notorious as one of the most xenophobic right-wing groups in India, and was responsible for inciting hatred against minority groups, mostly Muslims. The Indian government accused Thackeray and his supporters for playing a major role in the 1992 Mumbai riots, which killed more than 900 people. According to the BBC, in 2002 he called on suicide squads to carry out attacks against Muslims.
Over the years, Shiv Sena has gained headlines for digging up cricket pitches ahead of matches against Pakistan, campaigning against Valentine's Day and threatening young couples who celebrate it, and continuously threatening minorities.
The range of opinions published following his death shed light on the character of Thackeray and how he maintained grip in one of the biggest cities in the world.
A bewildering enigma, writes the BBC:
“The charismatic cartoonist-turned-politician railed against south Indians and Muslims, provoked his men to dig up cricket pitches, drank warm beer, smoked cigars, adored Adolf Hitler, hosted Michael Jackson (‘Jackson is a great artist . . . his movements are terrific,’ he once said), berated women wearing jeans and renamed Bombay.”
The demagogue of Bombay, says Salil Tripathi in the Wall Street Journal:
“He may have succeeded in changing Bombay’s official name to Mumbai, and enforcing the usage by fear. But he found it harder to change the essentially tolerant nature of the city, which did not erupt in retaliatory violence after terrorist attacks such as the ones in November 2008. Bombay continues to lead the way forward for the country. It will take time for the city to heal, but it will.”
A win for Mumbai, writes Sanjay Kumar in the Express Tribune.
“He was not a by-product of the mainstream democratic tradition but an aberration. That’s the reason despite being in the business of politics for almost five decades, he could never become a normal politician. He remained the prisoner of an image; the image of a mafia don who wanted to control a big city on the basis of guns and goons.”
A troubling legacy, concluded an editorial in The Hindu:
“Even as people in Mumbai and Maharashtra mourn the passing of the patriarch, they ought to reflect on the manner in which his sectarian politics diminished the great city and State and demand of his legatees a change of course.”
There’s more to him than the aura of fear, says Sidharth Bhatia in the Times of India:
“But with his clout, he could have transformed their lives and also, through the civic body which his party controls, made Mumbai a better place. Then the entire city would have mourned. Instead, it spent its Sunday shuttered at home.”
Thackeray’s dead, but in the party that he formed, and the millions who follow him in the name of Hindu nationalism, he leaves behind a legacy. Following his death, when a 21-year-old woman posted a comment criticizing him on Facebook, the police arrested her, as well as her friend who “liked” the comment, and members of Shiv Sena vandalized the clinic owned by the girl’s uncle.
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Chapter 27: This Time It Can Be One Earth
For five thousand years thousands of musicians have tried to do something more, to bring something more to music, and have failed. And I don’t see that there is any possibility.. It simply reached its perfection. Whatever you can do is only new combinations - which are not in any way new; just from the old you gather fragments and make a new combination, a new composition - but it is not creation.
Language reached its peak. There is no other language in the world which is more scientific than Sanskrit. It is so scientific that you cannot find fault with it. Every other language in the world looks very immature compared to Sanskrit.
For example, you can see in English that you pronounce a word in one way, you spell it in another. Now what kind of stupidity is this? In Sanskrit you spell the word the way you pronounce it. There should not be two ways because this is unnecessary and very unscientific; it is creating unnecessary troubles for people. Sanskrit is perhaps the only language you can learn perfectly just by reading. You cannot do that with any other language.
I don’t know much English. I know enough to hit people, but that is not much. But one thing I can see that English grammarians, linguistics experts, are not able to answer: b-u-t is but, and p-u-t is put. That seems to be strange. Either b-u-t should be boot, or p-u-t should be putt. There is no way to explain all these. In Sanskrit you cannot find a single example in which there is any difference between the pronunciation and the spelling.
In English you have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Sanskrit has fifty-two, just double the amount of English. There cannot be more than fifty-two, that’s why Sanskrit has stopped at fifty-two. That exhausts the possibility of all kinds of sounds - fifty-two is the limit. Twenty-six is just the minimum, not the maximum, hence, it is such a difficulty to translate Sanskrit words into English - or just to write them in Roman letters, because in English there is only one “s”, in Sanskrit there are three. There are very subtle phonetic differences, but they are there.
According to the Western historians, Sanskrit also reached to its ultimate peak of refinement in some prehistoric age; since then there has been no change. Not that they are against change; you cannot change it because it has been refined to the very last. All the finishing touches were done five thousand years ago.
People were scientific, but their devotion was to human growth - in music, in art, in poetry, in drama, in dance.
In India there are so many schools of dance, centuries old; so many schools of music, centuries old. And the teaching of dance or drama is not the way it is in the West; it is very religious. The man who teaches you drama, dance, music, is as much respected as a master is. And he is a master, because music is not only music; it is, deep down, meditation. It is music used for meditation.
You may have come to learn music; you will return with something more, something more precious than you have every imagined. Music of course you will learn, but side by side something will start growing in you which is far more musical, which is the music of silence.
Ordinary music is the music of sound.
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Katmandu or Kathmandu, city (1991 pop. 421,258), capital of Nepal, central Nepal, c.4,500 ft (1,370 m) above sea level, in a fertile valley of the E Himalayas. It is the administrative, business, and commercial center of Nepal, and lies astride an ancient trade and pilgrim route from India to Tibet, China, and Mongolia. Originally ruled by the Newars, Katmandu became independent in the 15th cent. and was captured in 1768 by the Gurkhas, who made it their capital. In the late 18th cent. the city became the seat of a British resident. Following the 1951 downfall of the Rana prince ministership, Katmandu experienced an influx of Western tourists, many of them mountain climbers. Tourism and trade with India led to a rapid increase in Katmandu's population and to the expansion of paved streets and sewage systems. More recently, luxury hotels and casinos have drawn tourists from India. Landmarks include the elaborate royal palace (now a museum), palaces of the politically dominant Rana family, several pagoda-shaped temples, and many Sanskrit libraries. Katmandu also has a number of colleges.
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|Music of India|
A Lady Playing the Tanpura, ca. 1735 (Rajasthan)
|Media and performance|
|Nationalistic and patriotic songs|
|National anthem||Jana Gana Mana|
Indian pop music (Hindi: हिन्दुस्तानी पॉप संगीत), often known as Indian-Pop, Hindi Pop, Indipop or Indi-pop, refers to pop music in India. Pop music really started in the South Asian region with the playback singer Ahmed Rushdi's song ‘Ko Ko Korina’ in 1966. It is based on an amalgamation of folk music and classical music with modern beats from different parts of the world.
||This article may contain excessive, poor, or irrelevant examples. (November 2012)|
The term "Indipop" was first used by the British-Indian fusion band Monsoon in their 1981 EP release on Steve Coe's Indipop Records. Pop music began gaining popularity across the Indian subcontinent with Pakistani singers Nazia Hassan and Zohaib, forming a sibling duo whose records, produced by the Indian Biddu, sold as many as 60 million copies. Indian popular music was further popularized in the early 1990s with grass-root efforts made by Alisha Chinai, whose albums were also produced by Biddu, and MTV India. Since then, it was Shashi Gopal who pioneered the spectacular growth of this genre by producing, marketing and launching some of the biggest brands (e.g. Magnasound) in the Indian pop scene.
Much of Indian Pop music comes from the Indian Film Industry, and until the 1990s, only a few singers like Remo Fernandes, Usha Uthup, Asha Bhosle, Sharon Prabhakar and Peenaz Masani were popular outside of the film industry. Since then, pop singers in the latter group have included Baba Sehgal, Alisha Chinai, Shantanu Mukherjee aka Shaan, Sunali Rathod, Palash Sen, KK, Sagarika, Colonial Cousins (Hariharan, Lesle Lewis), Lucky Ali, and Sonu Nigam, and music composers like Jawahar Wattal, who made top selling albums with, Daler Mehndi, Shubha Mudgal, Baba Sehgal, Shweta Shetty and Hans Raj Hans. Another notable Indian pop musician is Charanjit Singh, whose 1982 album Synthesizing: Ten Ragas to a Disco Beat anticipated the sound of acid house music.
Besides those listed above, popular Indi-Pop singers include Mohit Chauhan, Papon, Zubeen Garg, Anaida, Raghav Sachar, Rageshwari, Devika Chawla, Bombay Vikings, Sunidhi Chauhan, Adithya Srinivasan, Falguni Pathak, Anushka Manchanda, Bombay Rockers, Anu Malik, Jazzy B, Malkit Singh, Hans Raj Hans, Raghav, Jay Sean, Juggy D, Rishi Rich, Sheila Chandra, Shreya Ghoshal, Bally Sagoo, Punjabi MC, Bhangra Knights, Mehnaz Hoosein, Sanober, White Revoluteries and SQS Supastars. Also, Indian music composer and singer Himesh Reshammiya gave a new face to high pitch pop singing through his debut album Aap Kaa Surroor (2006) which had unprecedented success in Indian music album sales.
Facing severe competition from the commercial music from Indian Film Industry, Indian pop has taken an interesting turn with the "remixing" of old Indian movie songs, new beats being added to them. This was an attempt to reinvent IndiPop but this faced severe criticism from cold mucis lovers. This eventually resulted in the end of the IndiPop phase of music in India.
Indian-Pop has made its way to the American charts, with singers like Rishi Rich (working with Britney Spears), Panjabi MC (working with Jay-Z), Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and Truth Hurts. (A suit for copyright infringement of a Lata Mangeshkar song has been filed against Truth Hurts' song, "Addictive"). Indian-Pop entered American movies with the movie, Moulin Rouge!. Its main number, "Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend (Hindi)", featured Alka Yagnik's song "Chamma Chamma" from the Indian movie, China Gate (1998).
Popular rock musicians of Indian descent in the US include Kim Thayil of Soundgarden and Tony Kanal of No Doubt. Grammy-winning jazz singer, Norah Jones, is the daughter of sitarist Pandit Ravi Shankar of international fame, (US-born Sue Jones being her mother).
Indi-Pop has also become popular in the UK through songs and remixes by the likes of Siouxsie and the Banshees, Erasure, Bananarama, and Samantha Fox. Pop singers of Indian descent in the UK include Talvin Singh and Freddie Mercury of British band Queen, (who was born in Zanzibar, Tanzania, and started his first band in an Indian boarding school in Panchgani). Indo-British band, Cornershop, also fuses Indian and Western music.
In Canada, Indo-Canadian musicians include Shweta Subram, who's gained popularity in the Urban and Bollywood scene; Dave 'Brownsound' Baksh (a former Sum 41 guitarist now forming his own band, Brown Brigade); percussionist Safwan Javed (of the pop-rock trio, Wide Mouth Mason);Raj Ramayya Singer, Songwriter (The Beautiful Losers, Bhang Lassi) bassist, vocalist, and producer Chin Injeti (formerly of the trio, Bass is Base); Ian D'Sa (of Billy Talent); and Ashwin Sood (drummer ( husband of Canadian singer-songwriter Sarah McLachlan)).
In the Scandinavian pop music scene, musicians of Indian descent include Yusaf Parvez of the Norwegian black metal bands, Dimmu Borgir/DHG/Ved Buens Ende/Code. Newest entrant is PUNKH an indo-German hiphop act that has stormed the Indian scene with the song "Punjabi na aawe" The lead singer Deepak Nair is also the front man of the indo-German rock band GURU
Seattle-based band Manooghi Hi (featuring Indi-Pop singer, Mehnaz Hoosein,) vocalize in a multitude of South Asian languages, including English, Urdu, Sanskrit, Hindi, and Bengali. The band claims to have active members living in both the United States and Mumbai.
- "Socio-political History of Modern Pop Music in Pakistan". Chowk. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
- Ladyslipper Music - Monsoon Featuring Sheila Chandra
- Sheila Chandra - Discography
- PTI (18 November 2005). "NRI TV presenter gets Nazia Hassan Award". Times of India. Retrieved 2011-03-04.
- Music man with a golden touch The Hindu, December 9, 2002."..Daler Mehndi's "Dardi Rab Rab" and "Ho Jayegi Balle Balle", Shubha Mudgal's "Ali More Angana", Shweta Shetty's "Deewane To Deewane Hain", Hans Raj Hans' "Jhangar", Bhupi Chawla's "Jogiya Khalli Balli", Ila Arun's "Haule Haule", Malkit Singh's "Paaro", Ali Haider's "Mahi O Mahi" and Sujat Khan's "Lajo Lajo".
- Pattison, Louis (10 April 2010). "Charanjit Singh, acid house pioneer". The Guardian.
- Aitken, Stuart (10 May 2011). "Charanjit Singh on how he invented acid house ... by mistake". The Guardian.
- The History of IndiPop - An unauthorized quick and dirty account of emergence and demise of pop music in India
- The Indi Pop at Culturopedia
- Indian Pop’s Panoply of Styles. Business Week online. Retrieved 4 April, 2007
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Quiz: Remember the definition of mal de mer?
city, northwestern Bangladesh, just east of the Punarbhaba River. Dinajpur is located in a flat alluvial plain intersected by rivers and broken by the slightly elevated Barind region. It is an important rice, wheat, jute, and sugarcane growing zone. The city itself contains textile, sugar, rice, and lumber mills, as well as biscuit and ice factories, a pharmaceutical industry, and a thermal power station. Dinajpur also has several government colleges, notably the Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University. The former residence of the maharaja of Dinajpur is located in the older northeastern quarter of the city. Artifacts of the Indian Pala dynasty dating from the 9th century CE also have been found in the area. Pop. (2001) 157,914.
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The Student Stage of Life: Brahmacharya [Text]
According to Vedic philosophy, the life span of each person is divided into four stages, or ashrams. The word ashram means "shelter," referring to the protective nature of these phases against the turmoil of life. These stages are Brahmacharya, Grahasta, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa, each of which has a specific purpose and guidelines defined in the Vedas, and are intended to order the lives of male members of the highest three castes.
The ashram called Brahmacharya is the stage of the celibate student. Entry into this phase involved initiation, which was prescribed for Brahmins (priestly caste) between age 5 and 16, for the Kshatriyas (warrior caste) between age 6 and 22, and for the Vaisyas (merchant caste) between age 8 and 24. Failing to undergo initiation during these age spans would mean loss of caste, or social status.
The Brahmacharya stage was a rigorous time of learning, when the high-caste boy was expected to acquire both religious knowledge and a craft or trade. A boy would wear the sacred cord around his chest to signify that he had entered Brahmacharya, and he would live in the teacher's house, serving him and treating him with utmost respect. In return, the boy's development was the responsibility of the guru. The student was to remain celibate so as not to be distracted from study. Among the goals of learning during this stage, memorization of Vedic texts was a priority, but archery, astrology, music, martial arts, and music were included. This selection is from a text that may date to the 5th century B.C.E. that prescribes proper behavior during each life stage.
Apastamba Dharma Sutra, I:1, 2, 3, and 6, passim, in Sacred Books of the East, II, 7–8, 10–11. Cited in Embree, Ainslie Thomas, and Dr. Sam di Bonaventura collection, The Hindu Tradition, New York: Modern Library, 1966, 84–86. Annotated by Susan Douglass.
Primary Source Text
He who has been initiated shall dwell as a religious student in the house of his teacher. . .
Twelve years [should be] the shortest time [for his residence with his teacher].
A student who studies the sacred science shall not dwell with anybody else than his teacher.
Now [follow] the rules for the studentship.
He shall obey his teacher, except when ordered to commit crimes which cause loss of caste.
He shall do what is serviceable to his teacher, he shall not contradict him.
He shall always occupy a couch or seat lower than that of his teacher.
He shall not eat food offered at a sacrifice to the gods or the Manes,
Nor pungent condiments, salt, honey, or meat.
He shall not sleep in the day-time.
He shall not use perfumes.
He shall preserve chastity.
He shall not embellish himself by using ointments and the like.
He shall not wash his body with hot water for pleasure.
But, if it is soiled with unclean things, he shall clean it with earth or water, in a place where he is not seen by a Guru.
Let him not sport in the water whilst bathing; let him swim motionless like a stick. . .
Let him not look at dancing.
Let him not go to assemblies for gambling &c., nor to crowds assembled at festivals.
Let him not be addicted to gossiping.
Let him be discrete.
Let him not do anything for his own pleasure in places which his teacher frequents.
Let him talk with women so much only as his purpose requires.
Let him be forgiving.
Let him restrain his organs from seeking illicit objects.
Let him be untired in fulfilling his duties;
Possessed of self-command;
Free from anger;
And free from envy.
Bringing all he obtains to his teacher, he shall go begging with a vessel in the morning and the evening,
and he may beg from everybody except low-caste people unfit for association with Aryas.
How to Cite This Source
"The Student Stage of Life: Brahmacharya [Text]," in Children and Youth in History, Item #325, http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/primary-sources/325 (accessed March 29, 2015). Annotated by Susan Douglass
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The pedestrian section as such starts at the intersection of Perú Street and Avenida de Mayo, a block north of the Plaza de Mayo; Perú Street crosses Rivadavia Avenue, and becomes Florida Street. Florida Street runs northwards for approximately one kilometer to Plaza San Martín, in the Retiro area. It intersects Buenos Aires's other pedestrian street, Lavalle, at the heart of the former cinema district.
Florida is one of the city's leading tourist attractions. Florida Street bustles with shoppers, vendors, and office workers alike because of its proximity to the financial district. By evening, the pace relaxes as street performers flock to the area, including tango singers and dancers, living statues, and comedy acts. Its variety of retail stores, shopping arcades, and restaurants is of great interest to foreign tourists and business travelers.
The beginnings of Florida Street date back to the founding of Buenos Aires in 1580, when it was hewn as a primitive path uphill from the banks of the Río de la Plata. Its first official name was "San José," enacted by Governor Miguel de Salcedo in 1734. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the street was known popularly as Calle del Correo (Post Street) in reference to the post office located on what later became Perú Street (the southern continuation of Florida Street). It was also later known as Empedrado (Cobbled Street). Improved with boulders brought from Montevideo beginning in 1789, it became the first paved street in the city (a section of the original cobblestone pavement is displayed behind the entrance to the Cathedral Station on Diagonal Norte Avenue). Following the British invasions of the Río de la Plata in 1808, the street was called Baltasar Unquera, in homage to an aide-de-camp to Viceroy Santiago de Liniers, fallen in the fight against Admiral William Carr Beresford. The street was first named "Florida" in 1821. The name was designated in honor of the battle fought in 1814 in Upper Peru against the royalists during the Argentine War of Independence. Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas renamed the street "Perú" in 1837, and in 1857, the name was returned to the present one.
The Argentine National Anthem was first performed in 1813 at the Florida Street home of Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, one of the city's most prominent citizens. Argentine elites began to leave the central and southern wards of the city mainly due to epidemics, especially the 1871 yellow fever outbreak. They decided to move to higher ground in the city and chose the area known as Retiro. Florida Street, whose northern half is in the Retiro ward, became a shopping street in 1872, and would soon welcome pharmacies, furniture retailers, jewelers, and haberdasheries that offered the latest in European fashion. Numerous private mansions were also built along Florida Street in the 1880s and 1890s. The Parisian-inspired Bon Marché became the street's first large-scale shopping arcade in 1889, and the Argentine Jockey Club, the nation's most prestigious gentlemen's club and horse racing society, was inaugurated in 1897.
The Civic Youth Union, was organized in 1889 at the intersection with the Avenida Córdoba. This organization would foment the Revolution of the Park in 1890, and from its ranks the Radical Civic Union (to whom six presidents would later belong during the twentieth century) would be established in 1891.
A tram was installed along Florida Street in the 1890s, and it soon became a leading commercial artery in Buenos Aires. Vehicular traffic was barred during business hours in 1911 by request of the growing number of shop owners along Florida, and in 1913 the tram was dismantled to pedestrianize a section of the street. The 1914 inaugural of the Gath & Chaves department store coincided with the inaugural of Harrods Buenos Aires, the only overseas branch of Harrods, and the illuminated spire topped Galería Güemes. The merger of Gath & Chaves and Harrods in 1922 created two of the most ornate institutions of their kind in the Americas. Florida Street also became the address for a number of important corporate headquarters during the 1920s, including BankBoston Argentina and La Nación, the nation's leading news daily at the time. Lavalle Street, which intersects Florida, became a focal point of local cinema houses beginning in the 1930s.
The city's middle and upper classes would later relocate further north, to Recoleta, Palermo, and Belgrano, however. This trend was reinforced by the 1953 arson of the grand Jockey Club building by a Peronist mob. Its decline, however, was slowed by both an era of relative prosperity in Argentina, as well as milestones such as the inaugural of the Hotel Claridge in 1946, the Torcuato di Tella Institute's Florida Street center in 1963 (which became a hub of Buenos Aires' avant-garde and pop art scene during the 1960s), and the 1971 conversion of the street into a promenade. Writer Jorge Luis Borges lived near the northern end, and was fond of taking walks through the semi-deserted street in the pre-dawn hours. Borges was an outspoken critic of the renovation work done on the street in 1970; he was blind, and the new arrangement of trash cans, planters, flower pots, and magazine stands was a serious accessibility risk for him. He was also influenced by his esthetic-minded friends, who saw the new scheme as a break with tradition.
The economic crisis of the 1980s precluded any recovery, however. Nor did the street benefit from a consumer boom during the 1990s, as this was largely diverted toward a series of new shopping malls opened in the city's north side. Galerías Pacífico was renovated and reopened in 1991, though Harrods Buenos Aires, which by then operated only on the ground floor, would close in 1998. Mayor Fernando de la Rúa had the textured concrete pavers along Florida replaced in 1999 with granite tiles laid in a decorative black-and-white pattern.
Commerce along the street was afflicted in the ensuing years by proliferating street vendors, a result of a legal loophole in the municipal ordinance that otherwise prohibits the practice; Mayor Mauricio Macri succeeded in having these vendors removed in January 2012. Florida Street continues to command among the highest commercial rents in the city, and has become a favorite attraction among the city's growing number of foreign tourists.
Rivadavia Avenue to Perón Street
Florida Street begins at its southern end on Rivadavia Avenue. The first block, made somewhat wider than the remainder of the promenade by a city ordinance, is overlooked by the Mappin & Webb House (1911) and the post-modern former headquarters of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro in Argentina (1989); both became branches of HSBC upon BNL's departure in 2006.
One of the most iconic locations in Buenos Aires is the intersections of Florida Street and Diagonal Norte Avenue, built between 1913 and 1943. Two of the avenue's most distinguishable buildings are located at this intersection: the Plateresque BankBoston Building (1924), the Art Deco La Equitativa del Plata (1929), and two cupola-topped Bencich Buildings (1927). The intersection forms a triangular plaza adorned with José Fioravanti's monument to President Roque Sáenz Peña (1937).
Two important shopping arcades are located on the 100 block: Galerías Boston and the landmark Galería Güemes, designed by Francisco Gianotti and opened in 1914; distinguishable by the illuminated beacon atop its spire, it was one of the tallest buildings in Buenos Aires st the time. The former Gath & Chaves department store (1914) and annex (overlooking Avenida de Mayo) were located here until the retailer's closure in 1974; the buildings today house Banco Meridian, the local branch of Deloitte, as well as Chilean retailer Falabella.
Perón Street to Lavalle Street
The 200 block features the former Grand Florida Cinema (1925), created in an eclectic Art Deco design by Jorge Kálnay. The corner of Perón Street is overlooked by the Plateresque former Banco Popular Argentino (1931), today the headquarters of HSBC Bank Argentina. The corner of Sarmiento Street is the site of the Bank of the City of Buenos Aires headquarters since 1968, located in a building originally opened in 1908 as the Mexico City Store.
The 300 block includes the oldest existing bookstore of El Ateneo chain (one of two on Florida Street); founded in 1912, the booksellers opened their first Florida Street store in 1936. Facing El Ateneo is the former headquarters of La Nación newspaper. One of numerous Plateresque office buildings completed in the area during the 1920s, the building, known today as the Mitre Gallery, is the second store opened on Florida Street by Falabella. The corner of the intersection with Avenida Corrientes is overlooked by office high-rises, a Stock Center sporting goods megastore, and, for contrast, the former Elortondo Alvear residence (1880); the neo-Gothic mansion was converted into a Burger King in the 1990s.
The Julio Peña residence (1917), today the headquarters of the Argentine Rural Society, is one of the few private residences surviving from the time luxurious homes shared Florida Street with commercial establishments. Opened the same year, the Richmond Café next door was a favorite coffee house among local upscale patrons; Jorge Luis Borges, Graham Greene, and the Florida group of avant-garde writers were among the many literati who gathered there. The Richmond closed amid controversy in 2011. The 400 block ends at the intersection with Lavalle Street, and is overlooked by both curtain walled office mid-rises and French architecture. Lavalle Street, from the 1930s until the 1990s, rivaled Corrientes Avenue for the number of movie theaters along its downtown stretch; most have since closed, however, and Lavalle, which was pedestrianized in 1978, became largely a shopping street. The large numbers of pedestrians at the intersection between the two also made the intersection a forum for performances by street artists.
Lavalle Street to Córdoba Avenue
The 500 block was the site of the Jockey Club, designed by Manuel Turner and completed in 1897. Founded in 1882 by future President Carlos Pellegrini, the institution governed horse racing in Argentina, and built the Palermo and San Isidro racecourses. An incident on April 15, 1953, in which bombs were detonated at the Plaza de Mayo during one of President Juan Perón's many rallies, resulted in the destruction of the Beaux-Arts landmark by enraged Peronists, who viewed the aristocratic Jockey Club as a center of anti-Peronism. The lot lay empty until the construction of Galería Jardín (1976), an office and retail complex designed by Mario Roberto Álvarez in a belated International Style. The complex includes several levels of shops, a basement for offices and two high-rise towers, one of which is residential. Its retail section is known for its selection of consumer electronics and computer equipment.
An Art Deco office building on the northwest corner of Tucumán Street and the neo-classical Cadellada Building highlight the 600 block; a second El Ateneo bookshop, a third Falabella store, and the modern Galería Arax (site of the Buenos Aires Auditorium) are also located there.
The renowned Galerías Pacífico shopping arcade occupies nearly the entire block along the eastern side of the 700 block. The monumental building, designed by Roland le Vacher in 1888 to house the Au Bon Marché shops, also housed the National Museum of Fine Arts from 1896 to 1910, and thereafter the head office of the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway; restored in 1991, its grand interiors also feature ceiling frescoes by Antonio Berni, Juan Carlos Castagnino, and other famed Argentine painters.
Córdoba Avenue to Plaza San Martín
The junction with Córdoba Avenue marks the street's entry into the Retiro ward. The northeast corner is distinguished by the magnificent Naval Center (1914), designed by Jacques Dunant and Gastón Mallet in a Beaux-Arts style. Separated from the Naval Center by Galería Buenos Aires is the former Harrods Buenos Aires, completed in 1920. Following a lengthy legal struggle with the then-owner of the Harrods on Knightsbridge, Mohamed Al-Fayed, the department store closed in 1998, and since functions intermittently as a venue for cultural events, notably the Buenos Aires Tango Festival. The current owners, Swiss equity firm CBC Interconfianz, filed permits to restore Harrods Buenos Aires in 2009. The modern Galería del Sol faces the former Harrods. Galería Florida (1964), a curtain-walled high rise designed by Álvarez for Air France, stands on the southwest corner with Paraguay Street, and the Florida Garden Café, opened in 1962 in a belle époque building, is on the southeast.
The Cultural Center of Spain in Buenos Aires (CCEB) is located on the 900 block. This block, however, is best known locally as the erstwhile site of the Torcuato di Tella Institute. Located on Florida Street during its heyday between 1963 and 1970, the institute was led at the time by former National Fine Arts Museum director Jorge Romero Brest, who steered the center as the leading Argentine venue for pop art, experimental theatre, and conceptual art, drawing artists such as León Ferrari, Gyula Kosice, Luis Felipe Noé, and Antonio Seguí. Romero Brest also promoted the center's famed Happenings, notably those of Marta Minujín, whose interactive displays and mazes helped make this block of Florida Street Buenos Aires' mazana loca (city block of madness).
The street continues into the Juvenilia Esplanade, centered around a memorial to writer Esteban Echeverría, and overlooked by a French-inspired apartment building designed by Alejandro Bustillo. The Ruth Benzacar Gallery, another leading promoter of local avant-garde art, opened in 1965 and is also located here. Facing the esplanade is Plaza San Martín, designed by the noted urbanist Charles Thays in 1889. Upscale Santa Fe Avenue merges into Florida Street along the Plaza Hotel, designed by Adolf Zucker for local banker Ernesto Tornquist and inaugurated in 1909.
Florida Street becomes San Martín Street one block south of Avenida del Libertador, and beside the best known of Buenos Aires' Art Deco landmarks, the Kavanagh Building. Overlooking Plaza San Martín, the 120 m (390 ft) apartment building was designed in 1934 by the firm of Sánchez, Lagos and de la Tour for Corina Kavanagh. Local lore has it that the wealthy Irish Argentine heiress planned the high-rise as a revenge against the Anchorena family, and made but one demand of the architects: that views of the Anchorenas' Church of the Holy Sacrament from their residence, the San Martín Palace, be blocked.
The preferable means of transportation to reach Florida Street from almost anywhere in the city, is the Buenos Aires Metro (subte, or underground). Five metro lines have stations within a short walking distance of Florida. Most bus lines reaching the downtown area have stops near Florida Street, as well.
The Retiro transportation hub, which maintains a terminal for long-distance buses and a railway station for three major lines, is located near the northern end of Florida, across Avenida del Libertador. Line C of the metro provides access to both Retiro and Constitución Stations.
- Florida group
- Tourism in Buenos Aires
- Obelisk of Buenos Aires
- Teatro Colón
- Tourism in Argentina
- List of upscale shopping districts
- (Spanish) Calle Florida History: www.buenosaires.com
- "Desalojaron a manteros de Florida y cortaron Corrientes para protestar". Ámbito Financiero.
- "Los locales más buscados y más caros son los de Florida". La Nación.
- Goni, Uki (August 21, 2011). "Legendary Buenos Aires cafe to make way for Nike shop". The Guardian (London).
- "La calle de los cines se queda sin luces". La Nación.
- "El Kavanagh y sus 70 años de historias". La Nación.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Calle Florida.|
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SAN JOSE, Costa Rica — The streets were filled with colors: bold stripes of red and yellow, green and white, red and blue, or just plain red, each representing one of the plethora of Costa Rica's political parties.
But in the end it was the green and white of the incumbent centrist party that prevailed in this month's presidential elections. There would be no political shakeup, no veering to the left, or surprising turns back to the right. There were hardly even political extremes in play.
In a region where political passions run deep and where the split between left and right is often deeply entrenched, Costa Rica’s political nonchalance is something of an anomaly.
Academics have long debated why that is. What makes Costa Rica the so-called “Switzerland of Central America”? Why do Costa Ricans appear so cozy in the political center?
The answers, political scientists and election analysts say, are manifold: the lack of a military; a weak union movement; the inclusion of radical voices. In recent elections, candidates not from the mainstream parties moderated their views to compete.
Beyond Costa Rica’s borders, one needn’t look far for hard-line left-right demagoguery, and elections that contrast with Costa Rica’s recent proud, euphoric political exercise. There was mayhem just north of the border when Nicaraguans voted for their mayors in 2008. In the name of the leftist Sandinistas, gangs blocked the main streets of Managua and launched homemade bombs into the air. Intimidation and violence ruled.
Perhaps most important for Costa Rica was the abolishment of the military 60 years ago in the wake of a bloody 44-day civil war. "The fact that Costa Rica doesn’t have an army has enabled political and civilian forces to make the decisions,” said political sociologist Carlos Carranza. That hasn’t been the case for many of its neighbors, countries that have seen their share of coups, de facto regimes, dictatorships and dubious votes.
Outgoing President Oscar Arias, a free-trade advocate and Nobel Peace Prize winner, has pressed leaders across the globe to follow Costa Rica’s example and eliminate their armies or, at the very least, slash their massive defense budgets. His pitch: Throughout Latin American history, armies have done more harm than good, wielding unfettered control over their own populations. The armed oppression breeds extremism, so the argument goes.
But enduring peace is not the only reason. Neutrality requires taking bold steps to bring radicals into the discussion, which Costa Rican leaders did decades ago. Political negotiations with communist groups in the 1940s brought about such hallmarks of Costa Rica’s social democracy as the labor code and guaranteed public health care.
On the right, the extremist anti-communist Movimiento Costa Rica Libre, which came about in the early 1960s, was permitted to publish articles in a newspaper and hold gatherings in downtown San Jose.
None of these groups garnered much of a following, said Carranza, a professor at University of Costa Rica and National University.
Why hasn’t Costa Rica joined the march of Latin America’s left-wing resurgence, with the likes of Nicaragua, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela and other nations in the U.S.-bashing Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas?
In part, it's because Costa Rican leaders are more comfortable with their relationship with the U.S. and want more of it — not less — whether they're hoping for more companies like Intel to set up shop or to promote this country as an eco-traveler's paradise. They feel this approach pays off. In the political sphere, for example, Arias jumped at the opportunity when Washington called on moderate Costa Rica to mediate the Honduran crisis.
Another explanation is the death of the labor union movement, long a bastion of the left. In 1982, the communist Vanguardia Popular led what became a very unpopular banana workers’ strike. In response, the United Fruit Company — which was controversial but a huge employer nevertheless — picked up and left, taking jobs with it. It was devastating not only to the banana growing regions but also to the union movement.
Today only public employees enjoy a degree of union affiliation. In the private sector, Ticos align themselves with each company’s individual “Solidarity Association,” which aims to uphold workers’ rights but lacks the internationalist vision shared among left-wing union organizers.
A country of roughly 4.5 million, Costa Rica traditionally has counted on a moderate bipartisan political system, with the pendulum swinging ever so slightly from center-left to center-right, and back. Both the left and right made moves to unseat that balance in recent elections, but it was the centrist National Liberation Party that emerged victorious both times.
In 2006, left-winger Otton Solis campaigned on an anti-corruption, anti-CAFTA platform and nearly unseated Arias. But the left-of-center party still fell short, and depended largely on disenchanted voters. Much of its support didn't represent an ideological leftward swing, said Carlos Denton, owner of CID-Gallup.
In February's elections, the challenge came from the right with libertarian candidate Otto Guevara. Guevara jumped to 21 percent of the vote from only 8.5 percent in 2006. But few Costa Ricans understood his platform. “(Costa Ricans) don’t know what Libertarian is,” said Luis Haug, regional director of CID-Gallup.
Even Guevara’s campaign manager, Roger Retana, said the movement had to moderate its approach to capture votes. “Our thinking now is more flexible, more to the center, less dogmatic in ideological terms," Retana said before the elections. “Either we stay an ideological group that’s relatively small in legislative representation or we make the ideology more flexible."
Guevara ended up in third place behind Solis and winner Laura Chinchilla, who will become the country's first female president.
These days, Costa Rica’s moderation has analysts intrigued. They say there is a rise of the middle across the board, despite signs of consolidation of leftist power.
Although a conservative candidate recently unseated Chile’s longstanding left, it was Sebastian Pinera’s drift to the center that won him the most votes, said Marta Lagos, director of Chile-based Latinobarometro.
And even Chile’s “left” was very friendly to the United States with free market focus, according to Michael Schifter, vice president of Inter-American Dialogue, a Washington, D.C. think tank. “There is a leftist tradition but it looks to me like a lot of that in many countries has been moderated considerably,” he said. “I've long thought that these labels are less and less useful in really explaining what's going on in Latin America.”
Schifter said Uruguay’s recent election put a former left-wing guerrilla in office, but President-elect Jose Mujica will have a vice president with highly orthodox economic policies that could further moderate the country.
“There’s evidence that in Latin America the centrist electorate is growing,” said Lagos. “(The electorate) wants more of the state but more of the market as well.”
“It gives me the impression that democracy’s maturing,” she said.
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|Region||Jalpa de Méndez, Tabasco|
Ayapa Zoque (Ayapaneco), or Tabasco Zoque, is a critically endangered Zoquean language of Ayapa, a village 10 km east of Comalcalco, in Tabasco, Mexico. The native name is Nuumte Oote 'True Voice'. A vibrant, albeit minority, language until the middle of the 20th century, the language suffered after the introduction of compulsory education in Spanish, urbanisation, and migration of its speakers. As of 2011, only a handful of people still spoke Ayapaneco fluently, among them particularly Manuel Segovia (b. c. 1936) and Isidro Velasquez (b. c. 1942) were proficient speakers. In 2010 a story started circulating that the last two speakers of the Ayapaneco language were enemies and no longer talked to each other. The story was incorrect, and while it was quickly corrected it came to circulate widely.
Daniel Suslak, an Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Indiana University, is one of the linguists working to prepare the first dictionary of the language. Since 2012, the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) (also known as the National Indigenous Languages Institute) has been supporting the Ayapa community's efforts at revitalising their language. In 2013 Vodafone launched an advertisement campaign in which they claimed to have helped the community revitalize the language, the story was based around the erroneous story of the enmity between don Manuel and don Isidro. According to Suslak and other observers the actual help provided to Ayapan and the Ayapaneco language by Vodafone was extremely limited and did not address the actual necessities of the community.
- Ayapa Zoque at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Tabasco Zoque". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
- Jo Tuckman (2011-04-13). "Language at risk of dying out – the last two speakers aren't talking". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
- Suslak, D. F. (2011), Ayapan Echoes: Linguistic Persistence and Loss in Tabasco, Mexico. American Anthropologist, 113: 569–581. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2011.01370.x
- "Anthropology Department of the Indiana University". 2011-02-08. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
- Indiana University Minority Languages & Cultures of Latin America & the Caribbean Program
- National Indigenous Languages Institute (Spanish)
- Vocabulario de la lengua zoque de Tapijulapa (Spanish)
|This indigenous languages of the Americas–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|
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R EPUBLIC OF E CUADOR (L A R EPÚBLICA DEL E CUADOR ).
An independent state of South America, bounded on the north by Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the south by Peru, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The northwest corner of the state is crossed by the equator, hence its name.
No part of America has been so prominent for scientific explorations, specially geographic and physiographic, carried out on a large scale in the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth century. One, sent out in 1735 by the French Government for the purpose of measuring the meridian near the equator, recalls the names of La Condamine and Bouguer. The other (1790-1804) forever associates Alexander von Humboldt with the history of the New World.
Ecuador is the third smallest of the South American republics. It forms, approximately, an isosceles triangle wedged in between Colombia and Peru. Indenting the southwest coast is the Gulf of Guayaquil within which lies the large island of Puná. As in the case of other South American republics, the boundaries of Ecuador are ill-defined and subject to modification by treaty. Its area is variously given as from 80,300 to 152,000 sq. miles, to which must be added the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific, lying about 90°-92° west long., 10 degrees off the coast, and covering from 2490 to 3000 sq. miles. These islands are about ten in number, only one of which (Isabella or Albemarie) is inhabited by some two hundred people.
The eastern half of Ecuador is low, wooded, and traversed by many rivers emptying into the Marañon or Upper Amazon; the western is very mountainous, the high Andes chain dividing the two sections. The mountain chain runs nearly due south from the southern boundary of Colombia to the Peruvian frontier. It has a number of high peaks, all of volcanic origin, among them Chimborazo (20, 500 ft.) and many volcanoes. Of the latter, Cotopaxi (19,613 ft.), Tunguragua (16,690 ft.) and Sangai (17,454 ft.) are still active; Antisana (19,335 ft.); Pichincha (15,918 ft.), etc. have been extinct for a century or more, while Altar, Cotocachi, etc., show traces only of activity in ages long past.
The Ecuadorian table-land and higher mountain valleys are temperate, though the temperature is low in the greater altitudes. The year is divided into the dry and the wet season. Under the Equator, however, there is little difference between the seasons. The coast valleys and shores are very hot, and the climate generally unhealthful.
Ecuador has but one navigable river, the Guayas, which empties into the Gulf of Guayaquil. The other streams of Western Ecuador are of little importance. The flora is luxuriant except in high altitudes. Both lower slopes of the Andes are densely wooded. On the coast there is an arid zone of limited extent; the larger portion, however, is very fertile as far as the Peruvian boundary at Tumbez. The inland forests in the south are rich in Chicona bark, and extend easterly to a height of nearly 10,000 feet. Then follows a sub-Andean zone for the next 3500 feet, in which cereals thrive in an average temperature of from 53° to 59° Fahr. This is followed by what are called the páramos , cold and stormy wastes, treeless and exposed to daily snows, which reach an altitude of 15,000 feet above sea level, and where the tough puna-grass flourishes. On the eastern slope of the Andes dense forests are found again and the cinnamon tree. Animal life is tropical and found in proportion to the vegetation.
As far as known, Ecuador is fairly rich in minerals. It is the only South American state, with the exception of Colombia, where emeralds have been found in any quantity (near the coast at Manta and Esmeraldas); their location, however, is uncertain.
The population is estimated at 1,272,000, of whom about 20,000 are supposed to be Indians. Exact statistics, however, do not exist. Of the 400,000, one-half is allowed to the wild forest-tribes of the eastern section and the other half to the remnants of the diverse sedentary tribes which formerly occupied the table-land and coast. The whole country is divided into fifteen provinces besides the Eastern territory and the Galapagos Islands.
Of the pre-Columbian conditions and languages of the Indians of Ecuador little is known. The coast tribes have almost disappeared, and those of the higher regions have adopted Spanish customs. That they differed from the Peruvian Quicha seems likely. The best known were the Cañaris, the Carangas, and the Puruaes or Puruays; a tribe known as the Scyri is mentioned in the neighbourhood of Quito. They were all sedentary; knew how to work gold, silver, copper, and possibly bronze; and practiced the fetishism common to primitive Americans. The coast tribe built their houses of wood and cane while those of the interior used stone. They were skillful navigators, some of their vessels being estimated at thirty tons, and propelled by oars and cotton sails.
The Spaniards, led by Francisco Pizarro, first saw the coast of Ecuador in 1525. From Tacamez, or Atacames, where they touched, Pizarro dispatched Ruiz, his pilot, to the south. In the account of Pizarro we have the earliest description of the Ecuadorian coast and people. He sailed south beyond the present limits of Peru, verifying his pilot's reports, and in 1528 returned to Spain to prepare for the conquest of Peru. He returned in 1531, landed at Coaque, and, marching south along the shore, established himself, despite the hostility of the natives, on the island of Puná. The permanent Spanish occupation of Ecuador, however, began in 1534, from Piura to Peru under Sebastian de Belalcazar. He had a tedious campaign to Quito, in which he was assisted by Cañaris. In 1534, three towns were established; San Francisco de Quito (15 August) at Riobamba, thirteen days later transferred to its present site, Chimbo; and Guayaquil, also originally founded at a place distinct from the one it now occupies. Meanwhile Pedro de Alvarado had landed on the coast with a considerable force from Guatemala. Reaching the central plateau, he was confronted by Belalcazar and Diego de Almagro the elder . An amicable agreement was reached, and Gonzalo Pizarro pushed into the cinnamon country, but made little headway and had to turn back. His lieutenant, Orellana, however, floated down the Amazon, and landed on the Isle of Trinidad, whence he carries to Spain the first information about southeastern Ecuador.
The second epoch of civil wars in Peru, the uprising of Gonzalo Pizarro against the viceroy Nuñez de la Vela, came to an end with the defeat and death of the viceroy near Quito, 16 Jan., 1546. Quito became the headquarters of the Crown's representative, and with this as a basis, the independence movement was put down. During the colonial period the Church founded institutions of learning such as the University of Quito and established a printing press at the same place in 1760. Political disturbances were few, but during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries volcanic and seismic phenomena were frequent and often disastrous. An attempt was made in 1809 to overthrow the Spanish power, and Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela, together with the rest of Spanish South America, then engaged in efforts toward independence. In 1820 Guayaquil succeeded in throwing off Spanish control, and the battle of Pichincha (22 May, 1822) finally put an end to the domination of the mother country. Ecuador, with Colombia and Venezuela, next formed an independent confederacy until 1830, when the union was dissolved and the first Ecuadorian congress met. Since then Ecuador has been toward by internal dissensions and foreign complications, chiefly with Colombia. The opposing political parties are the Conservatives, or Clericals, and the Liberals. Since 1893 the latter have been in power and have to a great extent adopted a policy of secularization in church matters. From 1833 to 1908 Ecuador has had nineteen presidents.
Ecuador is a constitutional republic. From 1830 to 1883 it had no less than ten constitutions; the last was adopted in 1897. The executive head is the president, elected with the vice-president directly by the people for a term of four years. The senators (30) and the deputies (41) are also elected by direct vote, the former for four, the latter for two years. Congress meets biennially at Quito, the capital, on 10 August, and is in session for sixty days. The principal cities are: Quito (80,000); Guayaquil (51,000); Cuenca (30,000); Riobamba (18,000), and five of ten thousand or more inhabitants. Guayaquil is the chief seaport. In 1904 Ecuador had 168 miles of railroad and 2565 miles of telegraph, both of which have since been added to. The monetary unit is the sucre , about equal to the peso of other Spanish-American countries, but subject to fluctuation in value. The chief exports are cacao, vegetable ivory, india-rubber, and straw hats.
Educational statistics are scanty. There is a university at Quito with thirty-two professors and two hundred and sixteen students (1905). Institutions of higher education are found at Guayaquil and Cuenca. The number of secondary schools is 35; primary schools 1088 with 1498 teachers and 68,380 pupils; and 9 high schools and colleges.
Soon after the discovery of the country missionaries began their labour in Ecuador and in 1545 the Bishopric of Quito was erected. Work among the different Indian tribes on the tributaries of the Amazon was difficult, and the Dominican missions were destroyed in 1599 by the savage Jivaros. Later, however, the Dominicans re-established themselves and were assisted by the Jesuits who had been in Quito since 1596. By the close of the seventeenth century Ecuador was well-evangelized, but after the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, who on the Napo alone had thirty-three missions with 100,000 inhabitants, the Dominicans were unable to keep up the work and the natives fell back into paganism. The revolution destroyed all traces of two hundred years of untiring labour. Since 1848 Ecuador has formed an ecclesiastical province . The population is Catholic except for a small number of foreigners and a few pagan Indians in the East.
Up to 1861 the government was in the hands of the Liberal and largely anti-Catholic party. When Garcia Moreno was elected president (1861-65 and 1869-75), however, he reorganized civil and religious affairs. Under him a Concordat (20 November, 1863) was concluded with Rome, new dioceses were erected, schools and missions given to the Jesuits (who had been recalled), and others, and in 1864, at the time of the spolation of the Holy See, ten percent of the state's income was guaranteed to the pope. Moreno was murdered 6 Aug., 1875, and his death not only put an end to the concordat, but under the new regime which succeeded him a series of persecutions occurred. In 1885, when Bishop Schumacher took charge, nearly all the native clergy were suspended and replaced by Europeans and practically a new hierarchy established. The religious and moral education of the people was likewise in bad condition. The revolution of Alfaro in 1895 was a severe blow to the Church. The orders, among them the Capuchins, Salesians, Missionaries of Steyl, and the various sisterhoods, were all banished and Bishop Schumacher obliged to flee.
The State religion is the Catholic, but other creeds are not interfered with. Since tithes were abolished the State has provided for the maintenance of Catholic worship; it also supports religious educational institutions, such as the three seminaries at Quito and six elsewhere, one in each of the six dioceses. Civil marriage was recognized in 1902, and two years later the Church and its property were placed under State control. At the same time it was enacted that no new or foreign religious order would be permitted in the country. Suffragan to Quito, which became an archbishopric in 1848, are: Cuenca (1786), Guayaquil (1837), Ibarra (1862), Loja (1866), Puerto Viejo, or Porto Viejo (1871), Riobamba (1863). There are also four vicariates Apostolic subject to the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs: Canelos and Macas, Mendez and Gualaquizza, Napo, Zamora.
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
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Last week, NASA released a video titled "Why the World Didn't End Yesterday," in which they tried to put some rumors about the supposed 2012 apocalypse to rest.
The clip was dated December 22, a day after the alleged end of the world; however, it leaked or was accidentally published earlier.
Live Science posts 5 myths about the apocalypse that have no standing, the first of which is the theory that a solar storm will occur on December 21, ravishing the planet and killing us all.
Though an increase in solar storms and flares can influence our planet, peaks in solar activity, occurring every 11 years, will do nothing worse than perhaps damage satellites and temporarily affect telecommunications.
The Earth's magnetic poles will not switch places, the same publication notes. Though the phenomenon does occur over the course of hundreds of thousands of years, it wouldn't happen in one day.
A popular myth is that of Planet X, a mysterious celestial body that is set to collide with Earth. The concept of Planet X was popularized with the translation of an ancient Sumerian text in 1976. The manuscript identified the planet Nibiru, which allegedly orbits the sun every 3,600 years, which is why we have never spotted it before.
Nibiru's appearance was expected for 2003; however, the Mayan apocalypse scenario is the perfect setting for rumors about its existence to ignite our imagination. As NASA says, if it were on its course for Earth, it would be visible by now, so, if you still believe it exists, just look out the window.
The planets will not align this December, nor will that happen in the next few decades.
"Even if these alignments were to occur, their effects on the Earth would be negligible," a statement by NASA reads.
Last but not least, I will talk about the dreaded blackout. As I wrote before, people in China are buying a lot of candles these days, fearing a 3-day period of complete darkness. That period is between December 23 and 25, which means we would be spending Christmas in the dark.
The darkness would be a result of the alignment between the sun and the Earth, for the very first time in history. However, "there is no such alignment," NASA says.
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United States Department of State, U.S. Department of State Country Report on Human Rights Practices 1998 - Azerbaijan, 26 February 1999, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aa550.html [accessed 30 March 2015]
This is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States.
Azerbaijan is a republic with a presidential form of government. Heydar Aliyev, who assumed presidential powers after the overthrow of his democratically elected predecessor in 1993, was reelected in October in a controversial election marred by numerous, serious irregularities, violations of the election law, and lack of transparency in the vote counting process at the district and national levels. President Aliyev and his supporters, many from his home region of Nakhchivan, continue to dominate the Government and the multiparty 125-member Parliament chosen in the flawed 1995 elections. The Constitution, adopted in a 1995 referendum, established a system of government based on a division of powers between a strong presidency, a legislature with the power to approve the budget and impeach the President, and a judiciary with limited independence. The judiciary does not function independently of the executive branch and is corrupt and inefficient. After years of interethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis, Armenian forces and forces of the self-styled "Republic of Nargono-Karabakh" (which is not recognized by any government) continue to occupy 20 percent of Azerbaijan's territory. A cease-fire was concluded in 1994, and the peace process continues. Exchanges of fire occurred frequently along the Azerbaijan-Armenian border and along the line of contact with Nargono-Karabakh causing casualties, including some civilians. Military operations continued to affect the civilian population. There are 800,000 Azerbaijani refugees and internally displaced persons (IDP's) who cannot return to their homes. In the part of Azerbaijan that Armenians control, a heavily militarized ruling structure prevents ethnic Azerbaijanis from returning to their homes. In the part of Azerbaijan that the Government controls, government efforts to hinder the opposition continue to impede the transition to democracy. Police, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the Ministry of National Security are responsible for internal security. Members of the police committed numerous human rights abuses. Azerbaijan continued economic reform in 1998 and the economy is in transition from central planning to a free market. Economic growth has been spurred by substantial foreign investment in the hydrocarbon sector, but it is offset by a highly organized system of corruption and patronage. The country has rich petroleum reserves and significant agricultural potential. Oil and oil products are the largest export, followed by cotton and tobacco. Other key industries are chemicals and oil field machinery. The Government signed 5 oil production sharing agreements with foreign oil companies in 1998, bringing the total to 14. Agriculture employs 33 percent of the labor force and contributes 20 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP). The leading crops are wheat, fruit and vegetables, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Privatization of industry continues through auction sales of small- and medium-sized state-owned enterprises. Large enterprises remain almost exclusively under government control and operate at a fraction of their capacity. Accumulation of large wage arrears is common. Private retail enterprises, cotton gins, and grain mills are proliferating. About 90 percent of the nation's farmland is now in private hands, but new small farmers have poor access to credit and markets, and commercial agriculture remains weak. Per capita GDP is approximately $500 per year. Much of the labor force is employed by the state sector where wages are low. The overall economic situation of the average citizen remains tenuous, although in urban areas a growing moneyed class with trade and oil-related interests has emerged. According to the World Bank, 60 percent of the citizens live in poverty. Economic opportunity for the average citizen still depends largely on connections to the Government. Severe disparities of income have emerged that are partly attributed to patronage and corruption. The Government's poor human rights record improved in a few areas, but government actions toward the end of the year negated some of the positive developments, and serious problems remain. Police beat persons in custody, arbitrarily arrested and detained persons, and conducted searches and seizures without warrants. In most instances, the Government took no action to punish abusers, although perpetrators were prosecuted in a few cases. In a variety of separate incidents, the Government arrested and opened criminal proceedings against approximately 40 members of opposition parties. Prison conditions remained harsh. The judiciary is corrupt, inefficient, and subject to executive influence. Corruption continued to pervade most government organs, and it is widely believed that most persons in appointed government positions and in state employment generally purchase their positions. The Government holds an estimated 75 political prisoners. The Government infringed on citizens' privacy rights. The Government eased restrictions on freedom of speech and the press. After open discussion in the press, the Government abolished censorship in August. Scores of opposition and independent newspapers continued to publish and discuss a wide range of sensitive domestic and foreign policy issues. However, the Government cracked down on the media later in the year in the postelection period. The Government continued to deny broadcast licenses to several organizations applying to open independent television and radio stations. The Government restricted freedom of assembly, association, religion, and movement when it deemed it in its interest to do so. Police suppressed or refused to allow many peaceful public demonstrations, while allowing others to occur. Opposition political parties carried on open and vigorous public activities in the months leading up to the election. In August-September, the Government allowed a number of public demonstrations, and closed its criminal investigation of eight prominent figures from opposition parties. After these positive steps, the Government clamped down on freedom of assembly after the election. The Government tolerated the existence of many opposition political parties, although it continued to refuse to register some of them. The Government continues to restrict citizens' ability to change their government peacefully. Although the Government passed an improved election law, the presidential election was marred by many irregularities, and a number of international and independent organizations concluded that it did not meet international standards. The Government was critical of certain domestic human rights activists, although it was open to limited dialog with domestic and international human rights organizations. Societal discrimination and violence against women and discrimination against certain ethnic minorities are problems. Cease-fire violations by both sides in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict continued. They resulted in injuries and deaths among combatants and civilians, and the taking of prisoners, including civilians. Insurgent Armenian forces in Nargono-Karabakh and the occupied territories continued to prevent the return of IDP's to their homes. This restriction resulted in significant human suffering for hundreds of thousands of persons.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:
a. Political and Other Extrajudicial Killing
There were no reports of political or other extrajudicial killings. There has been no action by the Government in the killing of opposition Azerbaijan Popular Front Member of Parliament Shakhmerdan Jafarov in July 1995. Three police officers were convicted and given prison sentences ranging from 6 to 7 years for fatally assaulting detainee Jamal Aliyev in 1994 in order to force a confession. There have been no further confirmed developments in the cases of the death of Firuz Gurbanov in August 1997, after which a police official was arrested, or in the death of Samir Zulfugarov in Baku in August 1997 where a police official reportedly was under investigation in connection with the death. Cease-fire violations by both sides in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resulted in the death and injury of civilians.
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances. All sides to the Nargono-Karabakh conflict still detain prisoners. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) visited 11 persons held in relation to this conflict, 6 held by Azerbaijan, and 5 held by Nagorno-Karabakh authorities. Azerbaijan holds both soldiers and civilians. The ICRC repeatedly asked the concerned parties for notification of any person captured in relation to the conflict, access to all places of detention connected with the conflict, and release of all such persons. The ICRC also urged the parties to provide information on the fate of persons reported as missing in action. The Government has presented to the ICRC a list of 856 persons allegedly held by the Armenians, but there was no information on further revision of the list during the year.
c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Torture is illegal; however, there are credible reports that the police practice of beating prisoners during arrest, interrogation, and pretrial detention was widespread. On at least three occasions, police or other government officials beat journalists (see Section 2.a.). Prison conditions are harsh. The quality of food, housing, and medical care is poor. Prisoners must rely on their families to procure food and medicine. There are widespread and credible reports that authorities deny or give inadequate medical treatment to prisoners with serious medical conditions. Authorities severely limit opportunities for exercise and visits by family members of prisoners in security prisons. The family of Kenan Gurel convicted of participating in a coup attempt continues to report that he was receiving inadequate medical treatment. Human rights organizations were able to visit prisons on several occasions. However, the Government continued to deny the ICRC access to prisons except those where persons held in relation to the Nargono-Karabakh conflict were detained. Various embassies have petitioned the Government for permission to visit all prisons. In general the Government denies access to detainees held in security prisons that hold both high risk common criminals and high risk persons sentenced for crimes with a political connection, for example, persons sentenced in connection with coup attempts and military mutinies.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
Authorities arbitrarily arrest and detain persons without legal warrants. Often authorities do not notify family members after arrests. Frequently, it is days before family members are able to obtain information as to whether authorities have arrested someone and where authorities are holding the detainee. Family members do not enjoy the right of visitation. Authorities generally deny bail to detained individuals and often do not inform detainees of the charges against them. There is no legal protection concerning the right of detainees to be charged or released within a certain period of time, or for accused persons to receive an expeditious trial. Access to lawyers is often poor. In the past, police sometimes detained relatives of suspects being sought in an attempt to force the family to reveal a suspect's whereabouts (see Section 1.f.). During the year, police arrested at least 40 members or supporters of opposition parties who were participating in peaceful demonstrations. All were released, but 21 had criminal charges lodged against them that were still pending at year's end. Police also briefly detained journalists (see Section 2.a.). The Government continued to harass parties critical of the Government by arbitrarily arresting party members, including close associates of opposition party leaders. The Government arrested an aide to the chairman of the Popular Front Party, accusing him of illegal possession of a pistol and hand grenade that independent observers believe were planted. It arrested two other associates of the Popular Front Party chairman at a demonstration in November. The Government continues to detain without charge a deputy director of a state oil refinery previously run by Rasul Guliyev, a former chairman of the Parliament now living abroad whom the Government accuses of large-scale embezzlement. The detainee's family claims that he has a heart condition and was being denied adequate treatment. The actions taken against some of Guliyev's relatives were politically motivated. At year's end, the political detainees also included the nephew of Rasul Guliyev. At year's end, an aide to opposition leader Isa Gambar was still detained for political reasons and had not been brought to trial. A relative of Gambar, previously detained for political reasons and charged with failure to notify the Government of a crime was convicted and sentenced to 3 years in prison (see Section 1.e.). The Government does not practice forced exile.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The Constitution provides for a judiciary with limited independence; however, notwithstanding constitutional provisions for judicial independence, judges do not function independently of the executive branch. The judicial system is subject to the influence of executive authorities and has been widely seen as corrupt and inefficient. The President appoints Supreme and Constitutional Court judges, subject to confirmation by Parliament. The Government established the Constitutional Court and appointed judges to it. The President directly appoints lower level judges with no requirement for confirmation. Courts of general jurisdiction may hear criminal, civil, and juvenile cases. District and municipal courts try the overwhelming majority of cases. The Supreme Court also may act as the court of first instance, depending on the nature and seriousness of the crime. The Government organizes prosecutors into offices at the district, municipal, and republic level. They are ultimately responsible to the Minister of Justice, are appointed by the President, and confirmed by Parliament. The Constitution prescribes equal status for prosecutors and defense attorneys before the courts. In practice, however, prosecutors' prerogatives still outweigh those of defense attorneys. Investigations often rely on obtaining confessions rather than obtaining evidence against suspects. No judge has dismissed a case based on a prisoner's claim of having been beaten. Cases at the district court level are tried before a panel consisting of one judge and two lay assessors. The judge presides over and directs trials. Judges frequently send cases unlikely to end in convictions back to the prosecutor for "additional investigation." Such cases may be either dropped or closed, occasionally without informing either the court or the defendant. The Constitution provides for public trials except in cases involving state, commercial, or professional secrets, or matters involving confidentiality of personal or family matters. The Constitution provides for the presumption of innocence in criminal cases and for numerous other rights, including an exclusionary rule barring the use of illegally obtained evidence and for a suspect's right to legal counsel, to be informed immediately of his legal rights, and of the charges against him. However, the Government has not made significant efforts to enforce these rights throughout the criminal justice system. Defendants may confront witnesses and present evidence. The court appoints an attorney for indigent defendants. Defendants and prosecutors have the right of appeal. The Government has generally observed the constitutional provision for public trial. Foreign and domestic observers generally were able to attend trials. Opposition political parties and NGO's credibly estimate that the Government held about 75 political prisoners at year's end, a reduction apparently reflecting a combination of releases of some prisoners in a general amnesty and completion of jail sentences for others. The Government continues to assert that it holds no political prisoners. Nonetheless, the Government continued to convict and imprison persons for political reasons. For example, the Government sentenced a student member of the Popular Front Party to 18 months in prison. The student authored a document outlining a strategy of popular resistance to the Government that police retrieved from a computer hard drive, but the document was never published and the party disavowed it. The Government used the document to launch a 3-week media campaign against opposition parties in May and June. On June 2, a military court sentenced three persons, two of them members of a political party affiliated with former parliamentary speaker Rasul Guliyev (see Section 1.d.) that the Government has refused to register, to terms of 9, 5, and 2 years' imprisonment for falsely accusing the Minister of the Interior of trying to entrap them in a plot against the President. A court sentenced a relative of Musavat party chairman Isa Gambar to 3 years in prison for allegedly failing to inform authorities of a crime.
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence
The Government infringed on these rights. The Constitution provides for secrecy of correspondence and telephone conversations, subject to limits provided by law in criminal investigations or in prevention of a crime. The Constitution allows searches of residences only with a court order or in cases provided by law. However, citizens widely believe that the Ministry of National Security monitors telephones, especially those of foreigners and prominent political and business figures. Police often conducted searches without a warrant, and investigations sometimes resulted in confining the individuals to their city of residence or a brief jail sentence for questioning. There were credible allegations that police continued to intimidate and harass family members of suspects. There were credible reports that individuals linked to opposition parties were fired from their jobs (see Section 2.b.).
Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The Constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press and specifically outlaws press censorship; however, the Government in some cases did not respect these rights in practice. The Government gradually eased press censorship and then abolished censorship in August. Nonetheless, government actions created an atmosphere in which journalists exercised self-censorship. Prominent politicians criticized the Government without reprisal; however, in one case, former president Elchibey was charged with slander after he accused the President of having helped organize a terrorist organization during the Soviet era. The charges were dropped in early 1999. While the press debated a wide variety of sensitive topics for part of the year, a limited form of censorship somewhat restricted the public's ability to be informed about and discuss political issues. Most newspapers are printed in the Government's publishing house. Until August they had to submit their copy to government censors. However, the censors tended to be inconsistent in exercising their power to prevent publication. The Government's near monopoly of publishing facilities and its control over the price of newsprint gave it leverage over the press, a critical matter given the precarious finances of most opposition newspapers. In April the Cabinet issued new licensing requirements for all print and broadcast media, but the enforcement and effect of this measure was not clear at year's end. In February police, citing no legal authority, seized all remaining issues of the monthly magazine Monitor from newsstands, claiming, along with other government officials, that an article in that issue contained material insulting to the Azerbaijani nation. Three individuals then sued the magazine for defaming the Azerbaijani nation. The court awarded a punitive fine on the magazine exceeding that demanded by the prosecution, which has since prevented the magazine from publishing. In addition, according to the Human Rights Watch annual report, in April the Minister of Internal Affairs sent journalists from the Monitor a letter demanding that they retract an article on torture published in the February issue that police had seized. In November senior government officials brought libel suits and demanded large punitive damages against the two largest opposition newspapers for articles they claimed were defamatory. The court decided against the newspapers, but as of year's end, the newspapers were appealing their cases; no fines had been paid; and no newspapers were closed. Police or other government officials beat a journalist in February. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, police attacked 34 journalists as they were reporting on an opposition rally in Baku on September 12 and also attacked 4 journalists as they were protesting peacefully the defamation trial against Yeni Musavat on November 13. There were no further developments in the beating of a journalist in 1996. In 1997 the investigation was reported as continuing, but no charges had been brought. The independent and opposition press played an active, influential role in politics. Articles critical of government policy and high government figures, including the President, and discussing sensitive areas of domestic and foreign policy, appeared routinely in the opposition and independent print media. Newspapers and broadcast media openly discussed censorship itself prior to its abolition. A large number of newspapers continued to publish. One reliable source put the number of registered newspapers at 375, and the number actually publishing at nearly 100. These included independent newspapers and newspapers with links to major and minor opposition parties. Government-run kiosks and independent news distributors distributed opposition and independent newspapers. However, the Government tightly controlled official radio and television, the source of information for much of the population. Opposition parties had virtually no access to the official electronic media, except for television spots for registered presidential candidates during the election campaign. The Government periodically used state television to conduct campaigns of denunciation and harassment against political parties and leaders critical of the Government. There are a limited number of private television stations, whose broadcasts can be received only in Baku or in local areas outside the capital. Independent radio, preferred by the overwhelming majority of listeners, is largely entertainment oriented, but one independent station airs political topics, although news is only a small portion of its program. Government newspapers made a number of references to the ethnic affiliation (Jewish) of the director of the Azerbaijani service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) in the context of criticizing RFL/RL for unbalanced coverage of events in the country(see Section 5). The Ministry of Justice continued to deny registration to 15 independent television stations, 13 of which did not broadcast. Six independent television stations operate in Baku and other regions. Four of six independent television stations operating outside of Baku were ordered to close; they are now rebroadcasting but without frequency licenses.Several foreign television stations and radio programs are rebroadcast locally through Azerbaijani facilities and are seen and heard in most parts of the country. The Government shut down for 2 weeks the local retransmission of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in April; however, broadcasts were also available on short-wave bands during the shutdown. There are no restrictions on reception of foreign stations via satellite. The Government granted no new broadcast licenses this year, despite several applications that remained pending. Of the three stations licensed since 1993, one television station is aligned with the Government, and one television and one radio station are entertainment oriented. The Government has limited Internet access by licensing only two Internet providers and denying transmission licenses to several others. Appointments to government-controlled academic positions are heavily dependent on political connections. Nevertheless, several professors with tenure are active in opposition parties. There were no complaints of violation of academic freedom or of censorship of books or academic journals. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association The Constitution provides for freedom of assembly; however, the Government restricts this right when it decides that it is in its interest to do so. Authorities frequently prevented political parties critical of the Government from conducting indoor congresses and meetings as well as outdoor gatherings. However, the Government eased these restrictions beginning in May as preparations began for the October presidential elections and allowed limited freedom of assembly. The Government permitted opposition parties and presidential candidates to organize some rallies but cited questionable security considerations to divert the rallies from the sites of their choice. It refused to allow other demonstrations. In August, for example, the Government allowed the opposition to hold a rally but insisted that it take place on the outskirts of Baku rather than in the downtown area as rally organizers had requested. Police briefly detained over 300 persons proceeding to the rally or who engaged in unsanctioned pickets of government buildings associated with the rally. In November the Government reapplied serious restrictions on freedom of assembly in the context of opposition parties' contesting the results of the flawed presidential elections. The crackdown began following a November 6 speech by President Aliyev in which he warned the opposition to act within constitutional limits (see Section 3). Police used force to disperse a peaceful, opposition demonstration on November 7, after denying the participants permission to hold the demonstration. Seven participants in that rally were tried on criminal charges and given suspended sentences. The Government gave a permit for another opposition rally on November 8 that proceeded peacefully until unknown persons attacked rally leaders. Four participants in that rally were arrested and sentenced to jail terms of up to 3 years; 10 others were convicted and received suspended sentences. None of the attackers has been arrested, despite the fact that the faces of the attackers apparently were recorded on film. The Government permitted no more public demonstrations during the remainder of the year. On November 13, the Parliament passeda law on public assembly giving authorities wide latitude to regulate and ban demonstrations. Authorities used the law to deny permits for several demonstrations by parties critical of the Government on the grounds that they would "disrupt stability" or threaten public order. Police dispersed demonstrations on at least 2 occasions in September and November by force and briefly detained over 100 persons participating in those demonstrations. The Government provides for freedom of association; however, it restricted this right when it decided that it was in its interest to do so. The Government requires political parties to register. There are over 30 registered political parties. Some of these are affiliated with or support the President's party. At least 10 registered parties are considered opposition parties. There are at least three opposition parties that the Government continued to refuse to register. The Supreme Court, without explanation, reversed its 1997 ruling that the Azerbaijan Democratic Party should be registered. Nevertheless, unregistered political parties continued to function openly, and members of unregistered political parties can run for president but must be sponsored by a registered party or an independent "voters initiative group." Members of unregistered parties may run for Parliament, but only as independents in a direct constituency, not on a party list. A party must be registered to run a list of candidates. Reports of harassment, including beatings, of political figures continued. There were credible reports that individuals linked to opposition parties were fired from their jobs. The Government did not return the Popular Front's headquarters nor many of its regional offices, which were seized in 1993. Explicitly ethnically or religiously based parties were prohibited from participating in past elections. The Government generally allowed private associations to function freely. The Ministry of Justice requires private organizations to register but did not grant this registration freely and expeditiously. It denied or unduly delayed registration for numerous private voluntary organizations, including three private human rights organizations. Nevertheless, unregistered associations functioned openly.
c. Freedom of Religion
The Constitution allows persons of all faiths to practice their religion without restrictions, and the Government respects this provision in practice for Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, Russian Orthodox Christians, and Jews; however, a law on foreigners and stateless persons contains language that prohibits religious "propaganda" by foreigners. This provision was reinforced by a presidential decree in 1997. There is no state religion. The law on religion subordinates all Islamic religious organizations to the Azerbaijan-based Spiritual Directorate of Caucasus Muslims. This law also permits the production, importation, and dissemination of religious literature only with the agreement of local government authorities. In one case, officials stopped the importation of a shipment of religious literature by a private individual not associated with a local congregation. The Ministry of Justice requires that religious congregations be registered. It continued to deny registration to a foreign Christian group but allowed it to continue to function during the year. Registration enables a religious organization to maintain a bank account legally, rent property, and generally to act as a legal entity. Lack of registration makes it harder, but not impossible, for a religious group to function. Non-Orthodox Christian groups complained credibly of official harassment. Police in July detained approximately 40 persons belonging to the Word of Life religious group after they held a religious meeting in a private apartment. Nine Azerbaijanis and three foreign nationals were found guilty of holding an "illegal religious gathering" and were fined. One of the foreigners was expelled from the country. During 1996 and 1997, articles appeared in progovernment and independent newspapers crudely depicting non-Orthodox Christian missionary groups as a threat to the nation; however, in 1998 the number of such articles declined to near zero. Because of anti-Armenian sentiment and the forced departure of most of the Armenian population, Armenian churches remained closed. The Jewish community has freedom to worship and conduct educational activities and, during the year, enjoyed the public support of the Government. There was no further action in the 1997 case where an official in the Baku city prosecutor's office struck two Jehovah's Witnesses during questioning. Although the official was dismissed from the case, no action was taken against him. There is some evidence of strong prejudice against ethnic Azerbaijanis who have converted to Christianity. Some government bias against foreign missionary groups persists. Nevertheless, a number of these groups continue to function.
d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign Travel, Emigration, and Repatriation
The Constitution provides for the right of citizens to choose freely their place of domicile and to travel abroad and return, and the Government generally respects these provisions, although at times it limited the movement of members of opposition parties. Residents of border areas in both Azerbaijan and Iran travel across the border in this restricted zone without visas. Foreigners and citizens require a visa to travel to the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan. In the past, there were reports that local officials denied passports to members of the Armenian minority (see Section 5). In August the Government ended a criminal investigation and lifted an associated travel ban, which had been in effect for several years, against eight members of opposition parties, including Musavat party chairman Isa Gambar and Musavat party deputy chairman Sulheddin Akper. Until August these persons were prohibited from traveling outside the capital. Former president Elchibey was prevented from traveling outside Baku for approximately 2 months while under investigation and on trial for insulting the President; the charges were dropped in early 1999. The Government officially recognizes freedom of emigration. Jewish emigration to Israel is unrestricted. However, with the majority of those who wish to emigrate already having left, the number of Jewish emigrants is now small. The remaining Armenian population in Azerbaijan (other than Armenians residing in the Nargono-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan) is approximately 10,000 to 20,000, mostly persons of mixed descent or in mixed marriages. While official government policy is that ethnic Armenians are free to travel, low-level officials seeking bribes have harassed Azerbaijani citizens of Armenian origin wishing to emigrate or obtain passports. There were no draft notifications that restricted movement during the year. Draft-age men must obtain documents from military officials before they can leave for international travel. The number of refugees and internally displaced persons from the Nargono-Karabakh conflict is approximately 800,000. Armenians have settled in parts of the occupied territories. However, Armenians have not allowed the hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijanis who were forced out of the now-occupied territories to return to their homes. The Government provides almost no assistance to these persons, who rely on donations from foreign countries. Most of these internally displaced persons continue to live in camps and other temporary shelters, often at below-subsistence levels, without adequate food, housing, education, sanitation, or medical care. The parties to the conflict have cut normal trade and transportation links to the other side, causing severe hardship to civilians in Nargono-Karabakh, Armenia, and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan. The Constitution provides for political asylum consistent with international norms. The Government is receptive to international assistance for refugees and internally displaced persons. It cooperates with international organizations to provide aid for them. The Government cooperates with the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees. The issue of the provision of first asylum did not arise. There were no reports of the forced expulsion of persons with a valid claim to refugee status. The case of the two Iraqi refugees ordered to leave in 1996 remained pending at year's end awaiting refugee processing to travel to a third country.
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government
In theory the election law and Constitution allow citizens to change their Government by peaceful means; however, the Government continues to restrict citizens' ability to change their government peacefully by interfering in elections. Azerbaijan is a republic with a strong presidency, and a legislature that the Constitution describes as independent. However, in practice the legislature's independence from the executive is marginal. The Parliament exercises little legislative initiative independent of the executive. As a result of the flawed 1995 parliamentary elections, the New Azerbaijan Party led by President Aliyev, along with other parties and nominally independent deputies loyal to the President, occupy the overwhelming majority of seats in the 125-member Parliament. Parties considering themselves as belonging to the opposition hold 14 seats. Opposition parties continued to be active outside the Parliament, agitating for their views in their newspapers and through public statements. However, the Government continued to deny registration to at least three opposition parties (see Section 2.b.). The 1995 Constitution required the formulation of a municipal election law and the holding of municipal elections by November 1997. However, municipal elections were not held by the constitutionally mandated date and, as of year's end, such a law still had not been passed. The Government now has promised to hold municipal elections in 1999. Parliamentary by-elections in July were marked by multiple voting by heads of families and ballot stuffing. The Government annulled the result in one district due to the high level of fraud. In preparation for the October presidential election, the Government amended the election law to take broad account of recommendations of international organizations, including the OSCE. However, the Government took limited account of the international community's advice on election commissions. The OSCE/ODIHR final report noted that the law addressing the central election commission "influenced the entire structure and performance of the election administration" and undermined public confidence "in the election process and its integrity." Five would-be opposition presidential candidates cited the belief that the election would not be fair and that the election commissions would not be impartial and boycotted the election. However, one moderate opposition leader and four other candidates ran against the incumbent president. The October 11 presidential election was an improvement over the July by-elections, especially in regard to reduced multiple voting and the presence of domestic observers. However, some domestic and international observers witnessed ballot stuffing and irregularities in vote counting, and some were barred from observing the vote counting. Neither domestic nor international observers were allowed to monitor the compilation of the national vote totals. The observed irregularities and lack of transparency in vote counting led to serious doubts about the accuracy of the 76 percent of the vote officially recorded for President Aliyev. International observers, including the OSCE/ODIHR, concluded that the election did not meet international standards. Courts did not give serious consideration to the complaints filed by runner-up E'tibar Mammedov, who charged that the President did not receive the necessary two-thirds vote to avoid a run-off. The Central Election Commission did not publish vote totals of election districts within the time period required by the election law, and by year's end, it had not published vote totals for election precincts, as prescribed by the election law. . During and prior to the election campaign, the Government took a number of steps to improve the election and overall political environment. In addition to the Government's amending the election law, it abolished press censorship (see Section 2.a.), ended the criminal investigation of certain opposition figures (see Section 2.b.), allowed the opposition to conduct some rallies, and gave registered opposition presidential candidates access to state broadcast media. On the other hand, state media's reporting on the election was biased heavily in favor of the President. The Central Election Commission and local commissions were insufficiently representative and did not function impartially. The Government did not fully respect freedom of assembly (see Section 2.b.). The Government did not carry out the constitutional mandate to conduct municipal elections. Furthermore, after the presidential election, as the opposition contested the validity of the election, the Government reversed course and allowed no more public demonstrations and launched several lawsuits against opposition and independent newspapers (see Sections 2.a. and 2.b.). There are no legal restrictions on women's participation in politics. However, traditional social norms restrict women's roles in politics. In past elections, and in the July parliamentary by-elections, in a practice known as family voting, men often cast the votes of their wives and other female members of their families. In the October presidential election, this practice was seen less often. There are 11 female Members of Parliament and 2 women with ministerial rank. There are no restrictions on the participation of minorities in politics as individuals. However, explicitly ethnically or religiously based parties were prohibited from participating in past elections (see Section 2.b.). Members of indigenous ethnic minorities such as Talysh, Lezghis, and Kurds occupy some senior government positions.
Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
Several human rights organizations monitor the human rights situation in the country. For the most part, the Government posed no objections to international human rights groups. Some of these groups investigate human rights abuses and disseminate their findings through the media. However, the Government has been critical of certain domestic human rights activists who have raised politically sensitive issues. The Government has demonstrated a limited willingness to discuss human rights problems with international and domestic nongovernmental organizations (NGO's). The ICRC has had access to prisoners of war as well as civilians held in relation to the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. However, the ICRC has requested and been denied access to prisoners not related to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict being held in special security and other prisons. Government officials occasionally criticize human rights activists. The chief prosecutor threatened the chairman of the Azerbaijan Human Rights Center, Eldar Zeynalov, with criminal prosecution if he continued to claim that Azerbaijan held political prisoners. Zeynalov's organization continues these claims about political prisoners, and he has faced no legal action. A government newspaper in one case accused a representative of a human rights NGO of being a "foreign spy." The Ministry of Justice continued to deny registration to several local human rights NGO's, but the Government has not tried to halt their activities. Registration enables a human rights organization to maintain a bank account legally, rent property, and generally to act as a legal entity. Lack of registration makes it harder, but not impossible, for a human rights group to function. The ICRC conducted education programs on international humanitarian law for officials of the Ministries of Interior and Defense, and for university and secondary school students.
Section 5 Discrimination Based on Race, Sex, Religion, Disability, Language, or Social Status
The Constitution provides for equal rights without respect to gender, race, nationality or national origin, religion, language, social status, or membership in political parties, trade unions, or other public organizations. However, in the wake of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, there is widespread anti-Armenian sentiment in society. Preventing discrimination is not a major government priority. Women Discussion of violence against women is a taboo subject in Azerbaijan's patriarchal society. In rural areas, women have no real recourse against violence by their husbands, regardless of the law. Rape is severely punishable, but, especially in rural areas, only a small fraction of offenses against women are reported or prosecuted. Police statistics note 41 cases of rape in the first 9 months of the year. These figures probably reflect underreporting, especially from the conservative rural areas. There are no specific laws concerning spousal abuse or spousal rape. Women nominally enjoy the same legal rights as men, including the right to participate in all aspects of economic and social life. In general women have extensive opportunities for education and work. However, traditional social norms continue to restrict women's roles in the economy. Representation of women is sharply lower in higher levels of the work force. There are few women in executive positions in leading economic enterprises. Eighteen women's NGO's are registered and deal with the problems of women. The Association for the Defense of Rights of Azerbaijani Women spends most of its time fighting uniquely post-Soviet problems. It has helped divorced women, widows, and wives whose husbands are in prison, all of whom have become socially and legally vulnerable since the fall of the Soviet Union. It assisted widows whose landlords privatized their apartments and then evicted them. It also worked with divorced women who feel treated unfairly by divorce courts. Children The Constitution and laws commit the Government to protecting the rights of children to education and health. Difficult economic circumstances limit the Government's ability to carry out these commitments. Education is compulsory, free, and universal until the age of 17. The Constitution places children's rights on the same footing as those of adults. The Criminal Code prescribes severe penalties for crimes against children. The Government provides minimum standards of health care for children, although the quality of medical care overall has fallen significantly since the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Government has authorized subsidies for children in an attempt to shield families against economic hardship in the wake of price liberalization. The subsidies do not come close to covering the shortfall in family budgets, and the Government does not have the financial means to meet its commitments. There are a large number of refugee and displaced children living in substandard conditions in refugee camps and public buildings.Children sometimes beg on the streets of Baku and other towns. There is no known social pattern of abuse of children. People with Disabilities The law on support for the disabled, enacted in 1993, prescribes priority for invalids and the disabled in obtaining housing, as well as discounts for public transport, and pension supplements. The Government does not have the means in its current financial crisis to fulfill its commitments. There are no special provisions in the law mandating accessibility to buildings for the disabled. National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities The outbreak of hostilities and anti-Armenian riots in the final years of the Soviet Union led to the expulsion of many Armenians and the departure of others. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 Armenians still live in Azerbaijan, mostly in mixed Azerbaijani-Armenian families. Some have changed their nationality, as reported in their passports, to Azerbaijani. With the nearly complete departure of the Armenian population, the number of problems reported by this ethnic minority has decreased. Armenians have complained of discrimination in employment and harassment at schools and workplaces and of refusal of local government authorities to grant Armenians passports or pay pensions. Armenian widows have had permits to live in Baku revoked. However, some persons of mixed Armenian-Azerbaijani descent continue to occupy government positions. There are credible reports that ethnic Russians experience societaldiscrimination. Indigenous ethnic minorities such as the Talysh, Lezghis, Avars, and Georgians do not suffer discrimination. However, Meskhetian Turks displaced from Central Asia as well as Kurdish displaced persons from the Lachin region complain of discrimination. Jews do not suffer from discrimination, and the country is remarkably free from anti-Semitism. However, in a few isolated cases, government officials or those allied with the Government have used veiled anti-Semitic comments against perceived opponents for politically motivated reasons. For example, government newspapers made a number of references to the ethnic affiliation (Jewish) of the director of the Azerbaijani service of Radio Liberty in the context of criticizing Radio Liberty for unbalanced coverage of events in the country(see Section 2.a.). In the area of the country controlled by insurgent (Armenian) forces, the Armenians forced approximately 550,000 ethnic Azerbaijanis to flee their homes. The regime that now controls these areas effectively has banned them from all spheres of civil, political, and economic life.
Section 6 Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
Most labor unions still operate as they did under the Soviet system and remain tightly linked to the Government. The Constitution provides for freedom of association, including the right to form labor unions. However, one or another subbranch of the government-run Azerbaijani Labor Federation organizes most industrial and white-collar workers. Most major industries remain state-owned. An independent union of oil workers that was displaced by a progovernment union in 1997 has not been revived. In 1997 the state oil company formed a progovernment union, the Azerbaijan Union of Oil and Gas Industry Workers, which took over the former independent oil workers union without a vote of the union membership. It continues to operate without a vote of its rank and file workers. An independent group of oil workers, the Committee to Defend the Rights of Azerbaijani Oil Workers, operates outside of established trade union structures and promotes the interests of workers in the petroleum sector. The Constitution provides for the right to strike, and there are no legal restrictions on strikes or provisions for retribution against strikers. After a history of wildcat strikes in the oil industry in which some striking workers were fired, there were no reported strikes in that sector during the year. Oil workers continue to demand restoration of wage arrears amounting to several months pay. They do so internally but not through public protest. There are no established mechanisms to avoid wildcat strikes. Unions are free to form federations and to affiliate with international bodies; however, none has done so.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
A law passed in 1996 provides for collective bargaining agreements to set wages in state enterprises. A labor inspectorate was established in 1997. However, these laws have not produced an effective system of collective bargaining between unions and enterprise management. Government-appointed boards and directors run the major enterprises and set wages. Unions effectively do not participate in determining wage levels. In a carryover from the Soviet system, both management and workers are considered members of the professional unions. There are no export processing zones. Although there has been a United Nations Development Program-supported effort under way to create an economic zone in Sumgait since 1995, Parliament has not considered legislation to create such a zone.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The Constitution allows forced or compulsory labor only under states of emergency or martial law or as the result of a court decision affecting a condemned person. The Government has not invoked this clause. Two departments in the General Prosecutors Office (the Department of Implementation of the Labor Code and the Department for Enforcement of the Law on Minors) enforce the prohibition on forced or compulsory labor. There are no constitutional provisions or laws specifically prohibiting forced and bonded labor by children, but such practices are not known to occur. There were no reports during the year of compulsory cotton picking by children or adults.
d. Status of Child Labor Practices and Minimum Age for Employment
The minimum employment age is 16 years. Primary school education is compulsory, free, and universal. Children are normally in school until the age of 17. The law allows children between the ages of 14 and 15 to work with the consent of their parents and limits the workweek of children between the ages of 14 and 16 to 24 hours per week. Children at the age of 15 may work if the workplace's labor union does not object. There is no explicit restriction on the kinds of labor that 15-year-old children may perform with union consent. The Labor and Social Security Ministry has primary enforcement responsibility for child labor laws. With high adult unemployment, there have been few, if any, complaints of abuses of child labor laws. The Government does not specifically prohibit forced and bonded labor by children, but such practices are not known to occur (see Section 6.c.).
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
The Government sets the nationwide administrative minimum wage by decree. It is $3.00 (12,500 manat) per month. The wage is not sufficient to provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The recommended monthly wage level to meet basic subsistence needs was estimated to be $80 (310,000 manat). Since most persons who work earn more than the minimum wage, enforcingits low level is not a major issue in labor or political debate. The disruption of economic links with the rest of the former Soviet Union continues to affect employment in many industries. Idle factory workers typically receive less than half of their former wage. Under these conditions, many workers rely on the safety net of the extended family. More workers and unemployed persons turn to second jobs and makeshift employment in the informal sector, such as operating the family car as a taxi, selling produce from private gardens, or operating small roadside shops. Combinations of these and other strategies are the only way for broad sectors of the urban population to reach a subsistence income level. The legal workweek is 40 hours. There is a 1-hour lunch break per day and shorter breaks in the morning and afternoon. The Government attempts to enforce this law in the private sector ofregistered private businesses, but does not enforce these rules in the informal sector where the majority of citizens make their living. Health and safety standards exist, but they usually are ignored in the workplace. Workers cannot leave dangerous work conditions without fear of losing their jobs.
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Lumumba, Patrice Emergy
, 1925-61, prime minister (1960) of the Republic of the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). A member of the Batatele tribe, he was educated in mission schools and later worked as a postal clerk. He became a member of the permanent committee of the All-African Peoples Conference (founded in Accra, 1958) and president of the Congolese National Movement, an influential political party. After the uprising (Jan., 1959) in the Congo, he fled the country to escape arrest but soon returned. Late in 1959, accused of instigating public violence, he was jailed by the Belgians but was released (1960) to participate in the Brussels Congo conference, where he emerged as a leading negotiator. When the Republic of the Congo came into existence (June, 1960) Lumumba was its first premier and minister of defense. Shortly after independence, the army mutinied, the Belgian government flew in troops to protect Belgian citizens, and Katanga province declared its independence. Lumumba appealed for aid to the United Nations, which sent troops to reestablish order. In September, President Kasavubu
, his rival for power, dismissed him as prime minister and he, in turn, dismissed Kasavubu as president. Shortly afterward, Lumumba was put under house arrest by Colonel Mobutu
. Lumumba escaped but was recaptured and then flown (Jan., 1961), on orders from Mobutu and Kasavubu, to Katanga, where in February, it was announced that he had been killed. Riots of protest took place in many parts of the world.
See his Congo: My Country (1962) and Lumumba Speaks (ed. by J. van Lierde, tr. 1972); study by T. R. Kanza (1972).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright © 2004.
Licensed from Columbia University Press
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Foreign relations of Ethiopia
|This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
Many historians trace modern Ethiopia's foreign policy to the reign of Emperor Tewodros II, whose primary concerns were the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders, obtaining technology from Europe (or modernization), and to a lesser degree Ethiopian rights to the monastery of Dar-es-Sultan in the city of Jerusalem. Tewodros' diplomatic efforts, however, ended disastrously with the British expedition of 1868 which concluded with his death. Despite the efforts of his successor Emperor Yohannes IV to establish a relationship with the United Kingdom, Ethiopia was ignored by the world powers until the opening of the Suez Canal, and more important, the Mahdist War, drew outside attention to her once more.
The same major interests that Tewodros had—the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders and modernization—were once again foremost, as demonstrated by the outcome of the First Italo–Ethiopian War, Ethiopia's admission to the League of Nations (28 September 1923), and the 1935 Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Following the decisive Ethiopian victory at Adwa, Menelik II rapidly negotiated a series of treaties fixing Ethiopia's boundaries—with French Somaliland in March 1897, British Somaliland a few months later in June 1897, with Italian Eritrea in 1900, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1902, British East Africa in 1907, and Italian Somaliland in 1908—which simplified this problem on one level. Although Emperor Haile Selassie agreed to an agreement with the British government to help him restore order to Ethiopia, which benefited him in crushing the Woyane Rebellion, he worked to its eventual termination.
Following World War II, Ethiopia played an active role in regional and global politics. Ethiopia was a charter member of the United Nations and took part in UN operations in Korea in 1951 and the Congo in 1960. Former Emperor Haile Selassie I was also among the founders of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and served as one of a series of rotating OAU chairmen. Although nominally a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, after the 1974 revolution, Ethiopia also moved into a close relationship with the Soviet Union and its allies and supported their international policies and positions until a change of government in 1991.
Today, Ethiopia is a major economic partner of Djibouti and Sudan, although border demarcation negotiations are still ongoing with the Omar Al-Bashir administration. Relations with Somalia have also gradually improved, particularly since the establishment of a new government in Mogadishu. Ethiopia's dealings with Eritrea are extremely tense due to an ongoing border dispute between the two countries.
The Ethiopian government's relations with the U.S. and the West in general have been centered on military and economic cooperation. In addition, Ethiopia maintains diplomatic links with China, Israel, Mexico and India, among other countries. Addis Ababa also serves as the headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the African Union, as well as numerous other continental and international organizations.
Diplomatic relations between Ethiopia and Djibouti were established in 1984. The border between the two countries is based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897, which was later finalized in a protocol dated 16 January 1954 and rendered effective on 28 February of that year. In October 1991, the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation further solidifying relations. Since 1991, the two countries have signed over 39 protocol agreements.
Djibouti remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. On 13 April 2002, the two countries signed an agreement concerning the use of the Port of Djibouti and the transit of cargo, which was later ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 4 June of the same year. About 70% of the Port of Djibouti's activity consists of imports to and exports from neighboring Ethiopia, which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet. The port also serves as an international refueling center and transshipment hub. Additionally, both countries share ownership of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad.
As two of the oldest independent states in Africa, both countries have an ancient relationship in many forms. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was under the administration of the Coptic Orthodox Church from ancient times until 1959. Ethiopian and Egyptian armies clashed in the early 19th century over control of territory in what is modern Sudan, and Ethiopia's access to the Red Sea. Both countries established formal diplomatic ties in 1927. More recently, because both countries share a special relationship over the Nile basin, both are members of the Nile Basin Initiative.
- The boundary between these two countries is based on three treaties between Ethiopia and Italy, in 1900, 1902, and 1908. However no part of the shared boundary was afterwards demarcated.
- From 1950 until 1993, Eritrea was federated as part of Ethiopia. During much of this period, a number of Eritreans fought for independence from Ethiopia. The federation was ended with an April 1993 plebiscite which approved Eritrea's full independence.
- Disputes over Eritrea's border alignment led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998–2000), which was resolved by an independent boundary commission's delimitation decision in 2002. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored "human geography," made technical errors in the delimitation, and determined that certain disputed areas, specifically Badme, fall to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision. The peacekeepers monitoring the disputed boundary were forced to withdraw in July 2008 having considered their remaining options after experiencing serious difficulties in supporting its troops.
Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia date back to the 1954, when the Ethiopian authorities under Haile Selassie I established an Honorary Consulate General in the British Kenya Colony. In 1961, prior to Kenya's independence, Ethiopia appointed its first Ambassador to Kenya and six years later Kenya opened an Embassy in Addis Ababa.
The border between the two countries is based on a treaty signed by Ethiopia and Kenya on June 9, 1970, which determines the present-day boundary, abrogating all previous boundary treaties. This border has been subjected to demarcation.
During the South African occupation of Namibia, Ethiopia was one of the country's leading proponents abroad; Ethiopia and Liberia were the first two states to bring the question of independence for then South West Africa to the United Nations. Namibia gained independence in 1990 In 2007, the two governments signed an agreement which expanded air travel between the two states. In December 2009, Namibia's Foreign Minister, Marko Hausiku met with Ethiopian Foreign Affairs Minister Seyoum Mesfin and noted the economic, science, technical and cultural agreements in place between the two countries and expressed a desire to improve the trade relations.
Relations between the peoples of Somalia and Ethiopia stretch back to antiquity, to a common origin. The Ethiopian region is one of the proposed homelands of the Horn of Africa's various Afro-Asiatic communities.
During the Middle Ages, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gurey or Gragn) led a Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash), which brought three-quarters of the Christian Ethiopian Empire under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate. With an army mainly composed of Somalis, Many historians trace the origins of tensions between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.
In the 1960s and 1970s, a territorial dispute over the Ogaden region led to various armed confrontations between the Somalian and Ethiopian militaries. The tensions culminated in the Ogaden War, which saw the Somali army capture most of the disputed territory by September 1977, before finally being expelled by a coalition of communist forces.
With changes in leadership in the early 1990s brought on by the start of the Somali Civil War and Ethiopian Civil War, respectively, relations between the Somali and Ethiopian authorities entered a new phase of military cooperation against the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rebel group and its more radical successor Al-Shabaab. In October 2011, a coordinated multinational operation began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia; the Ethiopian military eventually joined the Transitional Federal Government-led mission the following month.
The Federal Government of Somalia was later established on August 20, 2012, representing the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. The following month, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected as the new Somali government's first President, with the Ethiopian authorities welcoming his selection and newly appointed Prime Minister of Ethiopia Hailemariam Desalegn attending Mohamud's inauguration ceremony.
Ethiopia and Sudan first established formal relations in 1956. Relations between Ethiopia and Sudan were very good following the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, due to the support that the Sudanese government had given to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. However, relations were strained for a time following the 26 June 1995 assassination attempt against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak as he was leaving the OAU summit meeting in Addis Ababa. The subsequent investigation revealed that Sudan was involved in this act, forcing the Ethiopian government to take a series of steps against Sudan that September, which included closing the Sudanese consulate in Gambela, reducing the number of Sudanese embassy staff, and terminating all Sudan Airways and Ethiopian Airlines flights between the two countries. However the start of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War led to Sudan and Ethiopia put this conflict between them and normalizing their relations by November 1999 when president Omar Hassan al-Bashir made a formal visit to Addis Ababa.
A protocol concerning Ethiopian access to Port Sudan was signed between the two countries 5 March 2000 in Khartoum, and this protocol and its subsequent amendment were ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 3 July 2003.
Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan were delayed by the Second Sudanese Civil War. In May 2008, residents along the western Ethiopian border reportedly discovered that the government had agreed to demarcate this boundary when Sudanese soldiers forced them out of their homes. It was reported that as many as 2,000 people were displaced in the Gambela Region, and the Sudanese army reportedly set fire to two dozen Ethiopian farms and imprisoned 34 people in the Amhara Region. However, Prime Minister Meles Zenawi publicly denied that any Ethiopians had been displaced by this agreement. Negotiations over this boundary continues, with the twelfth meeting of the Boundary Commission announced 28 December 2009 at Mek'ele, with Ethiopian representatives from the Tigray, Benishangul-Gumuz, Amhara and Gambela Regions, and from the Sudanese side representatives of the Upper Nile, Blue Nile, Sennar and Al Qadarif Administrations.
Despite these border tensions, Sudan remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian Petroleum Supplier Enterprise (EPSE), Ethiopia in April 2013 imported around $1.12 billion worth of oil from Sudan over the previous six months. In total, about 85% of Ethiopia's yearly oil consumption comes from Sudan via the Port of Djibouti. Ethiopia and Sudan are also in the process of linking their power grids.
|Country||Formal Relations Began||Notes|
|Denmark||See Denmark–Ethiopia relations|
|Finland||1959-07-17||See Ethiopia–Finland relations
|Ireland||1994||See Ethiopia–Ireland relations|
|Italy||1889||See Ethiopia–Italy relations
|Russia||1943-4-21||See Ethiopia–Russia relations
|Turkey||See Ethiopian–Turkish relations
|Country||Formal Relations Began||Notes|
|People's Republic of China||1970||See Ethiopia–People's Republic of China relations
Ethiopia has an embassy in Beijing and the People's Republic of China has an embassy in Addis Ababa. By 2009, direct Chinese investment in Ethiopia had reached US$900 million and bilateral trade had grown to $1.3 billion.
|India||1948||See India–Ethiopia relations
|Israel||1992||See Ethiopia–Israel relations|
|Japan||1930||See Ethiopia-Japan relations|
|Malaysia||See Ethiopia–Malaysia relations|
Palestine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
|Qatar||See Ethiopia-Qatar relations
|Country||Formal Relations Began||Notes|
|Canada||1956||See Canada–Ethiopia relations|
|Mexico||1949||See Ethiopia–Mexico relations
|United States||1903||See Ethiopia–United States relations
- Category:Ethiopian diaspora
- Foreign aid to Ethiopia
- List of diplomatic missions in Ethiopia
- List of diplomatic missions of Ethiopia
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- The political history of the Ethiopian community, and their struggle for ownership of this small monastery, is retold in Chris Proutky, Empress Taytu and Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 247-256
- Although Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).
- "Ethiopia - Djibouti relations", Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 9 October 2009)
- "Djibouti – Ethiopia Boundary", U.S. Department of State, International Boundary Study No. 154 – 20 February 1976
- "Ethio-Djibouti Utilization of Port of Djibouti and Services to Cargo in Transit Agreement Ratification Proclamation No. 284/2002" (Retrieved 13 July 2010)
- Bansal, Ridhima. "Current Development Projects and Future Opportunities in Djibouti". Association of African Entrepreneurs. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
- "Egyptian-Ethiopian relations". State Information Service.
- Findings of the UN Eritea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission
- United Nations Security Council Resolution 1827. S/RES/1827(2008) 30 July 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
- United Nations Security Council Document 226. Special report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea S/2008/226 7 April 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
- United Nations Security Council Document 145. Special report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea S/2008/145 3 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
- "Ethiopia - Kenya relations", Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (accessed 9 October 2009)
- "Ethiopia – Kenya Boundary", U.S. State Department International Boundary Study, No. 152 – October 15, 1975
- John Dugard (1973). The South West Africa/Namibia Dispute: Documents and Scholarly Writings on the Controversy Between South Africa and the United Nations. University of California Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-520-01886-0.
- Ethiopia, Namibia sign air transport agreement
- Ethiopia, Namibia working out to step up cooperation areas
- Levine, Donald N. (2000). Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0226475611.
- Saheed A. Adejumobi, The History of Ethiopia, (Greenwood Press: 2006), p.178
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc, Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 1, (Encyclopaedia Britannica: 2005), p.163
- John L. Esposito, editor, The Oxford History of Islam, (Oxford University Press: 2000), p. 501
- David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987).
- "Ethiopia Agrees to Back Somalia Military Operations, IGAD Says". Businessweek. 1 December 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
- "Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'". Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. 21 August 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
- Mohamed, Mahmoud (17 September 2012). "Presidential inauguration ushers in new era for Somalia". Sabahi. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
- "Ethiopia - Sudan relations", Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 9 October 2009)
- David H. Shinn, "Ethiopia: Coping with Islamic Fundamentalism before and after September 11" (last accessed 10 December 2008)
- "protocol Agreement on Port Sudan Utilization Ratification Proclamation No. 352/2003", "Amendment to the Protocol Agreement, on Port Sudan Utilization, Ratification Proclamation No. 35312003" (Retrieved 13 July 2010)
- Alisha Ryu, "Border Demarcation with Sudan Causes Anger in Ethiopia", Voice of America website, 5 June 2008 (Retrieved 3 April 2009)
- "Ethio-Sudanese Border Commission Meeting To Open Monday (December 28, 2009)", Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 28 December 2009)
- Tekle, Tesfa-Alem (30 March 2013). "Sudan: Ethiopia Imports $U.S.1 Billion in Fuel From Sudan Via Djibouti". Sudan Tribune. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
- Ethiopian Honorary Consulate in Prague
- Czech embassy in Ethiopia
- Denmark embassy in Ethiopia
- Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about Ethiopia
- Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about Germany
- http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Aussenpolitik/Laender/Laenderinfos/01-Laender/Aethiopien.html Federal Republic of Germany http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Aussenpolitik/Laender/Laenderinfos/01-Laender/Aethiopien.htmlForeign Office about Ethiopia
- Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about Italy
- Embassy of Italy in Addis Ababa (in English and Italian)
- Embassy of Ethiopia in Rome (in Italian)
- Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Romenian embassy in Addis Ababa
- Ethiopian Ambassador to Turkey: Ethiopia does not need political reform, Walta Information Center
- "Embassy of Ethiopia in P.R.China". Embassy of Ethiopia in P.R.China. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- "Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Ethiopia". People's Republic of China. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- "China’s direct investment to Ethiopia reaches (sic) $900mln". Ethiopolitics.com. 15 July 2009. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- Embassy of Ethiopia in Tel-Aviv
- Embassy of Israel in Addis Ababa
- "Bilateral relations", Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 28 December 2009)
- "Consulate General Office of Ethiopia, Kuala Lumpur". Ethiopia Consulat General Office. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
- "Ethiopia Major Trade Partners". Bridgat. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
- "Ethiopia: Malaysian company to set up 285mln birr mushroom farm establishment". Ethiopian Review. Fresh Plaza. 25 May 2009. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
- "Malaysian edible oil producer to build a large refinery in Ethiopia". Malaysian Palm Oil Council. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
- Embassy of Canada in Addis Ababa (in English and French)
- Embassy of Ethiopia in Ottawa
- Bilateral relations between Mexico and Ethiopia (in Spanish)
- Embassy of Mexico in Addis Ababa (in English and Spanish)
- Embassy of Ethiopia in Washington, DC
- Embassy of Ethiopia in Washington, DC
- US embassy in Addis Ababa
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Ethiopia's webpage
- A Tangled Political Landscape Raises Questions About African Ally of the U.S. by Michael Deibert, 12 June 2008
- Abdul Mohammed, "Ethiopia’s Strategic Dilemma in the Horn of Africa", Crisis in the Horn of Africa (Social Science Research Council website)
- "U.S. to Test Soviet 'New Thinking': Talks on Africa," The Christian Science Monitor, 4 May 1989.
- "Gorbachev's Holocaust: Soviet Complicity in Ethiopia's Famine", by Michael Johns, Policy Review, Summer 1988.
- Amare Tekle, "The Determinants of the Foreign Policy of Revolutionary Ethiopia", Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Sep., 1989), pp. 479–502
- Orobola Fasehun, "Nigeria and the Ethiopia-Somalia Conflict: A Case Study of Continuity in Nigerian Foreign Policy", Africa Spectrum, 17 (1982), pp. 183–193
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history of ChadA large measure of autonomy was conceded under the constitutional law of 1957, when the first territorial government was formed by Gabriel Lisette, a West Indian who had become the leader of the Chad Progressive Party (PPT). An autonomous republic within the French Community was proclaimed in November 1958, and complete independence in the restructured community was attained on Aug. 11, 1960....
Chadian political leader
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- Tanzania has Africa's highest mountain, 500 miles of coastline and 15 National Parks
- The country was formed by the union of Tanganyia and the islands of Zanzibar
- Serengeti National Park is famous for its annual migration of two million wilderbeest, gazelles, zebras
Home to Africa's highest mountain and one of its most famous wildlife parks, Serengeti, Tanzania is one of the continent's most popular tourist destinations.
It was recently listed by the New York Times as its number one place to go in Africa, with 783,000 visitors in 2010, according to a World Bank report published in 2012.
It is the largest country in East Africa, has abundant wildlife, 500 miles of coastline and 15 National Parks.
The United Republic of Tanzania was formed in April 1964 by the union of mainland Tanganyika and the Zanzibar archipelago. The archipelago consists of two large islands -- Zanzibar and Pemba -- and numerous smaller ones.
Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest peak in Africa at 5,895m, is one of seven Tanzanian sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Another is Serengeti National Park, known for its annual migration of two million wildebeests and hundreds of thousands of gazelles and zebras - followed by their predators. The migration is described by UNESCO as "one of the most impressive nature spectacles in the world."
The spectacular Ngorongoro Crater, the world's largest caldera, is part of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO heritage site listed for its natural and cultural significance.
Other UNESCO sites are Selous Game Reserve, listed for its natural beauty; Kondoa Rock-Art Sites, the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara and Stone Town of Zanzibar, all listed for their cultural significance.
Of these, the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara, the remains of two great ports booming between the 13th and 16th centuries, located on islands off the coast of Tanzania, is listed as a site in danger.
Alongside the natural attractions, Tanzania has a rich culture, both traditional and modern.
Zanzibar International Film Festival, also known as the Festival of the Dhow Countries, is East Africa's largest arts, design, music and film festival, with most events in Zanzibar's historic Stone Town.
Last year the festival attracted 150,000 visitors, including 7,000 from abroad, and included a race of traditional dhow sailing boats.
For a more traditional cultural celebration, MaKuYa Festival in the Mtwara region has been held every year since 2008, bringing together hundreds of traditional dancers and cultural events.
One of the country's longest-running festivals is the Bagamoyo Festival, held each year since 1982 by TaSUBa, formerly the Bagamoyo College of Arts. The TaSUBa Theatre, where it is held, is the largest performing arts venue in East Africa, and attracts musicians performing African music from reggae to roots to jazz.
An annual charity Goat Race held each year in Dar Es Salaam is based on a concept from Uganda and has raised more than 500 million Tanzanian shillings ($320,000) for charity over the past 11 years.
Tanganyika and Zanzibar had gained independence from Britain in 1961 and 1963 respectively.
Julius Nyerere, a key figure in the fight for independence, became the first president of Tanganyika in 1962 and remained head of Tanzania until 1985.
His successor, Ali Hassan Mwinyi, started a gradual process of economic liberalization and democratic reform and in 1992 the constitution was changed to allow for multiparty competition, according to the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
The current president President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete has been in power since 2005 and was elected for a second term in 2010.
Today, although Zanzibar is part of Tanzania, it has its own parliament and president and a growing movement for full independence.
Ismail Jussa, a local politician, said: "Right now there's a grand movement, not just both political parties of Zanzibar, religious groups, civil society organizations, members of academia, student organizations, all of us have come together to say it's high time Zanzibar sovereignty is restored and Zanzibar should be able once again to be in charge of its own destiny and plan its own future."
The Tanzanian people are split roughly equally in their beliefs, between 30% Christians, 35% Muslim and 35% with traditional beliefs, according to the CIA World Factbook. In Zanzibar, the population is more than 99% Muslim.
Most of the country's population is Bantu, consisting of more than 120 tribes, including Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga, Masai, Haya and Gogo.
The commercial center is Dar Es Salaam, with a population of 3.6 million in 2011, according to the United Nations Population Division.
The agency said that currently 12 million of Tanzania's 45 million population live in cities, and 33 million in rural areas.
However, it predicted that both the rural and urban populations will have grown to 69 million by 2050.
Despite its growing tourist industry, Tanzania is one of the world's poorest countries, with an economy that relies heavily on agriculture and employs 80% of the population, according to the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
The average life expectancy is just over 53 years, with the world's fourth highest death rate from HIV/AIDS, the CIA World Factbook said.
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Business and finance
RULING parties in Africa often have to answer as much to their donors as their citizens. A recent paper suggests that the government in Somaliland has become more accountable to its citizens because of the lack of aid.
Somaliland announced its secession from Somalia in 1991 and has operated as a more or less independent country ever since. It has its own president, parliament and constitution. It even boasts a central bank that prints its own currency, the Somaliland shilling. The peaceful existence of its three million mostly Muslim, but secular, residents contrasts sharply with the disorder and instability of Somalia. The world, however, has refused to recognise Somaliland. Reluctant to encourage other separatist movements, the West remains committed to supporting the embattled Transitional Federal Government in Somalia which opposes its separation.
In his paper, Nicholas Eubank, a researcher at Stanford University, claims that some of Somaliland's success is down to a dearth of aid. Donors cannot give aid directly to the government since it is not recognised as such. It has been dependant on raising local tax revenue, which the paper says citizens have used as leverage to make the government more inclusive, representative and accountable. For those looking to bash the multi-billion dollar aid industry, it is an appealing thesis. But is it true?
The port of Berbera, a trade hub for landlocked Ethiopia's 80m consumers, is one of the government's main revenue streams. In 1992 the government tried to take the port by force form the Isle Muse, a small clan. Having failed, it entered into negotiations which led to the inclusion of other clans into a more representative government that won the backing of the country's richest businessmen. Mr Eubank argues that the government was forced to negotiate with the owners of the port because it was short of money. This would not have happened if it had access to aid money; the port brought in 80% of the government's $51m budget in 2008, a measly sum compared to how much Somaliland could get in aid were it to be recognised.
Others say that the "benign neglect" of British colonial rule allowed stronger political institutions to develop which made negotiations about the port more productive. Even so, the government's dependency on taxation certainly gave local business people greater leverage.
Somaliland's experiences cannot be applied directly elsewhere. But it offers some lessons. The resource constraints which led to a more inclusive government gave each clan a stake in maintaining stability. It is impossible to judge whether this outweighs the benefits that aid might have brought, but it should give donors pause for thought when they start splashing cash around. Somaliland's chances of becoming a fully-fledged country have risen with the precedent of South Sudan's independence. But the Somaliland government should consider its options before accepting the aid that would pour in if and when it is recognised. Its stability has in part been a result of a weak central government that does not threaten traditional regional leaders. An influx of money could upset this delicate balance.
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Grenada country profile - Overview
- 26 November 2014
- From the section Latin America & Caribbean
Grenada made world headlines in 1983 when a split in the governing left-wing party led to the overthrow and execution of the country's charismatic leader, Maurice Bishop, and provided the pretext for a US invasion of the islands.
Set against the background of Grenada's hitherto peaceful post-independence history, the event highlighted the country's contradictory character.
From one angle, Grenada has an "exotic" flavour which appeals especially to Westerners. Known as the "Spice Island", it is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg and is a significant producer of mace, cinnamon, ginger and cloves.
It also boasts beautiful scenery, with picturesque and fertile valleys, rainforests, fast-flowing streams, hot springs, mountain lakes, a tropical climate and excellent beaches.
Growth in investment and tourism and a construction boom helped reduce unemployment in the 1990s, but the country was dealt a serious blow in 2004 when Hurricane Ivan swept through killing dozens of people, damaging 90% of the island's buildings and devastating the nutmeg crop.
Tourism has generated its own problems, in the form of threats to the rainforest and beach erosion caused by resort projects.
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Fred Brownell: The man who made South Africa's flag
- 27 April 2014
- From the section Magazine
The multi-coloured flag of modern South Africa is a symbol of its post-apartheid rebirth. But while Nelson Mandela led the country on a "long walk" to freedom, the creation of the flag 20 years ago was a frantic sprint by an unsung hero, writes Xin Fan.
On a Saturday night at the end of February 1994 Fred Brownell's phone rang. The voice on the other end asked him to get a new national flag designed - within a week.
"It scared the living daylights out of me," says Brownell, now 74 and living in retirement in Pretoria.
Brownell was state herald, and had long known that the emerging new South Africa would need a new flag, but until this point he had not been asked to play a central role.
Initially, members of the public had been asked for their ideas. Some 7,000 sketches had been sent in, but none was judged appropriate. Then the authorities had turned to design studios. That too proved fruitless.
The months had passed by and now the first democratic elections - when the new flag was expected to be fluttering in the South African breeze - were little more than eight weeks away. Hence the urgent Saturday night call to Brownell.
Fortunately, he had already given the subject some thought.
He had been asking himself for some time what the new South African flag should look like. But his sketches had all ended up in the wastepaper basket until one day in August 1993, when he sat listening to an "interminable speech" at an international flag conference in Zurich.
"My mind started wandering," he recalls. "And then it struck me - aren't we looking for convergence and unification?" The convergence of the disparate groups within South African society, and their unification in one democratic state.
He flipped over the conference programme and started sketching. Three arms came in from the flagpole side of the flag (the "hoist") and became one.
"I was struck by the extent it resonated with what Mandela had in mind. 'Yes, it might work!' I thought," Brownell remembers.
His first idea was for the three-pronged shape to be coloured red, with green and blue at top and bottom, but he soon concluded it looked better with the colours switched around - the three-pronged shape in green, red at the top and blue at the bottom.
But the flag needed other colours too. "I think one must realise that red, white and blue or orange white and blue harked back to South Africa's colonial heritage," Brownell says.
Gold was the first he added, then black - both colours found on the flags of the African National Congress, the Zulus' Inkatha Freedom Party, and various other political groupings in South Africa.
The final design also used a particular orangey shade of red known as chilli red, which is mid-way between the colours of the British and Dutch colonial-era flags but at the same time reminiscent of South Africa's coral trees, Brownell says, and the flat hats worn by married Zulu women.
The only other change to the design was made at the suggestion of Brownell's daughter, Claire, a young schoolteacher.
"Dad, use your brain!" she said. "People will stand that on its head and turn it into the nuclear peace sign. The middle leg must go."
The three arms converging into one, became just two arms converging into one.
So when Brownell got the call asking him to have the issue "solved within the week" he was not starting completely from scratch.
In the end it came down to five proposals, two of them Brownell's. Of the others, one was based on an idea from the ANC, another came to a member of the committee Brownell had hastily convened in the middle of a plane flight.
The choice was put to State President FW de Klerk, who said it was not a decision he could take alone and called an impromptu cabinet meeting. "I noticed their eyes", says Brownell. "They were being drawn to my design."
Sure enough it was one of his drawings that was selected. Officials then contacted ANC negotiator Cyril Ramaphosa, and a tense wait ensued. His approval finally came through later that afternoon.
Many years later Brownell learned that Ramaphosa too had not wished to act alone, and had contacted Nelson Mandela, then in Rustenberg in the north-east of the country, to get his personal blessing.
"A design had been sent to Mandela by fax. Somebody on the other end had to run down to the stationery shop, grab some colouring pencils, and colour in the flag," says Brownell.
Luckily, Brownell says, "Mandela was happy with it."
That same day, 15 March 1994, the design was unanimously adopted by the Transitional Executive Council, which asked President de Klerk to issue a proclamation adopting the national flag. But for reasons that Brownell still cannot explain, the proclamation was made only on 20 April, seven days before the election.
During the wait, Brownell says, "lots of us were going frantic".
"Flag manufacturers were screaming high and low. South Africa could only produce 5,000 flags per week, and at least around 100,000 were needed for April 27th to fill every flagpole in the country."
Some historical flags
Manufacturers in the Netherlands helped save the day, although not before exhausting Europe's entire stock of flag material and having to import it from Japan.
"Public reaction was muted, originally," recalls Brownell. "But once Mandela was inaugurated on 10 May, with the flags draped over Union Buildings in Pretoria, people warmed to the fact they had a new president, with a new flag to go with him.
"The level of acceptance exceeded my wildest expectations," he says.
Asked what might have prompted him to come up with his initial three-pronged design, Brownell reflects that it was probably embedded in his mind from childhood.
"I grew up in the Anglican church and this particular design was in fact incorporated into the classical chasubles [outer vestments] worn by priests in both the Catholic and Anglican church," he says.
"In recent years chasubles have changed very much, but that was the classic design."
Twenty years on, Brownell is quietly pleased with his work.
He still sees the "convergence and unification" of a diverse country reflected in the flag, and insists there is no-one in South Africa who does not recognise in it colours they hold dear.
"I feel happy to have contributed in some small way."
Photographs and video by Kelvin Brown (except for the AFP picture of Nelson Mandela)
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Last Updated: Apr 19, 2012
Summary: First capital of Costa Rica; boasts the country's most notable Catholic church.
Landscape: City, Mountains
Attractions: Guayabo National Monument, Irazu Volcano National Park, Lankester Botanical Garden
Activities: Hiking, Shopping
Caters to: Culture Aficionados, Day Trippers, Families, Independent Travelers
When Spanish governor Juan Vasquez de Coronado founded the city of Cartago in 1563, he claimed that he’d never seen a more beautiful valley. The verdant mountains and fertile land were soon claimed as Costa Rica’s capital, and the Spanish constructed the most majestic colonial buildings in the country.
Location: 14 miles southeast of San Jose
Average Temperature: 68-73°F
Altitude: 4,930 feet above sea level
Despite its physical beauty and ideal location, Cartago’s story is marred with drama: In 1723, a major eruption of Irazu Volcano almost completely destroyed the city. 100 years later, in 1823, Cartago lost the civil war, and Costa Rica’s governmental seat was relocated to its current position in San Jose. Later, in 1841 and 1910, two large earthquakes laid ruin to what was left of Cartago’s proud history. Irazu’s last major eruption occurred in March 1963, on the same day that John F. Kennedy arrived in Costa Rica.
Today, the Basilica de Nuestra Senora de los Angeles, named for the Patron Saint of Costa Rica, is a spectacular reminder of the city’s past. On August 2, 1635, legend has it that the Virgin Mary showed herself as a small, black doll to a young girl named Juana Pereira. After the doll disappeared and reappeared several times at the creek where Juana had found it, the Catholic Church agreed that the Virgin wanted a cathedral built on that spot. The graceful church is today considered the holiest in Costa Rica, and every August 2, the faithful make their pilgrimage to the site.
Today, Cartago is a small but bustling city, and a hub for outdoor attractions. Lush, green fields encircle the city, shade-grown coffee seems to grow everywhere, and the history is tangible. Cartago is also a gateway to the popular Lankester Botanical Garden, Irazu Volcano, Turriabla Volcano and Guayabo National Park.
- Irazu Volcano – This powerful, though currently docile, volcano is the largest and tallest in Costa Rica. Emerald-green water fills the crater.
- Guayabo National Monument – Located outside of Turrialba, this is Costa Rica’s only major archaeological site.
- Lankester Botanical Garden – Famous for their orchids, the beautiful gardens are located in a small town fittingly called Paradise (Paraiso).
Buses from San Jose run every 10 minutes between 5:00 am and 10:30 pm. A one-way ticket costs $1.10. Buses depart San Jose from Calle 5, Avenidas 18/20.
Cartago Travel Guide
|Wind||16 mph ENE|
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Guadeloupe, overseas département and overseas region of France consisting of a group of islands in the Lesser Antilles chain in the eastern Caribbean Sea. The nearest neighbours of the principal islands are the British overseas territory of Montserrat to the northwest and the republic of Dominica to the south. The island of Martinique, also a French overseas département, lies about 74 miles (120 km) to the south. The main territory of Guadeloupe consists of the twin islands of Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, the two being separated by a narrow channel, the Salée River; other islands in the group are Marie-Galante to the southeast, La Désirade to the east, and the Saintes Islands (Terre d’en Haut and Terre d’en Bas) to the south. Two French overseas collectivities—Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin, the French-administered part of the island of Saint Martin (the southern third of which is administered by The Netherlands as Sint Maarten)—were part of Guadeloupe until 2007. They are situated about 150 miles (240 km) to the northwest, lying to the northwest of the outer arc of the Lesser Antilles. Basse-Terre, on the island of the same name, is the seat of government. The largest urban area, however, centres around Pointe-à-Pitre on Grande-Terre, the chief port and economic hub of Guadeloupe.
Basse-Terre, which accounts for more than half of Guadeloupe’s land area, has a chain of mountains running north to south and culminating in Soufrière, a volcano rising to 4,813 feet (1,467 metres) above sea level; it erupted in 1797, 1837, and 1976–77 and is now a source of hot springs and sulfur springs. Other summits of note are Mount Sans Toucher, at 4,442 feet (1,354 metres), and Grande Découverte, at 4,143 feet (1,263 metres). The mountain chain forms a watershed from which rivers run down to the sea. The principal river on the island is the Goyaves; other streams are the Grande Plaine, the Petite Plaine, the Moustique, the Lézarde, and the Rose. Basse-Terre’s coastline is indented with bays and fringed with picturesque beaches. Grande-Terre has an area of 220 square miles (570 square km) and is generally low-lying; it has only a few bluffs higher than 490 feet (150 metres).
The tropical climate is tempered by the northeast trade winds. The temperature on the coast varies between 77 and 82 °F (25 and 28 °C), with extremes of 68 and 93 °F (20 and 34 °C). In the mountains above 1,900 feet (580 metres) the temperature may drop to 61 °F (16 °C), and at the summit of Soufrière to 39 °F (4 °C). There are two distinct seasons—the “Creole Lent,” or dry season (December to April), and winter, or rainy season (July to September–October). Precipitation varies with elevation and orientation. Grande-Terre receives approximately 40 inches (990 mm) of rain a year, while the mountainous parts of Basse-Terre receive more than 100 inches (2,540 mm). Hurricanes occur occasionally, in most cases coming from the south.
Plant and animal life
The heat, rainfall, and fertility of the volcanic soils produce a luxuriant vegetation diversified according to elevation. About two-fifths of the islands’ area, most of it on Basse-Terre, is covered by forests. Extensive mangrove swamps cover the banks of the Salée River. Dense forest grows in the mountainous regions of Basse-Terre, beginning almost at sea level on the windward slopes and at elevations of about 750 to 3,000 feet (230 to 900 metres) or more on the leeward side. There chestnut trees and bracken are found, as well as such hardwoods as mahogany and ironwood. On the highest peaks some flooded basins are covered with grasses and sedges. Grande-Terre, cleared of most of its original forests, has only a few patches of woodland. The smaller islands, such as La Désirade, have a different type of vegetation, consisting primarily of dry forest with groves of latania (a kind of fan palm) and cactus.
Animal life has been modified since colonial times. Raccoons are plentiful and are sought for their fur. Agoutis (short-haired, short-eared, rabbitlike rodents), mongooses, and Guadeloupe woodpeckers inhabit the highlands of the island of Basse-Terre. In some regions, wild ducks, waterfowl, and teal are found.
The warm waters around the islands support a rich variety of marine life, including lobsters, crabs, octopuses, tarpons, snooks (a basslike kind of fish), hogfishes, snappers, parrot fishes, and many species of rays.
The population is composed principally of Creoles (i.e., persons born in the islands), most of whom are of mixed African (black) and European (white) ancestry. The largest minorities in Guadeloupe are the black and French Amerindian groups. The white population greatly declined during the period of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century; today whites make up only a tiny minority. On the smaller islands, whites are mostly descended from 17th-century Norman and Breton settlers. French is the official language, and a local creole is also widely spoken. Some four-fifths of the people are Roman Catholic; there are also smaller proportions of Jehovah’s Witnesses and Protestants.
Guadeloupe’s population has a low rate of natural increase compared with other West Indian islands. Its birth and death rates are lower than the Caribbean average but about the same as those of its French counterpart, Martinique. The vast majority of the population resides on the two largest islands; Marie-Galante is the next most populous island, followed by Saintes Islands and La Désirade.
Government services are central to the island’s economy, which is primarily sustained by the salaries of officials and by French aid in the form of allocations and grants. Tourism, which has grown in importance, is the main source of foreign exchange. Manufacturing and agriculture account for few jobs. The islanders’ standard of living is among the highest in the eastern Caribbean.
1On February 22, 2007, Saint-Martin (the northern half of the island of St. Martin) and Saint-Barthélemy formally separated from Guadeloupe to become overseas collectivities of France.
2Guadeloupe is simultaneously administered as an overseas region (région d’outre-mer).
3Assembly for overseas department.
4Assembly for overseas region.
|Official name||Département d’Outre-Mer de la Guadeloupe (Overseas Department of Guadeloupe)1, 2|
|Political status||overseas department/overseas region (France) with two legislative houses (General Council3 ; Regional Council4 )|
|Head of state||President of France: François Hollande|
|Heads of government||Prefect (for France): Marcelle Pierrot; President of the General Council (for Guadeloupe): Jacques Gillot; President of the Regional Council (for Guadeloupe): Josette Borel-Lincertin|
|Monetary unit||euro (€)|
|Population||(2014 est.) 406,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||629|
|Total area (sq km)||1,630|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2009) 98.5%|
Rural: (2009) 1.5%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2011) 77 years|
Female: (2011) 83.5 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: not available|
Female: not available
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2009) 25,243|
| 6 |
- The land
- The people
- The economy
- Administration and social conditions
- Cultural life
Education, health, and welfare
Primary education for children 6 to 13 years of age is free and officially compulsory, although school attendance is difficult to enforce in some areas. Secondary education, lasting up to 4 years, is not compulsory. At the end of the 20th century about four-fifths of the primary-age children were attending school, but the attendance rate among secondary-age children was much lower, only about one-fourth. Most education is state-supported, but private institutions are permitted. Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish organizations also maintain schools. Adult literacy rates have climbed dramatically since the 1950s, when most Bolivian Indians were illiterate, to about four-fifths of the adult population by the end of the century. The nation’s eight state universities are located in each of the departmental capitals except Cobija (capital of Pando department), and there are numerous private schools, including a Roman Catholic university. The largest institutions of higher learning are the University of San Andrés (founded 1930) in La Paz and Major University of San Simón (1832) in Cochabamba.
There are three levels of health services: those supported by the state through the Ministry of Public Health and Social Security, those provided by the social security system for its affiliates, and private clinics. In general, medical services and hospitals are adequate in the cities but not in rural areas, where doctors and nurses are scarce but respiratory diseases and malnutrition are common. Traveling health workers provide care in colonization zones (the Valles and Oriente), where diseases such as malaria and the deadly Chagas disease (which is carried by the vinchuca bug) are major problems. Several foreign aid organizations have helped institute programs to reduce the infant mortality rate, which is still among the highest on the continent, and provide basic care to rural and poor communities. Folk medicine thrives in some rural areas, such as the Kallawaya Indian communities of the Apolobamba range.
Bolivian society embraces a mixture of diverse and extraordinarily rich native Indian cultures as well as the Iberian culture brought by the Spaniards. On religious feast days, for example, pre-Columbian rites are practiced in conjunction with Roman Catholic celebrations, and Aymara, Quechua, and other ethnic groups express themselves through dances and songs that blend indigenous and European influences. During such festivities, symbolic dress shows the Indian interpretation of European attitudes: the dance of the palla-palla caricatures the 16th-century Spanish invaders, the dance of the waka-tokoris satirizes bullfights, and the morenada mocks white men, who are depicted leading imported African slaves. Some highly embroidered and colourful costumes imitate pre-Columbian dress. Many costumes are accompanied by elaborate masks made of plaster, cloth, or tin cans and topped by feather headdresses. The mixture of cultures is also revealed in the music and in the charango, a hybrid instrument that is similar in shape to a guitar, although much smaller; its five double strings resonate on a sound box made from an armadillo shell or a gourd. Other common instruments are the zampoña (panpipes), quena (kena; a notched vertical flute), and percussion instruments of various sizes, including skin drums, bronze gongs, and copper bells. In the lowlands of Santa Cruz and Beni departments, music composed in the 18th century—during the heyday of the Jesuit missions in Latin America—is performed by Guaraní Indians of the Guarayo, Chiquitano, and Mojeno communities.
Highland Indian women in both urban and rural areas still wear traditional multilayered skirts (polleras) and colourful shawls. The shawls may be stuffed with goods being taken to market or with fresh purchases, extra clothing, and a baby, all in a carefully balanced bundle on the back, leaving both hands free. Hats always complete the outfit, their dozens of shapes varying with the different regions of Bolivia and with the marital status of the wearers; for example, in the Quechua town of Tarabuco (near Sucre), single women wear woolen hats, whereas married women don leather hats of a completely different style.
Indians long attempted to imitate Europeans, in custom as well as in dress. However, beginning in the 1940s and especially since the early ’70s, Indian culture and values have been reestablished: traditional music has risen to a higher standard, painters have abandoned the imitation of European fashions, and some of the characteristics of Indian culture have reemerged in the general lifestyle.
1Executive and legislative branches meet in La Paz, judiciary in Sucre.
2Per 2009 constitution.
|Official name||Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Plurinational State of Bolivia)|
|Form of government||unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Chamber of Senators ; Chamber of Deputies )|
|Head of state and government||President: Evo Morales Ayma|
|Capitals||La Paz (administrative)1; Sucre (constitutional)1, 2|
|Official languages||Spanish and 36 indigenous languages|
|Monetary unit||boliviano (Bs)|
|Population||(2014 est.) 10,303,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||424,164|
|Total area (sq km)||1,098,581|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2010) 66.4%|
Rural: (2010) 33.6%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2010) 64.2 years|
Female: (2010) 68.5 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: (2009) 95.8%|
Female: (2009) 86.8%
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2013) 2,550|
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Orania, Northern Cape
A view of the town of Orania
|District||Pixley ka Seme|
|• Chairman/mayor||Carel IV Boshoff|
|• Total||8.95 km2 (3.46 sq mi)|
|• Density||100/km2 (260/sq mi)|
|Racial makeup (2011)|
|• Black African||0.9%|
|First languages (2011)|
|Postal code (street)||8752|
The aim of the town is to create a stronghold for Afrikaans and the Afrikaner identity by keeping their language and culture alive. Anyone who defines themselves as an Afrikaner and identifies with Afrikaner ethnicity is welcome in Orania. In 2004 Orania introduced its own currency, the Ora. Seventy businesses are located in Orania.
- 1 Purpose
- 2 History
- 3 Geography and climate
- 4 Demographics
- 5 Subdivisions and architecture
- 6 Politics
- 7 Administration and services
- 8 Economy and agriculture
- 9 Culture
- 10 See also
- 11 References
- 12 External links
According to its founders, the purpose of Orania is to create a town where the preservation of Afrikanerdom's cultural heritage is strictly observed and Afrikaner selfwerksaamheid ("self reliance") is an actual practice, not just an idea. All jobs, from management to manual labour, are filled by Afrikaners only; non-Afrikaner workers are not permitted unless they have skills no resident has. "We do not want to be governed by people who are not Afrikaners", said Potgieter, the previous chairman. "Our culture is being oppressed and our children are being brainwashed to speak English".
The town's ultimate objective is to create an Afrikaner majority in the northwestern Cape, by encouraging the construction of other such towns, with the eventual goal of an Afrikaner majority in the area and an independent Afrikaner state between Orania and the west coast, also known as a volkstaat.
Carel Boshoff, the founding father of Orania, had originally envisaged a population of 60,000 after 15 years. While Boshoff conceded that most Afrikaners might decide not to move to the volkstaat, he thought that it is nevertheless essential Afrikaners have this option, since this will make them feel more secure, thereby reducing tensions in the rest of South Africa. In this regard he considered it as being analogous with Israel, which serves as a refuge for Jews from all over the world.
Orania has its origins in the late 1980s, when Carel Boshoff, a right-wing academic, founded the Afrikaner-Vryheidstigting (Afrikaner Freedom Foundation) or Avstig. At the time, mainstream right-wingers supported the bantustan policy, which allocated 13% of South Africa’s land area for black South Africans, while leaving the remaining 87% to whites. The founding principles of the Avstig were based on the belief that since black majority rule was unavoidable and white minority rule morally unjustifiable, Afrikaners would have to form their own nation, or volkstaat, in a smaller part of South Africa. Orania was intended to be the basis of the volkstaat, which would come into existence once a large number of Afrikaners moved to Orania and other such ‘growth points’.
Boshoff's plans excluded the area of traditional Boer republics in the Transvaal and the Free State, which encompass the economic heartland of South Africa and much of its natural resources, instead focussing on an economically underdeveloped and semi-desert area in the north-western Cape. Even proponents of the idea conceded that this model would demand significant economic sacrifices from Afrikaners who moved to the volkstaat. The model is based on the principle of ‘own labour’, requiring that all work in the volkstaat is performed by its citizens, including ploughing fields, collecting garbage and tending to gardens, which is traditionally performed by blacks in the rest of South Africa.
Orania had been established in 1963 by the Department of Water Affairs, to house the workers who were building the Vanderkloof Dam. After the dam was completed most of the workers moved away, and the town fell into disrepair. The department completely abandoned Orania in 1981. In December 1990, about 40 Afrikaner families, headed by Carel Boshoff, the son-in-law of former South African Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd, bought the dilapidated town for around US$ 200,000. The first 13 inhabitants moved in April 1991.
In a conciliatory gesture, then-President Nelson Mandela, visited the town in 1995 to have tea with Betsie Verwoerd, widow of Hendrik Verwoerd. Orania reached 200 permanent inhabitants in 1996, while the 2001 Census found 519 residents. By 1998 R15 million had been invested in the town, for expenses including the upgrading of water and electricity supply, roads and businesses. By 2003, Orania had grown to about 750 residents, and local amenities included a holiday resort on the Orange River, a home for senior citizens, two schools, a private hospital and a growing agricultural sector.
In November 2005, around 60 Cape Coloured families lodged a land claim with the government, for around 483 hectares (1,190 acres) of land within the town. These families claimed to have lived in the town from 1965, when it was first constructed, up until 1990, when it was sold by the government. The claimants hold that they were forced to leave in 1991, when the town was converted into Orania, and that this constitutes a forced removal in terms of race. The community of Orania opposed the claim. The land claim was settled in December 2006 when the South African government agreed to pay the claimants R2.9 million in compensation.
Geography and climate
|Average high °C (°F)||34.3
|Average low °C (°F)||17.9
|Rainfall mm (inches)||65
As of 2011[update], Orania is home to about 900 inhabitants, with male residents outnumbering females 60% to 40%. Children made up a quarter of the population in 2007. According to town authorities, the population had reached 1,100 by October 2013. The population has grown by 10% annually over the three years to 2015.
Orania is a deeply religious community, with the Dutch Reformed Church being the most popular denomination. Other churches include Apostoliese Geloofsending, Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk, Evangelies-Gereformeerde Kerk, Gereformeerde Kerk, Hervormde Kerk, Israel Visie and Maranata Kerk.
The origin of Orania residents from various parts of South Africa means that newcomers brought a relatively large variety of denominations to their new town. On important holidays such as the Day of the Vow interdenominational services are held, with members of all denominations attending the event together.
In Orania people from all levels of society perform their own manual labour. Local Afrikaners also work in unskilled positions such as gardening and waste collection. Rapid growth over the four years to 2014 led to the construction of new commercial developments and a rising number of young adult immigrants, but also caused an increase in class differences between residents.
Only Afrikaans is spoken in the town.
Subdivisions and architecture
Orania has three residential areas Kleingeluk ("small happiness"), Grootdorp ("big town") and Orania Wes ("Orania West"). Kleingeluk is a separate district about 1.5km away from Grootdorp, and is poorer than the main town, although progress has been made in narrowing the gap in living conditions.
Many houses in Orania are built in the Cape Dutch architectural style. Most of the original buildings from the water department era are prefabricated, and while some have been renovated others show sign of deterioration, as they weren't designed to last for more than 20 years.
The Dorpsraad (town council) is the main political institution in Orania, and is responsible for running the daily affairs. It is elected annually, and consists of five members and a chairman (the mayor). Political parties are not allowed in Orania's local elections. The Orania Beweging (Orania Movement) is a separate political and cultural organisation that promotes Afrikaner history and culture. The Orania Movement has around 10,000 registered supporters from outside town.
Perspective residents are required to go through an interview process with a committee, which may deny access to people based on criteria such as criminal records. Being an Afrikaner is the most important criterion for admission. Once permission is granted, the new residents become shareholders in the town. Some people who try to live in Orania ultimately leave due to the limited choice of available jobs or the requirement to conform to local social norms.
The town's existence is allowed by the Constitution of South Africa under a clause that allows for the right to self-determination. The town has neither a police force nor a prison. Traffic monitoring and minor crimes such as petty theft are handled internally. Neighbourhood watch patrols are carried out by volunteers. Residents are encouraged to use mediation and arbitration procedures made available by the town council, rather than resorting to South African courts.
On Thursday 5 June 1998, Mr. Valli Moosa (then Minister of Constitutional Development in the ANC government) stated in a parliamentary budget debate that, "The ideal of some Afrikaners to develop the North Western Cape as a home for the Afrikaner culture and language within the framework of the Constitution and the Charter of Human Rights is viewed by the government as a legitimate ideal."
In June 2007, the Afrikaner enclave was visited by the Coloured community of Eersterust, outside Pretoria. The groups met to discuss community development and discussed methods of self-governance. According to visitors the reception was good, and they had "definitely learned from the experience" and experienced no racial tension. The community of Orania gave a donation to the community of Eersterust in support of their nursery school.
On 4 July 2007 the town of Orania and the Northern Cape government agreed that the question of Orania's self-government should be discussed at all government levels.
In 2009, an African National Congress Youth League delegation visited the town. The leader Julius Malema praised the co-operation between residents: "they co-operate instead of working against each other".
Debate surrounding a volkstaat returned to the mainstream media following the murder of AWB leader Eugene Terre'Blanche in April 2010. Boshoff claimed a symbolism of the murder for farm murders that he described as "nothing other than a state of war". Yet, he rejected an invitation to Terre'Blanche's funeral, "I'm not enamoured of him. He chose a path of confrontation, of conflict. We wanted another way."
On 14 September 2010 President Jacob Zuma visited Orania. He met with Orania founder Professor Carel Boshoff and his son, Orania mayor Carel Boshoff IV and other community leaders. After the meeting Zuma visited housing projects and several agricultural sites in Orania.
Orania and the Xhosa community of Mnyameni signed a cooperation agreement on 11 December 2012. The objective of the agreement is to assist in the development of own institutions and the transfer of knowledge between the communities in order to reduce their dependency on government initiatives for development.
Since 1994, citizens of Orania have voted all five times in the national elections. Over the last three elections, Orania had an average vote turnout of 65%, based on registered voters. In the South African general election, 2009, the community decisively voted for the Freedom Front Plus party. The four votes recorded for the Economic Freedom Fighters party in the 2014 election elicited a number of comments from South African media.
|Party||Votes (2004)||% (2004)||Votes (2009)||% (2009)||Votes (2014)||% (2014)|
|Freedom Front Plus||158||84.95%||242||86.73%||224||76,89%|
|African Christian Democratic Party||3||1.61%||3||1.07%||7||2,41%|
|African National Congress||3||1.61%||3||1.07%||5||1,72%|
|Congress of the People[a]||-||-||3||1.07%||1||0,34%|
|New National Party [d]||1||0.54%||-||-||-||-|
|Economic Freedom Fighters [e]||-||-||-||-||4||1,37%|
- Party did not contest in elections before 2009.
- Party only contest in the 2004 elections and then submerged into the Freedom Front, making it the Freedom Front Plus
- Merged into the Democratic Alliance in 2012.
- Merged into the African National Congress in 2005.
- Party did not contest in elections before 2014.
Administration and services
The town is privately owned by the Vluytjeskraal Aandeleblok company. The farm on which Orania was founded, is called "Vluytjekraal". Along the Orange river grows a fine reed, called "fluitjiesriet" or in old Dutch spelling "Vluytjesriet," meaning whistle reed. A kraal is an Afrikaans loanword borrowed from Portuguese curral, for cattle enclosure. As wood for poles is scarce, these reeds were traditionally used for building cattle enclosures, until stone structures could be erected. Aandeleblok ("share block") refers to the company structure that allows people to buy shares and thereby obtain the right to stay on and work a piece of ground within the property of the company. The shareholders thus own the company, which in turn owns the property. Ownership of plots and houses is in the form of shares in the company. No title deeds are provided, except for agricultural land.
Orania receives no fiscal contributions from either state or provincial government. Vluytjeskraal functions like a municipal administration, being funded by rates and delivering services like water, electricity and waste management. The Helpsaam Fund, a non-profit institution, raises money for projects like subsidised housing for newcomers in need. Orania has a small clinic, and a government-funded nurse visits twice a month.
The Elim Centre accommodates unemployed young men who come to Orania seeking employment. They are usually given work with the municipality or local farms, and provided with training. Nerina, the equivalent residential complex for women, was completely in July 2012.
The people of Orania believe in protecting the environment.
- The town recycles the garbage of its residents. Residents sort their own garbage and place it into five different trash cans.
- All new houses must have solar-geysers for hot water.
- Various people in the town are looking at ways to switch over to green electricity.
- In the town there are a number of different ecological buildings, for example a straw bale house with a living roof.
- An earthship (aardskip) is currently being built in Orania. Progress of the earthship construction can be seen at the Project Aardskip blog.
Bicycle sharing system
In 2014 Orania opened its bicycle sharing system, called the Orania Openbare Fietsprojek (Orania Public Bicycle Project). 30 Bicycles are divided over 3 stations in different parts of the village. One station is near the information office of the Orania Movement in the western part of Orania, while another station is located in the Aan-Die-Oewer holiday resort. A third station is located near Die Kuierstoep shopping centre in the Kleingeluk neighbourhood. The use of these bikes within Orania is free for everyone.
Economy and agriculture
Farming is an important part of Orania's economy, the most recent project being a massive pecan nut plantation, one of the largest in South Africa. Since purchasing the 430 hectares (1,100 acres) town, the community has added 7,000 hectares (17,000 acres) of agricultural land to the town. Seventy businesses are located in Orania. Economic services provided in the town include a call centre, stockbroking and architecture. The average wage in Orania was estimated at approximately R4,000 per month in 2007, low by white South African standards.
A R9 million dairy farm, the Bo-Karoo Suiwel, operated in Orania from 1998 to 2002. Though deemed one of the most modern dairies in South Africa at the time, the increased cost of imported machinery caused by a decline in value of the rand combined to a rise in the price of corn used to feed cattle led to its liquidation.
During April 2004, Orania launched its own monetary system, called the Ora, based on the idea of discount shopping vouchers. The Orania local banking institution, the Orania Spaar- en Kredietkoöperatief ("Orania Savings and Credit Co-operative") is in charge of this initiative. Orania launched its own chequebook in 2007.
Orania's tourism industry is showing rapid development with the completion of a luxury river spa and boutique hotel complex in 2009. Orania Toere (Orania Tours), Orania's first registered tour operator, was also launched in 2009. In 2010 thirteen independent hospitality businesses operate in Orania. This includes a caravan park, self-catering flats, rooms, hotel and guest-houses. The town is said to be popular among black tourists.
The flag comprises a small boy, pulling up his sleeves, and a blue and orange background, traditional Afrikaner colours. The Koeksistermonument, erected in 2003, celebrates the koeksister and is one of the town's tourist attractions. A collection of busts of Afrikaner leaders, sourced from institutions that no longer wanted them after the end of apartheid, sits on a 'monument hill' outside town. There is also a Verwoerd museum, in which items and photos of Hendrik Verwoerd are on display.
The town also houses the Irish Volunteer Monument, dedicated to the Irish soldiers who fought on the Boer side during the Boer War (see Boer foreign volunteers). The monument was designed by Jan van Wijk, who also created the Afrikaans Language Monument in Paarl. It was moved from Brixton, Gauteng in 2002 by a group of Afrikaners concerned by its imminent demolition.
Younger residents occasionally complain of a lack of recreational activities, a concern common to many small communities. Quad racing is a popular pastime, but frowned upon by town authorities for safety reasons.
There are two schools, the CVO Skool Orania (where CVO stands for Christelike Volks-Onderwys or Christian People's-Education) and Die Volkskool Orania (Orania People's School). Although the official curriculum is followed, special emphasis is placed on Afrikaner history and Christian religion, though with some differences in their teaching methods.
- The CVO-school is run along conventional lines.
- The Volkskool use a self-driven teaching (selfgedrewe) system which is unorthodox by South African standards.
There is a rivalry between the schools, which is generally friendly but can occasionally become quite fierce. Not all local children attend them, as some parents choose homeschooling or boarding schools in cities like Bloemfontein.
In 2005, after complaints by citizens, the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa shut down Orania's unlicensed Radio Club 100 radio station, on grounds of its alleged racism. The station's equipment was seized. No criminal charges were laid against the operators of the radio station, who claim that the radio station broadcast harmless news about birthdays and social events. Management of the radio station claimed that they repeatedly applied for a radio licence in order to be a community broadcaster like other radio stations in the country.
In January 2010, Afrikaans daily newspaper Beeld published an article by Frans de Klerk, chief executive of Orania, in which he sets out what he views as the successes of Orania. De Klerk also distanced the town from racist organizations using Orania to further their own causes. Shortly after, Die Burger, another Afrikaans daily newspaper and sister publication of Beeld, published an article by author and journalist Marida Fitzpatrick, describing her experiences when visiting Orania. Fitzpatrick praised the town for its safety and environmentally friendly approaches to living, but also wrote that overt racist ideas and ideology still underpinned the views of many residents.
A list of cultural holidays in Orania:
- Afrikaner nationalism
- Ethnic autonomous regions
- Intentional community
- Balmoral, Mpumalanga
- "Main Place Orania". Census 2011.
- Pumza Fihlani (6 October 2014). "Inside South Africa's whites-only town of Orania". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- "DVD". Orania. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "Insight into Orania". 2010sdafrika.wordpress.com. 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- Haleniuk, Aleksander. "Orania – the embryo of a new Volkstaat?". Academia.edu. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
- "10 years on, Orania fades away". News24.com. 22 April 2004.
- "Orania - Home of the Afrikaner". Lief-orania.co.za. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "Orania, white and blue". Mail & Guardian. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
- Martin Schonteich; Henri Boshoff (2003). "`Volk` Faith and Fatherland. The Security Threat Posed by the White Right". Institute for Security Studies. pp. 43–45. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "A people clutching at straws". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- "Impact on Cultural Heritage Resources". Eskom Holdings Limited. August 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "Orania and the third reinvention of the Afrikaner - Carel Boshoff". Politicsweb. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- Daley, Suzanne (23 March 1999). "Beloved Country Repays Mandela in Kind". New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
- "Orania, Main Place 31202 from Census 2001". Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "Millions of rands already invested in Orania". Orania.co.za. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- Groenewald, Y (18 November 2005). "Coloureds Claim the Volkstaat". Mail & Guardian. Retrieved 2006-06-25.
- SAPA (5 December 2006). "Orania Pleased at Land Claim". News24. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
- "Brixton to Orania: The great trek of the Irish Volunteer Monument". Mail & Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "“Place of our own”: The Anthropology of Space and Place In the Afrikaner Volkstaat of Orania". UNISA. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- "Where even street sweepers are white". IOL News. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "Afrikaners Attend Church Service In Orania South Africa". Getty Images. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "Orania: Afrikaner dream gives capitalism a human face". Mail & Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- Orania Inligtingspamflet, 2010
- "Orania: South Africa’s last apartheid town". News.com.au. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "VF se strewe legitiem, sê Moosa" [Freedom Front endeavour legitimate, says Moosa] (in Afrikaans). Beeld. 5 June 1998.
- "Orania community lauded". News24.com. 11 June 2007.
- "Orania, N Cape agree on way forward". IOL News. 2 July 2007.
- "Malema surprised by Orania". News24. 28 March 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "Orania building a different future". Sunday Times. 10 April 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- Jacob Zuma visited Orania News 24. 14 September 2010
- Orania signs agreement with Mnyameni Mail & Guardian. 11 December 2012
- Boshoff, Carel (2 January 2013). "Maak soos vriende". Beeld. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
- "Orania votes for FF+". IOL News. 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "‘No problem with EFF votes in Orania’". IOL News. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "2004 National Results". News24. Retrieved 2014-05-03.
- "Orania votes for FF+". Iol.co.za. 2009-04-23. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "2014 National Results". News24. Retrieved 2014-05-08.
- "kraal". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "Zuma's visit 'an outstanding day' for Orania". Mail & Guardian. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- "Project Aardskip". Retrieved 14 May 2013.
- "Aardskip - Earthship". Retrieved 14 May 2013.
- Orania Openbare Fietsprojek (Orania Public Bicycle Project). Stokkiesdraai Avontuurpark en Winkelsentrum. 16 July 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2014
- William Dicey (1 September 2007). Borderline. Kwela Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7957-0189-4.
- "Zuma likely to visit Orania". IOL News. 29 March 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "Melkery in Orania lewer melk vir kaas". Beeld. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- "Orania-melkery se geldspeen droog op". Rapport. 24 February 2002. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
- "'Whites-only' money for SA town". BBC News. 29 April 2004.
- "Orania launches own cheque book". iAfrica. 22 February 2007.
- "Orania Oewerhotel en Spa". Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- Flitslig, Mei 2010 and Voorgrond, 2010
- "20 years of democracy in Orania: The past might have a future". Times LIVE. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- "Skole". Orania. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "Orania CVO-skool". Oraniacvo.co.za. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- Red Apple Media. "Afstandleer Plus". Afstandsleer.co.za. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- "The journey to hell and back". IOL Travel Western Cape. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
- "Orania radio station kicked off the air". IOL News. 9 November 2005. Retrieved 2006-06-25.
- SABC (13 April 2008). "Radio Orania on-air again". Sabcnews.co.za. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
- [dead link]
- Fitzpatrick, Marida (30 January 2010). "Ook net mens". Die Burger (in Afrikaans). Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "Orania". Raindance Film Festival 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- "Voorgrond" (in Afrikaans). Orania Beweging. February 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- Official website of Orania (in Afrikaans)
- Orania Toerisme (Tourism)
- Official promotional video created by the Orania Movement
- Lief Orania, Orania's online community and business portal
- Issues of Voorgrond, the town's newsletter
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This rich culture of East Africa, known in the Bible as Abyssinia, claims descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Under a Marxist regime, however, this ancient people has suffered from famine and genocide. This presentation chronicles the heartbreak of Ethiopia, which mirrors many of the crises besieging the third world countries of Africa.
The World’s Political Hot Spots series explains the basis of conflicts in some of the world’s most politically sensitive areas. Many of these regions are in today’s headlines, and tensions recently have become violent in virtually all of them. Each presentation covers up to ten centuries of background, revealing how and why today’s problems occur.
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World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Mexico : Afro-Mexicans
|Publisher||Minority Rights Group International|
|Cite as||Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Mexico : Afro-Mexicans, 2008, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749ce5c.html [accessed 27 March 2015]|
|Disclaimer||This is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States.|
There have been no official figures on the numbers of Mexicans of African descent since 1810, when a census found that black people made up 10 per cent of the total population. Most estimates now place their numbers at between 474,000 and 4.7 million. Although Veracruz is thought to have the largest black population in Mexico due its history as an important slave port, this is no longer the case. The majority of Mexico's contemporary African descendant population lives in the Costa Chica region, which includes the Caribbean coastal regions of the southern states of Oaxaca and Guerrero.
During the three centuries of Spanish conquest and rule, Spanish authorities were responsible for the forced migration of an estimated 200,000 or more enslaved Africans. Many died en route in the ships' holds, while many others perished in the dire conditions of slave labour. By the early 1600s Mexico had a larger African slave population than any other country in the Americas. In Mexico, Africans outnumbered the Spanish population throughout the colonial period until 1810, the last year data was collected on the African descendant population. Although there was a general decline in the number of slaves Mexico imported starting in the eighteenth century, Spanish authorities continued to import slaves from Cuba throughout much of the colonial period. Mexico's slave population was distributed and worked in a number of industries throughout the country and thus many people of African descent mixed with the Spanish and indigenous populations.
Since the beginning of colonization, enslaved Africans resisted captivity by establishing palenques or escaped slave communities in the mountains and other remote locations in Mexico. The most important of these communities was established in the state of Veracruz in 1570 by former slave Gaspar Yanga and withstood almost 40 years of existence without Spanish invasion. This community, originally known as San Lorenzo de los Negros, was renamed in honour of Yanga in 1932. Afro-Mexican soldiers also helped overthrow Spanish rule in the War of Independence. The Ejército Moreno (Dark Army) of Father Hidalgo is said to have initiated the independence struggle. One of these black revolutionaries, General Vicente Guerrero, became the country's second president after independence.
People of African descent were also vital to the early economic growth of Mexico, working in urban professions, developing and cultivating farmland, providing skilled labour in the silver mines, and working on cattle ranches and sugar plantations. African influence in Mexico can also be seen in the many cultural traditions of that country. The syncopation of much of the traditional Mexican music has been attributed to a mixture of the country's Spanish, indigenous and African elements. Mexico's well-known Jarocho music, made famous through the song 'La Bamba', is African in origin.
Still, despite documentation on the African roots of many aspects of Mexican culture and Yanga's official recognition as a national hero, Afro-Mexicans and their contributions largely remain invisible. As in Argentina, African descendants in Mexico are not conceived of or included in the contemporary nation or politics. As Afro-Mexicans increasingly migrate from the Costa Chica, where they are highly concentrated, to other parts of Mexico, they are often mistaken for immigrants from Belize or Cuba. In 2005, the Mexican government commissioned the first ever national survey on discrimination in Mexico, which included questions on discrimination against eight different groups. This study failed to mention the existence of or discrimination against Afro-Mexicans. Similarly, where government initiatives have acknowledged the African influence in the country, it has been through a historical lens, which has made invisible the contemporary situation of people of African descent.
Most Afro-Mexicans still live in poverty, often in isolated rural communities with negligible sanitation, health or education services. The lack of roads in Costa Chica continues to hinder much of the economic activity of the region. This lack of infrastructure paired with the declaring of the Pinotepa region a national reserve, and thus banning logging, has made it difficult for Afro-Mexicans to sustain themselves economically or even build their own shelter. Today, their primary sources of income are fishing, agriculture (mostly for their own consumption) and domestic work. Because the majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the poorest regions of Mexico, they lack adequate primary and secondary education and are largely absent from institutions of higher education.
The African presence in Mexico is often denied or trivialized, and where popular culture depicts black people they tend to be caricatured and ridiculed. Mexico produces a large percentage of Spanish-language television programmes in the Americas, which continue to present limiting and one-dimensional stereotypical and sexualized images of black women. In 2005, the release of the commemorative stamps of the central character of the 1940s Mexican comic book Memín Pinguín incited criticism by various civil rights groups in the US. The character is a stereotypical black image with exaggerated 'black' facial features resembling some of racist sambo images once popular in the US.
Responding to this controversy, the Mexican government, including the president of the newly formed National Council to Prevent Discrimination (CONAPRED), argued that North Americans had simply misunderstood Mexican culture and that Memín Pinguín was an important part of that culture. In the international coverage of this issue, there was little reference to Mexico's own black populations along the Pacific coast. In Mexico, however, the media used interviews with Afro-Mexicans to show that that the caricature and stamp was not offensive. Also in 2005, the population of African descent in Mexico received unexpected attention when Mexican President Vicente Fox remarked that 'Mexican immigrants (to the United States) take jobs that blacks don't even want', reflecting a deep prejudice about people of African descent.
Nevertheless, Mexico's African heritage is slowly emerging as an important issue. In 2003, the federal government of Mexico initiated the Third Root Program, which developed educational television programs and promoted scholarship on the African heritage of Mexico. Moreover, an important anti-discrimination law approved in 2005, although it does not acknowledge Afro-Mexicans explicitly, was designed also to deal with discrimination against that group. The state of Oaxaca subsequently became the only government entity officially to recognize Afro-Mexicans as an ethnic group.
Several organizations have also emerged to reclaim Afro-Mexican traditions, for example the annual Encounter of Black Populations, which started over ten years ago, and Black Mexico, an organization dedicated to fighting for the cultural and political rights of people of African descent in Mexico. These organizations have been in increased dialogue with other Afro-Latin Americans throughout the region. Since 2004, there have been a number of photography exhibits, film series and forums on Afro-Mexicans throughout the US. In Veracruz there has been a resurgence of African-influenced Son Jarocho music, which has also helped to bring visibility to these issues. Although in many parts of Mexico, many people of African ancestry still do not identify themselves as such, the increased migration of Afro-Mexicans to other parts of the country and to the US has significantly impacted on this population's consciousness of its African roots.
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discussed in biography... Reeds and Mud, 1966), is marked by a vigorous and intense realism and considerable dramatic force in the depiction of the life of Valencia. Later novels, such as La bodega (1906; The Fruit of the Vine, 1919), are held to have suffered from a heavy ideological treatment of serious social problems. More popular novels, Sangre y arena (1909; Blood and Sand,...
The Fruit of the Vine
Work by Blasco Ibáñez
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