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relationship to Lake Burragorang...With a surface area of about 34 square miles (88 square km) and an average depth of 76 feet (23 m), the lake holds 1,696,000 acre-feet (2,092,000,000 cubic m) of water. It is contained behind Warragamba Dam (completed 1960), which lies 15 miles (24 km) upstream from Penrith and 20 miles (32 km) west of Sydney. The dam is 449 feet (137 m) high and 1,152 feet (351 m) along its crest. The...
Dam, New South Wales, Australia
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This article was published in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, (MUP), 1966
Matthew Flinders (1774-1814), navigator, hydrographer and scientist, was born on 16 March 1774 at Donington, Lincolnshire, England, the son of Matthew Flinders, a surgeon, and his wife Sussannah, née Ward. He was educated at Donington Grammar School and by the vicar of Horbling; then, having developed a longing to go to sea, partly through reading Robinson Crusoe, and determined to embark upon a life of exploration, he entered the navy in 1789. In 1791 he served with diligence under William Bligh as midshipman on a voyage to Tahiti and, returning to England, saw action in H.M.S. Bellerophon at the naval battle of the Glorious First of June 1794. Next year he sailed from England for Port Jackson in H.M.S. Reliance in which George Bass was surgeon. After he arrived there he made two hazardous trips with Bass in small open boats, exploring Botany Bay and George's River on the first, and then, after a brief visit to Norfolk Island, going farther south to Lake Illawarra. He rejoined the Reliance for a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope to bring back livestock.
In 1798 Flinders, now lieutenant, joined the schooner Francis on a visit to the Furneaux Islands and carried out useful hydrographic work. A second visit to Norfolk Island followed, after which, in company with George Bass, he circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land in the sloop Norfolk from 7 October 1798 to 12 January 1799, and thus proved it to be an island. He then examined parts of the Queensland coast, but although he entered Glass House Bay, he did not discover the Brisbane River. In March 1800 he sailed for England in the Reliance, where reports of his outstanding ability had preceded him. While in England in 1801 he published his Observations on the Coasts of Van Diemen's Land, on Bass's Strait and its Islands, and on Part of the Coasts of New South Wales, but he was chiefly concerned with preparation for an expedition whose results were to place him among the foremost navigators of all time.
Promoted commander in February, he was selected to command H.M.S. Investigator, 334 tons, with instructions from the Admiralty to explore in detail, among other places, that part of the south Australian coastline, then referred to as 'the Unknown Coast', which stretched eastwards from the head of the Great Australian Bight to the Victorian border. In April 1801 he had married Ann Chappell of Lincolnshire. He had hoped to take her with him on his voyage, but the Admiralty refused to permit it and thus unknowingly condemned the newly-married pair to separation for nine years.
Flinders sailed on 18 July 1801 and sighted Cape Leeuwin on 6 December, after a passage which demonstrated his ability as a navigator and his attention to the welfare and health of his crew. Sailing eastwards he reached the western extreme of the Unknown Coast on 28 January 1802 and made a landing in Fowler Bay, which he named after the Investigator's first lieutenant. Flinders continued with his charting of the coast, effecting landings wherever desirable 'in order that the naturalists may have time to range about and collect the produce of the earth'. In February the Investigator entered the mouth of a large inlet stretching northwards (Spencer Gulf); this raised great expectations that it might be the entrance to a strait then believed to stretch upwards to the Gulf of Carpentaria but these hopes soon faded. On 22 March Kangaroo Island was discovered, a landing made, and many kangaroos killed for food. Gulf St Vincent was next explored and charted and, after a second brief visit to Kangaroo Island, the Investigator sailed east. On 8 April the corvette Le Géographe, under Captain Nicolas Baudin, was sighted, and Flinders told Baudin of the provisions and water to be obtained on Kangaroo Island. Flinders named the place of meeting Encounter Bay, which defines the eastern limit of his discoveries upon the Unknown Coast. On 9 May the Investigator dropped anchor in Port Jackson.
After overhauling the ship, Flinders sailed north on 22 July to make a detailed survey of the Queensland coast, at that time incomplete, and thence went to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Soon after passing through Torres Strait, however, the Investigator, leaking badly, was careened for a survey which revealed that she was so rotten that she would founder immediately if caught in a gale and, even if patched up and handled carefully in fine weather, would barely remain afloat for a further six months. Flinders could not effect the necessary repairs, but determined to circumnavigate the continent and return to Port Jackson by way of its western coast. After examining and charting the south and west shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria with exceptional skill, Flinders reluctantly abandoned the survey. Running down the west coast, he rounded Cape Leeuwin and, after navigating the Bight in the depth of winter, brought his ship safely into Port Jackson on 9 June 1803.
Flinders was anxious to complete the surveys as outlined by the Admiralty, and in August 1803 he sailed as a passenger from Port Jackson in H.M.S. Porpoise to secure a suitable ship. Soon after leaving she struck a reef and was lost, but Flinders navigated her cutter more than 700 miles (1127 km) back to Port Jackson, one of his great achievements. Having arranged for the relief and rescue of his wrecked shipmates, Flinders sailed in the schooner Cumberland, 29 tons, planning to proceed to England by way of Torres Strait. The schooner soon proved totally unfit for service, needing almost constant pumping to keep her afloat as well as being very crank. Flinders therefore decided to seek assistance at Mauritius in conformity with his French passport. He arrived there on 17 December 1803, the day after Le Géographe had left for France.
By this time war between Great Britain and France had broken out again. General De Caen, governor of Mauritius, was a faithful and honest servant of Emperor Napoleon, but his attitude to Flinders was overbearing, and he could scarcely have employed a more abusive term than 'impostor' towards a man of Flinders' integrity, when only a little calm reasoning was needed to make clear the obvious cause of his enforced arrival. De Caen must have known of the care given at Port Jackson to the many sick in Le Géographe, and of Flinders' personal help at the friendly meeting in Encounter Bay, for he had received a letter from Baudin asking that assistance be given to any English ship forced to call at Mauritius, in return for the hospitality his expedition had received. For all that De Caen put Flinders under arrest.
De Caen soon relaxed the strictness of Flinders' detention a little and later, after the prisoner had given his parole, allowed him to live with friends outside the town. Here Flinders enjoyed the kindness of the entire population, both official and civil, and made many close friendships. He worked assiduously on his journals, log books and papers, while both in England and France many attempts were made to secure his release.
The reason why Flinders was detained so long is difficult to define because of the apparent loss of official papers and the confusion of wartime administration. It has been said that De Caen considered Flinders to be a spy. Certainly the French passport was for the Investigator and not for the Cumberland, and she was carrying dispatches from Port Jackson, but these were trivial pretexts for denying the commander of a sinking ship his freedom for more than six years. In Paris the Council of State recommended the release of Flinders and his ship, and on 11 March 1806 Napoleon gave his approval. This instruction was acknowledged by De Caen but on 30 August 1807 he reported to the minister of marine and colonies that he did not intend to follow the emperor's order. He claimed that Flinders was very dangerous. He said that the order had been approved when a rapprochement with England appeared likely, but this had not eventuated. He added, probably influenced by François Péron's report to him on the defences of Port Jackson, that England appeared to be planning to extend her influence from there as far west as Mauritius itself, implying that Flinders' arrival was part of this project. On 25 March 1809 the Bureau of Political Economy in the Department of Marine and Colonies reported to the minister that no further dispatch had been received from De Caen justifying his delay in liberating Flinders; but De Caen must have realized that the weakness of the island in the face of the English blockade would have become obvious to Flinders after his confinement had been relaxed. De Caen therefore may have decided to continue the detention until the capitulation of the island was imminent.
On 14 June 1810 Flinders sailed for England. He arrived on 23 October and received belated promotion to post captain. In failing health he prepared his monumental work A Voyage to Terra Australis; it was published on 18 July 1814, the day before he died. He was buried at St James's, Hampstead Road, but later alterations to the churchyard have obliterated his grave, so he was 'pursued by disaster after death as in life'.
Matthew Flinders was among the world's most accomplished navigators and hydrographers, though his exploration was mostly made in unsuitable, leaky or rotten ships. To ensure that his observations were as accurate as possible and that nothing important was overlooked, his constant practice was to stand his ship off shore at dusk and run back each morning to where the previous day's work had ended. Each bearing and angle in his charting was taken by himself either from the deck or the mast-head and the results worked up by him each night. Flinders is remembered not only for his achievements in the realm of discovery but also for great improvements in the science of navigation, for his research on the action of the tides, and the affinity between the height of the barometer and the direction of the wind, and for his practical investigations into the deviation of the compass through the presence of iron in ships, since controlled by compensating devices such as the bar named after him. Some of his observations were published by the Royal Society in 'Concerning the Differences in the magnetic needle …' Transactions, 1805, pt 2.
A Voyage to Terra Australis, written by an intellectual man, is an enlightening and fascinating story of brilliant navigation and discovery, achievement and tragedy, self-sacrifice and devotion. He pays noble tribute to his comrades suddenly swept away off the Unknown Coast; expresses spontaneous gratitude to the people of Mauritius who befriended him in the hour of need, and deep sympathy and understanding towards primitive Aboriginals. His moral character and devotion to duty were based on high ideals. At Mauritius he had many opportunities to escape but resolutely refused to break his parole, even when his health was shattered and his hope destroyed. His considerate and just treatment of the men who served with him won their confidence and respect. In his brief but brilliant career he surmounted difficulties and adversity, and his voyage in the Investigator endures as an imperishable monument to his undaunted spirit and outstanding ability. Memorials to his work abound in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia and there are statues of him in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. In 1812 his wife gave birth to a daughter Ann, who in due course, as Mrs Petrie, was the mother of the famous Egyptologist, Sir William Flinders Petrie.
H. M. Cooper, 'Flinders, Matthew (1774–1814)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/flinders-matthew-2050/text2541, published first in hardcopy 1966, accessed online 29 March 2015.
This article was first published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, (MUP), 1966
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On March 24, 1918, German forces cross the Somme River, achieving their first goal of the major spring offensive begun three days earlier on the Western Front.
Operation Michael, engineered by the German chief of the general staff, Erich von Ludendorff, aimed to decisively break through the Allied lines on the Western Front and destroy the British and French forces. The offensive began on the morning of March 21, 1918, with an aggressive bombardment.
The brunt of the attack that followed was directed at the British 5th Army, commanded by General Sir Hubert Gough, stationed along the Somme River in northwestern France. This section was the most poorly defended of any spot on the British lines, due to the fact that it had been held by the French until only a few weeks before and its defensive positions were not yet fully fortified. Panic spread up and down the British lines of command, intensified by communications failures between Gough and his subordinates in the field, and German gains increased over the subsequent days of battle. On March 23, Crown Prince Rupprecht, on the German side of the line, remarked that The progress of our offensive is so quick, that one cannot follow it with a pen.
The next day, German troops stormed across the Somme, having previously captured its bridges before French troops could destroy them. Despite having resolved to concentrate on weaker points of the enemy lines, Ludendorff continued to throw his armies against the crucial villages of Amiens (a railway junction) and Arras—which the British and French were instructed to hold at all costs—hoping to break through and push on towards Paris. By that time, German troops were exhausted, and transportation and supply lines had begun to break down in the cold and bad weather. Meanwhile, Allied forces had recovered from the initial disadvantage and had begun to gain the upper hand, halting the Germans at Moreuil Wood on March 30.
On April 5, Ludendorff called off Operation Michael. It had yielded nearly 40 miles of territory, the greatest gains for either side on the Western Front since 1914. He would launch four more offensive pushes over the course of the spring and summer, throwing all of the German army’s resources into this last, desperate attempt to win the war.
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1954 transfer of Crimea
|Part of a series on the|
The transfer of Crimea in 1954 was an administrative action of the Supreme Soviet which transferred the government of most of the Crimean peninsula from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic to the Ukrainian SSR.
On 19 February 1954 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union issued a decree transferring the Crimean Oblast from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic to the Ukrainian SSR. According to the Soviet Constitution (article 18), the borders of a republic within the Soviet Union could not be re-drawn without the agreement of the republic in question. The transfer was approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union; however, according to article 33 of the constitution, the Presidium did not have the authority to do so. The constitutional change (articles 22 and 23) to accommodate the transfer was made several days after the decree issued by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.
"Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet transferring the Crimea Province from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.
Taking into account the integral character of the economy, the territorial proximity and the close economic and cultural ties between the Crimea Province and the Ukrainian SSR, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet decrees:To approve the joint presentation of the Presidium of the Russian SFSR Supreme Soviet and the Presidium of the Ukrainian SSR Supreme Soviet on the transfer of the Crimea Province from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR."
Uncertainty of legitimacy
The question should have been submitted to the open discussion of the Supreme Council of the Russian SSR. Moreover, a referendum should have been conducted to find out the opinion of the residents of the two republics. Nothing of that happened. The Presidium of the Supreme Council gathered for a session on February 19, 1954 - only 13 of 27 members were present. There was no quorum, but the decision was adopted unanimously.
Nina Khrushcheva, the political scientist and great-granddaughter of Nikita Khrushchev, the then General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union said of Khrushchev's motivation "it was somewhat symbolic, somewhat trying to reshuffle the centralized system and also, full disclosure, Nikita Khrushchev was very fond of Ukraine, so I think to some degree it was also a personal gesture toward his favorite republic. He was ethnically Russian, but he really felt great affinity with Ukraine." Sergei Khrushchev, Khrushchev's son, claimed that the decision was due to the building of a hydro-electric dam on the Dnieper River and the consequent desire for all the administration to be under one body. Sevastopol in Crimea being the site of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, a quintessential element of Russian and then of Soviet foreign policy, the transfer had the intended effect of binding the Ukraine inexorably to Russia, "Eternally Together", as the poster commemorating the event of 1954 proclaimed (illustration, right).
The transfer was described by some of the Supreme Soviet as a gift to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654 when the Cossack Rada apparently decided to unify with Muscovy, putting in place the eventual acquisition of Ukraine by Russia. Other reasons given were the integration of the economies of Ukraine and Crimea and the idea that Crimea was a natural extension of the Ukrainian steppes.
The transfer increased the ethnic Russian population of Ukraine by almost a million people. Prominent Russian politicians such as Alexander Rutskoy considered the transfer to be controversial. Controversies surrounding the legality of the transfer remained a sore point in relations between Ukraine and Russia for the first few years after the breakup of the Soviet Union, and in particular in the internal politics of the Crimea. However, in a 1997 treaty between the Russian Federation and Ukraine, Russia recognized Ukraine's borders, and accepted Ukraine's sovereignty over Crimea.
In January 1992 the Supreme Soviet of Russia questioned the constitutionality of the transfer, accusing Nikita Khrushchev of treason against the Russian people and said that the transfer was illegitimate. Alexander Rutskoy, the former Vice President of Russia, said that this was a "harebrained scheme" for which Khrushchev was famous saying that those who signed the document must have been suffering from sunstroke or hangovers.
There was confusion about the status of Sevastopol and whether it was a part of the transfer as it had a degree of independence from the Crimean Oblast and never formally ratified the transfer, although it was later mentioned as Ukrainian territory in the Soviet Constitution and the Belavezha Accords between Ukraine and Russia.
In 1994 a Russian nationalist administration took over in Crimea with the promise to return Crimea to Russia, although these plans were later shelved.
After the pro-Russian Ukrainian president Victor Yanukovych was deposed by protesters in 2014, Russian forces swiftly moved into the Crimean peninsula, annexing it within less than a month. This move was denounced by the new Ukrainian government, and disregarded by the West and its allies. The Venice Commission declared that the referendum was illegal under the Ukrainian constitution, which requires that any changes to Crimea's constitution be approved by the Verkhovna Rada, and contravened international norms.
- ""The Gift of Crimea".". www.macalester.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-06.
- Ignatius, David (March 2, 2014), "Historical claim shows why Crimea matters to Russia", PunditFact by Tampa Bay Times' PolitiFact.com
- Siegelbaum, Lewis, "1954: The Gift of Crimea", SovietHistory.org, retrieved March 3, 2014
- Calamur, Krishnadev (27 February 2014). "Crimea: A Gift To Ukraine Becomes A Political Flash Point". NPR. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- USSR's Nikita Khrushchev gave Russia’s Crimea away to Ukraine in only 15 minutes, 19 February 2009, Pravda
- Arutunyan, Anna (2 March 2014). "Russia testing the waters on Ukraine invasion". USA Today. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- Khrushchev’s Gift, Joshua Keating, Slate
- Khrushchev’s Son: Giving Crimea Back to Russia Not an Option, Andre de Nesnera, Voice of America, March 6, 2014
- "The Transfer of Crimea to Ukraine". International Committee for Crimea. July 2005. Retrieved March 9, 2014.
- To understand Crimea, take a look back at its complicated history, Adam Taylor, Washington Post, February 27, 2014
- Vladimir P. Lukin, "Our Security Predicament", Foreign Policy, No. 88 (Autumn, 1992), pp. 57–75
- Subtelny, Orest, Ukraine: A History (University of Toronto Press) 2000, ISBN 0-8020-8390-0, 600
- USSR's Nikita Khrushchev gave Russia’s Crimea away to Ukraine in only 15 minutes, Pravda.ru, 19 February 2009
- Page 5, Crimea: Dynamics, Challenges and Prospects, edited by Maria Drohobycky
- Forget Kiev. The Real Fight Will Be for Crimea, Andrei Malgin, Moscow Times, February 25, 2014
- Russia vs. Ukraine: A Case of the Crimean Jitters, CELESTINE BOHLEN, New York Times, March 23, 1994
- Mark Kramer. "Why Did Russia Give Away Crimea Sixty Years Ago?". Wilson Center. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
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The Battle of Sicily: How the Allies Lost Their Chance for Total Victory (Google eBook)
In July 1943 the Allies launched a massive amphibious assault on Sicily. The invasion proved successful, bringing fame to American Gen. George S. Patton and British Gen. Bernard Montgomery, whose "race" to Messina was immortalized in the movie Patton. But according to Mitcham and Stauffenberg, the Allies lost a significant opportunity for total victory when the Germans mounted a brilliant defense. With only 4 divisions, the Germans held off the invaders for 38 days and then escaped, almost entirely intact, to mainland Italy, dooming the Allies to a prolonged battle of attrition up the Italian peninsula.
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Review: The Battle of Sicily: How the Allies Lost Their Chance for Total VictoryUser Review - John E - Goodreads
A solid account of the battle, but nothing spectacular. Could have used a final read by a good knowledgable editor before publication: too many distracting errors. The authors (and two are listed, not ... Read full review
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This article was published in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, (MUP), 1966
Henry Hacking (1750?-1831), seaman and explorer, arrived in New South Wales as quartermaster of the Sirius in 1788. He was 'reckoned a good shot' and while shooting game for the officers and ship's company he acquired much knowledge of the country around Sydney. On one of his shooting expeditions he was attacked by Aboriginals, but escaped without injury; David Collins in relating this incident mentioned that he was held 'in great estimation by the officers of his ship both as a man and as a seaman'. After the wreck of the Sirius in 1790 he appears to have returned to England.
He arrived again in Sydney in the Royal Admiral in 1792. On 20 August 1794 with a companion or two he attempted to find a passage across the Blue Mountains; a week later they returned defeated but claimed to have penetrated twenty miles farther inland than any other European. In 1794 he was granted thirty acres (12 ha) at Hunter's Hill. In November 1795 he was one of the party that found the lost government cattle on the Cowpastures. In February 1798 he accompanied a military party to the Cowpastures to investigate killings of the government cattle there and in the following month was sent by Governor John Hunter to investigate the salt deposits discovered by John Wilson near the junction of the Bargo and Nepean Rivers. In October 1799 he was convicted of perjury and sentenced to be transported to Norfolk Island for three years, but received an absolute pardon.
In 1800 and 1801 he piloted the Porpoise into and out of Port Jackson and the following year was appointed first mate of the Lady Nelson which accompanied the Investigator on its journey up the Queensland coast. In 1803 he was appointed first pilot at Port Jackson. Then he fell upon bad days and in November 1803 he and Robert Colpits were found guilty of stealing naval stores from the Investigator and sentenced to death. Both were reprieved, Hacking on condition that he be transported for seven years to Van Diemen's Land, though it was less than six months since he had been pardoned after being condemned to death and reprieved for shooting and wounding a woman. Despite Hacking's obvious failures, Governor Philip Gidley King was very sympathetic: 'He is still a good Man', he wrote to Collins in November 1803, 'and I am inclined to believe the last Crime was Committed to Obtain Spirits'. Later, when Hacking was at Hobart Town with Collins who wanted his services as a pilot, King wrote: 'I am glad you have kept Hacking, he is a good man but was lost here by the Arts of a Woman'.
On 1 June 1804 Hacking was appointed coxswain to the lieutenant-governor at Hobart and in the same year accompanied a party which explored the Huon River. In 1805 he was instrumental in the recapture of six escapees and won Collins's commendation. In July 1806 he was appointed pilot at Hobart at £50 a year, and had charge of all the government boats and their crews. He appears to have spent the rest of his life at Hobart except for a short visit to Sydney in 1806 as a witness at the trial of Robert Stewart, the ex-officer and notorious escapee. In 1816, 'useless as a Pilot from Drunkenness and other infirmities', he was granted a pension of half his salary. He died at Hobart on 21 July 1831, aged 81. Port Hacking, south of Botany Bay, which he discovered probably on one of his overland excursions, was named in his honour by Matthew Flinders in 1796.
G. P. Walsh, 'Hacking, Henry (1750–1831)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hacking-henry-2140/text2721, published first in hardcopy 1966, accessed online 31 March 2015.
This article was first published in hardcopy in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 1, (MUP), 1966
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Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
|Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski|
SS Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
|Birth name||Erich Julius Eberhard von Zelewski|
|Born||1 March 1899
Lauenburg, Pomerania, German Empire
|Died||8 March 1972
Munich, West Germany
|Allegiance|| German Empire
|Years of service||1914–45|
|Commands held||Höherer SS und Polizeiführer for Silesia|
Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski (1 March 1899 – 8 March 1972) was an SS-Obergruppenführer (General) mainly active in Central Russia, directing anti-partisan warfare, and in Poland, leading the suppression of the Warsaw uprising. Despite the use of tactics that amounted to mass murder of civilians, he did not stand trial in Nuremberg.
Erich Julius Eberhard von Zelewski was born to Kashubian parents, Otto Jan Józefat von Zelewski, a Roman Catholic, and his Lutheran wife, Elżbieta Ewelina Szymańska (written in German legal documents as Schimansky). Erich von Zelewski legally added "von dem Bach" to the family name late in 1933. He went on to have the Polish sounding "Zelewski" officially removed from his name in November 1941.
His great-great-great-grandfather was Michał Żelewski (c. 1700-1785), a Kashubian Polish nobleman, who owned the villages of Milwino, Niepoczołowice and Zakrzewo in Pomerania. Von dem Bach's grandfather was Otto August Ludwik Rudolf von Zelewski (born 1820, Zakrzewo – died 28 June 1878, Zęblewo) according to Roman Catholic Church sources. His father, Otto Jan Józefat von Zelewski (born 19 May 1859, Zęblewo; died 12 April 1911, Dortmund), married Amalia Maria Eveline Schimanski about 1890. They had three daughters and three sons, including Erich. Apparently, Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski manipulated his genealogy numerous times in his career, to impress his superiors.
Zelewski was born in Lauenburg, Pomerania, German Empire (present-day Lębork, Republic of Poland) on 1 March 1899. Despite his aristocratic genealogy, he seems to have grown up in poverty; his father, Otto, proved unable to establish a career and undertook a range of jobs, including agriculture. At the time of his death, Otto von Zelewski was an insurance clerk. Erich's uncle, Oskar von Zelewski, a soldier, developed a close relationship with his nephew and encouraged him to also pursue a military career. In November 1914, Erich volunteered for the Prussian army, becoming one of the youngest recruits and serving until the end of World War I. He was wounded twice, and awarded the Iron Cross. Zelewski was gassed in 1918, which had a long-term effect on his health.
After the war, Zelewski remained in the army (the Reichswehr). He fought in the Freikorps against the Polish Silesian Uprisings. In 1924, Zelewski left the army on his own volition, and went back to his farm in Düringshof (Polish Bogdaniec in Gorzów Wielkopolski county). Zelewski enrolled with the border guards (Grenzschutz) the same year.
On 23 October 1925, he legally changed his surname to von dem Bach-Zelewski. He left the Grenzschutz in 1930, when he joined the Nazi Party, becoming a member of the SS in 1931. Bach-Zelewski was rapidly promoted and, by the end of 1933, had reached the rank of Major General (SS-Brigadeführer). He is also known to have quarreled with his staff officer Anton von Hohberg und Buchwald. In 1934 Bach-Zelewski received the The Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918 (Ehrenkreuz).
A source of considerable annoyance for him was the fact that all three of his sisters had married Jewish men. In 1946, he claimed under interrogation that this had ruined his reputation in the army, forcing him to leave the Reichswehr. A Nazi Party member of the Reichstag from 1932–44, Bach-Zelewski participated in the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, taking the opportunity to have Buchwald murdered. From 1934 on, he served as leader of SS main districts (SS-Oberabschnitten) initially in East Prussia and after 1936 in Silesia. By 1937, Bach-Zelewski had become the Higher SS and Police Leader, Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer (HSSPF) in Silesia and also served as the Commander of SS main district South East (SS-Oberabschnitt Südost).
World War II
Bach-Zelewski did not participate in the invasion of Poland personally, although the units under his command took part in reprisal actions and the shooting of POWs in the course of the September Campaign. Instead, on 7 November 1939, SS chief Heinrich Himmler offered him the post of Commissioner for the Strengthening of Germandom in Silesia. His duties included mass resettlement and the confiscation of Polish private property. By August 1940, some 18,000–20,000 Poles from Żywiec County were forced to leave their homes in what became known as the Action Saybusch (German name for Żywiec).
On 22 June 1941, Bach-Zelewski became the HSSPF in the region of Silesia. He provided the initial impetus for the building of Auschwitz concentration camp at the Polish artillery barracks in the Zasole suburb of Oświęcim due to overcrowding of prisons. The location was scouted by his subordinate Oberführer Arpad Wigand. The first transport arrived at KL Auschwitz on 14 June 1940, and two weeks later Bach-Zelewski personally visited the camp.
During Operation Barbarossa, Bach-Zelewski served as the SS and police leader in the territory of Belarus, extending all the way to the Urals. He oversaw the activities of the Einsatzgruppe B, led by Arthur Nebe and responsible for the extermination of Jews in Riga and Minsk between July and September 1941. He went back to Berlin in February 1942 for medical treatment. Bach-Zelewski was hospitalized with intestinal ailments, and described as suffering from "hallucinations connected with the shooting of Jews". He asked Himmler to be reassigned from managing executions to anti-partisan warfare. Bach-Zelewski resumed his post in July.
In June 1942, after the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague, Hitler wanted Bach-Zelewski to take Heydrich's place as the leader of the Reich Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. When Himmler argued that Bach-Zelewski could not be spared due to the prevailing military situation, Hitler relented and appointed Kurt Daluege to the position. In July 1943, Bach-Zelewski became commander of the so-called "Bandenkämpfverbände" ("Band-fighting Unit"), responsible for the mass murder of 35,000 civilians in Riga and more than 200,000 in Belarus and eastern Poland. The authorities designated him as the future HSSPF in Moscow; however, the Wehrmacht failed to take the city.
Until 1943, Bach-Zelewski remained the HSSPF in command of "anti-partisan" units on the central front, a special command created by Adolf Hitler. Bach-Zelewski was the only HSSPF in the occupied Soviet territories to retain genuine authority over the police after Hans-Adolf Prützmann and Jeckeln lost theirs to the civil administration.
Bach-Zelewski's genocidal tactics
On 12 July 1943, Bach-Zelewski received command of all anti-partisan actions in Belgium, Belarus, France, the General Government, the Netherlands, Norway, Ukraine, Yugoslavia, and parts of the Bezirk Bialystok. In practice, his activities remained confined to Belarus and contiguous parts of Russia.
Bach-Zelewski's tactics produced a high civilian death toll and relatively minor military gains. In fighting irregular battles with the partisans, his units slaughtered civilians in order to inflate the figures of "enemy losses"; indeed, far more fatalities were usually reported than weapons captured. The German troops used to encircle areas controlled by the partisans in a manner both time-consuming and conspicuous, allowing the real enemy to slip away. After an operation was completed, no permanent military presence was maintained, which gave the partisans a chance to resume where they had left off. Even when successful in pacification actions, Bach-Zelewski usually accomplished little more than to force the real enemy to relocate and multiply their numbers with civilians enraged by the massacres.
Crushing of the Warsaw Uprising
On 2 August 1944, Bach-Zelewski took command of all German troops fighting Bor-Komorowski's Home Army that had staged the Warsaw Uprising. The German forces were made up of 17,000 men arranged in two battle groups: under Hanns von Rohr, and under Reinefarth – the latter included the Dirlewanger Brigade of convicted criminals. This command group was named after Bach-Zelewski, as Korpsgruppe Bach. Units under his command killed approximately 200,000 civilians (more than 65,000 in mass executions) and an unknown number of POWs.
After more than two months of heavy fighting and the total destruction of Warsaw, Bach-Zelewski managed to take control of the city, committing atrocities in the process, notably the Wola massacre. For his exploits in Warsaw, Bach-Zelewski was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross by the Nazi regime on 30 September 1944. Incidentally, during the slaughter and razing of Warsaw, he is alleged to have personally saved Fryderyk Chopin's heart, by taking it for his own collection of curiosities. The recovered heart is held at a Warsaw church. Between 26 January and 10 February 1945, Bach-Zelewski commanded X SS Armeekorps, one of the "paper-corps", in Germany, but this unit was annihilated after less than two weeks.
After the war
Bach-Zelewski went into hiding and tried to leave the country. However, US military police arrested him on 1 August 1945. In exchange for his testimony against his former superiors at the Nuremberg Trials, Bach-Zelewski never faced trial for any war crimes. Similarly, he never faced extradition to Poland or to the USSR. He left prison in 1949. In 1951, Bach-Zelewski claimed that he had helped Hermann Göring commit suicide in 1946. As evidence, he produced cyanide capsules to the authorities with serial numbers not far removed from the one used by Göring. The authorities never verified Bach-Zelewski's claim, however, and did not charge him with aiding Göring's death. Most modern historians dismiss Bach-Zelewski's claim and agree that a U.S. Army contact within the Palace of Justice's prison at Nuremberg most likely aided Göring in his suicide.
In 1951, Bach-Zelewski was sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp for the murder of political opponents in the early 1930s; however, he did not serve prison time until 1958, when he was convicted of killing Anton von Hohberg und Buchwald, a Sturmabteilung officer, during the Night of the Long Knives, and was sentenced to four and a half years imprisonment.
In 1961, Bach-Zelewski was sentenced to an additional 10 years in home custody for the murder of 10 German Communists in the early 1930s. None of the sentences referred to his role in Poland, in the East, or his participation in the Holocaust, although he openly denounced himself as a mass murderer. Bach-Zelewski died in a Munich prison on 8 March 1972, a week after his 73rd birthday.
Bach-Zelewski gave evidence for the defence at the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Israel in May 1961. His evidence was to the effect that operations in Russia and parts of Poland where Operations Units of the Security Police were not subject to the orders of Eichmann's office, nor was Eichmann able to give orders to the officers in charge of these units, who were responsible for the murder of Jews and Gypsies. The evidence was provided at a hearing in Nuremberg in May 1961
German military awards and trophies
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- Warsaw Uprising Atrocities
- Porajmos extermination of the Romani people
- Geneva Convention
- Ex-Nazis and List of former Nazis influential after 1945
Notes and references
- Tomasz Żuroch-Piechowski. "Eryk z Bogdańca, niewinny w Norymberdze (Innocent man at the Nuremberg Trials)" (Internet Archive). Tygodnik Powszechny (in Polish). 39/2006 (24 September 2006). Retrieved 26 June 2012.
- Goldensohn, Leon, The Nuremberg Interviews: Conversations with the Defendants and Witnesses, Random House Publishing, 2010.
- Mirosław Sikora (20 September 2011). "Saybusch Aktion - jak Hitler budował raj dla swoich chłopów". OBEP Institute of National Remembrance, Katowice (in Polish). Redakcja. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
- Żuroch-Piechowski. "Innocent man at the Nuremberg Trials" (ibidem, page 2). Tygodnik Powszechny. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
- Lifton, Robert Jay, The Nazi Doctors (New York: Basic Books 1986), p. 159; ISBN 0-465-04905-2
- Żuroch-Piechowski. "Innocent man at the Nuremberg Trials" (ibidem, page 3). Tygodnik Powszechny. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
- Arendt, Hannah, Eichmann in Jerusalem: the banality of evil (New York: Viking Press 1963), p. 7;
Arendt, in her account of Eichmann's trial in Israel, states that subsequently Eichmann had tried to protect Jews from the Einsatzgruppen.
- Edgar M. Howell (1997). The Soviet Partisan Movement: 1941-1944. Merriam Press. p. 185. ISBN 1576380149. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
- Norman Davies, (2004). Rising '44. The Battle for Warsaw, (1st U.S. ed.), New York: Viking; ISBN 978-0-670-03284-6
- "The Rape of Warsaw", Stosstruppen39-45.tripod.com; retrieved 3 February 2009.
- Chopin's Heart, AFP, at The Chopin Society UK; retrieved 30 May 2012.
- "Guard 'gave Goering suicide pill'", BBC News, 8 February 2005.
- Hamburger Abendblatt, 4 August 1962. (German)
- The Trial Papers of Eichmann's Trial
- Władysław Bartoszewski (1961). Prawda o von dem Bachu (Truth on von dem Bach) (in Polish). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Zachodnie. p. 103.
- Marek Dzięcielski (2002). Pomorskie sylwetki (Pomeranian Biographies) (in Polish). Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. pp. 221–233. ISBN 83-7322-491-2.
- Tomasz Żuroch-Piechowski. "Eryk z Bogdańca, niewinny w Norymberdze (Innocent man at the Nuremberg Trials)" (Internet Archive). Tygodnik Powszechny (in Polish). 39/2006 (2006-09-24). Retrieved June 26, 2012.
- Patzwall, Klaus D.; Scherzer, Veit (2001). Das Deutsche Kreuz 1941 – 1945 Geschichte und Inhaber Band II [The German Cross 1941 – 1945 History and Recipients Volume 2] (in German). Norderstedt, Germany: Verlag Klaus D. Patzwall. ISBN 978-3-931533-45-8.
- Blood, Philip W. - Hitler's Bandit Hunters - The SS and the Nazi Occupation of Europe. Potomac Books Inc. 2006.
| 16 |
BUDAPEST (Apr. 5)
The NATO attack on Yugoslavia, and the horrific Kosovo refugee crisis that now affects several Balkan states, have sent echoes of both the Holocaust and the Exodus from Egypt resounding through the world this Passover.
Jews themselves play only an incidental role in the current conflict, but the symbolism of Jews and their historic suffering is clear.
Both sides — NATO as well as the Yugoslav government of President Slobodan Milosevic — have accused the other of using Nazi tactics and have compared each other’s leaders to Hitler.
In the West, intensely emotional buzzwords like “genocide” and “camps” serve to characterize the brutality of Serbian ethnic cleansing in Kosovo.
Shocking TV footage of crowded train cars filled with desperate ethnic Albanians forced from their homes call up images of grainy film showing the Jewish deportations to Auschwitz during the Shoah.
In Belgrade, where the air strikes on the city are the first since the Nazi bombardments of World War II, slogans label President Clinton as “Bill Hitler” and Serbian officials compare the “onslaught of Clinton’s and NATO’s neo-Nazis” to the German bombings.
State-controlled Yugoslav media do not report on the scope of the refugee crisis.
If the exodus is mentioned at all, it is described as people fleeing NATO bombs or Kosovo Liberation Army “terrorism.” Nor is the humanitarian disaster presented as a reason for the NATO strikes.
The message is solely that — as in World War II — tiny Serbia is defending its sovereignty against the brutal might of the most powerful nation on earth.
The Serbs stress that unlike Croatia, which during World War II was ruled as a Nazi puppet state of homegrown fascists and actively carried out anti-Jewish persecutions, Serbia opposed the Nazis.
One of the bridges destroyed by NATO missiles in Novi Sad, one Serb official pointed out, was the bridge on which the Nazis executed Jews and Serbs and threw their bodies into the Danube.
Along with these comparisons, the perception — and use — of Jews as a moral voice in the current conflict is also apparent.
“As a Jew, I feel I must speak up,” Holocaust survivor and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel told CNN, echoing the sentiment he had earlier expressed to JTA.
Wiesel called on the world to step in to help the ethnic Albanian victims. But he declined to equate the Serbian ethnic cleansing in Kosovo as Nazi-style genocide in the full sense of the word. Despite the horrors and atrocities, he said, Milosevic’s aim was not to kill all ethnic Albanians.
In Belgrade, meanwhile, Jews have been placed in a delicate situation. About 3,000 Jews live in Serbia, most of them in the capital. Regardless of what they may feel about the situation in Kosovo or about Milosevic, they feel they are sharing the fate of their fellow Serbs in general.
“We are affected [by the bombing] the same way as everyone else,” said a Jewish man in Belgrade who has long opposed Milosevic.
The small Jewish communities in Kosovo and Macedonia reported as of Monday that they felt safe and did not wish to be evacuated despite the worsening situation there.
Even before the bloody breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, Milosevic’s Serbia sought to win world Jewish — and Western — support for its policies by courting the Jews and Israel.
That effort intensified as the wars in Croatia and Bosnia intensified.
A Serbian-Israel Friendship Association was established, and Serbia’s relatively friendly historical relationship to the Jews in contrast to Croatia’s pro-Nazi anti-Semitism was frequently recalled.
Israel established full relations with Serbia in late 1996, nearly a year before it established relations with Croatia.
During the Balkan wars in the early 1990s, Yugoslavia’s Jews, fearing manipulation, attempted to steer clear of any active political role.
The community expressed no official stance, although individual members of the community spoke out privately against the Milosevic regime.
The tightly controlled Serbian media last week again demonstrated the moral character ascribed to Jewish positions.
It prominently displayed an appeal by the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia that condemned the NATO bombing and urged Israel and international Jewish organizations to help mediate a peaceful, political solution to the crisis.
“The bombing hurts all Yugoslav citizens, including Jews, as we also are citizens of Yugoslavia,” the March 28 statement said.
“Bombs and missiles do not select victims according to national or religious criteria. The Federation and members of the Jewish community in Yugoslavia condemn the bombing, and request that it be stopped at once,” it said.
“They are in favor of a peaceful, political solution of the Kosovo problem, with guarantees for full equality of all its citizens and all national, ethnic and religious groups, of highest level of autonomy, and against changing of any borders by force,” it said.
“Today, the Federation requested the Government of the State of Israel, the World Jewish Congress and the European Jewish Congress to use their influence at the international level in order to stop the bombing of Yugoslavia by NATO forces and to support the peaceful, political solution of the Kosovo problem,” it added.
The WJC said it had received the appeal from the Yugoslav Jews and would “take it up at the highest level” after the Passover holiday.
The group’s executive director, Elan Steinberg, called the Yugoslav Jewish community “courageous” and said the WJC is in a difficult situation because its membership includes Jewish communities from around the world, all of whom must be consulted before a position can be taken.
In the strictly Jewish context, meanwhile, the current crisis sparked an international cooperative effort that marked what some see as a milestone in the revival of Jewish communal life and sensibilities in former Communist Europe.
More than 200 Yugoslav Jews fled to Hungary in buses rented by the Jewish community as part of a contingency plan worked out by Hungarian and Yugoslav Jewish leaders last year.
“Months before the air strikes, we agreed that we would help the Yugoslav young people,” said Gusztav Zoltai, head of the Federation of Hungarian Jewish Communities. “All we have done is to put Jewish solidarity into action.”
Most of the evacuees were children and teen-agers sent out of the country by their parents to ride out the NATO air strikes in safety.
Unlike the ethnic Albanians fleeing Kosovo, the Yugoslav Jews do not consider themselves refugees, nor were they escaping persecution.
The Yugoslav Jews were first hosted by the Budapest Jewish community in the community center and a school. Later, with assistance from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, they were moved to a hotel.
The JDC and the European Council of Jewish Communities were also coordinating potential assistance from other European Jewish communities.
“Since the Holocaust, most of the Jewish communities in Communist Europe were being helped by their brothers in the West,” said Israel Sela, director of the Hungary office of the JDC. “This is the first time that a Jewish community in one former Communist state has directly helped another Jewish community in the region.”
For those who stayed in Belgrade, few Jews came to a community seder last week because of the bombings.
The community’s chief rabbi, Rabbi Yitzhak Assiel, who had been drafted into the Serbian army, was released so he could spend Passover with his family and the community.
| 16 |
Known as “Mama G.” by generations of admirers, Adele Ginzberg was an influential figure in the Conservative Movement as wife of the famed Louis Ginzberg, professor of Talmud at the Jewish Theological Seminary, and was an active member of National Women’s League. Ginzberg was a role model and inspiration to rabbinical students and women leaders and an early supporter of equal rights for women in synagogue rituals.
Born on May 11, 1886, in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany, daughter of Michael and Sophie Katzenstein and older sister of Max and Martha, Adele (Katzenstein) Ginzberg moved to Berlin at age eight after her mother’s sudden death. She received basic schooling and then, unable to study nursing as she wanted, she instead worked briefly in her father’s real estate office. She married Louis Ginzberg in 1909 and moved to New York. They had two children, Sophie (Ginzberg) Gould and Eli Ginzberg, professor of economics and director of the Eisenhower Center for Conservation of Human Resources at Columbia University.
Ginzberg first became involved in community affairs with the Liberty Bond Campaign during World War I. From 1920 on, she was closely associated with National Women’s League. Serving as its representative on several national and international organizations, she also wrote a monthly column in its magazine, Outlook. She was instrumental in initiating the Girl Scout project in 1946, which led to the establishment of the Menorah Award for Jewish Girl Scouts. Ginzberg was also devoted to aiding the blind through the Jewish Braille Institute.
Ginzberg, together with her husband, unofficially took over the Schechters’ role as “Mr. and Mrs. Seminary.” A fearless woman with an irreverent personality and colossal energy, Ginzberg brought great vitality to the seminary community. She hosted open houses on Shabbat and holidays and invited each member of the seminary’s senior rabbinical school class for Shabbat lunch. After her husband’s death in 1953, Ginzberg continued to invite students for Shabbat meals. Ginzberg was also long noted for decorating the Jewish Theological Seminary’s sukkah, which is named in her memory. Finally, Ginzberg was one of the few of her generation to join the struggle for equal rights for women in synagogue ritual life.
In recognition of her varied talents and influence, Ginzberg was honored as New York State Mother of the Year in 1966, was inducted in the seminary’s Honorary Society of Fellows in 1976, and was awarded the Mathilde Schechter Award posthumously in 1980. Ginzberg died in New York City on May 10, 1980.
Ginzberg exemplified those women whose status and influence derive initially from their illustrious husbands, but who used their position to educate and enrich Jewish life on their own terms. She conveyed the vitality of Jewish life to generations of Conservative Jews and inspired many to adopt a forward-thinking stance.
AJYB 82:365–366; Ginzberg, Eli. Keeper of the Law (1966); “Irrepressible, Unforgettable, ‘Mama G.’” Outlook 21 (Fall 1980): 4, 20–21; “Presentation of Mathilde Schechter Award.” Women’s League Biennial Convention Proceedings (1980): 74–77; “Quotable Quotes.” Scope (February 1964): 2; Shenker, Israel. “Adele Ginzberg, at 90, Says, ‘So What?’” NYTimes, May 16, 1976; United Synagogue of America. National Women’s League. They Dared to Dream: A History of National Women’s League, 1918–68 (1967).
How to cite this page
Schwartz, Shuly Rubin. "Adele Ginzberg." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on March 28, 2015) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ginzberg-adele>.
| 16 |
The Élysée Treaty was a treaty of friendship between France and West Germany, signed by President Charles de Gaulle and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer on January 22, 1963 at the Élysée Palace in Paris. With the signing of this treaty, Germany and France established a new foundation for relations that ended centuries of rivalry between them.
Contents of the Treaty
The treaty called for consultations between France and West Germany on all important questions and an effort to come to a common stance. Regular summits between high-level officials were also established.
President de Gaulle intended for the treaty to make West Germany distance and eventually separate itself from its American protector. He saw West Germany (and the other member states of the European Economic Community) as vassalized by Washington. The treaty was notable in that it did not, at all, mention the U.S., Britain, NATO, or the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT).
However, after U.S. President John F. Kennedy expressed his displeasure about this to the West German ambassador to the United States, the West German parliament, the Bundestag, ratified the treaty with a preamble which called on France and West Germany to pursue tight cooperation with the U.S., for Britain's eventual admission to the EEC, for the achievement of a free trade accord in the framework of the GATT, and for the West's military integration in NATO under U.S. leadership.
Among the direct consequences of the Treaty are the creation of the Franco-German Office for Youth (l'Office franco-allemand pour la jeunesse/Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk), the creation of Franco-German high schools and the twinning between numerous French and German towns, schools and regions.
The first meeting between the two heads of state took place at the private home of General de Gaulle at Colombey-les-Deux-Églises in September 1958. Since then French and German heads of state have kept up this strong relationship, often considered as the engine of European integration (see Franco-German cooperation).
To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the signing of the Treaty, in January 2003 new forms of bilateral coordination between the two countries were created, such as the Franco-German Ministerial Council, which meets twice a year. This celebration also led to the creation for the first time of a common Franco-German History Coursebook to be used in both countries and foster a shared vision of history.
- Ansbert Baumann (2003) Begegnung der Völker? Der Élysée-Vertrag und die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Deutsch-französische Kulturpolitik von 1963 bis 1969. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, ISBN 3-631-50539-6.
- Ansbert Baumann (2002) Die organisierte Zusammenarbeit. Die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen am Vorabend des Élysée-Vertrags (1958–1962). Ludwigsburg: DFI compact, 1, ISSN 1619-8441.
- Corine Defrance, Ulrich Pfeil (2005) Der Élysée-Vertrag und die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen 1945–1963–2003. Munich: Oldenbourg, ISBN 3-486-57678-X.
- Corine Defrance, Ulrich Pfeil (2012) La France, l’Allemagne et le traité de l’Élysée, 1963–2013, Paris: CNRS, ISBN 978-2-271-07488-1.
- Ulrich Lappenküper (2001) Die deutsch-französischen Beziehungen 1949–1963. Von der „Erbfeindschaft“ zur „Entente élémentaire“. Munich: Oldenbourg, ISBN 3-486-56522-2.
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| 16 |
Combat traits usually get most of the attention from researchers, because they are thought to have arisen due to intense male-male competition for access to females. Large, elaborate weapons become the focus of sexual selection studies because the connection is obvious. Collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris), for example, have bite force correlated with head width, and it positively predicts the number of offspring produced in a breeding season, suggesting sexual selection on head morphology and the role of attacking traits.
But maybe defense wins sex games too. Sexual selection in the Forked Fungus Beetle (Bolitotherus cornutus) favors larger body and horn size, and a new study investigates the relationship between these traits and the beetles' grip strength, which is crucial for the male to hold on to the female and shield her from other males in an elaborate courtship ritual. But it also highlights defensive traits - by having a strong grip, males can keep females busy for hours. And hours. And hours. And that blocks out other males from getting involved during mating season.
The grip strength trial. (A) The male grips the dowel rod in a similar fashion to how males grip females during courtship and guarding in the wild. (B) The same male at maximum resistance just before releasing the dowel rod. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042738.g002
During the courtship ritual, male beetles grab onto the female and they hold on - that would seem to favor males with a stronger grip. The authors of a study tested the grip strength of 84 beetles, both male and female, by tying a piece of thread around the beetles' bodies, allowing them to wrap their legs around a small rod, and then pulling the beetle vertically until they released the rod.
The larger attacking male uses his clypeal horns in an attempt to dislodge the smaller male. The smaller male was previously courting the female and during the combat grips her with all six legs. The video has been sped up to 5x actual speed. Credit: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042738
The researchers found that grip strength grip strength was repeatable, consistent and differed between the sexes. It was very consistent for each individual, males overall have a stronger grip, and they believe that this sexual dimorphism appears to result from a complex relationship between body size and leg length. Their results, they write, suggest that there is a suite of traits that influence grip performance and therefore might affect sexual selection.
Citation: Benowitz KM, Brodie ED III, Formica VA, 'Morphological Correlates of a Combat Performance Trait in the Forked Fungus Beetle, Bolitotherus cornutus', PLoS ONE 7(8): e42738. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042738
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Biology and Philosophy 18 (3):387-400 (2003)
The current widespread belief that taxonomic methods used before Darwin were essentialist is ill-founded. The essentialist method developed by followers of Plato and Aristotle required definitions to state properties that are always present. Polythetic groups do not obey that requirement, whatever may have been the ontological beliefs of the taxonomist recognizing such groups. Two distinct methods of forming higher taxa, by chaining and by examplar, were widely used in the period between Linnaeus and Darwin, and both generated polythetic groups. Philosopher William Whewell congratulated pre-Darwinian taxonomists for not adhering to the rigid ideal of definition used in the mathematical sciences. What he called the method of types is here called the method of exemplars because typology has been equated with essentialism, whereas the use of a type species as the reference point or prototype for a higher category was a practice inconsistent with essentialism. The story that the essentialism of philosophers dominated the development of systematics may prove to be a myth.
|Keywords||Essentialism History Linnaeus Mayr Method of exemplars Polythetic groups Popper Typology Whewell|
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Geoff Chambers (2012). The Species Problem: Seeking New Solutions for Philosophers and Biologists. Biology and Philosophy 27 (5):755-765.
Maureen A. O’Malley (2010). Ernst Mayr, the Tree of Life, and Philosophy of Biology. Biology and Philosophy 25 (4):529-552.
Phillip R. Sloan (2013). The Species Problem and History. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 44 (2):237-241.
Charissa S. Varma (2009). Threads That Guide or Ties That Bind: William Kirby and the Essentialism Story. [REVIEW] Journal of the History of Biology 42 (1):119 - 149.
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|Scientific Name:||Capricornis swinhoei|
|Species Authority:||Gray, 1862|
|Taxonomic Notes:||There has been disagreement in the current taxonomy of Naemorhedus and Capricornis (Groves and Grubb 1985, Soma et al. 1987, Groves and Shields 1996) and is in need of revision. Recent genetic evidences have supported that Capricornis swinhoei is a distinct species from Capricornis crispus (Chang 2002, Min et al. 2004).
Taxonomy of serows is not completely resolved; descriptions, range maps, and assessments of conservation status in the literature vary because sources differ on nomenclature and specific/subspecific status of the various taxa. Here, we follow the taxonomy of Wilson and Reeder, 3rd edition (2005). Thus, we recognize six species of Capricornis:
• C. crispus (Japanese Serow, restricted to Japan)
• C. milneedwardsii (Chinese Serow, but also occurring in southeast Asian countries)
• C. rubidus (Red Serow, restricted to Myanmar)
• C. sumatraensis (Sumatran Serow, in Indonesia, Malaysia and southern Thailand)
• C. swinhoei (Formosan Serow, restricted to Taiwan, Province of China)
• C. thar (Himalayan Serow, along the Himalayan range)
The genus Naemorhedus is recognized as referring to gorals. Note that this taxonomy differs from that of Wilson and Reeder, 2nd edition (1993), that of the 2007 IUCN Red List (IUCN 2007), as well as that adopted by the IUCN Caprinae Specialist Group (Shackleton 1997). Additionally, most Chinese sources consider serows in China as being N. sumatraensis (e.g., Wang 1998, Wang 2002).
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Least Concern ver 3.1|
|Assessor(s):||Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C.|
|Reviewer(s):||Harris, R. & Festa-Bianchet, M. (Caprinae Red List Authority)|
Listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.
|Range Description:||The Formosan serow is endemic to Taiwan and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions throughout the island (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei 1992, Pei and Chiang 2004). It occupies elevations from 50 m to greater than 3,900 m just below the peak of Yu-shan, the highest mountain in the country. However, most populations today occupies regions higher than 1,000 m because most lowlands are encroached upon by human.|
Native:Taiwan, Province of China
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||There is no estimate of total population size. Surveys showed that the Formosan serow is still widely distributed throughout the island, from the north to the south (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004). However, since World War II, logging and agriculture have encroached upon the virgin forests inhabited by serow, resulting in significant habitat loss. In addition, heavy hunting pressure over the past decades may have caused the population to decline (McCullough 1974). An average density of 22 serows/km² was estimated in part of high altitudes of Yu-shan National Park (K. Y. Lue, unpublished data). Casual observations by park rangers, hikers and wildlife researchers suggest that serow populations may be increasing in recent years. This may due to reduced hunting activities for game meat market in the city because of tighter law enforcement. However, this impression might be confounded because more people are now involved in outdoor activities. More sightings of serow may lead to a biased impression of increasing populations. Population trends need further research.|
|Habitat and Ecology:||
Formosan serow live in various mountainous habitats, from lowland tropical and subtropical rainforests, mixed broadleaf-conifer forests and warm temperate rainforests at mid-altitudes, to coniferous forests, alpine meadow, and tundra at the highest altitude range of 3,000 m~3,952 m (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004, Chiang 2007). They are adapted to steep and rugged terrain and may use the steep and craggy rock faces and cliffs to avoid predators. In forests lower than 3,000 m as in southern Taiwan, Formosan serow occurs more frequently at lower altitudes, at areas close to ridges and cliffs, and in steep, rugged or rocky terrain (Chiang 2007). At altitudes higher than 3,000 m, Formosan serow also occur in alpine grasslands dominated by Yushania niitakaymensis, in forests with Juniperus formosana, Juniperus squamata, Tsuga chinensis, and Abies kawakamii, and on cliff-tops (personal observations and Lue 1987). Populations can be high at high altitudes, particularly in remote areas or where there are cliffs.
The Formosan serow is intermediate feeder between selective browser and roughage eater (Hofmann 1985) with a tendency of being a selective browser (Hofmann 1985, Ochiai 1999). Formosan serow feeds on grasses, shrubs, browse, young twigs, some fruits, and even juvenile parts of conifers (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987). Based on information from aborigines, Lue (1987) stated that preferred food plants include, but are not limited to, Urtica fissa, Elatostema edule, Anisogonium esculentum, Begonia laciniata, Polygonum chinensis, Chamabainia cuspidate, Mussaenda parviflora, Perrottetia arisanensis, and Pellionia arisanensis. Analysis of relationships between forest structures and occurrence frequencies suggested that they may prefer disturbed and early-succession forests with gaps (Chiang 2007) where they could find grass and shrubs to browse (personal observations and McCullough 1974, Lue 1987).
Virtually nothing is known of its social organization. Captive animals mark objects with their infra-orbital glands and have localized dung sites; both behaviours are suggestive of territoriality (Chen 1987). Its reproduction is known almost exclusively from a limited number of captive animals (Wang and Chen 1981, Chen 1987). There is a single young born after seven months gestation (Smith and Xie 2008). Female Formosan serow are likely to be pregnant during September and November and give birth after March based on captive and hunters’ observations (Chen 1990). Formosan serow is mostly solitary (personal observation and Chen 1990), although captive groups with up to eight animals have been maintained (Chen 1987). Young Formosan serows were observed to follow their mothers with occasional hiding behaviour suggesting a follower type (Chen 1990). In the wild, young serows had also been photographed by camera traps to follow their parents in spring and fall (Pei and Chiang 2004).
Camera trapping data in remote areas with least human activities showed that Formosan serow is active day and night with significantly more diurnal activities (74% vs. 26%, Pei and Chiang 2004). It is most active during the 3 hours after sunrise and during the 4 hours before sunset (but lower activity levels than in the morning) and seasonal variations of activity levels were more pronounced in the afternoon (Pei and Chiang 2004). However, Formosan serow could become more nocturnal in areas close to human activities (Liu 2003).
Habitat segregation was found between Formosan serow, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor swinhoei) and Reeve’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus) (Chiang 2007). There may be competition in the wild with the sympatric sambar deer and Reeve’s muntjac, though the effects of these interactions require further research.
|Major Threat(s):||In the past, wildlife was a source of food for the local indigenous people in Taiwan. Because of the growth in the livestock industry over the past 40 years in Taiwan, food from wildlife is becoming less and less important and hunting serow is now banned throughout Taiwan. However, wild meat is still preferred over livestock meat in certain situations such as ceremonies or gifts. Better economic conditions may also increase the demand for wild meat. Wild meat is still taken through illegal hunting and hunting activity seems to have increased in recent years, partially because the immigration of foreign workers into Taiwan have caused unemployment among the indigenous people, who have returned to their villages and now practice hunting for a living. Nevertheless, current hunting pressure still seems lower compared to several decades ago. It is unknown whether current hunting pressure has a significant adverse effects on serow populations. In addition, forestry, agricultural, road construction activities in the mountainous regions have encroached upon the virgin forests originally inhabited by serow. The latest threat to serow comes from increasing recreational and tourist pressures, but the impact is unknown. Mortality related to skin parasites have also been reported (Pei and Chiang 2004, Tsai 2005) and confirmed (Chen and Pei 2007) and could be a potential threat to the serow populations in Taiwan.|
|Conservation Actions:||Since 1989, the Formosan serow has been listed as a “Precious and Rare species” under Taiwan’s Wildlife Protection Act, and hunting the species is prohibited. Serow is protected in National Parks and in Nature Reserves. Recently, through the development of environmental-protection awareness and enforcement of related wildlife protection laws, conditions for serow have improved. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) conduct in-depth studies of their population biology and ecology, as well as the impact of the disease and parasites; 2) develop a community-based management and monitoring programme with aboriginal tribes.|
|Citation:||Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C. 2008. Capricornis swinhoei. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 28 March 2015.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided|
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- The largest of the anthropoid apes (Gorilla gorilla) native to the forests of equatorial Africa, having a stocky body and coarse, dark brown or black hair. 2.
- Bush Meat: A Crisis for Gorillas
- Gorillas in Crisis. By Kathleen Donovan-Snavely. What will you have for supper tonight?
- Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic
- Perception, 1999, volume 28, pages 1059-1074. Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events.
- The Last Stand of the Gorilla - UNEP/GRID-Arendal
- Stand of the Gorilla – Environmental Crime and Conflict in the Congo Basin.
- The Gorilla Story
- 1. ❖ The Gorilla Story. Why This Story?
- Gorilla Logic Named a Finalist in Third Annual ATI Automation Honors for Its
- 29, 2011 /PRNewswire via COMTEX/ -- Gorilla Logic, ( www.gorillalogic.
- Rwanda: KCB Renews Mt. Gorilla Rally Sponsorship
- KENYA Commercial Bank (KCB) has renewed a $50000 (about Frw29.5 million) sponsorship package for this year's Rwanda Mountain Gorilla Rally scheduled for September 30-October 2. KCB Managing Director Maurice K.
- MIAA: Veteran Gorillas look for stronger finish
- The hope is that a combination of experience — nine returning starters on offense and eight on defense — and offseason work puts the Gorillas closer to their past status as MIAA power and further away from back-to-back non-winning seasons.
- Zoo animals act before quake even occurred in Washington DC
- At the Smithsonian National Zoo in DC, Kyle the orangutan and a gorilla named Kojo sensed something was coming.
- Teaching Gorillas, Gently, How to Be Perfect Patients
- Garbo-like, he lifted his massive gorilla arm and rested it lightly over his face. No more, please. You can't blame Gino.
- The Gorilla Foundation / Koko.org
- The Gorilla Foundation, home of Koko the gorilla famous for her sign language skills, is bringing interspecies communication to the public.
- Gorilla - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- Gorillas are the largest extant species of primates. They are ground-dwelling, predominantly herbivorous apes that inhabit the forests of central Africa.
- Gorilla Facts - Defenders of Wildlife
- Get the facts about gorillas. Leran about gorillas through our fact sheet and help save gorillas.
- All About Gorillas - EnchantedLearning.com
- Gorillas are primates, advanced mammals from Africa which are in danger of going extinct.
- San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Gorilla
- Get fun and interesting gorilla facts in an easy-to-read style from the San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes. Buy tickets online and plan a visit to the Zoo or Safari Park.
Gorilla is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Gorilla books and related discussion.
Suggested Pdf Resources
Suggested News Resources
Suggested Web Resources
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| 17 |
sparrow weaver family of small gregarious birds, based on the genus
the well-known sparrows. In this work these birds are classified as a subfamily (Passerinae) in the weaverfinch family (Ploceidae), order Passeriformes.
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 27 Mar. 2015
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Oceans are quite noisy places at the best of times, what with the weather, the movement and communication of fish and man-made noises like ships’ engines and sonar devices. However, the biggest cause of noise pollution in the whole underwater ecosystem is the air bubbles gushing from melting glaciers and their icebergs.
Fjords with melting glaciers are far and away the noisiest places in the ocean and generate sounds at all frequencies from 300 to 20,000 Hertz. Glacial calving is certainly noisy, but in a loud, short-lived sort of way. It is the consistent melting of ice from glaciers and their icebergs that is the real noise generator. The air trapped in the ice escapes as bubbles that ‘pop’ as they leave their icy prison, giving a constant, loud, background noise.
This begs the question of what difference will it make to the fjord ecosystem once climate change has reduced the glaciers to the point that they are melting on land instead?
At the moment, fjords with glaciers are foraging hotspots for all sorts of creatures as well as important breeding locations for harbour seals. It is thought they may use the underwater noise of the escaping air to help them hide from killer whales who hunt by listening to locate their prey.
As glaciers retreat on to land, the seals may lose this acoustic camouflage, which would explain why harbour seal populations are declining in fjords where glaciers no longer reach the sea.
Termite mounds can help prevent the spread of deserts into semi-arid ecosystems, according to a new study.
In the parched grasslands and savannas where termites make their home, they have a hugely beneficial effect on the surrounding ecology. Not only do their mounds store nutrients and moisture, but their extensive tunnels allow water to better penetrate the soil.
As a result, vegetation flourishes near termite mounds in ecosystems that are otherwise highly vulnerable to ‘desertification’.
The difference they make is so significant that lands with termite mounds can survive on substantially less annual rainfall than those without the little creatures.
A second advantage they unwittingly provide is to preserve seeds and plant life and this helps their immediate surroundings recover faster when it does eventually rain.
The amount of rain may be the same as in termite-less areas but, because the termite tunnels allow it to penetrate the soil better, the actual effect on plants is as if there had been more rain.
It may be that other mound-building animals such as ants, prairie dogs and gophers have a similar impact but so far there hasn’t been the research to prove it.
Vast ranges of volcanoes lie deep below the waves along the mid-ocean ridges that run like stitches where the earth’s tectonic plates meet.
It has always been assumed that these giants of vulcanism slowly oozed lava into the spaces left by plate movements at a regular, steady pace, having no influence on our world of air thousands of metres above them.
However, a new study shows that actually these undersea volcanoes flare up in regular cycles – some as often as every two weeks, others every 100,000 years or so – and that these eruptions happen almost exclusively in the first six months of every year.
These pulses in lava ejection are apparently tied to short- and long-term changes in the earth’s orbit and to sea-levels and may trigger natural climate swings.
The chains of undersea volcanoes stretch some 37,000 miles around the world’s oceans and produce possibly eight times as much lava as land volcanoes.
A couple of million years ago the heart of our galaxy, the Milky Way, was convulsed in a titanic eruption, driving gases and other materials outward at over 2 million miles an hour.
The aftermath of this mega-explosion can be seen today – billowing clouds of gas tower 30,000 light years above and below the plane of our galaxy.
This enormous structure was discovered five years ago, showing up as a gamma-ray glow in the sky, and being observed in x-rays and radio waves.
There are two possible origins for these massive bubbles of gas – perhaps there was a firestorm of star births at the galaxy’s centre, which would have produced supernovas and blown out the gas. Alternatively, a group of stars could have fallen into the super-massive black hole that lurks there, which would have blasted super-heated gas deep into space.
These bubbles of gas are short-lived in galactic terms, suggesting they are a repeating phenomenon in the Milky Way’s history. Another reason to be glad the earth is out in the backwaters of a spiral arm……
Our sense of touch is far more sensitive than most of us realise – so sensitive that if your finger was the size of the earth, it could feel the difference between houses and cars.
Swedish scientists have investigated the ‘unknown sense’ of tactile perception and found that people can detect nano-scale wrinkles on seemingly smooth surfaces.
Nano-scale? Basically this means we can feel a bump the size of a very large molecule.
These findings could lead to developments such as touch screens for the visually impaired. And as one of the scientist says ‘To make the analogy with vision, it is as if we have just revealed how we perceive colour. Now we can start using this knowledge for tactile aesthetics in the same way that colours and intensity can be combined for visual aesthetics’.
It seems that everyone on the planet with blue eyes has a single, common ancestor – someone from around 6,000 to 10,000 years ago.
The original, default eye colour is brown (which is still the most dominant in most parts of the world) but a genetic mutation way back when “turned off” the ability to produce brown eyes.
Variations in eye colour from brown to green can all be explained by the amount of melanin in the iris, which is governed by a particular gene. Mutations to this gene can reduce the production of melanin, effectively ‘diluting’ brown eyes to blue.
However, studies of blue-eyed people from such diverse populations as those in Jordan, Denmark and Turkey have found that they have very little variation in the amounts of melanin in their eyes. This suggests they are all linked to one ancestor and have all inherited the ‘switch’ that turns off melanin production at the same spot in their DNA.
Scientists have been trying for decades to work out how carbon behaves deep below the Earth’s surface, in fluids 100 miles below the surface and at temperatures of up to 2,100 degrees F
Now it has been revealed that, along with carbon dioxide and methane, Deep Earth also contains a rich variety of organic carbon species that could be responsible for forming diamonds and perhaps even providing food for microbial life.
The theory, called the Deep Earth Water model, suggests that these deep fluids, expelled from descending tectonic plates, may be responsible for transporting building blocks for life up into the shallow Earth.
They may also play a role in the creation of diamonds as scientists have believed for a long time that diamonds form due to chemical reactions involving either carbon dioxide or methane.
On a good day, our computers are so fast they seen almost instantaneous and this is about as fast as silicon can go….
However this silicon-imposed speed and size limitation of computer processors and memory could be overcome if we used “phase-change materials” (PCMs) instead.
These are materials that can switch between two structural phases with different electrical states – one crystalline and conducting and the other glassy and insulating – in billionths of a second.
The smallest silicon-based logic and memory devices are about 20 nanometres in size – around 4,000 times thinner than a human hair- but PCM devices can function down to about 2 nanometres.
The particular PCM researchers have been experimenting with is a chalcogenide glass, which can be melted and recrystallised in half a nanosecond (which is a billionth of a second) using voltage pulses.
In these PCM devices, logic operations and memory are located together rather than separately, as they are in silicon-based computers, and processing speeds could be 500 to 1,000 times faster than the average laptop we use today.
All this – and using less energy than current computers. All of which is great, but since the internet is already creaking at the seams I think it’s a bit like creating cars that can travel at 250 miles an hour when the road network is designed (on a good day) for 70 miles an hour and, in the busiest places, leaves your crawling along at 20……..
Massive galaxies have stopped making their own stars and instead are snacking on their smaller neighbours, according to Australian scientists.
They looked at more than 22,000 galaxies and found that smaller galaxies are very efficient at making stars from gas, but more massive ones produce hardly any stars themselves and instead grow by eating other galaxies.
Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is at this tipping point and is likely to continue to grow by eating rather than collecting gas. It hasn’t merged with another galaxy for a very long time but scientists can see the remnants of the old galaxies we have cannibalised. The next two galaxies on our menu – in about four billion years – are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds.
However, we will get a taste of our own medicine a billion years later when we are due to merge with the Andromeda Galaxy which, being the bigger of the two, will consume the Milky Way.
Most of us have heard of Archaeopteryx – the so-called first bird..the missing link if you like, between the dinosaurs that we know from the fossil record and the modern feathered creatures we love to see in our gardens…..
Well – it turns out that dinosaurs were covered in feathers long before they tried to get off the ground.
Modern birds are descendants of a particular branch of medium-sized predatory dinosaurs called therapods. If you think you don’t know what a therapod looked like, think again because Tyrannosaurus Rex was one of these two-legged meat eaters, as was the smaller velociraptor, made famous by the film Jurassic Park.
Just like their descendants, these dinosaurs were warm-blooded and they evolved feathers rather than fur to keep warm because – current thinking says – of their acute colour vision.
Mammals generally have rather poor colour vision because they tended to be nocturnal during the early stages of their evolution, but reptiles and birds have extremely good vision.
Not only did dinosaurs have the three colour receptors for red, green and blue that humans have, but they probably also had (like their closest living relatives today – crocodiles and birds) the ability to see extremely short-wave and ultra-violet light.
Before dinosaurs evolved feathers, they had hairs similar to a mammal’s fur and these hairs gradually turned into feathers which are much better for optical signalling. The broad, flat surface area of feathers allowed for the constant refraction of light which is absolutely essential to produce blues and greens as well as the metallic shimmering we find so attractive about birds’ plumage.
By developing feathers, dinosaurs were able to show off across the colour spectrum and be warm-blooded animals at the same time, which is something mammals have never (yet) managed…
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Snow Leopard Trust Updates
On June 21st, 2012, our field team made a remarkable visit to the den sites of Anu and Lasya. These two females are part of our long-term ecological study and wear GPS tracking collars that help us identify their movements. With this data, we can learn critical information about snow leopard range, habitat and prey needs. This allows us to better understand snow leopards and the threats they face, and make the most of our resources to protect these endangered cats.
In May, Anu and Lasya began to restrict their daily movements to smaller and smaller areas, which the team interpreted as a signal that both were preparing to give birth. Traveling through steep and rocky mountain outcroppings, the team followed VHF signals transmitted by the collars and finally located the dens.
Only six kilometers apart, both dens were high up in steep canyons. The first den was in a big cave with a man-made rock wall blocking most of the entrance. ‘As we stood outside the den we could hear the cub and smell the cats but not see anything inside the den,’ said PhD student Orjan Johansson.
Orjan and his colleagues, Sumbee Tomorsukh of Mongolia, Mattia Colombo of Italy, and Dr. Carol Esson of Australia (a licensed veterinarian), extended a camera over the wall and were able to film Anu lying tucked against the wall staring at the entrance with a paw over her tiny cub. ‘This is incredible,’ says Brad Rutherford, our Executive Director. ‘Snow leopards are so rare and elusive that people often talk about them as ‘ghosts’ of the mountains.
At the second den (Lasya’s), the team found two male cubs in a narrow crack in a cliff wall. Confirming that their mother was out on a kill, the scientists were able to enter, photograph the cubs and take hair samples that will allow them to establish the cubs’ genetic identification and confirm sex. They also took weights and measurements and implanted PIT tags (tiny tracking microchips similar to those used by pet owners). Both cubs had full stomachs and appeared to be in excellent health. The whole event took less than 30 minutes.
The team handled the cubs with care and took their measurements as quickly as possible. “This was an unprecedented opportunity,’ says Rutherford, ‘We wanted to be as careful as possible and only take the most pressing data.’ The team listened with VHF from a distance to make sure that the females had returned to the dens. Their constant monitoring has confirmed that both females are still with their cubs. The research teams will not be visiting the cubs or the den sites again in order to limit disturbance to the den areas and the cubs themselves.
These findings are incredibly important for snow leopard conservation. Due to the snow leopard’s elusive nature, very little is known about snow leopards in the wild. Birth rates, sex ratios, cub sizes, litter sizes and cub survival rates have never been documented but are critical to understanding—and planning for—the survival of the species. Follow-up assessment of cub survival will enable the Snow Leopard Trust to clarify the potential for snow leopard populations to grow.
This long-term snow leopard study in Mongolia’s South Gobi is a joint project with Snow Leopard Conservation Fund and Panthera, and is in cooperation with the Mongolia Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism and the Mongolia Academy of Sciences.
Field researchers conducting our long-term ecological study are watching the movements of our known female snow leopards with fingers crossed. If the females begin to restrict their movements, it could mean that they are looking for a potential den site in order to give birth to cubs. Khashaa, Lasya and Anu are all moving within smaller regions, but have yet to settle on a location that would indicate a den. (more…)
Since 2008, we have been visiting the sites where we seen our collared cats stop for periods of time. We referred to these as ‘clusters’ because we see them as a cluster of data points. Most often the cats stop traveling because they have killed a prey animal and will take a few days to eat. With some detective work, we can gather a lot of information about the animal killed, such as the species, age, sex and general health.
We also survey the habitat nearby to get a better understanding of where the snow leopards hunt. In some clusters the snow leopard has simply laid down to rest, and I have learned that snow leopards prefer to take naps in very, very steep and rugged terrain. Those sites involve a lot of climbing, balancing and telling oneself that vertigo is a highly irrational feeling.
Thank you to everyone who helped us meet our goal!
This incredible accomplishment was only made possible by the generosity of our 260 newest donors and everyone who helped us spread the word! Not only were we able to meet our $13,000 goal, but because we did it by our April 30th deadline, every dollar has been DOUBLED!
This means that $26,000 will go to support conservation programs like Snow Leopard Enterprises, where impoverished families earn additional income and pledge to protect the snow leopards living nearby.
We cannot thank our new supporters enough for taking the leap and making their first contribution!
A new snow leopard has been fitted with a GPS tracking collar in the South Gobi region of Mongolia! As part of our long-term ecological study, we will follow this cats movements for the next year. Field researcher, Örjan Johansson, shares the experience of meeting his 16th wild snow leopard:
Mood in camp got instantly better when the siren started and the LED under “Trap alarm” lit up early evening. We rushed to the ATVs and got to the snare about 50 minutes after it had been triggered. I can’t describe the relief when I looked over a hill and saw a snow leopard lying on the other side. It was extremely windy and he had not heard us coming. The cat crawled back against the wall and lied down looking at us.
We went up to about ten meters from him and except for his eyes, he didn’t move a whisker. I didn’t want to shoot because the wind was coming from the side and the darts can easily fly more than a meter of course in such strong wind. So I took a few steps toward the cat, when I was about seven meters from him he barred all his teeth in a huge grin, saying “that is close enough”, still lying down. So I backed one step and he calmed down again and went back to just glaring at me. Had to wait for the wind to calm down for a second and then shot. We left the site and when we came back a few minutes later the cat was asleep in the same position.
Except for the wind the collaring was uneventful. It is quite difficult to gather all measurements, collect all samples and monitor vital signs when you have to put rocks on all the equipment to keep it from flying away. The cat is a new male (obviously), he weighed a little more than 44 kg and we think that he is 3-4 years old. It will be interesting to see if he is the new dominant male here. Shonkhor, the old dominant male in this range, died in summer 2011.
Now, we are eagerly waiting for the females. Pretty much the same as a lot of other guys on a Friday evening…
Örjan Johansson is a Ph.D. student at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU). He is the field scientist in our Long Term Ecological Study about snow leopards in South Gobi, Mongolia. Örjan’s groundbreaking research is generously supported by Nordens Ark Zoo in Bohuslän, Sweden, and by Kolmården Zoo, in Norrköping, Sweden.
This study is a joint project of PANTHERA, Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation in cooperation with the Mongolia Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism, and the Mongolia Academy of Sciences.
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Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) > Squaliformes
(Bramble, sleeper and dogfish sharks) > Etmopteridae
Etymology: Etmopterus: Greek, ethmos, -ou = sieve or ethmoides bone + Greek, pteron = wing, fin (Ref. 45335).
Environment / Climate / Range
Marine; demersal. Subtropical; 39°N - 33°S
Length at first maturity / Size / Weight / Age
Maturity: Lm ?, range 60 - ? cm
Max length : 64.0 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 13669); 75.0 cm TL (female)
Western Pacific: Japan (Ref. 247) and New Zealand (Ref. 13669).
A little-known lanternshark, mainly from depths below 900 m. Ovoviviparous (Ref. 205).
Life cycle and mating behavior
Maturity | Reproduction | Spawning | Eggs | Fecundity | Larvae
Distinct pairing with embrace (Ref. 205).
Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(4/1):1-249. Rome: FAO. (Ref. 247)
IUCN Red List Status (Ref. 96402)
CITES (Ref. 94142)
Threat to humans
Fisheries: of no interest
ReferencesAquacultureAquaculture profileStrainsGeneticsAllele frequenciesHeritabilityDiseasesProcessingMass conversion
Estimates of some properties based on models
Phylogenetic diversity index (Ref. 82805
= 0.5000 [Uniqueness, from 0.5 = low to 2.0 = high].
Bayesian length-weight: a=0.00339 (0.00149 - 0.00770), b=3.11 (2.91 - 3.31), based on LWR estimates for this (Sub)Family-body shape (Ref. 93245
Trophic Level (Ref. 69278
): 4.0 ±0.3 se; Based on diet studies.
Resilience (Ref. 69278
): Low, minimum population doubling time 4.5 - 14 years (Fec assumed to be <100).
Vulnerability (Ref. 59153
): Moderate vulnerability (40 of 100) .
| 17 |
Boyd, I.L., McCafferty, D.J., Reid, K., Taylor, R., and Walker, T.R. (1998) Dispersal of male and female Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 55(4), p. 845. (doi:10.1139/cjfas-55-4-845)
Full text not currently available from Enlighten.
Publisher's URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-55-4-845
This study examined the foraging locations of adult male and female Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) in the Scotia Sea during the postbreeding period. Satellite transmitters were used to track adult males and females and to obtain information about dive depths. Male fur seals migrated away from the breeding area during the postbreeding period whereas females remained close to the breeding grounds and foraged in the same area during two consecutive years. The most intensive foraging by females was associated with the edge of the continental shelf of South Georgia. Males dived deeper than females. Counts of males at South Georgia and at the South Orkney Islands support the result from satellite tracking data showing that males move from South Georgia to the South Orkney Islands at the end of the breeding season. Unlike males, females were limited in their foraging range by the necessity to return to feed dependent young, so breeding sites are likely to be located close to foraging areas that are optimal for females. Locations used for feeding by females were avoided by males, either because they were suboptimal for males or because foraging by females at South Georgia causes local depletion of food, and males, which have the option to forage further afield, can forage more successfully in regions where there are no females. Comparison with fisheries data also suggests that these fur seals are targeting the most abundant exploitable prey.
|Glasgow Author(s) Enlighten ID:||McCafferty, Dr Dominic|
|Authors:||Boyd, I.L., McCafferty, D.J., Reid, K., Taylor, R., and Walker, T.R.|
|College/School:||College of Social Sciences > School of Education|
College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences > School of Life Sciences
|Journal Name:||Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|
| 17 |
|Madagascan pochard, Captive Breeding Program, Madagascar|
|Former range (in red)|
The Madagascan pochard or Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata; Malagasy: Fotsy maso, Onjo) is an extremely rare diving duck of the genus Aythya. Thought to be extinct in the late 1990s, specimens of the species were rediscovered at Lake Matsaborimena in Madagascar in 2006. As of March 2013, the population is around 80 individuals.
Threats and decline
Based on the accounts written by Webb and Delacour's in the 1920s and 1930s it seemed that the bird was still relatively common at Lake Alaotra. The duck probably started to decline dramatically sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s. The cause of decline was the introduction of numerous fish species in the lake that killed most of the pochard chicks and damaged nesting sites. Adult birds are also likely to have become victims of introduced fishes. Rice cultivation, cattle grazing on the shores, burning of shore vegetation, introduced mammals (rats), gill-net fishing and hunting are all factors that led to the duck's disappearance from the lake. The last record of multiple birds at Lake Alaotra is from 9 June 1960 when a small flock of about 20 birds was spotted on the lake. Despite the rarity of the species in 1960, a male was shot, and the specimen is now held by the Zoological Museum Amsterdam. There is a very dubious report of a sighting made outside Antananarivo in 1970.
Searches and rediscovery
Before it was rediscovered in 2006, the last confirmed sighting of the species was at Lake Alaotra on the Central Plateau of Madagascar in 1991. The single male then encountered was captured and kept in the Antananarivo Botanical Gardens until it died one year later. Intensive searches and publicity campaigns in 1989-1990, 1993-1994 and 2000-2001 failed to produce any more records of this bird.
However, a flock of nine adults and four recently hatched ducklings were discovered at Lake Matsaborimena, in a remote area of northern Madagascar, in November 2006. The species was placed in the new "Possibly Extinct" category in the 2006 IUCN Red List; following the rediscovery, its old status of Critically Endangered was restored in the 2007 issue. As of 2008, only 25 adult birds had been counted in the wild.
In 2009, a rescue plan involving the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust removed a batch of ready-to-hatch eggs from a lake-side nest and incubated them in a lab that was set up in a tent beside the lake. After hatching, the day-old chicks were taken to a holding facility in a local hotel. Reared in captivity, they hatched eighteen ducklings in April 2012 at the captive breeding centre in Antsohihy, bringing the total population to 60. In April 2013, the population reached 80.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aythya innotata.|
- BirdLife International (2008). Aythya innotata. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 14 December 2009.
- "Critically Endangered Madagascar pochard population has quadrupled". Wildlife Extra. March 2013.
- BirdLife International (2007b): Madagascar Pochard - BirdLife Species Factsheet. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
- "Diving duck resurfaces". Birdlife. 20 November 2006.
- "Rare Madagascar duck successfully bred by Durrell". BBC News. 6 April 2012.
- BirdLife International (2007a): [ 2006-2007 Red List status changes ]. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
- Gill, Victoria (6 November 2009). "Quest to save world's rarest duck". BBC News. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
- Moore, Andy (6 April 2012). "World's rarest ducklings hatch in Madagascar". BBC News. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
- Gill, Victoria (6 April 2012). "World's rarest ducklings Madagascan pochards hatch". BBC News. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
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Has read a paper, presumably by Hooker, using the Madeiran flora to argue against Forbes's doctrine. Hooker asked how far Darwin will go in attributing common descent; he intends to show 'the facts & arguments for & against the common descent of species of same genus; & then show how far the same arguments tell for or against forms, more & more widely different'.
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Get the Most Important EcoNews Right in Your Inbox
Oceana launched its campaign to Stop Seafood Fraud in 2011 to ensure that seafood sold in the U.S. is safe, legally caught and honestly labeled. Oceana’s campaign activities include determining the true identity of seafood through DNA testing, revealing fraud and urging decision makers to take action.
In 2013, we released a report with the results of more than 1,200 samples of fish from across the country and found that 33 percent was mislabeled. Many other scientists, conservation and consumer organizations, journalists, and students have studied seafood fraud around the world too—including investigations in 29 countries and on all continents except Antarctica—and every study has uncovered fraud.
To keep track of the current state of seafood fraud, Oceana compiled a global map displaying more than 100 studies that focus on seafood fraud or substitutions of different seafood species from the one on the label. This map displays the most current and comprehensive review of seafood fraud literature to date.
Each fish on the map represents a different study about seafood mislabeling or species substitution. For studies conducted in multiple locations, a fish icon is placed on each sampling area included in the study. The colors of the fish indicate the amount of mislabeling found in each study, with darker red colors indicating higher levels of fraud:
Here are some tips on how to use the map:
To hide the legend, click on the arrow found on the top right hand corner of the legend (next to “Seafood Fraud: A Global Problem”). To expand to a full screen view, click on the link provided below the map. If the map is slow to load, please refresh the page.
Add or remove layers by checking or unchecking the boxes in the legend on the left-hand side:
Click on an icon to learn more about the study. To access the study directly, use the “Link” provided by copying and pasting it into your browser.
Search for where seafood fraud has been found near you and worldwide. To do this, type your location into the search bar on the top of the page. For example, here are the results for “Florida, United States.”
Seafood fraud has implications for health, our wallets and our oceans.
Seafood fraud can harm public health. King mackerel, a high mercury fish native to the Western Atlantic, was passed off as lower mercury fish not only in Oceana’s U.S. study, but also in South Africa, posing a threat to pregnant women and children. Escolar, a fish that can cause extremely unpleasant gastrointestinal effects, turned up fraudulently labeled as “white tuna” in the U.S., as “sablefish” in the Philippines and as “mackerel” in the Czech Republic. Seafood fraud also cheats consumers when lower cost species are passed off as more expensive ones, like swapping tilapia for red snapper. Furthermore, seafood fraud hurts our oceans as it enables illegally caught seafood, such as endangered sturgeon caviar, to be laundered in the marketplace.
Requiring traceability—tracking fish from boat to plate—will help to curb the issue of seafood fraud.
More information that follows our fish through the supply chain will not only ensure that fish were legally caught, but also allows for faster recalls when needed, deters fraudulent activities and helps target enforcement to prevent seafood fraud.
Contact us at [email protected] with questions or comments, or to let us know of any additional studies about seafood fraud.
This article was originally published on Oceana’s blog.
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This species is listed as Endangered as it has a very small, decreasing range, within which changes in the burning regime and the introduction of cattle to the region have resulted in a long-term population decline, which is continuing despite intensive conservation efforts.
Christidis, L.; Boles, W. E. 2008. Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International.
Psephotellus chrysopterygius (del Hoyo and Collar 2014) was previously placed in the genus Psephotus.
Psephotus chrysopterygius Gould, 1858
Distribution and populationPsephotus chrysopterygius
23-28 cm. Slender parrot. Adult male predominantly turquoise with black cap and pale yellow frontal band, and salmon-pink lower belly, vent thighs and undertail-coverts, conspicuously scaled off-white. Grey-brown saddle and upper wing with diagnostic, bright yellow shoulder-band. Adult female predominantly dull greenish-yellow, broad cream bar on underwing, prominent in flight. Juvenile similar to adult female, best distinguished at fledging by orange bill and cere. Voice Generally quiet and unobtrusive with variety of chirruping calls and soft whistles. Hints Contact cattle-stations in range with known breeding populations for permission to visit.
is endemic to southern and central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia
. Over the last century this species has vanished from most of its range (Levy 2004). Today, a northern subpopulation comprising 4 locations occurs in the upper catchment of the Morehead River and adjacent headwaters of the Alice River (including parts of Alwal National Park, and Artemis, Killarney and Dixie Stations with a few pairs on Mary River and Imooya Stations) and a southern subpopulation breeds in the south-east corner of Staaten River National Park and adjacent section of Bulimba Station. Historically, there were breeding populations near Coen and Port Stewart, where it was last reported in the 1950s. A further breeding population persisted at Bullaringa National Park into the 1960s. All birds reported outside these areas have been non-breeding. The northern population is estimated at 1,500 mature individuals based on surveys in 2009, and 1,000 individuals are assumed to be in the southern population, based on partial surveys in 1999 and 2004 (Garnett et al.
2011). The overall population has been declining since at least the 1920s and continues to do so (Crowley et al
. 2004, Preece et al
. 2009).Population justification
The breeding population has been estimated at around 2,500 mature individuals (Garnett et al.
2011), roughly equivalent to 3,750 individuals in total.Trend justification
Historically, there were three confirmed breeding populations: from Coen to Port Stewart where it was last reported in the 1920s, Musgrave-Moorhead River where the population has contracted markedly and continues to decline, and west of Chillagoe where the population persists, but trends have been stable. Overall, the population is currently suspected to be declining (Garnett and Crowley 2000), although the likely rate of decline has not been estimated.Ecology
It nests in termite mounds in grassy areas within ti-tree or shiny-leafed box Eucalyptus chlorophylla
savannas. After breeding, it disperses through open woodland, feeding on super-abundant seeds of fire grass Schizachyrium
spp. After the first wet-season rains, they form flocks in association with breeding Black-faced Woodswallow Artamus cinereus
, so predation by Pied Butcherbird Cracticus nigrogularis
is less likely (Crowley et al
. 2004). Through the wet season the parrots switch foods continually, feeding through most of the daylight hours. They nest late in the wet season and lay an average of six eggs, which hatch early in the dry season when seeds are abundant (Levy 2004). The species relies on grass seeds for food and open country where there is minimal cover for predators. The species is potentially limited by the availability of nest sites, as they rarely re-use the same mound once the termites have repaired the damage with tougher material, and new termite mounds are very slow to build up (Levy 2004).Threats
The continuing range contraction has been linked to a change in fire regime, with fewer intentional hot burns and lower fuel loads as a result of cattle grazing. This combination has resulted in the invasion of grassland by woodland throughout the species's former range. The increase in woody vegetation may have favoured predators, principally Pied Butcherbird Cracticus nigrogularis
. Predation of adults is a major cause of nest failure, with almost one third of nests losing one or more adults. In addition, the availability of termite mounds for nesting may be limiting: monitoring suggests that mounds large enough for the parrots are being lost faster than they are being replaced, largely from damage by cattle and feral pigs Sus scrofa
(Crowley et al
. 2004).Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I and II. Management actions completed or underway include an analysis of threats, changing fire regimes and vegetation change, annual monitoring and supplementary feeding of the population at Artemis Station, surveys of populations and nests in the remainder of the range, fencing and implementation of favourable fire regimes on leasehold land, signing of a conservation agreement with land-holders, inclusion of conservation requirements for the species in property planning in central Cape York Peninsula and initiation of favourable fire management in National Parks. Research is being carried out to assess whether the fencing-off of areas will prevent feral pigs from damaging termite mounds when they are foraging (Levy 2004)
. Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor populations in remote areas. Monitor effects of landscape management on nesting and vegetation structure. Refine understanding of wet-season ecology. Provide supplementary food during the wet-season. Develop and refine a pastoral management strategy, with reduced grazing and effective fire management. Secure land under conservation agreements. Protect nesting mounds in selected parts of range.
Crowley, G. M., Garnett, S. T. and Shephard, S. 2004. Management guidelines for golden-shouldered parrot conservation. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service,, Brisbane.
Garnett, S. T.; Crowley, G. M. 2000. The action plan for Australian birds 2000. Environment Australia, Canberra.
Garnett, S.T., Szabo, J.K. and Dutson, G. 2011. The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
Levy, S. 2004. The antbed parrot: in Australia, a fine-feathered bird clings to an eccentric existence. Wildlife Conservation 107(5): 38-41.
Preece, N., Shephard, S., Shephard, T. and Garnett, S. T. 2009. Reassessment of the status of the Golden-shouldered Parrot Psephotus chrysopterygius. Report to the Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management Cape York Peninsula Biodiversity Technical Advisory Group.
Further web sources of information
Australian Govt - Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 - Recovery Outline
Explore HBW Alive for further information on this species
Search for photos and videos, and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection
Text account compilers
Benstead, P., Garnett, S., McClellan, R., Taylor, J., Allinson, T, Symes, A.
IUCN Red List evaluators
Butchart, S., Taylor, J.
BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Psephotellus chrysopterygius. Downloaded from
http://www.birdlife.org on 30/03/2015.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from
http://www.birdlife.org on 30/03/2015.
This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000)
Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004)
Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.
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In what may sound like soggy logic, the smalleye pygmy shark hides in the dark by lighting up, a new study says.
The research is helping to illuminate one of sharkdom's biggest evolutionary puzzles: how some species came to shine in the first place.
"More than 10 percent of currently described shark species are luminous," lead study author Julien Claes said via email.
"However, bioluminescence remains one of the most mysterious areas of shark biology," added Claes, a biologist with Belgium's Catholic University of Louvain.
Growing to be just 6 inches (15 centimeters) long, the smalleye pygmy is among the world's smallest sharks. In its deep, open-ocean habitat, the species' shining blue belly acts as camouflage, the study says.
"If you're swimming in the deep-blue dark waters, seen from underneath, you create a shadow against the bluish light coming from the surface," said study co-author Jérôme Mallefet.
"If you produce the same bluish light on your belly, you disappear—you don't show your shadow anymore," added Mallefet, also a biologist at the Catholic University of Louvain.
Earlier studies had revealed that three hormones—melatonin, prolactin, and alpha-MSH—control light emission in another shark species, the velvet belly lantern shark.
In addition to being able to glow continuously, the roughly 2-foot (60-centimeter) lantern sharks can illuminate small patches of skin in short bursts.
For example, "males and females can recognize each other in the dark just by looking at their sexual parts," Mallefet said. For brief periods, "the male's claspers"—a pair of sperm-transferring organs—"are luminous."
Curious whether the lantern and pygmy sharks regulate their glows in the same way, the researchers injected the three hormones—as well as neurotransmitters that control bioluminescence in deep-sea bony fish—into pygmy shark skin samples.
In both species, the study found, melatonin induces a steady glow, and alpha-MSH turns off the glow. Likewise, neurotransmitters have no effect in either species.
But prolactin, which triggers bursts of light in lantern sharks, causes pygmy shark light organs to dim, study leader Claes said.
That means the pygmy shark can't glow in short bursts and must light up only for camouflage, the team concluded.
(See animal camouflage pictures from National Geographic magazine.)
Because lantern and pygmy sharks belong to the only two shark families known to glow, the discovery that both species use the same hormones hints that all shark bioluminescence sprang from a single act of evolution, the study says.
But the simplicity of the pygmy shark's system suggests that the tiny species is more closely related to the first glowing shark ancestor, the researchers say.
Lantern sharks must be related to a later ancestral species, one that took up residence in deeper, darker reaches and evolved more complex lighting control.
"These sharks used their luminescence not only to disappear," Mallefet said, "but also to communicate."
Despite the researchers' success at unraveling how bioluminescent sharks glow, it's still unclear what substance within the sharks is glowing—something the study team is now investigating.
So far, sharks' light-emitting organs don't appear to be powered by bacteria, as in many glowing animals, or by chemicals known to illuminate other creatures, said Mallefet.
"It's an enigma ... maybe something really new" in the animal kingdom, he said.
The glowing-shark study will be published May 15 in the Journal of Experimental Biologists.
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Cryptococcus: the types
In the previous post in this series, I promised to talk about some different types of the cryptococcal organism, including their clinical significance. But before I point out the types, let's recapitulate quickly the conventions of scientific naming of biological organisms, a.k.a. binomial nomenclature, a system in which living organisms (bacteria, plants, animals, and so forth) are identified with a set of two names, a generic name (indicating its Genus) and a specific name (indicating the species). Simply put, Genus (always written with an initial capital) refers to a particular group with a family of organisms, and species (always written in lowercase) refers to specific members within that group, who share genetic similarity to the point of being capable of interbreeding amongst themselves and producing fertile offsprings. This definition of species is, however, slightly foggy because under different circumstances, both natural and artificial, members of different species within the same genus have been able to mate. Be that as it may, in this discussion, we shall use the names of different cryptococcal species to indicate different organisms under the genus Cryptococcus. It is possible to identify (and discriminate between) these organisms in the laboratory using a variety of techniques, biochemical and molecular biological.
Currently the cryptococcal organisms that carry serious clinical significance are Cryptococcus neoformans variety (abbreviated as 'var.') grubii, C. neoformans var. neoformans, and C. gattii. In the older literature, C. gattii used to be known as C. bacillisporus and C. neoformans var. gattii; however, in late 2002, a group of taxonomists proposed the name C. gattii as more scientifically accurate1 and it has since been accepted in the mycology community.
This is not to say that there are no other members of the genus Cryptococcus. Indeed, there are several non-neoformans Cryptococci in the environment, with their distinct biochemical and physiological profiles, as well as geographical habitats. However, they are mostly incapable of causing disease in animal hosts. A few (most notably, C. albidus and C. laurentii) have been implicated2 in human diseases, albeit with very low incidence and prevalence, mostly in situations where the host was already severely immune-suppressed. We shall focus our current discussion on Cn var. grubii, Cn var. neoformans, and C. gattii, which are the major pathogens in clinical situations.
One major means of discriminating between these species is (or rather, used to be) immunological. In 1982, a Japanese scientist, Ikeda Reiko, developed a set of four rabbit antibodies3 which could produce a specific pattern of binding on the cryptococcal capsule; based on the binding pattern, four subtypes, named A, B, C and D, could be distinguished amongst the cryptococcal isolates. These types were called 'serotypes', because the determining tool was antibody-based ('serological'). We now know that Cn var. grubii and Cn var. neoformans belong, respectively, to serotype A and D, whereas C. gattii comprises serotypes B and C. (Note: Ambiguous serotypes, or inter-varietal hybrids, such as AD and BC, as well as untypable strains - not reacting with any antibody - are occasionally observed, but their clinical significance is unknown.)
Another easy way of separating varieties of Cn from C. gattii is a biochemical test of growth on artificial medium containing specific chemical substances. The medium contains (a) some substance (such as L-canavanine or Cycloheximide) which - at a specific concentration - prevents the growth of Cn, but not C. gattii; (b) an amino acid called glycine; and (c) a pH indicator dye (such as phenol red or bromothymol blue). (a) and (b) serve as screens; C. gattii can, but Cn mostly cannot, subsist on glycine as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen (the basic elements or building blocks of life). Again, those Cn that manage to survive on glycine, cannot grow in presence of the specific concentration of, say, L-canavanine. Therefore, in this medium, only C. gattii can grow. When they grow, they release carbond di-oxide, making the medium more acidic. This is observed by the change in color of the pH indicator; for example, Bromophenol Blue changes to a deep 'Cobalt blue' color. Therefore, if C. gattii or Cn isolates are put on this medium to grow, only C. gattii will grow and change the medium to a deep blue color. The CGB ('L-canavanine/ Glycine/ Bromothymol Blue')-containing medium is still in use in microbiology laboratories to differentiate C. gattii from Cn.
However, scientists have to guard against the possibility that there may be other organisms which may grow on this medium as well. Therefore, usually, they would make sure that the isolates they are going to test on CGB are indeed Cryptococcus. This they do - as shown in the above figure - by utilizing two biochemical principles, two enzymes that Cryptococcus makes: (a) urease, an enzyme capable of breaking down urea, and (b) laccase (a.k.a. phenoloxidase), another enzyme which allow the fungus to break down certain organic substances to make the black pigment, melanin (yes, similar to the melanin we have in our skin and hair). In urea-containing medium, the breakdown of urea causes a change in pH, which shows up as a change of color of the medium (which contains, as before, an indicator). And in special medium containing phenolic substances, growth of Cryptococcus is accompanied by the production of a deep brown pigment. These tests, when positive, indicate the presence of cryptococcal strains. (Note: Rarely, cryptococcal strains that don't make these enzymes are found; however, they are generally found to be incapable of causing disease, indicating that both these enzymes may independently contribute to the organism's pathogenic potential.)
Hope you have enjoyed the series this far. In the next installment, I would talk about the geography and clinical significance of these cryptococcal species. Ta!
Technical reading, if interested:
- Kwon-Chung et al. (2002) Taxon 51: 804-6
- Khawcharoenporn et al. (2007) Infection 35: 51-8
- Ikeda et al. (1982) Journal of Clinical Microbiology 16: 22–29
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The bloater (Coregonus hoyi), which feed mainly on invertebrates and in turn is eaten by lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and burbot (Lota lota), is a major trophic integrator in coldwater ecosystems in the upper Great Lakes. To better understand their thermal niche and habitat distribution, we acclimated groups of yearling bloater to 3, 5, 10, 20, or 25A?C and then fed them ad libitum for 35 days. Bloater increased in length and weight at all of the test temperatures and at the end of the study were heaviest and longest at 15-20A?C. The specific growth rate was highest at 20 deg C and progressively lower at 15, 25, 10, 5, and 3A?C. A curve fitted to the specific growth rate data indicated that the optimum temperature for growth was 18.6A?C. Our results are in agreement with other published information on the thermal ecology of juvenile bloater.
Additional Publication Details
The effect of temperature on growth of juvenile bloater
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Koi & Pond Tip of the Day
March 31st, 2015
Filters that have not had water circulating through them for the winter should be cleaned well before turning the pump back on this spring. Cleaning will remove toxins that can develop from waste breaking down in the filter in the absence of oxygen. Once your filter is up and running, seed it with beneficial bacteria.
Three Stages of Pond Filtration
The filter is of key importance in keeping your Koi pond water crystal-clear and free of chemical pollutants. Our line of filters are designed to meet a wide range of needs, for both large and small ponds. Our line of filters provide one or more of three types of Pond Filters and filtration are:
- Biological Filtration
- Mechanical Filtration
- Chemical Filtration
Mechanical Pond Filtration: Refers to the physical removal of debris from water by materials that trap large and small particles. Matala Filter Pads last longer and filter better than other pre-filtration products and it lasts for years. The black and green densities of Matala will trap a large to medium solid without clogging, and the cleaning process is very quick and easy.
A mechanical filter is solely designed to separate large particles and debris from the water passing through it. This is particularly advantageous when protecting a pump. Use our EZ Bio prefilters to protect your pumps from clogging. A prefilter also has the important role of keeping the solids out of your biological filter. Very small particles and dissolved wastes will pass through a mechanical prefilter. As such, mechanical filters are not recommended as the only source of filtration for a pond containing fish or aquatic wildlife.
Skimmers, canister filters, and prefilters are common examples of filters that mainly rely on mechanical filtration. these can all be fitted with Matala media to improve performance and reduce maintenance.
Chemical Pond Filtration: Removes pesticides, colors, odors, organic waste, excess nutrients and other harmful chemicals from your pond. Ultraviolet Clarifiers, carbon and zeolite are examples of products to be used in your filter for chemical filtration.
Biological Pond Filtration: This is where your pond filter provides a place for beneficial bacteria to grow on special media. These bacteria remove harmful dissolved pollutants and nutrients from pond water. Known as the "Biological Filter" these beneficial bacteria convert poisonous compounds such as ammonia and nitrite, into less toxic nitrate. The end by-product, nitrate, is used as a food source by aquatic plants. This continuous process is called the nitrogen cycle. Our BioSteps and Koi Clear Filter have very large available surface area for bacteria growth.
Biological Pond Filtration relies on specific bacteria to break down toxic waste products to less harmful substances. There are two stages in the breakdown of ammonia, each stage involving different types of bacteria. The first stage is the breakdown of ammonia to nitrite by nitrifying bacteria. The second stage is the conversion of nitrite to nitrate by different species of nitrifying bacteria. Our BioSteps filter for medium size ponds and the Koi Clear filter for large ponds are both very efficient and versatile bioifilters.
Both of these groups of bacteria are aerobic (needing oxygen to live). Sediment building up in the filter will deplete the oxygen levels so it is important to keep sediment to a minimum by having a prefilter like the EZ Bio or settlement chamber like the Koi Clear first. Be gentle when you clean the biofilter out. If you overclean the biofilter you will wash away the bacteria. Do not use tap water to clean your biofilter because the chlorine will kill the bacteria. Matala media is very easy to clean. Simply shake the dirt out of the pads or gently pour a bucket of pond water over the pads to dislodge excess waste without losing the bacteria. The BioSteps Filter and the Koi Clear both have bottom drain valves for purging the waste.
Matala filter media is an exceptional media for biofilters due to it's high available surface area. The structure of Matala media allows for non-restrictive water flow and full contact with the surface area of the media. This gives you a high efficiency filter. The four different densities of Matala media can be used progressively to provide even distribution of your water flow throughout the entire filter chamber.
The biological filter will take weeks or months to mature, cultures of nitrifying bacteria are widely available and will speed up the process.
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Yellow-tailed woolly monkey
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BEHAVIOR
Photo: Noga Shanee
In general, group size is usually between around 5 to 18
individuals, but groups as large as 30 have been reported (Leo Luna
1980; 1987; Aquino & Encarnación 1994; Butchart et al. 1995;
Mittermeier et al. 1977; DeLuycker 2007; Shanee et al. 2007b; Cornejo et
al. 2009). Larger groups could possibly be the result of insufficient
habitat or seasonal aggregations of individuals (DeLuycker 2007).
Groups are typically multi-male/multi-female, and usually contain more
than one adult male (one of which appears to be dominant), and several
adult females and subadults (Leo Luna 1980; 1987; Parker & Barkley
1981; Aquino & Encarnación 1994). The social organization
is possibly fission-fusion (Cornejo 2008). Similarly to the other
woolly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.), yellow-tailed woolly monkey groups will
split into subgroups for up to several days at a time (Cornejo 2008). A
single group had a home range of 0.69 km² (0.27 mi²) and a daily path of
under one kilometer (<0.62 mi) (Cornejo 2008).
REPRODUCTION & PARENTAL CARE
Very few data exist about reproduction and parental care in
yellow-tailed woolly monkeys. They probably have a low birth rate
similar to the genus Lagothrix (around 3 years) (Leo Luna 1980;
DeLuycker 2007). They may reach sexual maturity when they are older
than four years of age, but this has not been demonstrated (Leo Luna
Juvenile and infant yellow-tailed woolly monkeys do not have the
characteristic yellow tail-hairs nor the genital tufts of adult
individuals (Thomas 1926; Leo Luna 1982b cited in DeLuycker 2007;
Males have been seen carrying infants ventrally, while a female was
seen carrying a young juvenile on her back (Parker & Barkley 1981;
Butchart et al. 1995).
When excited, a bark is emitted and can be heard for some distance
(Leo Luna 1980). Alarm calls are emitted in response to potential
predators, including raptors (DeLuycker 2007). Adults have been heard
calling for prolonged periods of time (ca. 30 mins) (DeLuycker 2007).
When confronted with a threat, male yellow-tailed woolly monkeys
will confront the threat with a display which includes showing of the
genitals, hip shaking, shaking and throwing tree branches, and
occasionally urination and defecation (Leo Luna 1980; 1982a; Butchart et
al. 1995; DeLuycker 2007). "Simulated attacks" are also directed at
threats sometimes, where the woolly monkey will run and quickly leap
into supports above the threat (Leo Luna 1982a).
Content last modified: September 30, 2010
Written by Kurt Gron.
Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2010 September 30. Primate Factsheets: Yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Oreonax flavicauda) Behavior . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/yellow-tailed_woolly_monkey/behav>. Accessed 2015 March 31.
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May 22: Shark lecture
Shark research focus of opening lecture of Ocean Currents series in Lewes
4:22 p.m., May 12, 2014--Tagging sharks is an effective way to learn about their migration patterns, but attaching the tracking devices to sharp-toothed predators is no easy task.
Danielle Haulsee would know. The researcher in the University of Delaware’s College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment (CEOE) has spent the past several years tagging dozens of sand tiger sharks caught off Delaware’s coast and analyzing the data collected.
April 6-11: Public Health Week
April 9: Dinosaur discovery
Haulsee will discuss her shark wrangling experiences and the scientific lessons learned at a public lecture in Lewes on Thursday, May 22, to kick off the annual Ocean Currents Lecture Series. The lecture will be held at 7 p.m. in Room 104 of the Cannon Laboratory at UD’s Hugh R. Sharp Campus, located at 700 Pilottown Road in Lewes.
Haulsee studies habitat preferences of sand tiger sharks migrating along the Atlantic coast. The species has experienced population declines in recent decades, which could disrupt the region’s natural ecological balance.
In an innovative approach, Haulsee, CEOE faculty member Matthew Oliver and their colleagues are using underwater robots, tagging techniques and ocean information from satellites to uncover patterns in the sharks’ behavior. They are aggregating huge amounts of data to find out which water conditions sand tigers prefer and create models that can predict where the sharks are likely to be.
The scientists use an underwater robot to “listen” for transmissions from the tagged sharks, and then use the device to track the sharks down to determine the water temperature, salinity and other properties at that location. Preliminary results suggest that during migration times, the sharks like being closer to shore in less salty waters possibly using the environmental cues to help them navigate down the coast. The findings could potentially help improve conservation efforts.
Crunching the numbers and analyzing the data is not simple, and neither is recruiting sharks to participate in the study. Haulsee spends long days on a boat, setting fishing lines with menhaden as bait. When the team gets a bite, they haul the shark in next to the boat and make sure it’s big enough to wear a tag.
When flipped on its back, the shark enters a docile, catatonic state that makes it easier to attach a transmitter in a quick procedure that Haulsee was specially trained to perform. The team inserted the tags two years ago, and last fall they tried to get some of them back -- they dangled a receiver in the water to see if any tagged sharks were nearby, tried to follow them and then tried to catch them again.
“We set the line, hope that the shark swims over and is hungry,” Haulsee said.
The researchers’ work has captured the attention of the public, having been featured on ABC’s Ocean Mysteries with Jeff Corwin and causing a media sensation when Haulsee posted a Facebook photo of a sand tiger shark swallowing a dogfish shark which went viral.
Haulsee, currently a doctoral student in CEOE, majored in environmental studies and minored in biology at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania. She conducted her senior thesis on blue mussels and decided to join Oliver’s lab at UD because of the intersection of technology with biological oceanography.
“I never dreamed that I would be working with sharks,” she said.
Haulsee’s lecture is free and open to the public, but reservations are required due to limited seating and can be made by contacting Marcia Pettay at [email protected] or 302-645-4346. Light refreshments will be served.
Additional Ocean Currents lectures scheduled for this summer are:
June: Jon Sharp, automated water quality monitoring and sampling onboard the Cape May-Lewes Ferry.
July: Bill Ullman, real-time water quality measurements on Delmarva.
August: Jim Corbett, shipping impacts and innovation in the marine environment.
Visit the CEOE website for updates on dates and times.
Article by Teresa Messmore
Photos by Matthew Breece and Megan Cimino
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The White-faced Whistling Duck is a waterfowl species lacking any differences in ornamentation, coloration, size or behavior between the sexes. For distant communication, this species uses loud whistles. We analyzed 12 spectral parameters of 344 whistles from 23 captive adult ducks (14 males and 9 females). Discriminant analysis showed 94% correct assignment to an individual (N = 279 calls from 14 birds; 15–22 calls per bird). Separately for 8 males (162 calls) and for 6 females (117 calls), discriminant analysis showed 99% and 93% correct assignment to individuals respectively. Discriminant analysis for sex (N = 86; 3 calls from each of 14 males and 5 calls from each of 9 females) showed 100% correct assignment. Intersexual differences were governed by frequency parameters, the values of which were significantly higher in females than in males. Cluster analysis showed that differences between sexes were expressed significantly more strongly than the individual differences. The fact that the "acoustical keys" differed as regards the identification of individual birds or their sex may significantly enhance the reliability of acoustical recognition systems in the White-faced Whistling Duck. The data are discussed in the context of the biology of the White-faced Whistling Duck and significant intersexual differences in syringial and tracheal anatomy, which may be responsible for the sharp distinctions between the sexes in the calls of this species.
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|Scientific Name:||Sorex dispar|
|Species Authority:||Batchelder, 1911|
Sorex gaspensis Anthony & Goodwin, 1924
|Taxonomic Notes:||French and Kirkland (1983) concluded from morphological data that S. dispar and S. gaspensis are not conspecific. However, the only significant difference between the two taxa is size, with S. gaspensis smaller than S. dispar (Kirkland and Van Deusen 1979, French and Kirkland 1983). Yet Sorex dispar exhibits a south to north decreasing cline in body size, suggesting the possibility that S. gaspensis is not a distinct species but rather simply represents the northern extent of the S. dispar cline. Accordingly, Rhymer et al. (2004) found that the apparent distributional gap between S. dispar and S. gaspensis is not as large as previously believed (if in fact it exists at all) and that a morphological cline between dispar and gaspensis cannot be ruled out. Additionally, using mtDNA d-loop sequences, Rhymer et al. (2004) found that S. gaspensis and S. dispar cluster with no taxonomic or geographic structure, suggesting that they are conspecific. Hutterer (in Wilson and Reeder 2005) considers S. dispar to be distinct but this is probably because Rhymer et al. (2004) was published too late to be considered by Hutterer (in Wilson and Reeder 2005).|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Least Concern ver 3.1|
|Assessor(s):||NatureServe (Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J.)|
|Reviewer(s):||Amori, G. (Small Nonvolant Mammal Red List Authority) & Chanson, J. (Global Mammal Assessment Team)|
Listed as Least Concern because it is a widespread species with no major threats and its population is not declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.
|Range Description:||This species occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, from Nova Scotia (Scott, 1987) and southeastern New Brunswick, Canada southward along the mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee in the United States (Kirkland, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Recent data indicate that populations formerly recognized as Sorex gaspensis actually should be included in S. dispar, so the range of S. dispar extends northeastward to the Gaspe Peninsula in Quebec and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada (Rhymer et al., 2004).|
Native:Canada; United States
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||It is an Appalachian Mountains endemic with a habitat that is not often suited for human use and development. Due to the difficulty of trapping this species, there are probably more occurrences than are currently known. The long-tailed shrew is, therefore, apparently secure and likely stable over most of the range, but few population data are available.|
|Habitat and Ecology:||
It occurs in mountainous, forested areas (deciduous or evergreen) with loose talus. Rocky damp areas with deep crevices covered by leaf mold and roots are preferred. It may occur along small mountain streams. It will use artificial talus created by road construction and pit mines. Trapping results reported by Richmond and Grimm (1950) suggest that long-tailed shrews spend most of their time in the labyrinth of spaces between rocks about a foot beneath the surface. Nest sites are usually associated with natural subterranean tunnels among boulder crevices. Breeding occurs in spring and summer, possibly late April to August (Kirkland and Van Deuen, 1979). One or two litters may be produced from May through August, with two to five young per litter. Sexual maturity is reached in less than a year. Like other shrews, this species probably does not survive beyond about 18 months.
The shrew's partly subterranean existence among rocks makes observation, direct or indirect, very difficult. Virtually all data comes from trapping. Nothing is known of territoriality or home range size. The same predators that feed on other shrews probably take long-tailed shrews, e.g., weasels, snakes, hawks and owls, but there is no specific information. External parasites include fleas, ticks, mites and chiggers. While no internal parasites have been reported, nematodes and tapeworms are common in other shrew species. Examination of the digestive tracts of long-tailed shrews indicates a diet primarily of small invertebrates. Some better-known species of shrews are reported to consume approximately their own weight in food daily, and, with their high metabolic rates, may die within a few hours when deprived of food.
|Major Threat(s):||Overall there are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Habitat destruction is a localised threat, but less so than for many rare species because the preferred habitat, talus, is often unsuitable for development, and provides a very uniform subterranean environment that is not highly vulnerable to disturbance. However, ski area expansion may be a threat to some populations, as in Vermont (Fichtel pers. comm., 1992). Highway construction may create more habitat than it destroys, as long-tailed shrews have been collected in the artificial talus slopes of road cuts (Conway and Pfitzer, 1952). Logging is unlikely to adversely impact this shrew; Kirkland (1979) showed that shrews persisted in recently clearcut red spruce stands in West Virginia. Shrews feed on invertebrates and may accumulate and concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues.|
|Conservation Actions:||Many populations are in national forests, parks, or other public lands, and many are in areas protected by their remoteness. Protection of habitat from gross disturbance is the primary protection need. Habitats for these shrews should be protected from contamination by heavy metals and pesticides.|
|Citation:||NatureServe (Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J.) 2008. Sorex dispar. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 01 April 2015.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided|
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This species is listed as Vulnerable because its population is believed to have declined rapidly as a result of extensive forest clearance. It is projected that continued habitat loss will cause future rapid declines in its population and range.
Dicaeum australe (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into D. australe and D. haematostictum following Brooks et al. (1992).
10 cm. A tiny canopy-dwelling passerine. Black upperparts with blue gloss. White underparts, greyer on belly, with prominent black bar on upper breast and bright scarlet patch extending from the bar and continuing as line down centre of breast and belly. Longish, fine bill. Voice Song a series of thin, high-pitched, sweet notes. Call a thin seep interspersed with harder tup tup notes. Hints Sings from exposed perches and frequents fruiting berry trees.
Collar, N. J.; Mallari, N. A. D.; Tabaranza, B. R. J. 1999. Threatened birds of the Philippines: the Haribon Foundation/BirdLife International Red Data Book. Bookmark, Makati City.
Further web sources of information
Detailed species accounts from the Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book (BirdLife International 2001).
Text account compilers
Benstead, P., Gilroy, J., Taylor, J.
Allen, D., Bucol, A.
IUCN Red List evaluators
Butchart, S., Symes, A.
BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Dicaeum haematostictum. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 28/03/2015. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 28/03/2015.
This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.
|Current IUCN Red List category||Vulnerable|
|Species name author||Sharpe, 1876|
|Population size||6000-15000 mature individuals|
|Distribution size (breeding/resident)||24,000 km2|
|Links to further information|
|- Additional Information on this species|
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The baculum (also penis bone, penile bone or os penis) is a bone found in the penis of many placental mammals. It is absent in the human penis, but present in the penises of other primates, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee. The bone is located above the male urethra, and it aids sexual reproduction by maintaining sufficient stiffness during sexual penetration. The female equivalent is the baubellum or os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris.
The phallic meaning of the term is unique to English; however, similar words exist in other languages with the same meaning, such as the Slovenian word bakulum. The word baculum originally meant "stick" or "staff" in Latin. The homologue to the baculum in female mammals is known as the baubellum or os clitoridis.
The baculum is used for copulation and varies in size and shape by species. Its characteristics are sometimes used to differentiate between similar species. A bone in the penis allows a male to mate for a long time with a female, which can be a distinct advantage[clarification needed] in some mating strategies.
Presence in mammals
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2012)|
- Order Primates, although not in humans, spider monkeys, or woolly monkeys.
- Order Rodentia (rodents), though not in the related order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares etc.).
- Order Eulipotyphla (insectivores, including shrews and hedgehogs).
- Order Carnivora (including members of many well-known families, such as ursids (bears), felids (cats), canids (dogs), pinnipeds (walruses, seals, sea lions), procyonids (raccoons etc.), mustelids (otters, weasels, skunks and others). The baculum is usually longer in Canoidea than in Feloidea.
- Order Chiroptera (bats).
It is absent in humans, ungulates (hoofed mammals), elephants, monotremes (platypus, echidna), marsupials, lagomorphs, hyenas, sirenians, and cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), among others.
Such a wide distribution among placental mammals suggests that the bone evolved early in the history of these mammals, and was subsequently lost in certain groups. The baculum is an exclusive characteristic of placentals and closely related eutherians, being absent in other mammal clades, and it has been speculated that it is derived from the epipubic bones more widely spread across mammals, but notoriously absent in placentals.
Among the primates the marmoset, weighing around 500 g, has a baculum measuring around 2 mm, while the tiny 63 g galago has one around 13 mm long. The great apes, despite their size, tend to have very small penis bones, and humans are the only ones to have lost them altogether.
In some mammalian species, such as the raccoon (Procyon lotor), the baculum can be used to determine relative age. If the baculum tip is made up of uncalcified cartilage, has a porous base, masses less than 1.2 g, and measures less than 90 mm long, then the baculum belongs to a juvenile male.
Absence in humans
Unlike other primates, humans lack an os penis or os clitoris; however, this bone is present but is much reduced among the great apes: in many ape species it is a relatively insignificant 10–20 mm structure. There are reported cases of human penis ossification following trauma, and one reported case of a congenital os penis surgically removed from a 5 year old boy, who also had other developmental abnormalities, including a cleft scrotum. Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach in Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1953), p. 30 say "Both gorillas and chimpanzees possess a penile bone. In the latter species the os penis is located in the lower part of the organ and measures approximately three-quarters of an inch in length." In humans, the rigidity of the erection is provided entirely through blood pressure in the corpora cavernosa.
It has been speculated that the loss of the bone in humans, when it is present in our nearest related species the chimpanzee, is because humans "evolved a mating system in which the male tended to accompany a particular female all the time to try to ensure paternity of her children" which allows for frequent matings of short duration. Observation suggests that primates with a baculum only infrequently encounter females, but engage in longer periods of copulation that the baculum makes possible, thereby maximizing their chances of fathering the female's offspring. Human females exhibit concealed ovulation also known as 'hidden estrus', meaning it is almost impossible to tell when the female is fertile, so frequent matings would be necessary to ensure paternity.
The evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins speculated in 1989 that the loss of the bone in humans, when it is present in our nearest related species the chimpanzee, is a result of sexual selection by females looking for honest signals of good health in prospective mates. The reliance of the human penis solely on hydraulic means to achieve a rigid state makes it particularly vulnerable to blood pressure variation. Poor erectile function betrays not only physical states such as diabetes and neurological disorders but mental states such as stress and depression.
It has been argued that the "rib" in the biblical story of Adam and Eve is actually a mistranslation of a Biblical Hebrew euphemism for baculum, and that its removal from Adam in the Book of Genesis is a creation myth to explain this absence (as well as the presence of the perineal raphe– as a resultant 'scar') in humans.
Oosik is a term used in Native Alaska cultures to describe the baculum of walruses, seals, sea lions, and polar bears. Sometimes as long as 60 cm (2 ft), fossilized bacula are often polished and used as a handle for knives and other tools. The oosik is a polished and sometimes carved baculum of these large northern carnivores.
Oosiks are also frequently sold as souvenirs to tourists by Alaska Natives. In 2007 a 4.5-foot (1.4 m) long fossilized penis bone from an extinct species of walrus, believed by the seller to be the largest in existence, was sold for $8,000.
- Mammal penis
- Hirsuties coronae glandis, also known as pearly penile papules, another anatomical feature of the penis common in chimps but present in only 25% of human males.
- Patterns of Sexual Behavior Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, published by Harper & Row, New York in 1951. ISBN 0-313-22355-6
- William F. Perrin; Bernd Wursig; J. G.M. Thewissen (26 February 2009). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. pp. 68–. ISBN 978-0-08-091993-5.
- Harold Burrows (1945). Biological Actions of Sex Hormones. Cambridge University Press. p. 264. Retrieved 4 August 2012.
- R. F. Ewer (1973). The Carnivores. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8493-3. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
- Best; Granai (2 December 1994). "Tamius merriami" (PDF). Mammalian Species (American Society of Mammalogists) 476: 1–9. doi:10.2307/3504203.
- Dixson, A. F. "Baculum length and copulatory behaviour in carnivores and pinnipeds (Grand Order Ferae)." Journal of Zoology 235.1 (1995): 67-76.
- "Godinotia". Walking With Beasts. ABC — BBC. 2002. pp. Question: How do we know how Godinotia (the primate in program 1) mated?. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- Harvey, Suzanne. "How Did Man Lose His Penis Bone?". University College London, Researchers In Museums blog, 26 November 2012.
- Harkness, John E.; Turner, Patricia V.; VandeWoude, Susan; Wheler, Colette L. (2 April 2013). Harkness and Wagner's Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-70907-8.
- R. F. Ewer (1973). The Carnivores. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8493-3. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
- Dyck, Markus G.; Bourgeois, Jackie M.; Miller, Edward H. (2004). "Growth and variation in the bacula of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the Canadian Arctic". Journal of Zoology 264 (1): 105–110. doi:10.1017/S0952836904005606.
- Howard E. Evans; Alexander de Lahunta (7 August 2013). Miller's Anatomy of the Dog. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-26623-9.
- Nova J. Silvy (7 February 2012). The Wildlife Techniques Manual: Volume 1: Research. Volume 2: Management 2-vol. Set. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0159-1.
- Baryshnikov, Gennady F., Olaf RP Bininda-Emonds, and Alexei V. Abramov. "Morphological variability and evolution of the baculum (os penis) in Mustelidae (Carnivora)." Journal of Mammalogy 84.2 (2003): 673-690.
- Ronald M. Nowak (7 April 1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. JHU Press. pp. 1007–. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8.
- Frederick S. Szalay (11 May 2006). Evolutionary History of the Marsupials and an Analysis of Osteological Characters. Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–. ISBN 978-0-521-02592-8.
- Richard Estes (1991). The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. University of California Press. pp. 323–. ISBN 978-0-520-08085-0. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
- Sarma, Deba; Thomas Weilbaecher (1990). "Human os penis". Urology 35 (4): 349–350. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(90)80163-H. PMID 2108520.
- Champion, RH; J Wegrzyn (1964). "Congenital os penis". Journal of Urology 91: 663–4. PMID 14172255.
- Ridley, Mark (2007). Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think : Reflections by Scientists, Writers, and Philosophers. Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-19-921466-2., of page 228
- Dawkins, Richard (2006) . The Selfish Gene (30th anniversary ed.). Endnote to 30th anniversary edition: Oxford University Press. p. 158 endnote. ISBN 0-19-929114-4.
It is not implausible that, with natural selection refining their diagnostic skills, females could glean all sorts of clues about a male’s health, and robustness of his ability to cope with stress, from the tone and bearing of his penis.
- Bednarik, R. G. (2011). "The Human Condition". doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9353-3. ISBN 978-1-4419-9352-6. (page 134), cited by:
Achrati, Ahmed (November 2014). "Neoteny, female hominin and cognitive evolution". Rock Art Research 31 (1): 232–238.
"In humans, neoteny is manifested in the resemblance of many physiological features of a human to a late-stage foetal chimpanzee. These foetal characteristics include hair on the head, a globular skull, ear shape, vertical plane face, absence of penal bone (baculum) in foetal male chimpanzees, the vagina pointing forward in foetal ape, the presence of hymen in neonate ape, and the structure of the foot. ‘These and many other features’, Bednarik says, ‘define the anatomical relationship between ape and man as the latter’s neoteny’"
- Gilbert, S. F.; Zevit, Z. (2001). "Congenital human baculum deficiency: The generative bone of Genesis 2:21-23". American Journal of Medical Genetics 101 (3): 284–5. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1387. PMID 11424148.
- Joanne O'Sullivan (1 March 2010). Book of Superstitious Stuff: Weird Happenings, Wacky Rites, Frightening Fears, Mysterious Myths & Other Bizarre Beliefs. Charlesbridge Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-60734-367-7.
"In the hoodoo (folk magic) tradition of the American South, a raccoon penis bone (scientifically known as the baculum) is a lucky charm used to attract love. In some areas it's boiled to remove any trace of the animal, and then tied to a red ribbon and worn as a necklace. In other areas, the bones were traditionally given to girls and young women by suitors, and in still other places, the charms are worn by men. Earrings made from cast raccoon penis bones became a fad in 2004, and celebrities such as Sarah Jessica Parker and Vanessa Williams were photographed wearing them. New Orleans gamblers are said to use the bones (also called coon dogs and Texas toothpicks) for luck."
- "Walrus penis sells for $8,000 at Beverly Hills action". AP. Archived from the original on 6 November 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
- Gilbert SF, Zevit Z (July 2001). "Congenital human baculum deficiency: the generative bone of Genesis 2:21–23". Am. J. Med. Genet. 101 (3): 284–5. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1387. PMID 11424148.
- Clellan S., Frank A. Beach (1951). Patterns of Sexual Behavior. New York: Harper, and Paul B. Hoeber, Inc. Medical Books. ISBN 0-313-22355-6.
|Look up baculum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Penis bones.|
- Beresford WA, Burkart S (December 1977). "The penile bone and anterior process of the rat in scanning electron microscopy". J. Anat. 124 (3): 589–97. PMC 1234656. PMID 604330.
- The San Diego Zoo's Conservation and research for endangered species projects. 'What is the significance of the baculum in animals?'
- University of Utah Biology 3315 – Comparative Vertebrate Morphology § 16
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|Scientific Name:||Lundomys molitor|
|Species Authority:||(Winge, 1887)|
Hesperomys molitor Winge, 1887
Holochilus magnus Hershkovitz, 1955
|Taxonomic Notes:||Voss and Carleton (1993) propose Holochilus magnus as the same as Hesperomys molitor and synonymize these as Lundomys molitor.|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Least Concern ver 3.1|
|Assessor(s):||Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U.|
|Reviewer(s):||Amori, G. (Small Nonvolant Mammal Red List Authority) & Schipper, J. (Global Mammal Assessment Team)|
This species is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category. However, it is known only from a few localities and specimens; although surveys have been undertaken it is rarely collected but this may be due to inappropriate survey techniques rather than evidence of genuine rarity. Most suitable habitat for this species has been destroyed in Uruguay and its habitat is under threat in rest of its range, thus current information on status and threats should be monitored.
|Range Description:||This species occurs in Rio Grande do Sol, southeast Brazil and southern Uruguay (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).The type locality comes from a fossil in Lagoa Santa (Brazil).|
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||This species was reported as 'rather common' in 1929 along the Rio Cebollati and in marshes in Trienta y Tres, Uruguay (Voss and Carleton, 1993). Results of a 1963 expedition suggest that L. molitor is less abundant than sympatric H. brasiliensis. Not abundant, difficult to locate, only three point localities in Uruguay (Queirolo pers. comm.).|
|Habitat and Ecology:||This species occurs in areas with aquatic vegetation near streams and rivers (Gonzalez 2001). This is a nocturnal and semi aquatic species, observed in tall grasses and reeds also in marshy areas. Voss and Carleton (1993) report recent populations where grasslands, marshes, gallery forests and open woodlands form complex mosaics of subtropical pampas habitats (Voss and Carleton, 1993). It is mainly vegetarian (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The species builds nests in reeds above water.|
|Major Threat(s):||Destruction of wetlands and marshlands.|
|Conservation Actions:||It occurs in several protected areas.|
Eisenberg, J.F. and Redford, K.H. 1999. Mammals of the Neotropics: The Central Neotropics. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
Gonzalez, E. M. 2001. Guia de Campo de los Mamiferos de Uraguay. Introduccion al Estudio de los Mamiferos. Vida Silvestre, Montevideo, Uruguay.
IUCN. 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed: 5 October 2008).
Musser, G. G. and Carleton, M. D. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. In: D. E. Wilson and D. A. Reeder (eds), Mammal Species of the World: a geographic and taxonomic reference, pp. 894-1531. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA.
|Citation:||Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U. 2008. Lundomys molitor. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 30 March 2015.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided|
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Making a milk jug bird feeder is a fun project to do with kids. It teaches them about nature, wild birds and recycling.
1Gather your materials: Clean empty milk jug, marker, thin wire or strong string, scissors, birdseed.Ad
2Outline cutout holes on the two sides away from the handle.
3Cut out holes.
4Remove the cap and wrap wire or string around the base of the opening and put the cap back on.
5Poke holes in the bottom for drainage.
6Fill your new milk jug bird feeder with birdseed and hang.
We could really use your help!
New Era hats?
- Have your kids help you with this project. They will be very interested in watching birds feed from a feeder they made. Get your kids in touch with nature through bird watching.
- You should help younger children cut the holes out.
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Bird-brained behaviour: The ultimate migration
When scientists fitted a tracking device to a small brown seabird, they knew it thought nothing of crossing the Pacific. But their research has proved that the sooty shearwater is capable of an astonishing 39,000-mile odyssey in search of an endless summer. Steve Connor reports
Wednesday 09 August 2006
For such a small seabird, the sooty shearwater has an ambitious take on the world. Despite its diminutive size, it thinks nothing of flying from New Zealand to Alaska in pursuit of an endless summer.
For years, ornithologists have known that sooty shearwaters breed off the coasts of New Zealand and Chile in the southern hemisphere, and then cross the equator to the rich summer feeding grounds of the North Pacific, which stretch from California to Japan. Now a study has shown that this epic feat is undertaken over a single breeding season, with individual birds travelling as far as 39,000 miles in just one year.
It is the longest migration route undertaken by individual animals that has been recorded by scientists, according to Scott Shaffer, a research biologist at the University of California, Santa Cruz, who led the team behind the study. "The only bird species known that could rival the migrations of the sooty shearwater would be the arctic tern, which breeds in the Arctic and migrates to Antarctica," Dr Shaffer said. "But we don't know if they do that in a single season, because nobody's ever tracked them."
The latest research into the migratory routes of the sooty shearwater has given a clear picture of the birds' extraordinary journeys, including distances, speeds, stop-over points and even the variations in air and sea temperatures they encountered.
The miniaturisation of sophisticated electronic tags has enabled the scientists to place them on smaller and smaller birds without interfering with their ability to fly - or indeed swim, in the case of other migratory creatures such as sea mammals, fish and turtles.
Each tag weighs less than half an ounce, and the scientists managed to recover the devices from 20 birds at two breeding colonies in New Zealand.
The tags recorded daily activities during the migration and return journey. As well as recording geographic location, they measured temperature and pressure, which gave the scientists an unprecedented insight into how and when birds would dive for their food.
It is all part of the wider study into some of the immense odysseys undertaken by many species of animals in the search for food and suitable breeding sites - or just somewhere to escape the long winter nights.
Shearwaters feed on fish, squid and shrimp-like krill, all of which can dramatically increase or decrease in abundance depending on the time of year, with winter in each hemisphere normally being a time of scarcity.
Dr Shaffer and his colleagues found that the migratory pattern of the sooty shearwater was optimally geared towards exploiting the seasonal availability of food in the North and South Pacific.
These small seabirds cross the equator twice a year in a figure-of-eight pattern to chase the summer, when their feeding grounds are nearly always at or near the period of peak productivity, Dr Shaffer said. "When they cross the equator, they're travelling fast and not stopping much to feed. They feed near Antarctica during the austral summer, then they zip north to feed in one of three areas of the North Pacific, taking advantage of high [feeding] productivity throughout the year," he explained. The electronic tags used in the study, which is published in the research journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, recorded shearwaters diving to depths as great as 68 metres (225 feet) in pursuit of their underwater prey.
One of the most fascinating findings to emerge from the research was that sooty shearwaters do not roam far once they have reached their final destinations in the northern or southern hemispheres. Before this study, it was assumed by many experts that shearwaters roam widely in between their trans-equatorial passage. Yet the scientists found that each bird heads for just one destination in the northern hemisphere, and stays there until it heads south again.
Intriguingly, there is no apparent reason why some birds in a colony travel to one destination in the opposite hemisphere, while others in the same group head for another. A colony breeding off New Zealand or Chile can split up after raising their young, with individual members spending the next six months in any one of the three shearwater feeding grounds in the north - from Japan to Alaska.
Even members of the same breeding pair, or siblings raised in the same nest, could end up spending their summer months thousands of miles apart, Dr Shaffer said.
Another discovery to emerge from the study was that the timing and the route of the northward migration was variable, with birds crossing the equator at various locations over a period of about a month. But the return trip south was remarkably synchronous. All of the tagged birds funnelled through a narrow corridor and crossed the equator within a 10-day period in October, Dr Shaffer said.
Shearwaters also take advantage of prevailing patterns of wind circulation and the Coriolis effect of the Earth's rotation - which influences the direction of the winds immediately north and south of the equator.
At the start of their migration in early April, the shearwaters, which are in the southern Pacific at this time of the year, travelled eastwards in the direction of prevailing westerly winds.
Once they began to head north, they appeared to use easterly trade winds to fly north-west over the Pacific at maximum migration speeds, which enabled the birds to cover more than 100 miles in a day. Once they crossed the equator and found themselves in the cooler waters of the North Pacific, the shearwaters headed apparently at random for one of three possible destinations - Japan and the north-west Pacific, Alaska and the north-east Pacific, or California.
"The figure-eight pattern is completed when birds return to New Zealand waters, again purportedly by using easterly trade winds in a southwesterly direction," the researchers wrote in their report. "Remarkably, travel of all birds across the equator is highly synchronised and passage is through a narrow corridor," they wrote.
And all this to avoid winter. As the researchers conclude: "The tracking data reveal that sooty shearwaters experience a perpetual cycle of spring, summer and autumn from year to year."
Five other marathon migrants
These fast-moving fish travel across the North Pacific, with spawning occurring somewhere off the south of Japan. They are also found from Canada to Mexico. All are believed to derive from the same breeding stock.
Perhaps the most impressive migrant of all. It overwinters in Mexico and flies north as far as Canada to breed. Successive generations then fly south, often returning to the same tree as their parents or grandparents.
Migrates from feeding grounds in the polar seas to calve in the subtropical oceans. It can travel at speeds of up to 23mph, which protected it from slower whaling vessels prior to the advent of factory fishing.
Like other albatrosses, this species is an impressive flyer that can remain at sea for years at a time without ever touching land. It migrates between California and Alaska and breeding grounds in northern Hawaii.
Leatherback Sea Turtles
The most endangered sea turtle. Studies of its migratory routes could help conservation efforts. Has the widest distribution of any reptile and crosses the equator regularly to feed in both northern and southern hemispheres.
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Malawi to burn its £5m ivory stockpile this week - and demonstrate its commitment to wildlife conservation
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WikipediaRead full entry
Tawny fish owl
The tawny fish owl (Bubo flavipes) is a species of owl. It used to be placed in Ketupa with the other fish owls, but that group is tentatively included with the eagle-owls in Bubo, until the affiliations of the fish owls and fishing owls can be resolved more precisely. It is clear from several shared characteristics that the more typical Bubo and fish owls are indeed related, including the structure of the talons, prominent ear tufts and plumage characteristics, unlike the superficially dissimilar fishing owls of Africa.
Distribution and habitat
This typical owl is found in subtropical to temperate forests in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, and Vietnam. They inhabit the Himalayan foothills from Kashmir and Garhwal east to the mountains of Laos and Vietnam and in southern China up to Chekiang and Anhwei. They require forest tracts and duars bearing mountain streams. In areas such as Darjeeling and Nepal, they commonly live at elevations of 1,500 to 2,450 m (4,920 to 8,040 ft). It more less replaces the buffy fish owl (Bubo ketupu) in range and at one time they were considered to be of the same species. The tawny fish owl may overlap in range with brown fish owls (B. zeylonensis) in Laos and Vietnam, the brown usually but not always inhabiting lowland areas and preferring slow or stagnant waters unlike the tawny which prefers faster flowing waters. Unlike the brown and buffy fish owls, they are found only in remote wilderness with little to no disturbance. Those other two fish owls (but not the Blakiston's species) can adapt to living and hunting near human habitations or human-altered areas, such as canals, paddy fields, reservoirs, ornamental ponds and villages, which provides them a boon of ornamental and commercial fishes.
Like other fish owls, the tawny fish owl has large ear tufts but they usually hang to the sides of the head and are distinctly messy and toussled looking. They have yellow eyes. Tawny fish owls have been described as the most "attractive" of the fish owls. They tend to be an orangey-rufous color on the crown and upperparts, which are overlaid with broad, blackish markings on the central part of the feathers and spots of the same color as the reddish-brown feather edges. The scapulars are a dingy yellow color, forming a contrasting band which runs across the owl's shoulders. The flight and tail feathers are strongly barred dark brown and buffish. The facial disc is poorly defined but a sizeable off-white area on the eyebrows and forehead stands out. While buffy and brown fish owls are featherless on their legs and the Blakiston's fish owl (B. blakistoni) has totally feathered legs (the latter more like most Bubo), the tawny fish owl has feathering over two-thirds of the tarsi. The legs below feathering are greenish-yellow with greyish-horn coloured talons. Beside the variability of the feathering of the legs, the buffy fish owl is most similar in plumage but is smaller and buff hued rather than orange-rufous hued. The brown fish owl is a much more solid brown color with distinct vermiculations below and no yellowish band across the back.
Size and physiology
Compared to eagle owls of similar length, fish owls tend to be even shorter in tail length and even heavier in build, have relatively larger wings (the tawny and Blakiston's being particularly chunky in shape), have considerably longer legs, and have a rough texture to the bottom of their toes. At least the latter two features are clear adaptations to aid these owls in capturing fish. Diurnal raptors who feed largely on fish have similar, if not identical, rough texture under their toes, which helps these birds grasp slippery fish. Unlike diurnal raptors who capture fish such as the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) as compared to most terrestrial raptors, the fish owls have large, powerful, and curved talons and a longitudinal sharp keel sitting under the middle claw with all having sharp cutting edges that are very much like those of eagle owls. Also, unlike fish-eating diurnal raptors will not submerge any part of their body while hunting, preferring only to put their feet into the water, although fish owls will hunt on foot, wading into the shallows. Unlike most owls, the feathers of fish owls are not soft to the touch and they lack the comb and hair-like fringes to the primaries, which allow other owls to fly silently in order to ambush their prey. Due to the lack of these feather-specializations, fish owl wing beats make sounds. The lack of a deep facial disc in fish owls is another indication of the unimportance of sound relative to vision in these owls, as facial disc depth (as well as inner ear size) are directly related to how important sound is to an owl's hunting behavior. Similar adaptations, such as unwillingness to submerge beyond their legs and lack of sound-muffling feathers are also seen in the African fishing owls, which do not seem to be directly related. Tawny fish owls are around the same size as the brown fish owl in terms of linear dimensions. The tawny is 48 to 61 cm (19 to 24 in) long from bill to tail. However, studies have revealed the tawny is surprisingly rather heavier on average than the brown fish owl and, less surprising, is considerably heavier than an eagle owl of comparable length. Six adult tawny fish owls were found to weigh an average of 2,415 g (5.324 lb), with a reported range of 2,050 to 2,650 g (4.52 to 5.84 lb), and are thus one of the heaviest living owl species. Only the Blakiston's fish owl and a majority of races of Eurasian eagle owl (B. bubo) are heavier on average. The maximum (not average) weight of Verreaux's eagle owls (B. lacteus) and snowy owls (B. scandiacus) are also higher but those species have far larger sample sizes of body mass. In terms of standard measurements, the wing chord is 410 to 477 mm (16.1 to 18.8 in), the tail is 215 to 227 mm (8.5 to 8.9 in), the tarsus is 60 to 67 mm (2.4 to 2.6 in) and the bill is 48 to 52 mm (1.9 to 2.0 in). Compared to the brown fish owl, the tawny averages of similar tail length, is larger in size by average wing length and bill size and slightly smaller in tarsal length.
Their territorial call has been described as a deep whoo-hoo. A cat-like meow has also been described for the tawny fish owl, with the brown fish owl also making a similar vocalization.
The tawny fish owl is at least partially diurnal in activity, with daytime activity mainly occurring in the late afternoon and they may be seen actively hunting before nightfall especially on cloudy days. However, before the afternoon they tend to be sluggish during the day. If disturbed or threatened, these owls tend to sit tight and not take flight. Like most owls, they usually choose inconspicuous perches during the day to avoid detection. The tawny fish owl has been described as the "most powerful and savage" of the three smaller fish owl species. However, in a majority of dietary habits, they are broadly similar to other fish owls and they do not tackle large prey with equal regularity or aplomb as the rather larger Blakiston's fish owl. They usually hunt by swooping down to the water capture fish from the surface and are reportedly surprisingly active in their hunting style and are not dissimilar in the hunting methods to those used by diurnal fish-hunting raptors such as fish eagles, sea eagles and ospreys. Tawny fish owl mainly eat fish, crabs, shrimps, crayfish and frogs. The primary food of tawny fish owls in one study from Taiwan was freshwater crabs (apparently of the Candidiopotamon genus) which made up 62.8% of the diet, followed by the Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans), at least three other frog species, then fish and Eriocheir mitten crabs. The toads were taken considerably more regularly than other frog species, although far less abundant in number in the stream wetlands there, due to their larger sizes. More terrestrial prey is by no means avoided though and the species may also hunt toads, lizards, snakes, and small mammals such as moles, and particularly rodents, with one of the few mammalian prey recorded semi-regularly being bamboo rats (Rhizomys). A small Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) has also been reported amongst their prey. It also prey on birds including Mandarin ducks (Aix galericulata) in Taiwan and has overtaken large ground birds such junglefowl (Gallus ssp.), pheasants and eared pheasants, the latter sometimes weighing more than 2 kg (4.4 lb). Tawny fish owls tend to be sparsely distributed and frequently occupies a stretch of riparian zone of 5.5–7.7 km (3.4–4.8 mi) in length.
Tawny fish owls are highly solitary and territorial as are a majority of owls. The breeding season is November to February in India and December to February in Assam. Nest locations found have included large holes in river banks, caves in cliffs and the fork or crotch of a large tree. As in all owls, tawny fish owls do not build a nest so merely lay their eggs on the bare ground of whatever surface they use. They also not infrequently nest in abandoned nests built by Pallas's fish eagles (Haliaeetus leucoryphus). Usually two eggs are laid but sometimes only one is. The eggs can range in size from 56 to 58.8 mm (2.20 to 2.31 in) x 45.5 to 48.3 mm (1.79 to 1.90 in), with an average of 57.1 mm × 46.9 mm (2.25 in × 1.85 in), and are similar in size to those of the brown fish owl. Greater details of the reproductive biology are not currently known although are presumed to basically be similar to those of other fish owls.
- BirdLife International (2012). "Ketupa flavipes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 16 July 2012.
- Hodgson, BH (1836). "On a new Piscatory Genus of the Strigine Family". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 5: 363–365.
- Voous, K.H. 1988. Owls of the Northern Hemisphere. The MIT Press, 0262220350.
- Hume, R. (1991). Owls of the world. Running Press, Philadelphia, PA. 1991.
- Owls of the World: A Photographic Guide by Mikkola, H. Firefly Books (2012), ISBN 9781770851368
- König, Claus; Weick, Friedhelm (2008). Owls of the World (2nd ed.). London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 9781408108840.
- CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
- TANA, P. G., VAZQUEZ, A., & CHAVEZ, C. (1997). NOTES ON A NEST OF THE TAWNY FISH-OWL (KETUPA FLAVIPES) AT SAKATANG STREAM, TAIWAN. Wilson Bulletin, 66, 135-136.
- Weick, F. (2007). Owls (Strigiformes): annotated and illustrated checklist. Springer.
- Robson, C., & Allen, R. (2005). New Holland field guide to the birds of South-East Asia. New Holland Publishers.
- Wu, H. J., Sun, Y. H., Wang, Y., & Tseng, Y. S. (2006). Food habits of Tawny Fish-Owls in Sakatang Stream, Taiwan. Journal of Raptor Research, 40(2), 111-119.
- Sun, Y., Y. Wang, and K. A. Arnold. 1997. Notes on a nest of Tawny Fish-Owls at Sakatang Stream, Taiwan. J. Raptor Research 31：387-389.
- Sun, Y. and Y. Wang. 1997. Tawny fish owl activity pattern. Wilson Bull. 109：377-381.
- Sun, Y., Y. Wang, and C. Lee. 2000. Habitat selection by tawny fish owl (Ketupa flavipes) in Taiwan. J. Raptor Research 34：102-107.
- Sun, Y., H. WU, and Y. Wang. 2004. Predation by Tawny Fish-Owls at fish farms in Taiwan. J. Raptor Research 38(4): 326-333.
- Wu, H, Y. Sun, Y. Wang, and Y. Tseng. 2006. Food habits of Tawny Fish-Owls in Sakatang Stream, Taiwan. J. Raptor Research 40: 111-119.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ketupa flavipes.|
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By GreatSchools Staff
According to a 2005 Education Week survey of state science standards from 41 states, 39 state standards documents offer some description of biological evolution and how it accounts for the diversity of species that exist today, while 35 of these documents go further and give similar treatment to Darwin's principle of natural selection.
Education Week, a nonprofit publication that covers issues in education, reviewed the science standards of a large majority of the 50 states, comparing them against 10 concept statements about evolution in the National Science Education Standards.
Education Week found four states - Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, and Oklahoma - that do not mention the term "evolution," in their science standards.
Kansas goes back and forth on evolution
In November 2005 in Kansas, despite protests by Governor Kathleen Sebelius, the National Academy of Sciences and numerous others, the Kansas State Board of Education voted to adopt a draft set of state science standards that challenge the theory of evolution. The new standards will take effect in 2007, unless next year's elections cause a shift on the state school board, and a reversal of this decision. Several candidates have already come forward to challenge those school board members who voted for the new standards. Two national science groups demanded that their copyrighted material be removed from the standards document because of its approach to evolution.
Kansas has a history of battles over evolution, with the victor depending on which side has a majority on the State Board of Education. Between 1999 and 2001, the board removed and then later reinstated references to evolution in the state science standards.
Ohio adds critical analysis of evolution into state standards
In 2002 in Ohio, the "Critical Analysis of Evolution" model lesson plan was created to implement a benchmark in the Ohio state science standards that requires students to be able to "describe how scientists continue to investigate and critically analyze aspects of evolutionary theory." The standards also clearly state that they do not endorse teaching intelligent design.
Out of 20 states that responded to a 2005 Education Week survey about questions on state standardized science tests, none included questions about intelligent design in their high school science state tests. Of the respondents, 17 said they had at least one question on the high school assessment that dealt with evolution.
The Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, a nonprofit organization that supports research, publications and projects in education reform, released a review of the science standards for each of the 50 states in December 2005. According to this review, 19 states earned honors for having clear and rigorous science standards. Although that might not seem like a lot, more than half of U.S. children reside in these 19 states. Fifteen states received failing grades, indicating they have no real standards or have standards that are so vague and weak as to be "meaningless." The remaining 15 states received a "C" or "D," meaning average or below average. Only one state, Iowa, was not included because it does not have science standards.
The Fordham Foundation concluded that since its previous report in 2000, the nation as a whole has neither lost nor gained ground in its science expectations for students. "This flat line trend at the national level is worrisome, especially as America's world competitors make their own countries' science education a major focus," states the executive summary of the report.
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Conures are a diverse, loosely-defined group of small to medium-sized parrots. They belong to several genera within a long-tailed group of the New World parrot subfamily Arinae. The term "conure" is used primarily in bird keeping, though it has appeared in some scientific journals. The American Ornithologists' Union uses the generic term parakeet for all species elsewhere called conure, though Joseph Forshaw, a prominent Australian ornithologist, uses conure.
- 1 Description
- 2 Conure species
- 3 Scientific classification
- 4 Trivia
- 5 Nonnative conure colonies
- 6 See also
- 7 References
- 8 External links
Conures are either large parakeets or small parrots found in the Western Hemisphere. They are analogous in size and way of life to the Old World's rose-ringed parakeets or the Australian parakeets. All living conure species live in Central and South America. The extinct Conuropsis carolinensis, or Carolina parakeet was an exception. Conures are often called the clowns of the parrot world due to their constant attention seeking behavior including hanging upside-down and swaying back and forth or "dancing."
Despite being large for parakeets, conures are lightly built with long tails and small (but strong) beaks. Conure beaks always have a small cere and are usually horn-colored (gray) or black. Most conure species live in flocks of 20 or more birds. Conures often eat grain, and so are treated as agricultural pests in some places.
Conures are as diverse a group as African parrots, so trying to characterize them all is difficult and inaccurate. The category conure is loosely-defined because they do not currently constitute a natural, scientific grouping. The term conure is now used mostly in aviculture. Scientists tend to refer to these birds as "parrots" or "parakeets". (See below under Scientific classification for more details.) Some individuals are also recklessly loud with poor socialization and inadequate training.
Conures, as the term is used by aviculturists, include only the genera Aratinga and Pyrrhura, as well as several single-species genera and one double-species genus. These other genera are listed below:
- Conuropsis: Carolina parakeet (extinct)
- Cyanoliseus: Patagonian conure
- Enicognathus: austral and slender-billed conures
- Guarouba: golden or Queen Of Bavaria conure
- Leptosittaca: golden-plumed conure
- Nandayus : nanday conure—no longer in its separate species (Nandayus)—but now an Aratinga species
- Ognorhynchus: yellow-eared conure
Old Tupi for "bright macaw," (ara - "macaw", tinga "bright") the Aratinga conures generally seem to have a more mischievous personality than the real little macaws or mini-macaws. Popular as pets, the Aratinga conures are generally larger with brighter plumage and are generally the noisier, more outgoing, more demanding of the two primary conure genera. The colorful sun conure and jenday conure are among the species of conures more commonly kept as pets. Many of the Aratinga species can be quite loud but otherwise can make very good pets for responsible owners. Some species, such as the dusky conure, brown headed conure, peach front conure, and half moon conure, are among the quieter Aratinga species, though they may still be loud at times. Lifespan is 20–30 years.
Pyrrhura is the other large genus of conures. These generally greenish conures include the very common green-cheeked conure, as well as the maroon-bellied conure, pearly conure, black-capped conure, painted conure, crimson-bellied conure, and a number of other species. They are usually smaller, duller-colored, and much quieter than the Aratinga conures. Pyrrhura species are growing in popularity as pet birds, primarily due to their quiet nature and their affectionate and intelligent personalities—and the increasing number of color mutations developed in several of these species. Lifespan is 20–25 years. Occasionally, young birds pluck their feathers during the winter. To reach full maturity, many of them molt to rid themselves of feathers from previous growth stages.
The nanday conure, nandayus nenday is the most commonly kept pet conure species outside the two main genera. Some experts believe that nandays should actually be grouped with the Aratinga genus, since they are cross-fertile with such species as jendays and suns. Nanday conures have a distinctive black head, and wings and tails tipped with dark blue feathers. They have a light-blue scarf and bright orange feathers on their legs and around their vents. The maturity of a nanday can be told by the edges of its black hood: if the hood has a ragged edge of brown, then the bird is over a year old. Nandays are often extremely noisy—they are a heavily flock-oriented species, used to making their demands known, calling out warnings for the group, and calling to members of the group who are out of sight. They are also extremely social and intelligent birds, capable of learning tricks, mimicking sounds, and learning a decent vocabulary. At least one report suggests that they are highly adaptable to human encroachment on their territories, but the exact status of the species in the wild is unknown.
Flocks of nanday conures live wild in parts of Florida, notably the west coast, including areas of St. Petersburg and Clearwater. A pair of nanday conures was seen in Sarasota, Florida. A large flock of nanday conures lives wild in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles. They have been in the area for the past several years.
The golden conure or Queen of Bavaria conure, Guaruba guarouba (recently reclassified from Aratinga guarouba) is, as the name implies, covered all over with bright yellow feathers, except for the green wing-tip feathers and the greyish horn-colored beak. Golden conures are among the most expensive conures both to purchase and to care for, although many owners feel that the benefits outweigh the cost. It is one of the rarest conures in the wild in addition to the pet trade. Many experts believe that these birds should not be kept in captivity unless in a breeding program.
The Patagonian conure, also known as the burrowing parrot, Cyanoliseus patagonus, is the largest conure. It can be found in the Patagonia region of south-central Argentina and Chile. Drab on the top, brightly colored underneath, the Patagonian conure has increased in popularity since the 1990s, leading to an increase in illegal importation that threatens wild populations; however, they are fairly commonly bred in captivity. Patagonian conures have a reputation for being exceptionally sweet-natured and intelligent conures, but can be very loud and destructive with their chewing. The greater Patagonian conure (Cyanoliseus patagonus bloxami or Cyanoliseus patagonus byroni) is the largest of all the conures. They learn to talk and they usually bond very well with people, especially if hand-raised, and although not the most colorful bird they make great pets.
The golden-plumed conure, also called the golden-plumed parakeet, Leptosittaca branickii, is a small Andean conure not found in aviculture and endangered in its own habitat.
Conuropsis carolinensis, the Carolina parakeet, was one of only two parrot species endemic to the United States in recorded history. The Carolina parakeet was a remarkably social bird, living in vast flocks. American bird hunters reported that Carolina parakeets would return to mourn dead members of the flock, making themselves easy targets. Considered a pest, popular in the pet trade, and bearing plume feathers valued for hats, this species was hunted to extinction around the beginning of the 1900s.
Gold-capped conures (Aratinga auricapillus)—also known as golden-capped parakeets—are native to Brazil and Paraguay. Their natural habitats include subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, dry savanna, and plantations. The existence of this conure is threatened by habitat loss. However, gold-capped conures are prolific breeders, making them popular birds in aviculture, and hand-fed golden cap babies are generally available.
The gold-capped conure grows to about 13 to 14 inches in length and weighs about 150 grams. Their bodies are mainly green with blackish bills, gray feet and brown irises. The forehead, the areas around the eyes and underwing coverts are usually red. The breast feathers are a red and green mix. Their tail feathers are olive green with a bluish tip. The primary feathers, wing coverts, and under-wing coverts are blue.
Immature gold-capped conures are mostly green, with some orange around the eyes, above the beak, and on the breast near the wings. Some navy is mixed in with the green of the tail. The bird's full coloration is not seen until they are sexually mature at about two years of age.
Their lifespan is about 30 years.
The parrot order, Psittaciformes, is a tangle of genera, many containing only one species. Parrots include about 353 species of bird—generally grouped into two families: the Cacatuidae or cockatoos, and the Psittacidae or true parrots. The term parrot generally applies both to the entire order and to Psittacidae alone.
All members of the Psittaciformes order have a characteristic curved beak shape with the upper mandible having slight mobility in the joint with the skull and a generally erect stance. All parrots are zygodactyl—meaning they have four toes on each foot: two that face front and two that face back.
Conures and all other New World parrots are often placed in a subfamily or tribe Arinae. Internal relationships of conures are poorly understood though it seems evident that, to make them a natural grouping, the quaker parakeet, the thick-billed parrot, and Brotogeris should be included, and often are. Neotropical parrots, macaws, and other are also candidates potential for inclusion. In this scheme, "conure" comprises members of the genera:
- Nandayus (now an Aratinga species)
- Guarouba (Queen of Bavaria conure or the golden conure as it is sometimes called)
- Rhynchopsitta: thick-billed parrot
- Myopsitta: quaker parakeet
In addition the caiques and the hawk-headed parrot have also been proposed for inclusion. Both the caiques and the hawk-headed parakeets have a heavier build and different tail structure from traditional conures.
A blue-crowned conure was the star of the family movie Paulie. The film used 14 different birds.
Nonnative conure colonies
Conures are highly adaptable to urban environments, and several nonnative colonies have been observed globally. The exact origins of such colonies are generally unverifiable.
A conure colony lives in Seward Park.
San Francisco, California
A colony of cherry-headed conures lives on Telegraph Hill, San Francisco. They are the subject of a film, The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill, based on a story by Mark Bittner. Pairs of conures can be seen and heard in many other areas of San Francisco such as the Tenderloin district.
Santa Clara County, California
Multiple colonies of cherry-headed and/or mitred conures thrive in and around Santa Clara County, California. In particular Sunnyvale, Cupertino (especially around the Apple Campus), and Palo Alto.
Los Angeles, California
Multiple colonies of cherry-headed conures live in the San Gabriel Valley (the suburbs northeast of Los Angeles). Subtropical U.S. cities like Los Angeles are great environments for tropical birds because of all the tropical plants that are cultivated as ornamentals, providing them with their natural food supply. Flocks of fifty or more descend on fruit trees during their bearing season, staying for a few days and making a deafening racket. During mating season they build nests in the palm trees that line many streets in the region.
Three species of conures (genus Aratinga) have formed non-native colonies in California. These are documented by the California Parrot Project in affiliation with the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, and in cooperation with the Pasadena Audubon Society.
Long Beach, California
A colony of half-moon conures has been observed in the Belmont Shore area of Long Beach, California since the late 1980s.
Delray Beach, Florida
A least one wild pair of nandays has been spotted in downtown Delray Beach, Florida. The total number of birds in the colony is yet undetermined.
Several quakers a.k.a. the monk parrot or parakeet, have lived and bred there for over 30 years.
- Buhrman-Deever, Susannah C.; Hobson, Elizabeth A.; Hobson, Aaron D. (2008). "Individual recognition and selective response to contact calls in foraging brown-throated conures, Aratinga pertinax". Animal Behaviour 76 (5): 1715. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.08.007.
- Forshaw, Joseph M.; Cooper, William T. (1978). Parrots of the World (2nd ed.). Melbourne Australia: Landsdowne Editions. ISBN 0-7018-0690-7.
- The quaker or monk parakeet is technically a conure by almost anybody's definition, but due to its popularity in aviculture and its uniqueness, it is generally considered in a category of its own.
- Brotogeris are not only often counted as conures, but as parrotlets as well, and it is not clear precisely which one, or both, or neither, they belong to. The tail structure is different from the parrotlets, though the basic body structure is the same in both groups.
- "Tracking Oahu's wild parrots - Hawaii News Now - KGMB and KHNL". Hawaii News Now. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
- "Feral Parrot Poplulations in San Francisco". Fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us. 1998-03-12. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
- "Wild parrots of Sunnyvale". YouTube. 2009-08-03. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
- "GC1V23Z Wild Parrots of Sunnyvale (Traditional Cache) in California, United States created by GoGoJo". Geocaching.com. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
- "Wild parrots in Cupertino. | Flickr - Photo Sharing!". Flickr. 2009-12-09. Retrieved 2015-02-14.
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| 17 |
|Scientific Name:||Pentaceros japonicus|
|Species Authority:||Steindachner, 1883|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Least Concern ver 3.1|
|Reviewer(s):||Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M.|
|Contributor(s):||De Silva, R., Milligan, H., Lutz, M., Batchelor, A., Jopling, B., Kemp, K., Lewis, S., Lintott, P., Sears, J., Wilson, P. & Smith, J. and Livingston, F.|
Pentaceros japonicus has been assessed as Least Concern. Although harvested as a commercial food source, this threat is unlikely to be impacting this species throughout its entire broad distribution. Pentaceros japonicus is also harvested for the aquarium trade, but this is not considered a major threat at present and is probably only occurring on a localised scale. Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest is needed in case these threats intensify or become more widespread in the future.
|Range Description:||Pentaceros japonicus is distributed from Pacific coast of southern Japan (Boso Peninsula southward to Amami Island), Ogasawara Islands, Kyushu-Palau Ridge, Emperor's Seamouts Chain (Pers. comm T. Nakabo 2009).|
|FAO Marine Fishing Areas:||
Pacific – northwest; Pacific – southwest; Pacific – western central
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||There is no population information available for Pentaceros japonicus.|
|Habitat and Ecology:||The armourhead, Pentaceros japonicus, is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 100–600 m. This species occurs over seamounts. Its spawning season is from Autumn to Winter (Pers. Comm. T. Nakabo 2009).|
|Use and Trade:||Although harvested from the wild, this species may be bred in captivity for the aquarium trade and is used in small fisheris (Pers. Comm. T. Nakabo 2009).|
Pentaceros japonicus is a commercially important species and it is roughly estimated that the annual global catch of this species is 100,000–500,000 tons (Froese and Sampang 2004).
Pentaceros japonicus is also harvested for the aquarium trade, although at present this is not considered a major threat to this species.
|Conservation Actions:||There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Pentaceros japonicus, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas. Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.|
|Citation:||Nakabo, T. 2010. Pentaceros japonicus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 29 March 2015.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided|
| 17 |
- Action Alert: Urge Senators to Support Great Lakes Issues
- Action Alert: Urge Congress to Restore Farm Bill Conservation Funding
- Weekly News Roundup: Microbeads, Algal Blooms, and More
- NOAA Report Highlights Changes in Great Lakes Region Land Use
- House Republicans, Democrats Unite in Push to Restore Great Lakes Funding
Ottawa River Clean-up in Toledo, Ohio, Removes Contaminated Sediments that Pose Risk to People, Wildlife
|SummaryFederal Great Lakes restoration funds support removal of 260,000 cubic yards of toxic sediments along a 5-mile stretch of the Ottawa River in Toledo, Ohio, that posed a risk to people and wildlife—including major sportfish such as walleye and perch.|
Project name: Ottawa River sediment cleanup.
Location: Toledo, Ohio.
Description: Nearly 260,000 cubic yards of contaminated sediment was dredged from a 5.5-mile stretch of the Ottawa River in Toledo. For decades, the river was a major source of chemical pollutants entering Lake Erie’s Maumee Bay, where the contaminants harmed fish and wildlife. Crews worked around the clock to finish the project in six months; it was scheduled to take two years.
Project cost: $47 million, which was $2 million under budget.
Resource challenge addressed: Legal and illegal industrial waste discharges into the Ottawa River prior to the 1970s deposited large quantities of toxic chemicals in river bottom sediments. The pollutants made the river unsafe for humans and contaminated western Lake Erie, prompting
advisories that urged people to limit their consumption of fish from the lake.
Key partners (public and private): The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency split the cleanup cost 50-50 with a consortium of businesses that included Allied Waste Industries, Chrysler LLC, the city of Toledo, DuPont Co., GenCorp Inc., Honeywell International Inc., Illinois Tool Works Inc., and United Technologies.
Types of jobs created: Dredge operators, truck drivers, environmental engineers, chemists, ecologists and biologists.
Results and accomplishments: The project brought about the removal of 260,000 cubic yards of toxic mud from the river bottom, which improved water quality in the river and reduced the volume of pollution flowing into Lake Erie. Crews removed more than 7,500 pounds of PCBs and more than 1 million pounds of heavy metals from the river. Those contaminants had made the river unfit for human use and contributed to advisories urging people to limit their consumption of fish from the river and its receiving water, Lake Erie’s Maumee Bay. The restoration project helped reduce the health risks to people and wildlife. Because more fish are caught every year in Lake Erie than in the other four Great Lakes combined, the cleanup was particularly significant for the lake’s thriving walleye and perch fisheries.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/glla/ottawa/
Originally Published: October 9, 2011
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What's New Eroding dunes spur education, restoration efforts The Herald-Palladium (3/23) Movement of nearby dunes onto private property is prompting a Michigan county to take steps to prevent further damage. A plan is being developed that will look at how to best accommodate the dunes trail system and necessary restoration.
May 1-31, 2015 Training: Web-Based Sediment Tools Geneseo, NY One-day training workshops (actual dates TBD) in which participants learn how to use web-based sediment transport tools to better understand sediment issues and make informed decisions within their watersheds. Contact: Brent LaSpada E-mail:[email protected]
June 3-4, 2015 Great Lakes Dredging Team Annual Meeting Green Bay, WI Please save the date for the Great Lakes Dredging Team Annual Meeting. The GLDT serves as a forum for both governmental and non-governmental Great Lakes dredging interests to discuss the regionís dredging needs.
General Resources Dredging Projects U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Great Lakes Regional Headquarters This site explains the dredging process and links to sites with more Great Lakes dredging information.
Great Lakes Dredging Team The GLDT is a partnership of federal and state agencies created to assure that the dredging throughout the Great Lakes is conducted in a timely and cost-effective manner while meeting environmental protection, restoration and enhancement goals.
Great Lakes Tributary Modeling Program A cooperative initiative of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Great Lakes Regional Headquarters) and the Great Lakes Commission to develop sediment transport models for tributaries to the Great Lakes that discharge to federal navigation channels or Areas of Concern.
Illinois Soil Survey Natural Resources Conservation Service-Illinois This site provides a status report of the state's soil survey, data from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database, plus fact sheets and more.
International Erosion Control Association The IECA is a non-profit, member organization that provides education, resource information and business opportunities for professionals in the erosion and sediment control industry.
Lake Erie Center University of Toledo The University of Toledo's Lake Erie Center is an interdisciplinary center dedicated to environmental research.
Lake Michigan Potential Damages Study U.S. Army Corps of Engineers - Detroit District An extensive and long-term assessment of potential shoreline damages over the next 50 years due to fluctuating lake levels along the Lake Michigan shoreline (started in 1996).
Low Cost Shore Protection U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Detroit District Learn about low cost methods to protect shoreline from erosion, including vegetation, perched beaches, breakwaters and beach fill.
Natural Resources Conservation Service U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) The NRCS works with landowners on private lands to conserve natural resources. The nation's 3,000 conservation districts, virtually one in every county, are the heart of the conservation delivery system.
Ohio Lake Erie Buffer Program Ohio Lake Erie Buffer Team Initiated to tackle the soil erosion and sedimentation problem in the Lake Erie watershed, the program provides opportunity for both government and private agencies to work together in improving the Lake Erie ecosystem.
Sediment Environment Canada's Freshwater Web Includes effects of sediment, how sediment is sampled and case studies.
Conservation Leadership Network A strategic alliance of non-governmental and governmental partners. The Network's goal is to create a conservation leadership curriculum that expands the knowledge and skills of conservation professionals. Managed by The Conservation Fund.
Know Your Watershed: Introduction to Water Quality Conservation Technology Information Center (CTIC) This self-paced course is designed to teach the fundamentals for reducing pollution from agricultural nonpoint sources. Materials include 2 videos, 12 modules of printed instruction, and 2 reference manuals. Web-based testing. Participants have 90 days to complete the work once enrolled.
Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials (NEMO) NEMO uses innovative techniques and GIS to teach local officials about the sources and impacts of nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, how different land uses affect water quality, and what towns can do to protect water quality.
USEPA Watershed Academy US EPA Provides web-based training and information on implementing watershed approaches to federal, state, tribal, and local officials, as well as private practitioners of watershed management.
Linking Land Use to Water Quality workshop Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials (NEMO) The Linking Land Use to Water Quality workshop addresses the relationship of land use to natural resource protection with an emphasis on water quality.
Model Ordinances to Protect Local Resources US EPA This website contains printable and "create-your-own" ordinances and links on: aquatic buffers, erosion and sediment control, open space development, storm water control operation and maintenance, illicit discharges, post construction runoff, and source water protection.
National Agriculture Library 1 of 4 National Libraries in the United States, the NAL is part of USDA's ARS and a major international source for agriculture and related information.
Soil Education Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Provides information about soil, resource materials for K - 16 for teachers and students, and links to various groups and societies active in soil education.
Stormwater Strategies: Community Responses to Runoff Pollution Natural Resources Defense Council This study highlights some of the most effective and efficient watershed and municipal examples of nonpoint source and storm water control programs and activities in the US. By example, communities can use these case studies in developing and implementing their own runoff control programs. (May 1999)
Watershed Protection Techniques Center for Watershed Protection, Silver Spring, MD A periodic bulletin on urban watershed restoration and protection tools including runoff management practices or BMPs. Contains often-cited technical notes that describe, compare, and evaluate urban controls as well as the effects of runoff both with and without controls.
Manuals 60 Ways Farmers Can Protect Surface Water U. of Illinois College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service Topics include residue management, water flow control, nutrient management, livestock waste handling, and pesticide management. (1993)
Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook NRCS Excellent technical information, worksheets, and planning guidance for dealing with waste management problems. Specific issues include animal wastes, dead animals, Agricultural Waste Management Plans and Waste Utilization Plans, with information on surface and ground water concerns.
Rapid Watershed Planning Handbook The Center for Watershed Protection Written to assist watershed associations and local governments in developing effective and low cost watershed protection plans. Emphasizes resource identification, evaluation, and planning. (1998)
Water Quality Indicators Guide NRCS Used to conduct in-stream and receiving water body biological assessments to determine if sediment, agri-chemicals, animal waste, or other considerations are negatively impacting a particular body of water or watercourse. Can aid in identifying which areas within the watershed are contributing to a detected problem. Available for purchase at Amazon.com.
Maps Digital Orthophoto Quadrangles (DOQs) USGS Computer-generated images of aerial photographs in which image displacement caused by terrain relief and camera tilts has been removed. Image characteristics of a photograph are combined with the geometric qualities of a map. Also available through any Earth Science Information Center (ESIC). DOQ coverage is not available for all areas in the United States.
Map Unit Interpretation Database (MUIR) NRCS Data should be used in conjunction with soil survey maps. The soil survey maps indicate the geographic location and extent of the soil map units within the soil survey area. MUIR data is intended to be used by landowners, county and local governments, and other natural resource managers for basic land use planning. It is not intended to be used for site-specific land use suitability determinations.
Models: Agricultural AGNPS Output Processor Model Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Model (AGNPS) USDA-ARS Computer program designed to evaluate non point source pollution from agricultural watersheds. Outputs related to soluble nitrogen and phosphorus for surface water and infiltration are provided. Sediment yield and runoff are calculated, and sediment transported nitrogen and phosphorus are determined. Nutrient concentrations from feedlots and other point sources and chemical oxygen demand are modeled.
Animal Waste Management (AWM) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Planning/design tool for animal feeding operations that can be used to estimate the production of manure, bedding, process water and determine the size of storage/treatment facilities.
Crop Parameter Intelligent Database System (CPIDS) A computer program providing information on many different crops. This information has been obtained from literature searches, field studies, and through the collective experience of agronomists, horticulturists, and growers. CPIDS also assists the user in creating Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) or RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) input parameters for crops which may not normally be parameterized for these erosion models.
Nitrate Leaching and Economic Analysis Package (NLEAP) USDA-ARS A computer model for field scale assessment of potential nitrate N leaching. Basic information concerning farm management practices, soils, and climate are translated into projected N budgets and nitrate N leaching indices.
Riparian Ecosystem Management Model (REMM) A computer simulation model, used to simulate hydrology, nutrient dynamics and plant growth for land areas between the edge of fields and a water body. Output from REMM will allow designers to develop buffer systems to help control non-point source pollution.
Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) USDA-ARS This computer model uses current water erosion prediction technology. Includes a field scale version for single field planning and a proposed watershed version for project planning. Outputs will provide information on runoff, the form of sediment loss from a field, and the sediment characteristics.
Models: Erosion Better Assessment Science Integrating point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) This multipurpose environmental analysis software performs watershed and water quality based studies. Quickly assess large amounts of point source and nonpoint source data in a format that is easy to use and understand by integrating a geographic information system (GIS), national watershed and meteorological data, and state-of-the-art environmental assessment and modeling tools into one convenient package. For local, state and regional agencies.
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation 2 (RUSLE2) Like RUSLE, this program predicts long-term, average-annual erosion by water for broad range of farming, conservation, mining, construction, and forestry uses. Its object-oriented, Windows interface allows dramatic scientific and graphical advances.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) A manual calculation procedure used to determine erosion rates at the end of a slope and provide an indication of the extent and location of sediment sources. Rates cannot be correlated directly with sediment delivery.
Models: Other PLANTS Database USDA This database provides singularly standardized information about plants, focusing on vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, hornworts, and lichens of the U.S. and its territories.
Models: Soil Online Soil Surveys Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Soil maps and interpretations that give technical assistance to farmers and ranchers in guiding decisions about soil selection, use, and management; research planning; and research results dissemination. Also used in educational programs about soil use and conservation.
Soil-Pesticide Interaction Screening Procedure (SPISP) Provides a method for determining the relative leaching and runoff potential for most pesticide and soil/side combinations. SPISP uses soils interpretations and the NRCS/ARS/CRS selected properties database. Ratings can provide a basis for planning pest management. Closely related to NPURG.
Soil-Plant-Atmosphere-Water (SPAW) USDA-ARS This computer moisture balance model emphasizes soil moisture capability for a variety of methods for irrigation scheduling and nitrogen budgeting.
Soils Survey Geographic (SSURGO) NRCS Field mapping methods using US national standards have been used to construct the soil maps in this database. (Must register to download.)
Simulator for Water Resources in Rural Basins - Water Quality (SWRRBWQ) This computer model predicts the effect of management decisions on water, sediment, nutrient and pesticide yields at the sub basin or basin outlet. Outputs related to nutrients, pesticides, and sediment are provided. The model tracks the fate of pesticides and phosphorus from land to deposition in water bodies.
SWAT USDA-ARS This computer model predicts the effect of management decisions on water, sediment, nutrients, and pesticides yields in large ungaged river basins. Utilizes SWRRBWQ technology enhanced with reach routing and capability to subdivide into more than 100 sub basins.
TR-20 This physically based watershed scale runoff event model computes direct runoff and develops hydrographs resulting from any synthetic or natural rainstorm. Developed hydrographs are routed through stream and valley reaches as well as through reservoirs. Hydrographs are combined from tributaries with those on the main stream stem. Branching flow (diversions), and baseflow can also be accommodated.
TR-55 This model presents simplified procedures to calculate storm runoff volume, peak rate of discharge, hydrographs, and storage volumes required for floodwater reservoirs. These procedures are applicable to small watersheds especially urbanizing watershedsin the US.
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Subtraction by Addition
by Therese Dunphy, Editor-in-Chief
For nearly a decade, the federal government has attempted to define what waters of the United States fall under regulatory purview of the Clean Water Act of 1972 (CWA). The term used in the act, “navigable waters,” apparently lacked clarity for regulators who have traditionally sought to broadly enforce the CWA.
When their ever-expanding definitions became too expansive, litigation typically followed. In 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court noted that isolated ponds and wetlands were not subject to federal water pollution regulation in the landmark Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Five years later (in Rapanos v. United States), a split U.S. Supreme Court determined that CWA enforcement was too broad, but couldn’t agree on jurisdictional limitations. A year later, the Corps and the Environmental Protection Agency attempted to define regulated waters using the “significant nexus” definition.
The Clean Water Restoration Act (CWRA, S.787) purports to “restore the original intent of Congress” by clarifying the definition of regulated waterways. However, removing the word “navigable” from the definition does much more than “restore” the Clean Water Act — it greatly expands it. If the CWRA passes, it would expand regulated waters to include ‘all interstate and intrastate waters and their tributaries, including lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows playa lakes, natural ponds, and all impoundments of the foregoing.”
What does this mean for aggregate producers? Incidental water bodies used for every day functions in an aggregates operation, such as wash ponds, fines management, and dust suppression could be subject to the CWRA. Reclamation plans could also be affected if they would impact these bodies of water.
The CWRA would add an additional layer to the ever-growing number of regulations and permitting challenges facing producers. And, as with all regulations, the costs are not insubstantial. In testimony submitted to the House Committee on Small Business, the National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association reports that a study of the Clean Water Act Section 404 permitting process (The Economics of Environmental Regulation by Licensing: An Assessment of Recent Changes to the Wetlands Permitting Process, 42 Nat. Resources J. 59, Winter 2002) found that it takes an average of 313 days and $28,915 to obtain a nationwide general permit. Individual permits from the Corps average 788 days and $271,000 to receive.
Small producers are already struggling with challenging business conditions. Foisting additional permitting costs and restrictions could force some of these companies out of business or into a fire sale. Neither is good for an already fragile economy.
What Congress is proposing is not restoration; it’s reformation, and it is likely to have unanticipated and harmful consequences for many U.S. businesses, including small aggregate operators.
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A GIS-based technique for linking landscape characteristics to non-point source nitrogen export potential: implications for contributing areas management
A Nitrate-N Leaching Index (NLI) is calculated and the results indicate that nitrogen loss in the study area occurs through both leaching and surface runoff. A non-linear regression model of trapping efficiency was combined with a first order decay model to examine the impact of soil characteristics, slope, vegetative cover, land use and distance to streams on the spatial pattern of non-point source nitrogen inputs to streams. The model evaluates the statistical significance of each landscape factor and provides an easy interpretation of the landscape delivery ratio of nitrogen based on a pixel-based characterisation of the watershed. The model was validated by comparing the distributions of the observed and estimated monthly nitrogen concentrations. The exploratory GIS-based method presented here can improve the understanding of the impact of landscape characteristics on nitrate-nitrogen contributing areas and therefore assist watershed management efforts.
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Volume (Year): 53 (2010)
Issue (Month): 7 ()
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| 18 |
Effluent from uranium-mine dewatering and acidic water released by a tailings-pond dike failure increased radionuclide activities in streamflow in the Puerco River in New Mexico and Arizona. Median dissolved gross-alpha activity in the streamflow was 1,130 picocuries per liter from 1975 to 1986 when mine discharges ceased and 6.2 picocuries per liter from 1986 to 1989. From 1975 to July 1979, major ions in streamflow at the Puerco River at Gallup streamflow-gaging station were sodium, bicarbonate, and sulfate. On July 16, 1979, the day of the tailing spill, major ions in streamflow were magnesium, calcium, and sulfate. From 1979 to 1984, major ions in streamflow had a greater proportion of calcium and sulfate than prior to the spill, indicating flushing of residual tailings solution. Geochemical modeling of mine effluent indicates that uranium was unlikely to precipitate from effluent between the mines and Gallup or when mixed with wastewater downstream from Gallup. Geochemical modeling of acidic-tailings solution indicates that uranium was in solution as far downstream as Gallup. When the acidic-tailings solution mixed with 10- to 40-percent wastewater, uranium may have precipitated from solution as carnotite [K2(UO2)2(VO4)2] and tyuyamunite [Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2].
Additional Publication Details
Effects of uranium mining, Puerco River, New Mexico
Publ by ASCE
New York, NY, United States
Number of Pages:
Proceedings of the 1991 National Conference on Irrigation and Drainage
| 18 |
Seeking peace. Striving for justice. Together.
The UNICEF Tap Project is back!
This year’s initiative asks Americans to unlock 14 million days of clean, safe water for children around the world by encouraging you to stop texting, calling, emailing, tweeting and posting -- and challenge your friends to do the same. Millions of children around the globe do not have safe, clean water to drink, and the lack of this basic necessity isn’t just inconvenient — it’s lethal. Take the challenge on your cell phone at UNICEFTapProject.org throughout the month of March. The longer you go without touching your smartphone, the more clean water ...
The UNICEF Tap Project invites you to go without your phone to help children in need of clean water. Are you up for the challenge?
For every ten minutes you don’t touch your phone, UNICEF Tap Project donors and sponsors can fund one day of clean water for a child in need.* It’s that simple.
Take the Challenge!
Your total time will help UNICEF provide clean water and sanitation to children in need around the world.
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The Presbyterian Ministry at the United Nations joins other nongovernmental organizations with UN accreditation in work for a just and reliable world food system. The NGO Working Group on Food and Hunger at the United Nations “recognizes that nearly a billion people in the world are hungry and a billion more suffer from malnutrition. Therefore, we seek to pursue urgent international action to end the world food crisis. We envision a global food system that ensures a secure and equitable supply of nutritious food, that are produced in environmentally, socially and economically sustainable ways.”
As part of that work, the ...
by Anna Folz
UN Conference on World Oceans Day - 8 June 2013
If we are to fully benefit from the oceans, we must reverse the degradation of the marine environment due to pollution, overexploitation and acidification.
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
Many countries celebrated World Oceans Day following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, which was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. In 2008, the United Nations General Assembly decided that 8 June would be officially designated as “World Oceans Day”. According to the UN website, “The official designation of World Oceans Day is an opportunity to raise global ...
This year, the UNICEF Tap Project would like to invite you to transform the world's largest social network into a water network.
No one can survive without water. Yet nearly 800 million people do not have safe, clean water to drink, and more than 2.5 billion people live without a proper toilet. The lack of these basic necessities isn’t just inconvenient — it’s lethal. Every day, nearly 4,000 children under age five die from waterborne diseases.
Through the UNICEF Tap Project and your social network, you can help stop these needless deaths.
Why the UNICEF Tap ...
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This data set consists of digital water-level-change contours for the High Plains aquifer in the central United States, 1980 to 1997. The High Plains aquifer extends from south of 32 degrees to almost 44 degrees north latitude and from 96 degrees 30 minutes to 104 degrees west longitude. The aquifer underlies about 174,000 square miles in parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming.
This digital data set was created from 5,233 wells measured in both 1980 and 1997. The water-level-change contours were drawn manually on mylar at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The contours then were converted to a digital map.
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
Digital Map of Water-Level Changes in the High Plains Aquifer in Parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming, 1980 to 1997
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Twenty three years ago, in 1993, the first annual World Water Day was an occasion to draw attention to water related challenges around the globe. It will be observed again tomorrow, with a focus on sustainable water governance. We join with others to celebrate the many successes in the intervening two decades.
The number of people with access to drinking water and sanitation has increased manifold. In many communities people have met their water needs through successful watershed development and rainwater harvesting efforts. At the same time, around the world communities are asserting that water is a fundamental human right. They are pushing back attempts to privatize their water supply and sanitation services.
In countries such as France, where privatization has been the norm in the past, and elsewhere around the world, we see an increasing trend towards the re-municipalization of water supply and sanitation services. At times change has come through directly engaging in a participatory democracy, including taking to the street and to the ballot, as we have seen both in New Delhi and in Greece. The newly elected government in the state of New Delhi had free water as part of their campaign platform. In Greece, likely in response to the promise of social policies that Syriza has made to people, the public water company Thessaloniki has introduced social tariffs that allow poor people to receive about 12.5 cubic meter of free water per month.
Americans are much more vocal today than we have ever been about the kind of food we eat, where it comes from and what it does to our bodies and our planet. And though powerful agriculture and food corporations are able to stifle laws and regulations that hold them accountable to our interests, these changing American attitudes are forcing a shift in the way Big Food Retail operates. McDonald’s recent announcement to stop using antibiotics used to treat humans is one clear example.
The addition of nanomaterials in food, food packaging and other food contact surfaces, is moving so quickly that regulators and even businesses cannot keep up. That’s why today, IATP and partners have released a fact sheet and policy statement for businesses on how they should deal with food nanotechnology products, whether they are in the research and development phase or are in the marketplace.
According to a Center for Food Safety internet based survey, atomic to molecular size nano-silver particles have been incorporated into more than 100 food and food-related products on the market without government regulation or pre-market safety testing.
IATP has been a co-plaintiff in lawsuits litigated by the International Center for Technology Assessment (ICTA) to compel the Food and Drug Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency (in December 2014) to regulate and to pre-market safety testing of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies in products under their authority. Thus far, the legal actions have failed to achieve their objectives. What else can be done to protect public and environmental health?
The North American Meat Institute, national beef and pork associations and other corporate lobbies of the powerful meat industry are seething at the historic new scientific report by the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Why historic? Because the committee takes on the meat industry head to head in a scientific report intended to help set five year national guidelines on nutrition and because for the first time, the recommendations take into account the environmental footprint of our food (production) choices. If these recommendations are accepted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the report will not only help set national nutrition policy but will also likely impact the $16 billion school lunch program. The USDA and HHS will jointly release the National Dietary Guidelines later this year.
Based on their research, the Committee came to the conclusion that, “a healthy dietary pattern is higher in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, low- or non-fat dairy, seafood, legumes, and nuts; moderate in alcohol (among adults); lower in red and processed meat; and low in sugar sweetened foods and drinks and refined grains.”[i]
It is the emphasis on lower red and processed meat consumption that has the meat industry up in arms, particularly so because the Committee integrates environmental impacts in its approach to dietary guidelines:[ii]
The eighth negotiating session for the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership Agreement (TTIP) is happening this week in Brussels. One of the thorniest parts of the negotiations between the U.S. and EU concerns food safety.
Today, IATP published an analysis of the European Commission’s proposed chapter on food safety, plant health and animal health and welfare (SPS), released on January 7, and a January 28 leak of the chapter on “regulatory cooperation”. The proposal for regulatory cooperation covers all U.S. and EU “regulatory acts” (pre-regulatory research and draft proposed regulations, finalized regulations, and their implementation and enforcement), including those of U.S. states and EU member states that might have a “significant impacts on trade and investment” (Article 5).
Additionally, IATP has contributed to a joint NGO statement about the SPS chapter that was released in time for an EC-sponsored TTIP Stakeholders meeting on February 4. IATP’s analysis of the proposed chapters and of the U.S. government’s insufficient capacity to provide the “appropriate level” of SPS protection guaranteed in TTIP, give plenty of reason to doubt that public, environmental and animal health and welfare will be protected, as negotiators have promised.
One of the big sticking points in the TTIP talks has been the EU’s prohibition on imports of beef treated with growth hormones. EU officials continue to insist the issue is off the table, but U.S. officials keep pushing it right back on. Just this week, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack told reporters at Politico that EU restrictions on hormone beef (and GMOs) were problem areas in the trade talks. “We should be given an equal opportunity to make the case [for U.S. farm products],” Vilsack said. “It may very well be that European consumers decide not to buy product from the United States, but they ought to be given the choice.”
Well, in fact they are given the choice, at least in the case of hormones. According to a new report by Vilsack’s own Department of Agriculture, U.S. sales to Europe of beef raised without hormones have increased substantially over the last few years. It’s an interesting story of a trade dispute spurring new, and apparently profitable, changes in production.
The EU has banned the use of growth-promoting hormones in beef since 1989 over concerns about the safety for human health. The U.S. and Canada won a WTO challenge to that decision at the WTO, winning the right to impose retaliatory tariffs on EU farm goods. In the meantime, USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service began a Non-Hormone Treated Cattle Program, which certifies U.S. beef for export to the EU.
New research shows that production from organic agriculture shapes up better against input-heavy conventional agriculture than previously thought; meanwhile, evidence for the benefits of agroecology continues to accumulate
A new study was released today examining that evergreen chestnut (to mix metaphors): does “organic agriculture” have lower yields than “conventional agriculture”? Published in the prestigious scientific journal Proceedings of the Royal Society of London by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, the study found that some previous estimates comparing organic agriculture’s productivity were too low. What’s more, they found that there was a bias in the data in favor of conventional agriculture, which means even their updated estimate may still overestimate in favor of the current resource-intensive, high-input systems that dominate much of agriculture today.
How much would you pay for a pork chop that was two percent leaner? Would you eat such a pork chop if nanoscale minerals were mixed into the hog feed to achieve that two percent reduction? Such questions are before the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as it considers what to advise the animal feed and mineral supplement industry about their efforts to incorporate atomic- to molecular-sized materials into feed.
This summer, the FDA requested comment on what to advise the animal feed industry about nanomaterials. IATP and others have repeatedly called for the FDA to require pre-market and post-market safety assessment of nanomaterials prior to their commercialization. To the latest FDA request, IATP responded that if FDA continues to not require adequate pre- and post-market safety assessments, it should at least strongly urge the industry to report to FDA in great detail about its nano-feed products. We also said that industry reported data affecting public health, the environment and worker safety should be not classified as Confidential Business Information (CBI) not available to the public.
Earlier this summer, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advised the food industry what a manufacturer should do if it puts nanomaterials in food: Please call us. The human health effects of ingesting nanomaterials are not well understood, but a few food manufacturers claim to include nanomaterials in their products. The FDA’s advice could have been worse: Don’t call us. But it could have been a lot better by requiring pre-market and post-market safety assessments and testing of any “food substance” containing nanomaterials.
Nanotechnology, the synthesis, visualization, configuration and manipulation of atomic to molecular size particles, has been practicable since the Nobel-prize winning invention in 1981 of a kind of microscope that made nano-visualization and manipulation possible. (See the superb “Timeline: Nanotechnology” published in April by the University of Ottawa.) The application of nanotechnology to industrial processes, such as coating semi-conductors and other electronic parts with infinitesimally thin layers of metal oxides, has enabled the production of computer server farms and cell-phones, to name just two of the most famous applications.
Synthetic biology is “Still in [the] Uncharted Waters of Public Opinion,” according to a recent focus group study by the Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars. That’s not surprising since the technology involved sounds like something out of science fiction. It includes a range of techniques to modify organisms using artificially constructed sequences of genetic information (DNA) not found in nature. The Center’s Synthetic Biology Project gives an introduction to this discipline, sometimes referred to as “synbio.”
The advancement of synbio has taken place largely under the radar, with little public debate, but that’s changing. A June 17 criticism of an NGO synbio letter by an industry lobbyist, published on the investor website The Motley Fool, served to put more of a spotlight on the issue. The Motley Fool blog was almost immediately rebutted by Synbio Watch.
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RT Book, Whole DB /z-wcorg/ DS http://worldcat.org ID 52520551 LA English T1 Whose water is it? : the unquenchable thirst of a water-hungry world A1 McDonald, Bernadette,, Jehl, Douglas., PB National Geographic Society PP Washington, D.C. YR 2003 SN 0792262387 9780792262381 9780792273752 0792273753 AB "Mankind has always taken water for granted. For the first time, we must face a new reality: Not only is this precious resource not inexhaustible, it's already so scarce that great swaths of our planet are under serious threat. Asia's Aral Sea, once one of the largest inland bodies of water, is now a salty desert; 90 percent of California's wetlands have vanished; the once-mighty Nile, Ganges, and Colorado Rivers barely reach the sea in dry seasons." "In this book, 14 prominent environmental writers address every aspect of the looming crisis. They explore the paradox that, on a blue planet like ours, little of that resource is actually available for use, and offer alarming and persuasive evidence that we are using what we have much faster than it can be replenished - a problem that will only grow worse as the global population grows and the rate of climate change and airborne pollution quickens. They show the dire consequences of current trends, from desertification to epidemic disease to increasingly bitter battles over who "owns" water and how to apportion our dwindling supply."--Jacket.
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Portable toilets, often referred to as porta-potties, Port-a-Johns (American English), or Portaloos (UK), ("Portaloo" is a UK and European Community registered trade mark) are simple portable enclosures containing a chemical toilet (a toilet bowl filled with disinfectant instead of water) which are typically used as a temporary toilet for construction sites or large gatherings because of their durability and convenience. Most portable toilets have black open-front U-shaped toilet seats with a cover. They are often constructed out of lightweight molded plastic. The first US patent for a polyethylene plastic portable restroom was issued in the 1950s to Harvey Heather who was the founder of JW Enterprises and was called the "strong box" - a solid, molded, stand alone chemical toilet. The second US patent for a polyethylene plastic portable restroom was in the 1960s to George Harding, who was a co-founder of PolyJohn Corporation with Ed Cooper and George Hiskes.
Portable toilets are large enough for a single occupant, usually about 90 cm (35 in) square by 210 cm (83 in) high. While the units are typically free standing structures, their stability is augmented by the weight of the waste tank, which usually contains an empty liquid disinfectant dispenser and deodorizer. Some include both a seated toilet and a urinal. Most include lockable doors, ventilation near the top, and a vent pipe for the holding tank. When wind is blowing over the vent pipe it creates a low pressure area sucking the odor out. Leaving the toilet lid open will reverse the flow of the venting of the tank. Typical Dimensions:
- Total Weight: 90 kg (200 lb) - 110 kg (240 lb)
- Total Width : 1,166 mm (45.9 in)
- Total Depth : 1,215 mm (47.8 in)
- Total Height : 2,316 mm (91.2 in)
- Door Height : 1,975 mm (77.8 in)
- Door Width : 639 mm (25.2 in)
Newer models include toilet paper and, occasionally, antibacterial hand sanitizer dispensers. It has become common for portable toilets to be paired with an internal hand washing station. These sink stations provide a foot pump to dispense water to wash one's hands after using the toilet. Soap and towels may be provided.
Another common pairing are portable toilets on trailers known commonly as a "toilet trailer". These trailers are typically found in 1–2 toilet configurations with a hand wash ability using either a hand washing station or a plastic barrel full of water. These trailers are often seen on agricultural fields or at road construction sites. These restrooms are ideal for situations where the workers (users) are very mobile. However, this configuration has proven problematic; most modern portable toilet waste tank designs have proven inadequate to deal with the common problem of splash-outs from the waste holding tank while being towed down bumpy roads. Also, when being towed, the high winds blow in from the vents, creating a hurricane effect inside and ejecting any toilet paper rolls from the portable toilet if not secured.
'Luxury' portable toilets also exist. They are typically mounted on large "office-like" trailers or made from converted shipping containers. They contain every amenity that a public bathroom would have such as running water, flushing toilet, stalls, urinals, mirrors, lighting, and even air conditioning and hot water in some cases. However, these luxuries come at a price as these trailers typically cost multiple times more than a typical portable toilet to buy or rent. They are commonly found at weddings, high end events/charities, and movie shoots.
Portable Toilets use a smell reducing chemical (deodorizer) in the holding tank. This chemical is typically blue so that when it interacts with enough urine and feces, it turns green. This green color is an indication that the chemicals are no longer effective in preventing odors.
In most states a formaldehyde (embalming fluid) based chemical is used to neutralize odors; this method of deodorizing the portable toilet has proven very effective. The formaldehyde based chemical interferes with the bacteria in portable toilets, these bacteria release odorous gas when breaking down waste. A notable exception to the formaldehyde based formula is California who has banned the use of this chemical in portable toilets, RV's and the like because it interferes with their sewage plant operations. A much more environmentally friendly enzyme is used to break down the waste while releasing a fragrance. This enzyme does not prevent the bacteria from breaking down waste but actually helps break down waste itself. Because it doesn't directly deal with the cause of foul portable toilet odors, it is much less effective than the traditional formaldehyde based solution.
A much older form of portable toilet chemical is lye. Lye was used during the old "wooden outhouse days" to prevent odors. After a person is done using the portable toilet they would sprinkle a bit of lye into the holding tank.
Use in outdoor advertising
Another recent innovation in the portable toilet arena is their a use as a form of outdoor advertising. Some advertisers wrap portable toilets with vinyl material similar to that commonly used on cars and buses. The graphic like wraps are intended to catch the attention of potential customers waiting in line to use the toilet.
Though more expensive than a standard permanent outdoor latrine, portable toilets have several significant benefits mostly related to their portability; as they are self-contained, they can be placed almost anywhere. They are rented to customers by companies that guarantee their cleanliness, and, as a rule, are drained, cleaned, disinfected, and deodorized on a regular basis. It is typically cheaper to rent a portable toilet than to hire a janitorial service to clean the restrooms on a weekly basis; as they are not plumbed, they do not clog. A single portable toilet can be hauled in the back of a pick-up truck, and some corporations, such as Paccar Inc, manufacture special trucks for this purpose. An average portable toilet is able to hold enough sewage for 7 people during the course of a 40-hour work week before the hold reaches unsanitary conditions.
Because portable toilets are not plumbed, they keep the waste inside the bathroom; this can lead to a sewage smell if the portable toilet is not cleaned properly or is overused. They may also be seen as an eyesore in most communities, some of which prohibit the use of a portable toilet without special permission from the city or municipality.
They are frequently seen at outdoor work sites, particularly construction sites, farms, ranches, camp sites and large banks of dozens of portable toilets allow for ready sanitation at large gatherings such as outdoor music festivals. Several portable toilets arranged in these large banks are referred to as a 'sitting' of portable toilets.
- Pollee, a portable urinal for females
- http://www.ipo.gov.uk/tmcase/Results/4/EU000870667. Missing or empty
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Portable toilets.|
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During 1997–2012, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the San Antonio Water System, collected and analyzed water-quality constituents in surface-water runoff from five ephemeral stream sites near San Antonio in northern Bexar County, Texas. The data were collected to assess the quality of surface water that recharges the Edwards aquifer. Samples were collected from four stream basins that had small amounts of developed land at the onset of the study but were predicted to undergo substantial development over a period of several decades. Water-quality samples also were collected from a fifth stream basin located on land protected from development to provide reference data by representing undeveloped land cover. Water-quality data included pH, specific conductance, chemical oxygen demand, dissolved solids (filtered residue on evaporation in milligrams per liter, dried at 180 degrees Celsius), suspended solids, major ions, nutrients, trace metals, and pesticides. Trace metal concentration data were compared to the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality established surface water quality standards for human health protection (water and fish). Among all constituents in all samples for which criteria were available for comparison, only one sample had one constituent which exceeded the surface water criteria on one occasion. A single lead concentration (2.76 micrograms per liter) measured in a filtered water sample exceeded the surface water criteria of 1.15 micrograms per liter. The average number of pesticide detections per sample in stream basins undergoing development ranged from 1.8 to 6.0. In contrast, the average number of pesticide detections per sample in the reference stream basin was 0.6. Among all constituents examined in this study, pesticides, dissolved orthophosphate phosphorus, and dissolved total phosphorus demonstrated the largest differences between the four stream basins undergoing development and the reference stream basin with undeveloped land cover.
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
Quality of surface-water runoff in selected streams in the San Antonio segment of the Edwards aquifer recharge zone, Bexar County, Texas, 1997-2012
U.S. Geological Survey
Texas Water Science Center
iv, 19 p.; col. ill.; maps (col.); Appendices: 1-2
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Palve Budruk residents cherish reliable supply of at their doorstep throughout the year (Availability of water with in the household reduces drudgery of women.)
By Vidya Kulkarni
Sixteen year old Kanchan has been spared from the everyday hardship of fetching water – something that her mother and grandmother had faced for years.
Unlike the past generations of women who spent hours fetching water from a community well, or, when it dried up in the summer, had to rely on an irregular supply from a water tanker, Kanchan now enjoys the luxury of flowing water, right in her home.
Not only Kanchan’s family, but all the 2,200 households in Palve village now have household water connections and get a regular supply of clean water, throughout the year.
Palve Budruk, located in the drought-prone Parner Block in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, has finally overcome chronic water scarcity. And it has done so not just by investing in pumps and pipes – but by carefully managing the fresh water the scheme provides.
According to Deputy Sarpanch Gangadhar Kalamkar, despite having a piped water supply, the village still faced an acute water shortage for two to three months every year. And this was becoming more intense and prolonged with change in weather and rainfall patterns.
The scheme consisted of a storage tank holding 35,000 liters of water, and individual taps connected to each household. The water source, a tank, used to dry up in the summer however, just like the open wells of the past, so the village continued to rely on the tanker throughout the Summer.
“The regular water supply we now enjoy”, continues Kalamkar emphatically, “is due to the efforts taken by the community to develop land and ensure rain water recharges the aquifer we rely on. The measures adopted for water conservation have recharged the percolation tank, ensuring us of a regular supply”.
he village percolation tank retains enough water to fulfill needs of the villagers (Availability of water is indicative of prosperity)
Local action began when the village came in contact with Social Center, an Ahmednagar based organisation, in the early nineties. The organisation provided the funds and some know how, and supported land development activities in the village in order to capture rain water and recharge the underlying aquifer.
What has been achieved since those early days is quite simply staggering. With support from government and UNICEF, villagers developed a catchment plan covering 1,400 hectors – that’s over 80% of the land available. The system now boasts three check dams, 20 canal bunds, two small percolation tanks linked to the main tank and 19 village ponds.
This has been achieved with the entire community: “All major decisions relating to water conservation are taken in the Gram Sabha (village council). A committee, elected from the Gram Sbha, ensure that our plans are implemented” added Mr. Kalamkar. Villagers contributed their labour, and also joined together to set up a community fund, called Nirvaha Nidhi. This ensures that the system is well maintained.
The villagers also have agreed a set of rules to ensure fresh water is conserved. Water stored in the percolation tank, is strictly meant for domestic use only. Piped water is supplied for an hour a day in the morning, during which time families fill up water for drinking and cooking. That’s not very long, but its still a huge improvement for Kanchan and her friends in Palve.
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Flood-frequency characteristics for 312 gaged sites on Wisconsin streams are presented for recurrence intervals of 2 to 100 years using flood-peak data collected through water year 2000. Equations of the relations between flood-frequency and drainage-basin characteristics were developed by multiple-regression analyses. Flood-frequency characteristics for ungaged sites on unregulated, rural streams can be estimated by use of these equations. The state was divided into five areas with similar physiographic characteristics. The most significant basin characteristics are drainage area, main-channel slope, soil permeability, storage, rainfall intensity, and forest cover. The standard error of prediction for the equation for the 100-year flood discharge ranges from 22 to 44 percent in the state. A graphical method for estimating flood-frequency characteristics of regulated streams was developed from the relation of discharge and drainage area. Graphs for the major regulated streams are presented.
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
Flood-frequency characteristics of Wisconsin streams
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U.S. and Canada coordinating to reduce flood impactsPosted: June 29, 2012
Water managers and dam operators may exceed normal water level limits behind Libby Dam in western Montana in an effort to reduce flooding impacts along the Kootenai (Kootenay) River in Montana, Idaho and British Columbia, announced the US Army Corps of Engineers Northwestern Division June 28.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which operates the dam, coordinated the action with BC Hydro to store additional water in Koocanusa Reservoir up to elevation 2,460 feet, if necessary, to reduce flooding downstream on the Kootenai River and Kootenay Lake. The normal maximum elevation for Koocanusa Reservoir is 2,459 feet. Because the Columbia River Treaty also has requirements for the operation of Libby Dam, the Corps and BC Hydro have coordinated this action with their respective entities under the Treaty.
Current inflow at Libby Dam is approximately 70,000 cfs. Outflows from Libby Dam increased from 40,000 cfs to 42,000 cfs at 7 p.m. MDT Wednesday night (June 27) and again to 46,000 cfs at midnight. Elevation at Koocanusa Reservoir is 2,456.7 feet and it has been rising 1-1.5 feet per day since June 23. The Corps will hold releases at 46,000 cfs with the potential of exceeding elevation 2,459 feet in Koocanusa Reservoir.
This coordination to allow up to one foot above the normal maximum will enable the Corps to maintain a lower release from Libby Dam than would otherwise be required. It is estimated that this may reduce the river stage for the Kootenai River at Bonners Ferry by as much as .2 feet and the lake level at Kootenay Lake by as much as .2 feet compared to the operation that would occur if the maximum lake elevation was limited to 2,459 feet. Whether this additional foot of reservoir storage space is actually utilized will depend on future runoff conditions.
A number of actions are underway to minimize flood damage in both countries. BC Hydro continues to hold the Duncan Dam discharges at minimum, reducing flows into Kootenay Lake. BC Hydro and FortisBC continue to discharge the maximum amount from Kootenay Lake, limited only by the channel constriction at Grohman Narrows. All of these actions are helping to reduce flooding and minimize damage in the Kootenai River system.
Record rainfall has soaked the basin in June. At Bonners Ferry, current precipitation for the month of June is 5.2 inches, more than 300 percent of the June average which is 1.66 inches. The previous June record for precipitation at Bonners Ferry was set in 1981 when it was measured at 3.96 inches.
Heavy June rainfall in the Kootenai Basin also resulted in a high water level on Kootenay Lake, downstream of Libby Dam. The current elevation at Queens Bay is 1,753.1 feet, the highest level since 1974. Libby Dam operations are being managed to reduce downstream flood damage for both the Canadian and U.S. portions of the Kootenai Basin.
Residents and businesses in the river basin should be prepared for potential flooding. The National Weather Service and downstream communities have plans in place to promptly alert potentially affected people about the situation and what action to take. Citizens are encouraged to contact local emergency managers and work with them to determine the best path to prepare for potential flooding.
US Army Corps of EngineersTags: BC HydroBonners Ferrydam operatorsDuncan DamFortisBCHeavy June rainfallKoocanusa ReservoirKootenai BasinKootenai RiverKootenay LakeKootenay RiverLibby DamUS Army Corps of Engineers
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Ontario Study Debunks Water Worries
For daily news updates and web-exclusive news items, visit the “AggBeat Online” section of our website at www.aggman.com
by Tina Grady Barbaccia, News and Digital Editor
In a win for the aggregates industry, a study has found that aggregate extraction operations have no adverse effect on the water quality conditions in municipal drinking water supplies.
According to the Ontario Stone, Sand and Gravel Association (OSSGA), the report, Ontario Case Studies — Water Supply and Aggregate Extraction, makes this “abundantly clear.” The data from all municipal water supplies near the case study sites indicate no adverse impact from nearby aggregate operations. These data back up the results obtained from another study on water filtration — The Effect of Aggregate Extraction of Groundwater Quality, which also found that aggregate operations are unlikely to pose any significant threats to groundwater, according to OSSGA.
Ontario, Canada-based OSSGA commissioned the third-party study as a follow-up to a Ministry of Natural Resources review, which identified varying impacts on hydrogeologic and hydrologic systems in areas where aggregate activities were taking place, as well as recommending case studies of aggregate sites where extraction and processing occurred in the vicinity of drinking water supplies.
The study focused on determining “significant drinking water quality threats” that could be posed by aggregate extraction operations and associated activities as determined by the Ontario Ministry of Environment’s (MOE) Source Water Protection regulations in accordance with the Clean Water Act of 2006.
To determine the possible effects of aggregate operations on public water quality and quantity, the major objectives for the study were to identify and select aggregate site locations in Ontario where aggregate operations are, or have been, operating in close proximity to municipal water supplies; to review available evidence related to whether water supplies have been depleted or contaminated by aggregate activities; and to develop case studies summarizing water quality and quantity impacts as the result of activities associated with aggregate extraction operations.
“Our industry follows a myriad of rules and regulations to make sure our operations have no negative effects on municipal water supply systems,” explains Greg Dennis, director of communications for OSSGA. “But to make doubly sure, we commissioned this study…to give everyone their deserved peace of mind.”
The study determined that less than 1 percent of aggregate operations in Ontario lie within the two-year time of travel Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA) for a municipal water well. This is significant, Dennis says, because aggregate producers need to prove that they are able to run their operations without negatively affecting nearby water supplies.
“For the industry, the significant finding of these studies will support license applications and help counter community concerns about compatibility issues,” Dennis tells Aggregates Manager.
It may also help the “Not in My Backyard (NIMBY)” phenomenon that citizens often have with aggregate producers. Dennis says people, of course, “have the right to good, clean drinking water.” As operators with families themselves, he explains, producers and staff understand this, expect the same privilege, and take environmental issues seriously, while carefully conducting business as outlined in provincial laws and regulations. That being noted, Dennis says OSSGA is “pleased that these studies and their scientific findings give municipalities and residents reassurance about the presence of pits operations near their water supplies.”
Dennis says it’s easy to understand why citizens would be “quite concerned” about water supplies, whether they are for drinking water, groundwater, lakes, or wetlands. Understanding that perception — though not always factual — is important, he says, “because [the perceptions] are real to them.” This makes their concerns legitimate, he says, therefore, they need to be addressed.
Although the practice of extracting aggregates is considered low-risk land use in terms of groundwater contamination, there is growing concern about the possible impact of aggregate extraction on the long-term vulnerability of underlying aquifers to contamination, according to the executive summary of The Effect of Aggregate Extraction on Groundwater Quality. According to the summary, this is based on the perception that the removal of aggregate — and its associated contaminant filtration capacity — poses a significant threat to groundwater quality.
The initiation of source water protection under Ontario’s Clean Water Act in 2006 brought renewed attention to the compatibility of various land uses with public drinking water supplies, according to Dennis. That same year, the MNR published a worldwide review of literature containing national and global evidence that aggregate operations don’t compromise water supplies.
“The results were good news for our industry,” Dennis says. “The MNR then asked for scientific studies to confirm those results. These studies did just that.”
Studies such as these are obviously a “great service for aggregate operators everywhere,” he says, adding that it’s important to share the findings. “Our responsibility as good neighbors and fellow citizens is to do as much as we can to help them understand that our existence and theirs is quite compatible,” Dennis continues. “One study will rarely be enough to appease a concerned community. Two might not be, either. But when we can pile study after study on a table at a public meeting, the majority of those residents should receive some peace of mind about how aggregate operations will not affect their families.”
When asked for OSSGA member comments on what the study’s findings mean for their operations, Dennis noted that OSSGA members “were very pleased” to hear the summary of the reports. However, because only an executive summary of the report was released on Nov. 9 — the full report will be formally released at an unspecified later date — Dennis said it’s not appropriate for members to comment on how they will use the findings going forward.
Methodology and Case Study Site Collection
The case studies presented in the report were based on a desktop data collection, the review and analysis of information and data made available by municipal agencies, regulatory sources, and aggregate sites. Two questionnaire surveys were conducted to collect site-specific information and data relevant to the 21 land-use activities by the Ministry of the Environment’s Clean Water Act, 2006, as Drinking Water Threats for Source Water Protection. Of the 5,951 aggregate sites recorded in Ontario, only 57 were located in vulnerable well-head protection areas.
The final five case studies selected for the report were selected based on the vulnerability of municipal wells and proximity to municipal wells. Sites were ranked through the developed priority criteria.
The final five case studies selected for the report were based on the developed screening criteria, municipal data, and feedback from the aggregate producer.
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|Chapter 33: The management of freshwater - The problems|
A wide range of human activities can adversely affect the condition of the aquatic environment. Disturbances can result from a human activity in a seemingly unrelated area often far away from the impact site, and delayed in time. The great majority of issues involving European water availability and water quality are therefore most prominent in areas with high population densities, concentrated industrial activity and/or intensive agriculture. In addition, physical changes imposed on watercourses for construction of reservoirs, channelisation of rivers and improvement of land drainage have destroyed or are threatening many wetland habitats.
The close relationship between human activities and the condition and management of freshwater resources implies that conditions, except for widespread acidification, are better in the sparsely populated and humid Nordic countries than in the rest of Europe. Table 33.1 indicates that no marked differences separate the freshwater conditions in Eastern countries from those prevailing in Southern and Western Europe. However, it should be emphasised that there are areas of concern within all of the four European regions: Nordic, Eastern, Southern and Western countries. Habitat destruction through physical changes made to watercourses, groundwater overexploitation and contamination, eutrophication, toxic pollution and acidification are but a few water-related issues that can affect water use locally or regionally.
Download complete chapter in .zip/.htm format: Chap33.zip Approx. 103 Kb
For references, please go to www.eea.europa.eu/soer or scan the QR code.
This briefing is part of the EEA's report The European Environment - State and Outlook 2015. The EEA is an official agency of the EU, tasked with providing information on Europe’s environment.
PDF generated on 27 Mar 2015, 02:02 PM
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Rivers are hydrologically connected to their tributaries, nearby wetlands and the seasonal streams that feed them, which means that pollutants can move among them all.
It seems obvious, and the Environmental Protection Agency-compiled science is clear on the topic. But permitting, enforcement and treatment of the nation’s rivers has differed from the harder-to-nail-down seasonal streams and wetlands.
That soon could change, according to new rules being explored by the EPA – rules meant to clarify the exact scope of the Clean Water Act. Water managers and environmentalists in Southern California are as yet unsure how the rules could impact surface waters here, such as the Los Cerritos Wetlands, the Ballona Wetlands, various Los Angeles, San Gabriel and Santa Ana river tributaries and numerous other urban water bodies.
The public comment period for the draft rules opens today, and the public has 90 days to submit its thoughts to the EPA.
“It is still too early and hard to predict what effects the new federal regulation will have locally as it is still in draft form and subject to change in response to public comments,” Guangyu Wang, a deputy director and senior scientist at the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission, said in an email. “Even if it is adopted as currently proposed, the state will have a lot say in how to apply the rule locally.”
In the decades since the Clean Water Act was passed in 1972, the EPA has interpreted it to protect permanent rivers, related wetlands, seasonal streams and tributaries. But in 2000 and 2006, in two separate U.S. Supreme Court cases, the scope of the act was limited and muddled. What the act covered, and what waters were protected by it, became unclear.
That left nationwide enforcement in a state of confusion, according to the EPA and environmentalists.
“EPA is often in a position where it won’t do enforcement because it’s not certain whether the enforce
The EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers worked on the rules together, saying they did so at the behest of Congress, state and local officials, industry, agriculture and environmental groups and the public, which asked for clarification.
The rules “will better protect our aquatic resources by strengthening the consistency, predictability and transparency of our jurisdictional determinations. The rule’s clarifications will result in a better public service nationwide,” Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) Jo-Ellen Darcy said in a statement.
About 60 percent of stream miles in the U.S. flow only seasonally or after rain, and about 117 million Americans get drinking water from public systems that rely on those streams, according to the EPA.
“Clean water is essential to every single American, from families who rely on safe places to swim and healthy fish to eat to farmers who need abundant and reliable sources of water to grow their crops to hunters and fishermen who depend on healthy waters for recreation and their work and to businesses that need a steady supply of water for operations,” EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy said in a statement.
The precise ramifications for Southern California are as yet unclear. In many ways, California’s water protections exceed national standards. The State Water Resources Control Board and its local affiliates — the Regional Water Quality Control Boards — are still figuring out if they’ll need to adjust permitting practice. And that’s assuming the proposed rules become law.
California’s Porter-Cologne Act of 1969 established both the statewide and regional water boards and protects all surface waters in California, regardless of how the federal government defines them. The State Water Resources Control Board plans to comment on the EPA rules but hasn’t taken an official stance on them yet.
It isn’t the first time the EPA has tried to clarify the exact jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act. After the Supreme Court decisions in 2001 and 2006, the EPA released policy guidelines. And before the 2010 elections that saw Republicans take over the House of Representatives, there were several attempts in Congress seeking to codify water protections.
The Natural Resources Defense Council said the new rules are a return to the way the Clean Water Act was interpreted decades ago.
“It’s not like this is all brand new to folks. It’s trying to go back to the way things were. It’s not going as far back so to the way things were during the Reagan years,” Fleischli said. “It really doesn’t take us back to the glory days.”
Contact the writer: 562-310-7684 or [email protected]
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MD Senator Ties Conowingo Dam to Bay Restoration
CONOWINGO, Md. (AP) - Officials say concerns about the sediment-filtering capacity of a dam on the lower Susquehanna River in northeast Maryland must be addressed in the broader context of trying to improve water quality efforts throughout the Chesapeake Bay watershed.
Construction of the Conowingo Dam in the late 1920s created a detainment area for some of the sediments and nutrients flowing down the Susquehanna toward the bay.
But officials say the ability of the reservoir to hold additional sediment is reaching capacity, and heavy rain events sometimes send sediment and pollutants flowing through the dam toward the bay.
U.S. Sen. Ben Cardin says a field hearing he conducted Monday on environmental issues involving the dam reinforced the need to take a comprehensive approach to protecting and improving water quality in the bay.
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A Delaware County Grand jury Thursday indicted 39 year old Matthew Rausenberg of Columbus on 32 counts alleging sex crimes against children in his classroom. First Assistant Prosecutor Kyle Rohrer outlined the charges saying Rausenberg faces life in prison, if convicted.
Scientists Combat Algal Blooms
It’s been called Return of the Green Slime. Gobs of algae have become more abundant over the past ten years in the Great Lakes, and especially in Lake Erie. But these algal blooms aren’t just a nuisance. They disrupt the ecosystem, hurt local economies, and can pose a serious health risk.
In the 1960s and 70s, a huge growth of blue-green algae invaded the Great Lakes. The green muck accumulated on shorelines, damaged water quality and kept swimmers away. The cause of those algal blooms was an abundance of phosphorous. Phosphorous is an essential nutrient for algae, which comes from agricultural run-off and laundry detergents. Government regulations in the 70s then limited the amount of phosphorous, and the algae receded.
Now, the algae appear to be back. Ohio State University Biology Professor David Culver studies blue-green algae. He says although the current amount of algae is only half of what it was 40 years ago, its sudden abundance is worrisome.
“Because there’s a lot less phosphorous coming in from the watershed, we’re surprised to see as much and as frequent algal blooms as we have now. And so we’re concerned, and that’s why there’s the fuss,” Culver says.
Culver suspects the arrival of non-native species of mussels might be causing the blooms. In the 1980s, the zebra mussel and its cousin, the quagga mussel, made their way into the Great Lakes. The mussels secrete nutrients that encourage algae growth.
Blue-green algae are actually bacteria, called cyanobacteria, and pose a serious problem.
“Number one, the cyanobacteria in general are not good food for the zooplankton, so they don’t contribute to the food-web that raises up to fish and thus to humans. And number two, many of the cyanobacteria produce toxins,” says Culver.
Currently, the most common toxin produced is called microcystin. It damages the liver and can cause rashes when in contact with skin. In 1996, 52 people died from microcystin in Brazil. They were kidney patients undergoing dialysis with contaminated water.
Partly because it’s shallow and warm, Lake Erie has experienced especially significant algal blooms. Lake Erie also supplies drinking water for Toledo, Cleveland, and much of northern Ohio. OSU Environmental Engineering Professor Hal Walker works on developing technology to treat algae. He says if nothing’s done to monitor and treat the algae, the toxin can easily make its way into tap water. Algal blooms are a huge issue because they occur everywhere there is surface water, which accounts for about half of the general population’s drinking water.
But, technology is available to solve the problem – one of which is activated carbon. Large carbon particles stick to the toxin, and then are filtered out. Most cities use this method. While agreeing it’s a problem, Walker doesn’t think algal blooms are a real crisis.
“No I don’t think it will be a big crisis, but it’ll cost money. With drinking water there are always sort of two issues: one, is technologyt available? And two, can it be implemented in a cost-effective way,” Walker says.
Still, Walker says continuing research is necessary to understand the effects of and treatments for algal toxins.
Perhaps the most significant impact is ecological and economical.
Algae can settle in cold water deep below the surface where it’s dark. Without sunlight, it can’t undergo photosynthesis and replenish the oxygen supply. The result is regions in the lake where there’s little to no oxygen. Scientists have dubbed these regions dead zones.
These dead zones harm the ecology of the lake, and in particular, dead zones destroy fish habitats. Culver says the loss of fish habitats hurts sport fishing, one of Lake Erie’s major industries.
“It’s been shown that there’s a multi-million dollar impact of sport fishing on the people living around the lake, because it’s such a good fishing lake,” says Culver.
Columbus and surrounding areas get their drinking water from nearby reservoirs. Rod Dunn is Supervisor of Water Quality Research at the Water Quality Assurance Lab of Columbus. Dunn says although there are algal blooms in central Ohio reservoirs, toxins like microcystin are not a problem.
“Different times of the year we see blooms, but usually it’s not the kind that produce algal toxins, and those just occur in real low numbers,” he says.
Dunn says the primary problem in Columbus from algae is taste and odor, but that can be treated.
Last month, the Michigan Environmental Council issued a report on the harmful impacts of algal blooms in the Great Lakes. The report also cited phosphorous from fertilizer and dishwasher detergents as reasons for algal blooms.
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— Denver Water (@DenverWater) March 18, 2015
Originally posted on Mile High Water Talk:
A tale of two tunnels: How the Moffat Tunnel conquered the divide
The Moffat Tunnel changed the way Denver Water provided a reliable water supply to its earliest customers.
By Steve Snyder
This week, 9News and History Colorado provided a historical perspective on the Moffat Tunnel. Eighty-seven years ago, that tunnel changed the way railroad travelers traversed the Continental Divide. But the Moffat Tunnel would provide groundbreaking implications when it came to water delivery as well.
In the early 1920s, the Denver Water Board (as Denver Water was called then) was a fledgling utility searching for additional water to serve a growing city. The water provider had already secured additional water rights from Colorado’s West Slope, but getting that water over the Continental Divide and into existing infrastructure was problematic. Necessity would soon meet innovation.
View original 249 more words
Originally posted on Mile High Water Talk:
Do you know your snowpack?
9 facts about Colorado snowpack: what it is, why it’s important and how we tell how much of it we have.
By Steve Snyder
You may have seen this map from the Natural Resources Conservation Service of Colorado. It shows how much snowpack we have in Colorado this year compared to normal. But what is normal? For that matter, what is snowpack, and what does it have to do with our water supply? Our Denver Water experts answer these questions and more in the slideshow below:
“Conservation has been successful and will be an integral part of meeting our future water needs” — Jim LochheadFebruary 10, 2015
From The Denver Post (Bruce Finley):
Maybe it is projects such as replacing 10,000 toilets in Denver Public Schools. Maybe it is Denver Water’s ceaseless “Use Only What You Need” campaign. Or maybe residents seeing scarcity are self-motivated. Whatever the reasons, water use in metro Denver has dipped to 40-year lows.
The total amount residents used in December decreased to 3.19 billion gallons, and in January to 3.36 billion gallons — down from previous winter highs topping 4 billion gallons, utility officials said.
The last time December use dropped this low was in 1973 when Denver had 350,000 fewer people.
“Our customers are responding. … Conservation has been successful and will be an integral part of meeting our future water needs — along with reuse and new supply,” Denver Water manager Jim Lochhead said.
The low use this winter continues a trend of declining water use despite a growing population. Denver residents use 82 gallons a day per person for all indoor and outdoor purposes, utility data show. That’s down from 104 gallons in 2001 and puts Denver ahead of other Western cities that are counting on conservation to avoid running dry.
Water supply has become more of a challenge around the West, with population growth and droughts projected to be more frequent and severe. The crisis in California, where mountain snowpack lags at 25 percent of normal, prompted Interior Secretary Sally Jewell to meet with Gov. Jerry Brown last week to hash out relief.
Farmers use the most water, by far, for food production — an 85 percent share in Colorado. Yet it is city dwellers who are making the greatest strides in water conservation.
Denver Water leaders last week declared a new target for 1.3 million customers: 30 gallons a day for indoor use.
The overall water conservation effort relies on a widening strategy: rebates for those who switch to water-saving appliances, tiered water rates that encourage using less, summer lawn-watering restrictions, and a rule that all new development must include soil “amendments” so that soil retains more water.
Water bills still are relatively low. Denver Water charges about $455 a year for households using less than 115,000 gallons, compared with $1,283 in Arapahoe County and $890 in Colorado Springs.
The recent low use likely resulted partly from citywide conservation projects, utility officials said — including the replacement of toilets in 140 public schools with low-flow models designed in Japan.
Denver Public Schools field supervisor Jeff Lane said current toilets use 3.5 gallons per flush while the Toto toilets use 1.25 gallons. That’s expected to save the city 65.9 million gallons a year.
So far, district crews have replaced 3,200 toilets, Lane said this week at Colfax Elementary. The rest should be done by 2018.
Less water coursing through 4-inch iron and clay sewer lines could complicate the effort, Lane said. “It could get caught up.” But Denver Water officials said they’ve investigated and that, as long as lines are in good condition, there shouldn’t be a problem.
Denver Water pays DPS rebates of $90 per toilet. DPS officials said they’ll also sell old brass parts, $2 a pound, to help finance the switch.
The reduced water use also is attributed to Denver Water “messaging” using billboards, television and utility bills. Last month, bills contained blurbs touting the 30-gallon target. “Each person in an average single-family house should use roughly 30 gallons inside per day, or better yet, shoot for less!”
This is “something to aspire to,” Lochhead said.
Water bill blurbs also exhorted residents to “rethink your fixtures,” consult with neighbors because “understanding how others conserve will help you, too,” and replace portions of lawns with low-water shrubs.
A widening awareness of water supply challenges also appeared to be motivating residents to use less. “Whether it is a drought in Colorado or the West,” Lochhead said, “water availability is becoming a more familiar topic for many people.”
More conservation coverage here.
Originally posted on Mile High Water Talk:
Draining Antero Reservoir: Where will all that water go?
And 9 more facts about rehabbing Denver Water’s 100-year-old Antero Dam
This summer, Denver Water will empty Antero Reservoir to clear the way for significant repairs to the 100-year-old dam. Draining Antero is a major undertaking; the reservoir holds about 20,000 acre-feet of water, enough to supply approximately 50,000 households for one year in the Denver metro area. And such a project is bound to raise questions about the dam, the water supply and the impact on recreational fishing. Here are the answers to questions we thought Coloradans might ask:
1. So what’s wrong with the dam?
View original 750 more words
From The Denver Post (Bruce Finley):
Colorado water providers facing a shortfall…are turning to a long-ignored resource: wastewater.
They’re calculating that, if even the worst sewage could be cleaned to the point it is safe to drink — filtered through super-fine membranes or constructed wetlands, treated with chemicals, zapped with ultraviolet rays — then the state’s dwindling aquifers and rivers could be saved.
Colorado officials at work on the first statewide water plan to sustain population and industrial growth recognize reuse as an option.
“We need to go as far and as fast as we can on water-reuse projects,” Colorado Water Conservation Board director James Eklund said.
But there’s no statewide strategy to do this.
Other drought-prone states, led by Texas, are moving ahead on wastewater conversion to augment drinking-water supplies.
Several obstacles remain: huge costs of cleaning, legal obligations in Colorado to deliver water downstream, disposal of contaminants purged from wastewater, and safety.
Local water plans recently submitted by leaders in five of Colorado’s eight river basins all call for reuse, along with conservation and possibly capturing more snowmelt, to address the projected 2050 shortfall.
Front Range utilities will “push the practical limit” in reusing water, according to the plan for the South Platte River Basin, which includes metro Denver. The Arkansas River Basin plan relies on reuse “to the maximum potential.”
Western Slope authorities in the Gunnison, Yampa and Colorado river basins contend Front Range residents must reuse all available wastewater as a precondition before state officials consider new trans-mountain projects.
The emerging Colorado Water Plan, to be unveiled Dec. 10, remains a general guide, lacking details such as how much water is available. Nor does this 358-page draft plan specify how much of Colorado’s shortfall can be met by reuse.
Water industry leaders urge an aggressive approach. Colorado officials should determine how much water legally can be reused and analyze how this could boost supplies, WateReuse Association director Melissa Meeker said in a letter to the CWCB. Colorado’s strategy “should be crafted to encourage innovation and creativity in planning reuse projects.”
Cleaning up wastewater to the point it can be reused as drinking water long has been technically feasible. Water already is recycled widely in the sense that cities discharge effluent into rivers that becomes the water supply for downriver communities.
In 1968, utility operators in Windhoek, Namibia, a desert nation in Africa, began cleaning wastewater and pumping it into a drinking-water system serving 250,000 people.
Denver Water engineers in the 1980s pioneered a multiple-filter cleaning system at a federally funded demonstration plant. From 1985 to 1991, Denver Water used wastewater to produce 1 million gallons a day of drinking water, which proved to be as clean as drinking water delivered today.
Delegations of engineers from Europe and the Soviet Union visited.
“There was a sense we were ahead,” said Myron Nealey, a Denver Water engineer who worked on the project.
But utility leaders scrapped it, partly out of fear that customers would object to drinking water that a few hours earlier might have been flushed from a toilet. They also were struggling to dispose of thousands of gallons a day of purged contaminants — a super-concentrated salty mix that must be injected into deep wells or buried in landfills. [ed. emphasis mine]
So Denver Water has focused instead on recycling wastewater solely for irrigation, power-plant cooling towers and other nonpotable use. An expanding citywide network of separate pipelines distributes this treated wastewater — 30 million gallons a day.
“Reuse is definitely a way to maximize the use of the water we have,” said Jim Lochhead, manager of Denver Water and former natural resources director for the state.
“We’re in the exploration stage of trying to analyze what are the options for various types of reuse,” Lochhead said. “What’s the most effective? What’s the least costly? What’s the most secure?”
Meanwhile, drought and population growth in Texas have spurred construction of water-cleaning plants at Wichita Falls and Big Spring. Engineers have installed water-quality monitoring and testing systems sensitive enough to track the widening array of pathogens, suspended particles and hard-to-remove speciality chemicals found in wastewater.
A Texas state water plan calls for increasing reuse of wastewater eightfold by 2060. The New Mexico town of Cloudcroft is shifting to reuse as a solution to water scarcity. And California cities hurt by and vulnerable to drought, including San Diego, are considering wastewater conversion for drinking water.
Costs can be huge, depending on the level of treatment. Water industry leaders estimate fully converted wastewater costs at least $10,000 per acre-foot (325,851 gallons).
By comparison, increased conservation, or using less water, is seen as the cheapest path to making more water available to prevent shortages. The most costly solution is building new dams, reservoirs and pipelines that siphon more water from rivers.
Colorado also faces legal constraints. The first-come-first-serve system of allocating water rights obligates residents who rely on diverted water from rivers to return that water, partially cleaned, to the rivers to satisfy rights of downriver residents and farmers.
However, much of the Colorado River Basin water diverted through trans-mountain pipelines has been deemed available for reuse. Western Resource Advocates experts estimate more than 280,000 acre-feet may be available. In addition, water pumped from underground aquifers — the savings account that south Denver suburbs have been tapping for decades — is available for reuse.
While nobody in Colorado has embarked on direct reuse of treated wastewater, Aurora and other cities have begun a form of indirect reuse that involves filtering partially treated wastewater through river banks. This water then is treated again at Aurora’s state-of-the-art plant. Cleaned wastewater then is blended with water from rivers to augment municipal supplies.
The most delicate challenge has been dealing with safety — making sure engineered water-cleaning systems are good enough to replace nature’s slow-but-sure settling and filtration.
While industry marketers focus on semantics to try to make people feel more comfortable — rejecting phrases such as “toilet to tap” to describe reuse — engineers are honing the systems.
They envision early-detection and shut-off mechanisms that quickly could stop contaminants left in water from reaching people. They aim for filtration and other advanced treatment sufficient to remove the multiplying new contaminants found in urban wastewater. Cleaning water increasingly entails removal of plastic beads used in personal-care products; mutating viruses; resistent bacteria; synthetic chemicals such as herbicides; ibuprofen; birth control; anti-depressants; and caffeine.
“That’s the whole job of treatment and monitoring, to remove pathogens and other contaminants to where it is safe to drink,” said John Rehring of Carollo Engineers, a Denver-based expert on water reuse.
“It’s not a question of ‘Can we do it?’ We can do it,” he said. “And because of growing affordability and public acceptance, we’re starting to see it implemented.”
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The Great Lakes Dredging Team is a partnership of federal and state agencies created to assure that the dredging of U.S. harbors and channels throughout the Great Lakes, connecting channels and tributaries is conducted in a timely and cost effective manner while meeting environmental protection, restoration, and enhancement goals.
The Great Lakes, as the largest system of freshwater in the world, are a valuable and unique resource. The use of these waters for recreational and commercial navigation requires the continued maintenance of harbors, ports, marinas and shipping channels throughout the Great Lakes. Dredging is required to construct navigation channels and to maintain depths for safe navigation at existing ports and harbors. Dredging is also required to construct and maintain other important facilities, such as water supply intakes, bridges and utility crossings and for the remediation of contaminated sediments.
Click here to join our listserv.
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by D.R. Helsel and R.M. Hirsch
This report is available as a pdf below
This book began as class notes for a course we teach on applied statistical methods to hydrologists of the Water Resources Division, U. S. Geological Survey (USGS). It reflects our attempts to teach statistical methods which are appropriate for analysis of water resources data. As interest in this course has grown outside of the USGS, incentive grew to develop the material into a textbook. The topics covered are those we feel are of greatest usefulness to the practicing water resources scientist. Yet all topics can be directly applied to many other types of environmental data.
This book is not a stand-alone text on statistics, or a text on statistical hydrology. For example, in addition to this material we use a textbook on introductory statistics in the USGS training course. As a consequence, discussions of topics such as probability theory required in a general statistics textbook will not be found here. Derivations of most equations are not presented. Important tables included in all general statistics texts, such as quantiles of the normal distribution, are not found here. Neither are details of how statistical distributions should be fitted to flood data -- these are adequately covered in numerous books on statistical hydrology.
We have instead chosen to emphasize topics not always found in introductory statistics textbooks, and often not adequately covered in statistical textbooks for scientists and engineers. Tables included here, for example, are those found more often in books on nonparametric statistics than in books likely to have been used in college courses for engineers. This book points the environmental and water resources scientist to robust and nonparametric statistics, and to exploratory data analysis. We believe that the characteristics of environmental (and perhaps most other 'real') data drive analysis methods towards use of robust and nonparametric methods.
Exercises are included at the end of chapters. In our course, students compute each type of analysis (t-test, regression, etc.) the first time by hand. We choose the smaller, simpler examples for hand computation. In this way the mechanics of the process are fully understood, and computer software is seen as less mysterious.
We wish to acknowledge and thank several other scientists at the U. S. Geological Survey for contributing ideas to this book. In particular, we thank those who have served as the other instructors at the USGS training course. Ed Gilroy has critiqued and improved much of the material found in this book. Tim Cohn has contributed in several areas, particularly to the sections on bias correction in regression, and methods for data below the reporting limit. Richard Alexander has added to the trend analysis chapter, and Charles Crawford has contributed ideas for regression and ANOVA. Their work has undoubtedly made its way into this book without adequate recognition.
Professor Ken Potter (University of Wisconsin) and Dr. Gary Tasker (USGS) reviewed the manuscript, spending long hours with no reward except the knowledge that they have improved the work of others. For that we are very grateful. We also thank Madeline Sabin, who carefully typed original drafts of the class notes on which the book is based. As always, the responsibility for all errors and slanted thinking are ours alone.
Helsel, D.R. and R. M. Hirsch, 2002. Statistical Methods in Water Resources Techniques of Water Resources Investigations, Book 4, chapter A3. U.S. Geological Survey. 522 pages.
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EPA Agreement Means Safer Drinking Water on Amtrak Trains
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Amtrak have entered into an agreement that is aimed at making sure drinking water is safe on all passenger cars. Random monitoring of drinking water has been in place since the 1980s, now an enforceable agreement will be in place for the next five years to enhance the level of protection.
"It calls for monitoring for every train car in the system, and there are over 1,500 cars that Amtrak operates throughout the nation. It calls for improved notification to user and to the crew on the trains if a problem exists," said John Capacasa, director of the Water Protection Division of the EPA mid-Atlantic region.
There have been no spikes in water complaints, and overall instances of getting sick from water on trains are rare. But, there was a gap in regulations dealing with interstate travel. Capacasa said this is a preventive measure that was built on airline regulations for drinking water.
"This is a substantially greater drinking water protection for up to 25 million people who ride the trains over the course of a year," said Capacasa.
The agreement requires Amtrak to provide multi-level drinking water protection for all of its train operations in the U.S., including those where it provides contract services. Protections include:
- Enhanced monitoring for pathogens, including E. coli
- Proper disinfection and system flushing
- Corrective action and notification when necessary
- Timely follow-up monitoring
- Preventive maintenance
- Reporting and record-keeping
There are 24 Amtrak stations in Pennsylvania. Nationally, more than 78,000 passengers ride some 300 Amtrak trains every day.
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The results of a survey of macroinvertebrate communities in the Ravenna Army Ammunition Plant, were used as an indicator of disturbance in streams flowing through or near the training areas at the Plant. The data were interpreted using the Invertebrate Community Index (ICI), a multiple-metric index developed by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency and based on the structural and functional characteristics of the macroinvertebrate community.
Quantitative samples of the macroinvertebrate were collected for ICI determination from three streams South Fork Eagle Creek, Sand Creek, and Hinkley Creek flowing through the study area. These samples were collected using Hester-Dendy type artificial substrate samplers, which were placed in the streams during a 6-week sampling period, June 2 through July 15, 1998. A qualitative- dipnet sample from the natural substrates also was collected at each station on July 15, 1998, the last day of the sampling period.
The macroinvertebrate communities at all three stations met the criterion designated for warmwater habitat aquatic life use, and communities at two of the three stations exceeded the criterion. The ICI scores were 42 at South Fork Eagle Creek, 50 at Sand Creek, and 48 at Hinkley Creek. The density of macroinvertebrates at South Fork Eagle Creek was 1,245 per square foot and represented 38 distinct taxa. The density at Sand Creek was 246 per square foot and represented 29 distinct taxa. The density at Hinkley Creek was 864 per square foot and represented 36 distinct taxa.
Qualitative samples were also collected at 21 other sites using a D-framed dipnet. The qualitative sites encompassed three main environments: stream, pond, and swamp-wetland. All available habitat types in each environment were sampled until no new taxa were evident during coarse examination. The highest number of taxa were collected from the streams. The total number of taxa collected in streams ranged from 25 to 76; the mean was 60 and median 64. The total taxa collected from ponds ranged from 32 to 60; the mean was 42 and median 41. The total taxa collected from swamp-wetland areas ranged from 6 to 30; the mean was 20 and median 23. The results are listed in phylogenetic order in this report and establish baseline data for future studies.
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
Aquatic macroinvertebrates collected at Ravenna Army Ammunition Plant, Portage and Trumbull Counties, Ohio, 1998
Water-Resources Investigations Report
U.S. Geological Survey ;
Information Services [distributor],
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The Mobile River Basin is one of more than 50 river basins and aquifer systems being investigated as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water- Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. This basin is the sixth largest river basin in the United States and the fourth largest in terms of streamflow. The Mobile River Basin encompasses parts of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee, and almost two-thirds of the 44,0000-square-mile basin is located in Alabama. The extensive water resources of the Mobile River Basin are influenced by an array of natural and cultural factors, which impart unique and variable qualities to the streams, rivers, and aquifers and provide abundant habitat to sustain the diverse aquatic life in the basin.
From January 1999 to December 2001, a study was conducted of the occurrence and distribution of nutrients, suspended sediment, and pesticides in surface water of the Mobile River Basin. Nine sampling sites were selected on the basis of land use. The nine sites included two streams draining agricultural areas, two urban streams, and five large rivers with mixed land use. Surface-water samples were collected from one to four times each month to characterize the spatial and temporal variation in nutrient and pesticide concentrations.
Nutrient and suspended-sediment concentrations were highest in watersheds dominated by urban or agricultural land uses. Forty-two percent of the total phosphorus concentrations at all nine sites exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's recommended maximum concentration of 0.1 milligram per liter. Flow-weighted mean concentrations at the Mobile River Basin sites generally were in the lower to middle percentile ranges compared with data from other NAWQA studies across the Nation. However, flow-weighted mean concentrations of ammonia, total nitrogen, orthophosphate, and total phosphorus at Bogue Chitto Creek, an agricultural watershed, ranked in the upper 20th percentile of agricultural sites sampled across the Nation as part of the NAWQA Program. Nutrient loads in the Tombigbee River were nearly twice as high compared with nutrient loads in the Alabama River. Nutrient yields were highest in Bogue Chitto Creek, Cahaba Valley Creek, and Threemile Branch because of agricultural and urban land uses in these watersheds.
Of the 104 pesticides and degradation products analyzed in the stream samples, 69 were detected in one or more samples. Of the 69 detected pesticides, 51 were herbicides, 15 were insecticides, and 3 were fungicides. A relatively small number of heavily used herbicides accounted for most of the detections, including atrazine and its metabolites (deethylatrazine, 2-hydroxyatrazine, deisopropylatrazine, and deethyldeisopropylatrazine), simazine, metolachlor, tebuthiuron, prometon, diuron, and 2,4-D. Diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and carbaryl were the most frequently detected insecticides; metalaxyl was the most frequently detected fungicide in the Mobile River Basin.
Concentrations of pesticides detected in surface water of the Mobile River Basin were among the highest concentrations recorded nationally by the NAWQA Program during 1991 to 2001. The three highest concentrations of atrazine detected at sites across the country were recorded at Bogue Chitto Creek; the highest concentrations of 2,4-D, imazaquin, and malathion recorded nationally were detected at Threemile Branch. Aquatic-life criteria were exceeded by concentrations of five herbicides (2,4-D, atrazine, cyanazine, diuron, and metolachlor), six insecticides (carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dieldrin, malathion, and p,p'-DDE), and one fungicide (chlorothalonil). Drinking-water standards were exceeded by concentrations of four herbicides (2,4-D, atrazine, cyanazine, and simazine), three insecticides (alpha- HCH, diazinon, and dieldrin), and one fungicide (chlorothalonil).
The types and concentrations of pesticides found in surface water are linked to land use and to the types of pesti
Additional Publication Details
USGS Numbered Series
Occurrence and distribution of nutrients, suspended sediment, and pesticides in the Mobile River Basin, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee, 1999-2001
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COLUMBIA, S.C. (AP) - A national conservation group has named two rivers in the Carolinas as among the nation's 10 most endangered.
American Rivers has named the south fork of the Edisto River in South Carolina as the nation's sixth most endangered river because of worries about its waters being sapped for irrigation.
The concern has been highlighted by a large potato farm's plans to irrigate with Edisto water. At one point, the plans called for taking up to 9.6 billion gallons of water a year. The amount has since been sharply reduced.
The Haw River, which flows 110 miles from the North Carolina piedmont to the Cape Fear River, provides drinking water and recreation for more than one million people.
But conservationists say the river is threatened by polluted runoff and wastewater.
Copyright 2015 by The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved.
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or [email protected].
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The Maritimes Groundwater Initiative (MGWI) is a large, integrated, regional hydrogeological study focusing on a representative area of the Maritimes Basin in eastern Canada. The study area covers a land surface of 10 500 km2, of which 9 400 km2 are underlain by sedimentary rocks. This sedimentary bedrock is composed of a sequence of discontinuous strata of highly variable hydraulic properties, and is generally overlain by a thin layer of glacial till(mostly 4-8 m thick, but can reach 20 m). Depending on the area, 46 to 100% of the population relieson groundwater for water supply, either from municipal wells or from private residential wells. The main objectives of this project were to improve the general understanding of groundwater-flow dynamics and to provide baseline information and tools for a regional groundwater-resource assessment. This bulletin presents the current state of understanding of this hydrogeological system, along with the methodology used to characterize and analyze its distinct behaviour at three different scales. This regional bedrock aquifer system contains confined and unconfined zones, and each of its lenticular permeable strata extends only a few kilometres. Preferential groundwater recharge occurs where sandy till is present. The mean annual recharge rate to the bedrock is estimated to range between 130 and 165 mm/a. Several geological formations of this basin provide good aquifers, with hydraulic conductivity in the range 5x10-6 to 10-4m/s. Based on results of numerical flow modelling, faults were interpreted to have a key role in the regional flow. Pumping-test results revealed that the fractured aquifers can locally be very heterogeneous and anisotropic, but behave similarly to porous media. Work performed at the local scale indicated that most water-producing fractures seem to be subhorizontal and generally oriented in a northeasterly direction, in agreement with regional structures and pumping-test results. Almost all residential wells are shallow (about 20 m) open holes that are cased only through the surficial sediments.
Additional Publication Details
Canadian groundwater inventory: Regional hydrogeological characterization of the south-central part of the maritimes basin
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Being able to create good, clean water wherever you are will not only wet your whistle, but also save your life.
Water storage is very important in being prepared for the unexpected, but what if you’re far away from your water storage? Perhaps you’re out hiking. Well let me tell you, toting around a 30 gallon water barrel just isn’t going to work if that’s the case. Or maybe your living arrangements don’t allow for extensive water storage. There are many scenarios in which you might need something more. Fortunately, there are plenty of handy, portable water filters on the market that you can invest in.
With so many water filters out there, how are you supposed to know which one is best for you? Fear not, faithful readers! I have just completed my official emergency preparedness expert Katadyn Water Filter Training, and now I’m here to pass along all my hard-earned secrets. Ready? Here we go!
First of all, let’s talk about the why. We can find water almost anywhere. Unfortunately, very little of this water is drinkable. As the Ancient Mariner once said, bemoaning his fate as he was stuck out at sea,
Water, water, everywhere,
nor any drop to drink.
That’s exactly how it can be. So much water, but most of it so very undrinkable. What makes water unsuitable for human consumption? Well, let’s just say there are plenty of nasties in the water, and it would be best for us if we didn’t invite them into our bodies. There are three main kinds of water hazards we should avoid:
- Protozoan cysts (0.5 microns)
- Bacteria (2-15 microns)
- Viruses (0.018 microns)
These bad boys can make a person sick. Fortunately, the Katadyn filters are designed to keep them out of your water. All of the filters will work great against the protozoan cysts and bacteria, since those little guys are big enough to be stopped by the filters. Viruses, however, are a wee bit too small for filters to be effective.
Normally you won’t have to worry about viruses, as those only show up near where human activity takes place. For example, a stream, creek, or lake or something off the beaten path where people don’t generally venture forth, will be quite free of viruses. Rivers and lakes near civilization could be a problem, however. Also flood water. Don’t drink flood water.
Viruses can be eliminated with a tablet (the Katadyn guy prefers the Micropur purification tablets). Just drop a tablet in the water and let it go to work. It’s one tablet per liter of water. If the water is clear, you only have to wait 30 minutes before the water is good to go. If it’s dirty water, however, your wait could be up to 4 hours. But again, in the wild or away from humans, you won’t need tablets. The filters will be just fine.
Now, I’d like to take a moment and talk about two of the filters that were demonstrated. One is a simple, reliable and totally portable personal filter. The other is great for filtering larger volumes of water for a camp, or a family in an emergency.
The #1 selling filter on the market is the Hiker Pro. There aren’t many moving parts, so it’s reliability rating is very high. It’s super light (11 oz.), so hiking with it is a breeze! It has a carbon core which also helps to improve the taste of the water. Another nifty bit with this filter is the quick release valve and bottle adapter. With this, you can quickly disconnect your hose from the filter and connect it to your bottle. It’s an easy transition, and a great way to quickly fill your water bottle. Speaking of speed, it pumps about a liter a minute. Not bad, if you’re far from a sink or faucet.
The second filter is the Base Camp Pro, and it is ridiculously cool. For one thing, it’s crazy fast (as in 2 liters a minute), and uses gravity to do all the work. Just hang it up in a tree (or have your kid hold it and call it a workout) with its extra-large strap and watch the water flow! It holds 10 liters of water, and is guaranteed not to clog with debris and other contaminants. The coolest thing about this (for me, anyway) is that you can turn the Base Camp into a shower with the handy dandy shower adapter. Say goodbye to nasty, showerless camping trips!
I won’t talk about every filter we saw, since we already have a great article identifying all the filters and purifiers we carry. Instead, I’ll politely send you to check that out by clicking here.
If you’re looking for a filter for hiking, home, or just-in-case, Katadyn has some great options for all situations, so you won’t have to worry about getting caught (ahem) in the rain.
What’s your favorite filter? What do you look for in a filter? Let us (and your fellow preppers) know in the comments!
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Transport of soluble toxic substances through porous media lead to some significant geoenvironmental problems, for example, leachate migration from municipal and industrial solid waste resulting from unregulated disposal. Advection, dispersion, diffusion, and decay are reported to be
the principal mechanisms in such phenomena. Geotechnical properties of the soil also play a significant role in this deterioration. In the present study, laboratory tests were conducted to formulate an appropriate method for assessment of migration of metal ions, such as nickel, through the
soil. Relevant kinetic and process parameters, such as aquifer data, surface area, dielectric constant, pH of zero point charge (pHzpc), and permeability were also studied. One-dimensional mathematical modeling was used to describe the dynamics of the process. The present investigation
was carried out at an ash pond site of a thermal power plant situated in West Bengal, India.
Water Environment Research® (WER®) publishes peer-reviewed research papers, research notes, state-of-the-art and critical reviews on original, fundamental and applied research in all scientific and technical areas related to water quality, pollution control, and management. An annual Literature Review provides a review of published books and articles on water quality topics from the previous year. Published as: Sewage Works Journal, 1928 - 1949; Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 1950 - 1959; Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 1959 - Oct 1989; Research Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Nov 1989 - 1991; Water Environment Research, 1992 - present.
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The much needed rain continues today in Southern California and it’s been a pleasant surprise as we know its only temporary. But the issue of rainwater runoff is pertinent in areas near the ocean as almost all of the water is diverted straight to the ocean and with it unknown amounts of sedentary junk and toxic materials.
If you live near any area with a low lying water source such as a stream, river, lake or ocean, there are steps you can take to make sure that the rainwater runoff is distributed responsibly and isn’t contributing to erosion or pollution.
Here are some tips for harvesting rainwater. For many homeowners the perfect drainage system is permeable concrete which eliminates surface runoff and dissipates water in a natural way. If that’s not an option make sure your driveway is designed to lead water away from the foundation of the home.
For ambitious homeowners you can also put that rainwater to use by using a rainwater collection system which feeds the water back into the plumbing system of the home for use inside.
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For power most interurbans used overhead catenary (energized electric lines attached to line-side poles), which was usually rated at about 600 volts. Although some used third-rail for power this was the exception. To produce the electricity for the operations interurbans either constructed their own substations or purchased the power outright. While most streetcar lines were small, local operations this was
not always the case. Some, which were able to subsidize their passenger
operations with freight were able to grow quite large. Some of these systems include the
Chicago SouthShore & South Bend Railroad, Illinois Termimal, Pacific Electric and Iowa Traction (as it is known
today). Since these systems were able to produce profits through
freight service in conjunction with passenger operations they were able
to outlive many of their brethren.
|SEPTA Brilliner #6 rolls down Springfield Road at Clifton, Pennsylvania headed towards Sharon Hill in May of 1976.|
Trolleys were most successful from the late 19th
century through the 1930s and can best be characterized by the "Dot Com"
boom of the late 1990s and early 2000s, they flourished for a moment
and then died out. Being regional and local in nature they simply could not compete with the automobile once it debuted in the early 20th century and then was aided by the development of better highways and roads. By the 1950s most interurban
railroads were out of business due to high capital costs and low
ridership, although some were able to hang on until the early 1960s. Those able to survive did so only after recognizing that
passenger service was a money-losing operation that must be scrapped and
concentrated solely on freight traffic. Of course, to do so the system
had to be large enough to offer enough such service to be profitable,
such as was the case with the Illinois Central and Chicago South Shore.
Chicago, Aurora & Elgin Railroad
Chicago, North Shore & Milwaukee, "The North Shore Line"
Chicago, South Shore & South Bend, "The South Shore Line"
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville
Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railway, "The Fort Dodge Line"
Illinois Terminal Railroad
Pacific Electric Railway
Oregon Electric Railway
Piedmont & Northern Railway
Portland Traction Company
Sacramento Northern Railway
Walla Walla Valley Railway
Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern Railway
Yakima Valley Transportation
|MUNI PCC #1008 works its way along busy First and Mission Streets in San Francisco during April of 1970.|
Barney & Smith Car Company
Cincinnati Car Company
G.C. Kuhlman Car Company
J.G. Brill Company
Jewett Car Company
Niles Car & Manufacturing Company
St. Louis Car Company
Notable Car Designs
Presidents’ Conference Committee Streetcars, PCCs
Finally, for a state-by-state history please click here. While the classic trolleys are mostly a thing of the
past they are not entirely gone. SEPTA (Southeastern Pennsylvania
Transportation Authority) operates a section of original traction
lines in Philadelphia and the South Shore Line's operations remain in
use, operated by the Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District
(NICTD). And that is not all, as highways become more cramped and
overcrowded small, true trolley lines are beginning to pop up in cities
across the country, even small ones! Finally, below you can learn more about most of
the interurbans that operated in each state. In general, the industry
tended to be centered around the Midwest with Ohio the epicenter;
overall, Ohio's mileage peaked at 2,798 and every town
in the state larger than 10,000 was served by at least one system.
one is able to see a system map of Ohio's interubans many are
concentrated, as to be expected, around the large cities such as
Toledo, Columbus, Canton, Cleveland, and Dayton. Interestingly, there
were few systems southeast of Columbus with notables located around
Zanesville, Ashland, and Marietta. Nearby states also had significant
interurban mileage such as Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania. However, most of the southern states had relatively few
systems, as did much of west. In the west this can be explained by the
fact that large cities are spread far apart making interurbans even more
redundant than they already were. However, it is rather strange that the south never established a
significant network of streetcar lines considering it was similar to the
Midwest in having many cities relatively close together. Also of note
was the Northeast.
Alabama Power Company: Today the Alabama Power Company is
a electricity provider to over one million customers but back during
the early 20th century it also owned a number of streetcar railroad
operations including in the cities of Anniston, Montgomery and
Tuscaloosa. Most of its operations were out of business and shutdown by
Mobile Light & Railroad Company: The Mobile Light & Railroad Company began operations in 1893 serving Mobile.
It operated until 1939 at which point it had grown to a nearly 50 mile
system. The interurban was shutdown that year when its president died,
J. Howard Wilson and it was acquired by the National City Lines, which converted all operations to bus-only operations.
Capital City Electrical Railway, "The Lightning Route": The Capital City Electrical Railway, also known as the Lightning Route, began operations on April 15, 1886 serving Montgomery
and was one of the first to recognize that dense commercial and
residential areas within a city should be separated. It operated for
exactly 50 years before the service was replaced by buses. Today,
Montgomery is attempting to rebuild a small interurban operation.
Tanana Valley Railroad: The Tanana Valley Railroad was
a small battery-powered system that connected Chena and Fairbanks.
This interurban would eventually became part of the Alaska Railroad.
Fort Smith Traction Light & Power Company: The Fort Smith
Traction Light & Power
Company was formed in 1903 by the merger of the Fort Smith Railway
Company (incorporated in 1883) and the Fort Smith & Van Buren
Electric Street Railway Light & Power Company (incorporated in
1893). After the railroad came under the control of Oklahoma Gas & Electric in 1933 it was abandoned in November of that same year.
Arkansas Power & Light Company: The Arkansas Power
Company began operations on November 4, 1886 as the Citizens Street
Railway Company, originally using mules and horses for power. It gained
electric operation in 1902 now known as the Citizens Light &
Transit Company operating about 8 miles of trackage. It reached its
peak length of 11 miles in 1918 and again changed its name to the Pine
Bluff Company. By 1930 the Arkansas Power & Light Company (created
in 1914) took over operations and replaced the operation with buses.
Southwestern Gas & Electric Company: The Southwestern Gas & Electric
Company was a small interurban operation in Texarkana that operated
until 1935 having been acquired by the Middle West Utilities Company in
Walnut Ridge & Hoxie Traction Company: The earliest
history of the Walnut Ridge & Hoxie Traction Company (also known as
the Walnut Ridge & Hoxie, Light, Power
and Transit Company) was opened in 1899 connecting the towns of Hoxie
and Walnut Ridge, a distance of about 1 1/2 miles. The WR&HLP&T
was created in 1903, gained electric operation in 1906 and changed its
name to the Central Power and Light Company in 1918. It abandoned all operations in 1928.
Phoenix Street Railway: The Phoenix Street Railway began operations in 1887 originally using horse-powered carts although it switched to electric
streetcars in 1893. The system was one of the larger interurbans in
the country reaching as far as Glendale, a distance of nearly 11 miles.
It operated until October of 1947 when a fire destroyed most of the
streetcar fleet. Today, light rail is making a return to Phoenix and the Arizona Street Railway Museum keeps alive the memory of the Phoenix Street Railway.
Tuscon Street Railway: The Tuscon Street Railway began
operations in 1898 connecting the Southern Pacific Railroad's station
along Toole Avenue with the University of Arizona's campus. It changed its name to the Tuscon
Rapid Transit Company in 1905 and reached its final length of 8 1/4
miles in 1904. It operated until December 31, 1930 when the service was
converted over to buses. Today the interurban has been partially
revived under the direction of the Old Pueblo Trolley project.
Warren-Bisbee Railway: This system was the one true
Arizona interurban located in the state. It began operations on March
11, 1908 serving Warren and Bisbee, a distance of 8 miles, in the
state's southeastern regions where copper mining was becoming prevalent
(very close to the Mexican border). The building of the line was during
the second big boom of construction
of the interurban industry, the first occurring during the first few
years of the 20th century. The company became profitable enough to also
construct a four-mile spur serving an area outside of Warren that was
rich in lumber traffic. Overall the Warren-Bisbee was a poorly built
system with 7% or higher grades along much of its main line. As the
copper industry played out and automobile use increased the line was abandoned by 1928.
& Kern Electric Railway: The Bakersfield & Kern Electric
back to 1902 and operated between the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway's depot (located in Bakersfield) and Southern Pacific's station
located in East Bakersfield. After its purchase by the San Joaquin
Light And Power Company in 1910 the interurban became one of the
top-notch operations in the country with double-tracking spanning the
entire line. In 1933 the line was sold by San Joaquin Light and Power
and nine years later in February of 1942 the operation was shifted
entirely to bus service.
Interurban Electric Railway (IER): The Interurban Electric
Railway was a Southern Pacific company that served Berkeley, Oakland
and San Leandro (the "East Bay" of the San Francisco Bay Area). It
began operations in 1911 and used large, heavyweight streetcars. Its
routes included the CaliforniaStreet
Line, Shattuck Avenue Line, Ninth Street Line, Ellsworth Street Line,
Dutton Avenue Line, Alameda Lines, Horseshoe Line and 18th Street Line.
The IER operated until 1941 when the remnants of the interurban were
taken over by the Pacific Electric Railway.
Pacific Cement & Aggregates: The Pacific Cement &
Aggregates Company was actually a cement plant serving Davenport. It
operated a short interurban operation as well as a freight system that
moved its products to market using electric motors. The railroad remained in service until the 1970s.
Eureka Municipal Railway: The Eureka Municipal Railway was created in 1888 during the city's booming years. It updated to electric
operation in 1903 and by 1915 the system was operating five different
lines radiating out from the city. It lasted until early 1940 when the
interurban system was replaced by buses.
Fresno Traction: Fresno Traction has its earliest roots
dating back to early 1889 as the Fresno Street Railroad. In 1901 this
railroad was taken over by the Fresno City Railway and after the system
was electrified in 1902 its name was changed to the Fresno
Traction Company. At its peak the system was operating a 50-mile
network. The interurban lasted until May 20, 1939 when it was converted
to bus service.
Nevada County Traction Company: The Nevada County
Traction Company was a short interurban operation serving Grass Valley
and Nevada City. It was a shortlived operation lasting only until
November 5, 1923.
Los Angeles Interurban Railway: The Los Angeles
Interurban Railway or LAIU was one of several interurbans serving the
city. It began operations in 1903 and lasted until 1910 when virtually
all of L.A.'s interurbans were folded into the "Great Merger" coming
under the control of the Pacific Electric Railway, a Southern Pacific
Railroad company. Other systems included in the Great Merger included
the Los Angeles Railway, Los Angeles Traction Company,
California-Pacific Railway and the Los Angeles-Pacific Railway.
Tidewater Southern Railway: The Tidewater Southern Railway served, , Stockton and Modesto
and was originally incorporated in 1910. Later it also connected
Turlock and Hilmar. The Tidewater Southern became a Western Pacific
Railroad subsidiary in 1917 and while it was initially built as an
interurban its passenger services were abandoned in 1932 entirely and
became a freight-only operation. The TS remained a mostly independent
railroad until the 1960s when the WP mostly absorbed the system. Today,
most of the railroad remains in service under Union Pacific, one of the
few interurbans to still see most of its original property in service.
East Bay Transit: East Bay Transit, began serving Oakland
in 1886 and is still operating today. The original streetcar service
became the Key System in 1893, which ultimately would serve most of the
surrounding communities. In 1956 the Alameda-Contra Costa Transit
District (AC Transit) was created to takeover the failing Key System,
which began operations in 1960. The service remains an important
transportation artery for commuters today.
San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose, Consolidated Railway:
The aforementioned Key System originally began as the ,San Francisco,
Oakland and San Jose, Railway, which was incorporated in 1902. It
served downtown ,Berkeley and the nearby ferry pier. It changed its
name to the San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose, Consolidated Railway in
1908 and again in 1912 to the ,San Francisco-Oakland, Terminal Railway.
The operation went bankrupt in 1923 and was then reorganized as the Key System.
Ontario & San Antonio Heights: The Ontario & San
Antonio Heights was a predecessor of the Pacific Electric Railway
becoming part of the PE's vast Northern District.
Petaluma & Santa Rosa Railroad: The Petaluma & Santa Rosa Railroad was an interurban operation serving Petaluma, Sebastopol, Forestville and Santa Rosa.
It began operations in 1903 taking over a horse-powered operation
which dated back to 1888. The line was taken over by the Northwestern
Pacific Railroad in 1928 and rail service ended in 1933.
Riverside & Arlington Railway: The Riverside &
Arlington Railway Company began in 1887 and in 1890 took over the
operations of the Riverside Railway Company and then the Hall's Addition
Railway in 1895. It eventually became part of the Pacific Electric Railway.
Pacific Gas & Electric Company: The Pacific Gas & Electric is an electric
and gas utility still operating today but it got into the interurban
and streetcar business in 1906 when it took over the operations of the ,Sacramento, Electric,
Gas & Railway Company. The interurban operated as the PG&E
until 1943 when it was sold to the ,Sacramento, City Lines and later the
National City Lines, which abandoned all rail operations on April 1,
San Diego & Southeastern Railway: The San Diego &
Southeastern Railway took over the operations of the Coronado Railroad
and National City & Otay Railway. The interurban would go on to
serve ,San Diego,
National City, Chula Vista and Ota. It operated until 1918 when it
became part of the Pacific Electric Railway.
San Francisco, Napa and Calistoga Railway: The San Francisco, Napa and Calistoga
Railway began operations in 1905 and would ultimately serve Calistoga,
Napa, Yountville and St. Helena with a system covering 43 miles. It
remained in service until 1937 when passenger operations ended and
Southern Pacific picked up the line for freight services (which lasted
until 1987). The SFN&C itself lasted until 1957 when it was
Peninsular Railway: The Peninsular Railway served San
Jose and Palo Alto (today's "Silicon Valley"). It began operations in
1906 as a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific. It reached its peak in
1920 covering 68 miles and today much of the railroad is operated by the
Caltrain commuter service.
Northwestern Pacific Railroad: The Northwestern Pacific Railroad was a regional freight railroad serving the Redwood Empire of Northern California.
However, until 1941 the NWP also operated an electrified interurban
operation serving Marin County. The railroad itself lasted on paper
until 1992 when it was dissolved into Southern Pacific.
Santa Cruz, Capitola & Watsonville Railway: The Santa Cruz,
Capitola & Watsonville Railway was an interurban operation serving
its namesake cities. It lasted only until 1905 when it became part of
the Union Traction Company.
Central California Traction: The Central California
Traction Company remains in operation today as a shortline, Class III
freight railroad dating back to 1905 (although it is currently owned by
Union Pacific and BNSF Railway). The railroad began operations as the
Central California Traction Company but was purchased by the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Southern Pacific and Western Pacific in
1928 becoming Central California Traction. At that time it served as an
interurban operation linking Stockton, Lodi and Sacramento.
Today it still operates about 15 miles of railroad hauling freight and
serving local ports.
Visalia Electric Railroad: The Visalia Electric Railroad
was a subsidiary of Southern Pacific serving Tulare County. It began
operations on April 22, 1904 and served as an interurban railroad until
1924 when passenger service was discontinued. Its electric operations
remained until 1933 when they too were shutdown. The freight services
were carried on until 1992 when operations were discontinued altogether.
Sacramento Northern Railway: The Sacramento Northern was
an interurban that dated back to the very early 20th century and was
assembled by H.A. Butters and the Sloss-Lilienthal interest of San
Fransisco (Pacific Gas & Electric). The company would grow into a
system that stretched 183 miles serving Hamilton City, Chico, Marysville
above Sacramento and reached Oakland/San Francisco to the south. The
interurban was one of the best engineered ever built although its
profits did not mirror its high level of construction (and probably
would not have survived without purchase by the WP). It was renamed the
Sacramento Northern Railroad in 1914 after entering bankruptcy. The SN
essentially was formed through two systems; the Northern Electric
Railway located above Sacramento (serving the area's mentioned above)
and the original Oakland & Antioch (later Eastern was added and
became known as the OA&E) to the south. The SN became an official
subsidiary of the Western Pacific in 1922.
Sacramento Valley West Side Electric Railway: A poorly
planned system meant to connect Dixon Junction with the OA&E,
through Dixon and on to Marysville. Unfortunately, the system never
made it any further north than Dixon a distance of 12 miles. Operations
began on January 1, 1915 and operated under contract by the OA&E
but with Dixon only carrying a population of 1,000 there was never any
profit potential and service was abandoned by August, 1917.
Central California Traction Company: This interurban was
another of California's larger and better engineered systems with a
profitable freight business, dating back to September, 1907. It too,
served Sacramento where it connected with the SN and stretched south to
Stockton and Modesto. Its branches served Lodi, Bellota, Manteca, and
empire. Early on the system became a subsidiary of the Southern
Pacific, Western Pacific, and Santa Fe. It abandoned all passenger
services in 1946 and scrapped electrified operations that same year.
Today, the shortline is still in service and remains jointly owned by
Union Pacific and BNSF Railway.
Pacific Coast Railway Company: This line began operations
as a narrow-gauge freight system, changing over to electrified
operations in 1908. At its peak it served San Luis Obispo, Santa Maria,
and Los Olivos. It later extended to Guadaloupe where it interchanged
passenger, and some freight, with the SP. With little freight traffic
service was abandoned by 1928 in favor of buses.
Watsonville Traction Company: Later known as the Watsonville
Railway & Navigation Company its six-mile system between Watsonville
and Watsonville Beach operated for just seven years until ending
service by 1917.
Pacific Electric Railway: At its peak the PE was the
largest interurban ever built in the United States, operating a total of
more than 1,000 miles of rails, with about 700 of these miles main line
routes. To learn more please click here.
Glendale & Montrose Railway: This interurban began
operations in 1908 serving its namesake towns as well as Eagle Rock and
La Crescenta, and also reached the outskirts of Los Angeles via trackage
rights over the UP. Service was abandoned in 1930.
Boulder Street Railway: The Boulder Street Railway was
built and operated by Western Power & Light. It began operations
in 1899 operating a three-mile stretch of track, which mostly served
Colorado University. It operated until June of 1931 when it was
abandoned in favor of buses.
Cripple Creek District Railway: The Cripple Creek
District Railway was incorporated in 1897 to serve Cripple Creek,
Poverty Gulch, Midway and Portland Mine. Just two years later in 1899
it became part of the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District
Railway. The railroad eventually operated 12 miles of track and became
part of the Colorado & Southern Railway 1904. All operations were
abandoned in 1920.
Denver & Intermountain Railroad: The Denver &
Intermountain Railroad opened in 1893 connecting Denver and Golden, a
distance of 23 miles. It was originally steam powered but switched to
electric in 1909. While the railroad was mostly an interurban
operation it also had some freight service.
Interestingly, the railroad lasted until March 15, 1953 when all
services were suspended (passenger service had ended in 1950).
Denver & Interurban Railroad: The Denver & Interurban Railroad was a Colorado & Southern subsidiary and connected Denver to Boulder,
a distance of 51 miles. It began electric operation in 1908 employing
11,000-volt AC system for power. Being the only service between the two
cities the railroad saw heavy traffic but unfortunately few profits.
It was no longer profitable after 1923 and ended operations on December
Durango Railway & Realty Company:
The Durango Railway & Realty Company was one of the smallest
interurbans ever operated connecting Durango and Las Animas, a distance
of just two miles. It ceased operations in 1921.
Southern Denver Light & Power Company: The Southern Denver
Light & Power Company operated a short electric interurban
operation through the town of Pueblo. It operated until the early
Grand River Valley Railroad: The Grand River Valley
Railroad, the "Fruit Belt Route". It served Grand Junction and Fruita
and also operated freight service to the nearby fruit and vegetable
farming in the area. It was completed in 1910 as the Grand Junction
& Grand River Valley but the name was shortened in 1914. It was
unable to remain profitable after the Great Depression and was shutdown in 1935.
Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District Railway: The CS&CCD was a successor of the Cripple Creek
District Railway mentioned above and its earliest history dates back to
1897. It operated some extremely steep lines, as high as 7.5% and
began further expansions around 1899. At its peak the interurban served
Cripple Creek, Poverty Gulch, Midway, Battle Mountain,
Elkton, and other small mining communities. Given that it was located
in the hear of the state's mining region it offered both extensive
freight and passenger service although its extremely steep main line,
which crossed Hoosier Pass (making it the highest altitude interurban
ever operated), made for difficult operations. In 1904 the system came
under the control of the C&S. On November 21, 1919 a fire severely
crippled operations when the carbarn was destroyed and much of the
equipment. Profits already been very thin it was abandoned in 1920.
Trinidad Electric Transmission Railway & Gas Company:
interurban dated back to its opening on April 28, 1904 serving
Trinidad, Sopris, and Starkville. Later, operations were extended to
Cokedale. While just over ten miles in length it featured grades
surpassing 7%, which made operations difficult. With only small
communities served passenger service was abandoned in 1923 while freight
service remained until after World War II.
Bristol Traction Company: The Bristol Traction Company began operations to serve the Lake Compounce amusement park
near Bristol. It originally began as the Bristol-Plainview Tramway but
changed its name to Bristol Traction in 1927. The service was
abandoned in 1935.
Danbury & Bethel Street Railway: The Danbury &
Bethel Street Railway began operations in 1887 serving its namesake
cities on a 15-mile system. The line ran into financial
trouble as early as 1914 and was discontinued altogether in favor of
buses by December of 1926.
Shore Line Electric Railway: The Shore Line Electric
Railway was constructed to compete with the New York, New Haven &
Hartford Railroad between New Haven and points in eastern Connecticut.
It began service in 1910 originally connecting Saybrook and Stony Creek.
Later, the company opened lines serving North Branford, Deep River,
and Chester. After this time the interurban mostly grew through
acquisitions; such as the East Lyme Street Railway and Norwich &
Westerly Traction Company. At its peak the company operated more than
250 miles of trackage. Unfortunately, the line was brought down by two
vicious collisions that occurred during June and July, 1919. Strikes
and resentment towards the company resulted in its bankruptcy
by that October. Interestingly, this was not the end of the story.
The railroad reorganized and changed its name to the New Haven &
Shore Line Railway in 1923 again resuming operations. However, it also
ended in failure and was converted to buses in 1929.
Hartford Street Railway: The Hartford Street Railway was a
merger in 1893 of two horse-drawn operations the Hartford &
Wethersfield Horse Railroad and East Hartford & Glastonbury Horse
Railroad. Soon after it was converted to electric streetcars and was
subsequently sold to the Consolidated Railway in 1904, which became the
Connecticut Company in 1907. The Connecticut
Company, a subsidiary of the NYNH&H, controlled or owned most
interurban operations in the state. The company remained in operation
all of the way up until 1976 when it became Connecticut Transit, a state
funded and operated commuter agency.
Hartford Suburban: The Hartford Suburban system was a
small interurban operation serving Hartford and was shortlived becoming
part of the Connecticut Company in 1894.
Hartford, Manchester & Rockville Tramway Company: The Hartford,
Manchester & Rockville Tramway Company was a subsidiary of the
South Manchester Light Power & Tramway Company, both of which were
incorporated in 1894. The interurban connected its namesake cities and
became part of the Connecticut Company in 1907.
Meriden, Southington & Compounce Tramway: The
Meriden, Southington & Compounce Tramway was an interurban railroad
operation serving Meriden and began operations in 1898. In 1902 it was
sold to the Connecticut Railway and Lighting Company, which leased out
the streetcar operation to the Connecticut Company until service was
discontinued in 1936.
Meriden Electric Railroad: The Meriden Electric Railroad
was another interurban serving Meriden and lasted until 1904 when it
became part of Consolidated Railway (predecessor to the Connecticut Company).
Central Railway & Electric Company: The Central
Railway & Electric Company was incorporated in 1886 and served New
Britain. In 1899 it was to Connecticut Light & Power (later the
Connecticut Railway & Lighting Company) and all operations leased to
the Connecticut Company until 1936.
Fair Haven & Westville Railroad: The Fair Haven &
Westville Railroad dates back to 1861 as a horse-powered interurban
railroad operation serving New Haven. In 1893 the system switched to electric
power and would go on to take over most of NYNH&H's interurban
operations including the New Haven & Centreville Street Railway, New
Haven Street Railway and Winchester Avenue Railway. It became part of
the Consolidated Railway in 1904, a Connecticut Company predecessor.
Torrington & Winchester Street Railway: The
Torrington & Winchester Street Railway served Torrinigton and began
operations in 1897. It became part of the Connecticut Company's
Torrington and Winsted Division in 1915 and was abandoned in 1929.
Waterbury and Milldale Tramway: The Waterbury and
Milldale Tramway served its namesake cities operating a 9.2 mile system.
It lasted until October 29, 1933 when the remaining 4.7 miles of the
system were abandoned in favor of buses.
Berkshire Street Railway: A subsidiary of the New Haven
system, this interurban was created by the railroad through smaller
lines, notably the Hoosick Falls Railroad. It was the only interurban
serving four states and reaching such towns as Canaan, Connecticut;
Pittsfield, Massachusetts; Bennington, Vermont; and Hoosick Falls, New
York. The company slowly cutback operations beginning as early as 1917
and total abandonment came on November 12, 1932 when the system was
converted to bus service.
Wilmington & Elsmere Electric Railway Company:
The Wilmington & Elsmere Electric Railway Company was completed in
1895 connecting Wilmington to Brandywine Springs Park. It lasted only
until 1900 when it was taken over by the Peoples Railway Company.
Wilmington City Railway: The Wilmington City Railway was
the city's first dating back to June 28, 1864. It remained a
horse-powered operation until it switched to electric
streetcars in 1888. The interurban would become the city's largest
taking over several smaller companies. It lost its original identity
when it merged with the Delaware Electric Power Company in 1936. Soon
after in 1940 rail service ended switching to buses.
Wilmington & Philadelphia Traction Company: The
W&PTC operated a system serving Wilmington, Chester, and even
reaching Philadelphia by 1899. Overall it was the state's largest
streetcar operation. It also controlled small streetcar systems serving
Stanton, Delaware City, and New Castle. It remain in operation until
around the mid-1930s when services were finally replaced by buses.
Jackson & Sharp Company: The Jackson & Sharp
Company wasn't actually an interurban railroad but it did build
streetcars in Wilmington, Delaware from 1863 until 1901 when it was
purchased by railcar giant American Car and Foundry.
Anacostia & Potomac Railroad: The Anacostia & Potomac
Railroad was incorporated in 1870 through an act of Congress and was
the fourth such system to operate in the district upon its creation.
The company switched from horse power to electric streetcars in 1900 and
at the peak of its operation served Union Town (now Historic
Anacostia), Arsenal (now Fort McNair), Congressional Cemetery, Central
Market and to the Government Hospital for the Insane. The A&P's
independence on August 31, 1912 when it was taken over by the Washington
Railway & Electric Company.
Capital Traction Company: The Capital Traction Company
was created in 1895 through the merger of the Rock Creek Railway and
Washington & Georgetown Railroad. The interurban would become the
second-largest in the district behind the Washington Railway &
Electric Company. It operated until December 1, 1933 when, to survive
the depression years, it merged with all of the remaining interurbans in
the district (Washington Railway, Capital Traction and Washington Rapid
Transit) to form the Capital Transit Company.
City & Suburban Railway: The City & Suburban
Railway began operations in 1899 and its original route mostly followed
the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad's Washington Branch. The system would
become part of the Washington Railway & Electric Company.
Metropolitan Railroad: The Metropolitan Railroad was the
district's second interurban ever built beginning operations in 1864
connecting the Capitol with the War Department. It switched from horse
power to electric
streetcars in 1888 and through merger (including the Boundary &
Silver Spring Railway Company, Connecticut Avenue & Park Railway and
Union Railroad) and expansion served virtually all quadrants of the
city. It became part of the Washington Railway & Electric Company on February 4, 1902.
Washington & Georgetown Railway: The Washington
& Georgetown Railway was the district's first beginning operations
in 1862 connecting Georgetown and the Navy Yard. On September 21, 1895
it was taken over by the Rock Creek Railway creating a new company the Capital Traction Company.
Washington & Glen Echo Railroad: The Washington &
Glen Echo Railroad connected Glen Echo, Maryland with the Tennallytown
& Rockville Railroad in Friendship Heights. It began as the Glen
Echo Railroad incorporated by brothers Edwin and Edward Baltzley in 1889
and began operations on June 10, 1891. It was renamed the Washington
& Glen Echo Railroad when it expanded to serve Willard Avenue and
Chevy Chase Circle, connecting there with the Rock Creek Railway. The
railroad was shutdown in 1900.
Washington Railway & Electric Company: The
Washington Railway & Electric
Company would go on to be the districts largest single interurban
company (prior to all of the mergers in the 1930s). In essence the
WR&E's system was created through many mergers and takeovers by
smaller companies, partly mandated by Congress to create some kind of
unity in a system that was not only incompatible with one other (such as
different track gauges) but also unwilling to work together. The
WR&E itself was created on February 4, 1902 when the Washington
& Great Falls Electric Railway changed its name to the Washington
Railway & Electric
Company. It also operated the Washington & Baltimore Suburban
Lines, which served Georgetown and eastern regions of Washington, D.C.
The WR&E would serve much of the district as well as Maryland
suburban areas. It remained the dominant streetcar line until the
"Great Merger" of 1933 creating the Capital Transit Company.
Washington Terminal: The Washington Terminal Company was
more of a commuter rail system
than a streetcar, interurban service. It
was created in 1901 and jointly owned by the B&O and Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington Railroad (a PRR subsidiary) to provide
auxiliary service for railroad using Washington Union Station. It
remained in operation through the private passenger train era and was
taken over by Amtrak in 1981.
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis Electric Railway:
The WB&A was the most prominent system serving the district. Its
earliest history dated back to 1899 connecting the two largest
populations, Baltimore and Washington, D.C., a distance of 38 miles. It
would late reach other areas such as Annapolis and Fort George G.
Meade, operating a system that stretched 83 miles in length (it had an
additional connection to Annapolis through ownership of the Annapolis
Short Line from Baltimore). The Great Depression was hard on the company but it was still earning
nearly $1 million in annual revenue when it decided to abandon in 1934.
The original Annapolis Short Line route was taken over by the
Baltimore & Ohio and renamed the Baltimore & Annapolis Railroad
where it continued to offer freight service for many years.
Washington & Virginia Railway: The W&V dated back
to the Washington & Mt. Vernon of 1890 originally connecting Mt.
Vernon, Alexandria and Washington by 1896. The Washington &
Virginia was created in 1910 to take over smaller systems in the area
that also connected to Fairfax, Clarendon, Rosslyn, Fort Myer, and
Nauck. Its overall system stretched about 50 miles in length. Never a
highly profitable system it was in bankruptcy by 1924 but reorganized
three years later as two separate systems; the Washington, Alexandria
& Mt. Vernon and Fairfax Electric
Railway. The WA&MV lasted until only January 17, 1932 when the
government requisitioned the company's property in Washington, D.C. to
for new federal buildings. The A&F carried on until 1939 when its
lines were replaced with buses.
Washington & Old Dominion Railway:
The W&OD had a fascinating history. It began life as a common
freight railroad, established in 1858 and eventually connected
Alexandria and Leesburg, Virginia known as the Alexandria, Loudon &
Hampshire. The original operators envisioned the line reaching
Cumberland, Maryland although funds
never allowed such grand hopes. It did reach Round Hill, Virginia in
1874 before becoming a subsidiary of the Southern Railway in 1894. In
1912 the Washington & Old Dominion was incorporated to lease the
original AL&H from the Southern and strung catenary to operate the
system as an interurban as well. It would merge with the Great Falls
& Old Dominion giving it a system also serving Georgetown, Bluemont,
Leesburg, Rosslyn, Thrifton, and Great Falls. As passenger traffic
declined services were cut back through 1941 until the company outright
purchased the remaining trackage from the Southern. It was around this
time that a significant freight business was built up sustaining the
company and allowing it to earn substantial profits (relative to what it
normally saw). In 1956 it came under Chesapeake & Ohio control
which continued to operate its remaining lines for many years.
Manatee Light & Traction Company: The Manatee Light &
Company was a shortlived interurban railroad chartered by Captain
Hartwell Davis in 1903 connecting Fogartyville, Bradentown and Manatee.
It also offered freight service but both it and passenger operations
were only seasonal in nature. It lasted only until 1906 when the
project was abandoned.
Coral Gables Municipal Railway: The Coral Gables
Municipal Railway served the Coral Gables area and once operated two
lines from downtown Miami to Coral Gables
as well as two other lines connecting southern and western points.
After a hurricane hit the region on November 4, 1935 two of its lines
were indefinitely knocked out of service and soon after all operations
Central of Florida Railway:
The Central of Florida Railway served Daytona Beach using
battery-powered streetcars. It remained in operation until 1918 when
service was discontinued.
Key West Electric Company: The Key West Electric Company
began operations as the Key West Street Car Company using horse-powered
cars. It became Key West Electric in 1898 converted to electric
streetcars. It remained in operation serving the Keys until 1933.
Miami Beach Electric Railway: The Miami Beach Electric
Railway began as the Miami Beach Electric
Company beginning operations rather late in 1920 (although the city had
streetcar service dating back to the beginning of the century). The
system soon became known as the Miami Beach Electric Railway and served
Miami and Miami Beach. It was sold to the American Power and Light
Company in 1924.
Pensacola Electric Terminal Railway: The
Pensacola Electric Terminal Railway began operations in 1897 after
purchasing the defunct Pensacola Terminal Company. It converted to
operation in November of that year and at its peak operated 21.4 miles
of track and 45 passenger cars, of which the downtown region was
double-tracked. It remained in operation until 1945 when it was
purchased by Pensacola Transit, Inc.
Atlanta Northern Interurban Railway: The Atlanta Northern
Interurban Railway served a roughly sixteen-mile system in the Atlanta
area. Part of its system is still used by the Metropolitan Atlanta
Rapid Transit Authority today.
Columbus Railroad Company: The Columbus Railroad Company
served its namesake city operating a few miles of track within the city
and was the first being chartered in 1866. It switched to electric
operation in 1894 when it built one of the first hydroelectric power
plants in the State of Georgia. The railroad disappeared into merger
in 1922 when it purchased the Columbus Power Company becoming the
Columbus Electric & Power Company.
Gainesville Street Railway: The Gainesville Street Railway was
short-lived interurban serving its namesake city. It lasted only until
1890 and much of its track was taken up in the 1940s for the war effort.
Savannah Electric Company: The Savannah Electric
Company was the primary interurban serving the city and operated on an
unusual five-foot gauge system. The system was abandoned in 1946.
Valdosta Street Railway: The Valdosta Street Railway
began operations in 1898 operating a system that served Toombs,
Patterson, Ashley, Lee, Troup, Hill, Central, Crane and Gordon Streets
of Valdosta. It was abandoned in 1925.
Augusta-Aiken Railway: This was one of Georgia's true
interurban system. It began operations on September 8, 1902 as the
Augusta & Columbia Railway, serving its namesake cities. A
subsidiary of the Georgia-Carolina Power Company it was renamed as the
August-Aiken Railway in 1911. While the 26-mile system operated on its
own right-of-way it was never very profitable (despite serving an
amusement park known at Lake Olmstead) and operations were abandoned by
Georgia Railway & Power Company: This company was
actually controlled another line, the Atlanta Northern, which served
Atlanta and Marietta (a distance of 16 miles) opening on July 17, 1905.
It also operated its own line between Atlanta, Decatur, and Stone
Mountain to the east, which stretched an additional 16 miles and began
operations in November, 1913. Both systems were abandoned by 1947.
Boise Interurban Railway: The Boise Interurban Railway was part
of 35-mile system which served Boise and points to the west such as
Caldwell, Nampa, Wilder and McNeil. The Boise Interurban Railway was
the northern extension of this loop system connecting the towns along
the Boise River (which it completed on August 8, 1907) while the Boise
Valley Railway completed the southern section. Both systems became part
of the Idaho Railway Light & Power Company in 1912 and in 1915 became known as Boise
Valley Traction Company. It remained profitable through 1920 but after
this time losses mounted and the system was abandoned 1928.
Sandpoint & Interurban Railway: The
Sandpoint & Interurban Railway which began operation in 1909 and
eventually built a 5-mile system connecting Sandpoint and Kootenai. It
lasted only eight years and was abandoned in 1917.
Caldwell Traction Company: The Caldwell Traction
Company began operation in 1913. It operated about 27 miles of track
altogether serving points west of Caldwell including McNeil, Lake Lowell
and Wilder (it also leased a branch of the Oregon Short Line from Union
Pacific Railroad and electrified the route). The operation included
both freight and passenger service but the railroad had a very hard time
staying profitable resulting in the UP taking back its leased branch in
1920. After defaulting on its loans the operation was abandoned in 1924.
Boise Valley Traction Company: The BVT was the successor
to the above mentioned Boise Interurban system. It primarily consisted
of two lines radiating away from Boise on each side of the Boise River.
Its northern line served Caldwell and a connection with the Caldwell
Traction while the southern line served Meridian, Nampa and curved
northward to also reach Caldwell. Its final construction occurred in
1912 when it rebuilt the Boise-Nampa line to eliminate severe curves.
In 1922 the company merged with the local power company to form
the Idaho Railway Light & Power Company, which operated its
interurban initially as the Idaho Traction Company but later changed
this to the Boise Valley Traction Company in 1915. It saw its first
deficits in 1924 and was abandoned by 1928. Interestingly, shortly
after locals purchased about 32 miles of the remaining system to operate
freight service. However, the Great Depression killed any profit potential and the entire line was scrapped by 1931.
Honolulu Rapid Transit: The Honolulu Rapid Transit
Company served the city of Honolulu beginning operations in 1898. The
famous interurban operated streetcar service until the 1940s when
operations were discontinued in favor of buses.
Chicago, North Shore & Milwaukee Railway:
The CNS&M, commonly known as the "North Shore Line" had a history
that began in 1895 as the Bluff City Electric
Interurban Street Railway, originally serving Waukegan with North
Chicago's 10th Street. It continued to grow and before 1900 reached
22nd Street and Highland Park, causing it to be reorganized as the
Chicago & Milwaukee Electric Railroad in 1898 as expansions
continued. The company continued to grow through the 1900s reaching
Evanston, Lake Bluff, Libertyville, Mundelein, and Racine by 1906. A
year later the company directly served Milwaukee although the financial
panic that year forced it to wait another year before implementing
services. Unfortunately, the panic eventually brought bankruptcy where
it was purchased by the Insull interests in 1916, which renamed it as
the Chicago, North Shore & Milwaukee.
Under new ownership it was finally able to reach downtown Chicago
in August, 1919 through trackage rights via the Milwaukee Road and
Chicago Elevated (the "L"). It continued to improve operations through
the 1920s and remained relatively profitable prior to the Great
Depression, a time when many interurbans were disappearing. The
resulted in reorganization as Insull went under, which occurred in
1946. Because the North Shore Line never had extensive freight
operations and was not truly equipped to handle the heavy rush hour
traffic, along with declining passenger traffic after World War
II it slowly crumbled. After legal fights it was finally abandoned on
January 21, 1963. The North Shore is notable for two things; offering
very high speed service and was the first true railroad to utilize
piggyback freight service in the 1920s (yes, even before the Chicago
Chicago, Aurora & Elgin Railway: For more information on the CA&E please click here.
Chicago & Southern Traction Company: The C&ST
began operations on October 5, 1907 serving Kankakee with 79th and
Halsteed Streets, Chicago, a distance of nearly 54 miles. Its history
dated as far back as 1897 and it was not electrified until 1901.
Bankruptcy in 1911 resulted in reorganization as the Chicago &
Interurban Traction, which is covered in more detail below.
Aurora, Elgin & Fox River Electric Company: This
system served the Fox River Valley in Illinois
had dated back to the 1890s as one of the earliest interurbans in the
country. By 1901 it was serving Elgin, Carptersville, Geneva, Batavia,
and Yorkville. It was soon acquired by the Pomeroy-Mandelbaum
syndicate, which owned the CA&E and renamed that year as the Elgin,
Aurora & Southern. After bankruptcy in 1919 it was sold by the
CA&E and renamed as the Aurora, Elgin & Fox River. Another
casualty of the Great Depression it was eventually abandoned on March
Chicago, SouthShore & South Bend Railroad: For more information on the Shore Shore Line please click here.
Alton, Granite & St. Louis Traction Company: The
Alton, Granite & St. Louis Traction Company was a creation in 1904
of several smaller interurban systems serving Alton. By 1920 the system
was in financial trouble and was taken over by the Alton Railway in
1926. On July 1, 1930, the Illinois Power & Light Corporation
purchased the property and finally the Illinois Terminal
Railroad took over the system as year later on March 1st. The system
continued to flounder and was finally completely replaced by buses in
the summer of 1936.
Alton, Jacksonville, & Peoria Railway: The Alton,
Jacksonville, & Peoria Railway was a failed venture meant to connect
Alton and Peoria. It was able to connect Alton and Godfrey, a distance
of 5 miles as well as a branch to Jerseyville but quickly found itself
in financial trouble. By 1918 the railroad had been abandoned.
Northern Illinois Electric Railway: The Northern Illinois Electric
Railway began operations in 1910 connecting Amboy and Lee Center, a
distance of 11 1/2 miles. The NIER was another failed interurban
connecting two sparsely populated towns. It was sold to the Lee County
Central Railroad in the summer of 1914 and passenger operations were
terminated in the early 1920s. Interestingly, part of the line remained
in service until the 1960s, used by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad to serve nearby grain elevators.
Elgin, Aurora & Southern Traction Company: The Elgin,
Aurora & Southern Traction Company began operations in December
1903 serving Aurora, Batavia, Geneva, St. Charles and Elgin. It was
merged into the Chicago, Aurora & Elgin Railroad in 1905.
St. Louis & Belleville Electric Railway: The St. Louis & Belleville Electric
Railway was a subsidiary of interurban East St. Louis & Suburban
Railway and predominantly provided freight service. After the
EStL&S was abandoned in 1928 the StL&BE was acquired by the
Company it was renamed the Peabody Short Line Railroad and continued to
haul coal, its primary source of traffic for most its existence. It
eventually was purchased by the Illinois Central but since the line
duplicated a nearby IC line it was abandoned in the early 1960s.
Elgin & Belvidere Electric Railway: The Elgin & Belvidere Electric
Railway connected Belvidere and Elgin on a line that stretched about 36
miles. It opened for operation in 1907 and became a central link for
the Chicago, Aurora & Elgin between Freeport, Rockford, Elgin and
Chicago. It remained in operation until 1930 when it was abandoned.
Bloomington & Normal Railway: The Bloomington & Normal Railway dates back to 1867 serving its namesake cities. It switched from horse to electric
streetcars in 1890. The B&N at its peak operated eight different
lines. The railroad lasted until December of 1936 when it was
Bloomington, Pontiac & Joliet Electric Railway: The
BP&J had grand schemes of connecting Chicago and St. Louis but only
ever connected Pontiac and Odell, an distance of 10 miles opening on
March 15, 1905. It was also able to build an 8-mile branch to Dwight a
year later. Serving only small communities profits were limited. As
such, abandonment occurred on November 24, 1925.
Cairo Electric & Traction Company: The Cairo
& Traction Company was known by several different names including
the Cairo Street Railway and Cairo Railway & Light System. It
served Cairo and was taken over by the Illinois Power & Light
Corporation in 1923. The railroad was abandoned for buses in 1931.
Calumet Electric Street Railway: The Calumet Electric
Street Railway served southern Chicago beginning operations in 1890. It
lasted for only 18 years when it became part of the South Chicago City
Railway Company in 1908.
Illinois Central Electric Railway: The Illinois Central
Electric Railway was chartered in October of 1903. It began operations
on June 3, 1907 connecting Canton with St. David. Eventually the system
was able to reach Norris, Fairview, Gilchrist and finally terminating
in Farmington by 1912. Later that year the interurban also completed a
branch from St. David to Lewistown. The interurban remained in
operation until September 13, 1928 when services were discontinued.
Illinois Central Electric Railway: The Centralia &
Central City Street Railway operated between 1885 and 1906. It
connected its namesake towns but, like many interurbans, suffered from a
sparsely populated route and was abandoned.
Illinois Power Company: The Illinois Power Company was
founded by William McKinley in 1890 to serve the city of Champaign and
Urbana. At its peak it operated 20 routes. It was sold to National
City Lines in October of 1935 and remained in operation until November
10, 1936 when the system was discontinued in favor of buses.
Chicago & Interurban Traction: The Chicago &
Interurban Traction was created in February of 1912 to take over several
defunct interurbans. The first of these was the Engelwood &
Chicago Street Railway incorporated in 1893 to serve southwestern
Chicago. It went bankrupt in 1896 at which point the newly created
Chicago Electric Traction Company took over a year later. This company
too went bankrupt and the Chicago & Southern Traction Company was
created to take over operations. After the C&ST also entered
receivership the Chicago & Interurban Traction took over operations
in 1910. At this point the system connected 63rd Street in Chicago with
Blue Island, Harvey and Kankakee. The C&IT had a very hard time
competing with the Illinois Central Railroad and after a brief stint in
freight service called its quits on April 23, 1927.
Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway:
The Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway began operations around 1903
serving Bedford Park and other suburbs of Chicago with the downtown
area. It abandoned operations in 1934.
Chicago Heights Street Railway: The Chicago Heights
Street Railway served its namesake town operating a 6 1/2 mile system.
It remained in operation until the 1920s when services were
Chicago, Aurora & DeKalb Railroad: The Chicago, Aurora & DeKalb Railroad connected Aurora (and a connection there with the Chicago,
Aurora & Elgin Railway) with DeKalb, a distance of 25 miles. It
was electrified in 1910 but found little success and after a bankruptcy
in 1913 was discontinued altogether in late January of 1923.
DeKalb-Sycamore Traction Company: The DeKalb-Sycamore
Traction Company opened in 1902 and served a 8 mile system connecting
DeKalb and Sycamore. The interurban was tied to the outside world only
by a connection with the Chicago, Aurora & DeKalb at DeKalb and when
the CA&D discontinued services in 1923 the DeKalb-Sycamore Traction
followed in August of 1924.
East St. Louis & Suburban Railway: The East St. Louis
& Suburban Railway began operations in 1892 and would eventually
connect East St. Louis, St. Louis, Lebanon, Alton and Waterloo. Along
with moving commuters and passengers the EStL&S also served a few
industries. It remained in operation until the late 1930s when services
East St. Louis, Columbia & Waterloo Railway: The East
St. Louis, Columbia & Waterloo Railway began operations in 1912
connecting its namesake cities. In 1932 services were discontinued in
favor of buses (served by the St. Louis Red Bud & Chester Bus
Freeport Railway, Light & Power Company: The Freeport
Railway, Light & Power Company operated between 1900 and 1933 at
which point bus service replaced trolleys. The FRL&P connected
served its namesake city of Freeport.
Galesburg Railway and Light Company: The Galesburg Railway and Light Company served its namesake city of Galesburg and also connected Knoxville.
Murphysboro & Southern Illinois Railway: The M&SI
began operations in 1909 around 1909 extending the Murphysboro Electric
Railway & Light Company to serve Carbondale, seven miles away.
With little profit potential and a steep main line service only survive
until January 26, 1927.
Southern Illinois Railway & Power Company: The
Railway & Power Company served Carrier Mills, Harrisburg and
Eldorado operating a 15-mile system. It remained in operation for 20
years from 1913 to 1933 being sold to the Central Illinois Public
Service Company just prior to abandonment due to loss of traffic from
highways and automobiles.
Chicago, Harvard & Geneva Lake Railway: The Chicago,
Harvard & Geneva Lake Railway served Harvard and Fontana. It opened
in 1899 and remained in service until it was abandoned in 1930 in favor
of buses and automobiles.
Joliet, Plainfield & Aurora Railway: The Joliet,
Plainfield & Aurora Railway began operations in May of 1901
connecting Joliet, Plainfield and Aurora. In 1907 the system was taken
over by the Joliet & Southern Traction Company, which soon after
completed an extension between Chicago Heights and Joliet. By 1914
however the J&S was in receivership and was sold off by the courts
with the Joliet & Eastern Traction Company taking over the line
connecting Joliet and Chicago Heights and the Aurora Plainfield &
Joliet Railway taking over the line from Joliet to Aurora. Most of the
original JP&A and J&S was abandoned altogether by the late
summer of 1924.
Kankakee Electric Railway: The Kankakee Electric Railway
connected its namesake town operating between 1891 and 1931 before being
replaced by more reliable highways and automobiles.
Sterling, Dixon & Eastern Traction Company: This
small interuban served its namesake communities, a distance of 16 miles.
It began operations in May, 1904 but was never very profitable.
Service was abandoned by September 17, 1925.
Galesburg & Kewaunee Electric Railway: The Galesburg
& Kewanee Electric Railway began operations in July of 1903
operating an 8 mile system connecting Kewanee with Galva, which was
completed in December of 1906. It intended to complete a 31 mile system
connecting with Galesburg but financial trouble ended any such plans.
In 1926 it was purchased by the North American Light & Power Company
and the operation was replaced by buses in December of 1935.
Lincoln Street Railway: The Lincoln Street Railway began
operations in 1891 serving its namesake city. It remained in operation
until 1929 when the system was replaced by buses.
Coal Belt Electric Railway: The Coal Belt Electric
Railway was an interurban system connecting the towns of Marion,
Carterville, Spillertown, Johnston City and Herrin. In total the
railroad operated 20 miles and provided both freight (particularly coal
as there were a number of mines in the area) and passenger service. It
began operations in 1901 and after just six years of operation was
purchased by the St. Louis Iron Mountain & Southern Railway (a
Missouri Pacific Railroad subsidiary). The railroad shutdown in
November of 1926.
Central Illinois Traction Company: The Central Illinois
Traction Company served a 20 mile system connecting Mattoon and
Charleston opening in June of 1904. The system was abandoned in favor of
buses in the spring of 1928.
Springfield, Clear Lake & Rochester: The SCL&R
began operations in 1909 operating an 11-mile system serving Springfield
and Rochester with a 4-mile branch to Clear Lake. It was renamed
twice; first as the Springfield Suburban and later as the Mississippi
valley Interurban Railway. It was an early casualty, abandoning on July
18, 1912 as ordered by the state.
Ottawa Electric Street Railway: The Ottawa Electric
Street Railway was the State of Illinois'
first electric railroad system beginning operations in the summer of
1889 serving its namesake town. It operated four different routes at
the peak of services and went through a number of acquisitions (Ottawa
Railway Light & Power Company, 1899; Northern Illinois Light &
Traction Company, 1903; Illinois Power & Light Company, 1923). It
was abandoned in favor of buses in the summer of 1927.
Paris Traction Company: The Paris Traction Company was
one of the smaller systems of ever operated, serving a route of around 3
miles through downtown Paris. It was purchased by the Central Illinois
Public Service Company in 1912 and was discontinued in favor of buses
Pekin Municipal Railway: The Pekin Municipal Railway
operated a three-mile system through the town of Pekin. For such a
small system it lasted a relatively long time, only being replaced in
November of 1935 by buses.
Peoria & Pekin Terminal Railway: The Peoria &
Pekin Terminal Railway was a shortlived interurban serving Peoria and
South Bartonville, later also connecting to Pekin. It began operations
in December of 1899 but remained in operation for only a few years
before filing for reorganization in 1906 becoming the Peoria Railway
Terminal Company. Soon after it was sold to the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad (the Rock Island) and Chicago
& Alton Railroad. After the C&A went bankrupt the CRI&P
took sole ownership of the route. It continued to serve passengers
until 1924 when the CRI&P discontinued services and operated only
freight on the line thereafter.
Chicago, Ottawa & Peoria Railway: The Chicago, Ottawa
& Peoria Railway began operations in 1904 and eventually connected
Joliet and Princeton by 1912, where it joined at the former town with
the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway. In 1923 it became part of
Illinois Traction. Its route remained in operation until 1934 when the
system was abandoned.
Quincy Railway: The Quincy Railway served its namesake
city operating from the late 19th century through the 1920s before
service was discontinued.
Tri-City Railway: The Tri-City Railway served Rock Island
and began operations in early 1906 taking over several smaller
interurbans which served the city dating back to the 1860s. Its final
operation was in 1940 before buses entirely replaced the streetcars.
Rock Island Southern Railway: The Rock Island Southern
Railway was an impressive interurban operating more as a main line
freight system than a streetcar line. Futhermore it used AC
electrification, far more powerful and efficient than DC systems. It
began operations in 1907 serving the cities of Rock Island, Monmouth and
Galesburg over two different divisions (Eastern Division and Northern
Division). Passenger service, which used heavyweight commuter cars in
later years operated until only 1927. However, freight operations
remained on the original route until the 1950s.
Rockford & Interurban Railway: The Rockford &
Interurban Railway began operations in September of 1902, the result of
the merger between the Rockford & Belvidere Electric Railway Compan
and Rockford Railway, Power & Light Company. Overall it served
Freeport, Belvidere and Beloit and Janesville, Wisconsin. Its
predecessors' histories date back to the 1880s and electrification did
not come until 1890. The service remained in operation until the 1930s
when it was replaced by buses.
Taylorville Railway Light & Power Company: The
Taylorville Railway Light & Power Company served the city of
Taylorville and was taken over by the Central Illinois Public Service
Company in 1912. Due to low ridership it was discontinued a year later
Kankakee & Urbana Traction Company: The Kankakee
& Urbana Traction Company began operations on December 20, 1912 and
served Urbana, Thomasboro, Rantoul, Ludlow and Paxton on a 27-mile
system. Streetcar service was terminated in just over a decade on March
Woodstock & Sycamore Traction Company: The Woodstock
& Sycamore Traction Company had little success. It began operations
in 1911 connecting Sycamore and Marengo on a 26 1/2 mile system. The
railroad never did operate electric streetcars (although this was
originally planned) but gasoline-powered equipment built by
Fairbanks-Morse. The line had suspended operations by 1918.
Fox & Illinois Union Railway: The Fox & Illinois
Union Railway began operations in 1911 and eventually connected
Yorkville and Morris. In just twenty years the unprofitable operation
suspended passenger service in 1931. However, freight service soldiered
on for another seven years before it too was discontinued in 1938.
Today, large stretches of this railroad can still be seen.
Indianapolis Railways: Indianapolis Railways was a creation in
1930 of reorganized interurbans Indianapolis Street Railway Company and
Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern Railroad which served various
districts of Indianapolis. These systems dated back to the mid-19th
century in 1864 as mule-powered operations. Indianapolis Railways
remained in operation for another 20 years before ending all trolley
rail service in 1953 on its famed Broad Ripple line.
Beech Grove Traction Company: The Beech Grove Traction
Company served downtown Indianapolis and the suburb of Beech Grove. It
began operations in 1911 operating a six-mile system and remained in
service until 1938 when it was discontinued due to its electricity being
cut over lack of payment.
Evansville Electric Railway: The Evansville Electric Railway served the city of Evansville and operated for only a few years between 1901 and 1906.
Evansville & Ohio Valley Railway: The Evansville
& Ohio Valley Railway was formed through the merger of three smaller
systems the Evansville & Eastern Electric Railway, Evansville &
Mount Vernon Electric
Railway and Evansville, Henderson & Owensboro Railway. Along with
serving Evansville the interurban connected Henderson, Mount Vernon and
Evansville, Suburban & Newburgh Railway: The
Evansville, Suburban & Newburgh Railway was an 11-mile system
connecting. The ES&N was originally chartered in December of 1887
reaching Newburgh a few years later. Along with passenger services the
railroad also served a coal mines in the area. In 1905 the railroad was
upgraded to electric operation. Unfortunately by the late 1920s
encroachment by highways and automobiles
was taking its toll and by 1930 downgrading began with passenger
service ending. Between 1941 and 1947 the ES&N also lost its
freight business after the area coal mines shut down and in May of 1948
the entire route was abandoned.
Indiana Railways & Light Company: The Indiana
Railways & Light Company was the creation of a merger in December of
1912 of the Kokomo Frankfort & Western Traction Company (created in
1911 and connected Kokomo and Frankfort, a distance of 26 miles) and
Kokomo Marion & Western Traction Company (created in 1903 from
smaller companies and connected Kokomo and Greentown). It lasted only
ten years before being merged into the Northern Indiana Power Company.
The interurban lines remained in operation until the spring of 1932 when
they were discontinued.
Indiana Service Corporation: The Indiana Service
Corporation was created in 1902. In 1914 it took over the operations of
the Fort Wayne & Northern Indiana
Traction Company (formerly the Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction
Company), and a few years later purchased the Fort Wayne &
Northwestern Railway and Marion & Bluffton Traction Company. ISC
served northeastern Indiana and remained in operation until it was
purchased by the Indiana Railroad in 1930 (not to be confused with
today's Indiana Rail Road, a Class II freight railroad).
Toledo & Chicago Interurban Railway: The Toledo &
Chicago Interurban Railway was created in 1906 and would eventually
serve the counties of Allen, DeKalb and Noble. Passenger services were
discontinued in 1937 and freight operations (between Fort Wayne and
Garrett) remained on until they too were finally abandoned in 1945.
Fort Wayne & Decatur Traction Company: The FW&DT
began life in 1903 as the Fort Wayne & Springfield Railway
connecting Fort Wayne to Decatur (a distance of 22 miles) by early 1907.
It was never very profitable and never reached Springfield going
bankrupt in 1912 at which time it was renamed as the Fort Wayne &
Decatur Traction. Again, never profitable it too was bankrupt by 1927
and eventually abandoned.
Wabash River Traction Company: The Wabash River Traction
Company served the town of Peru and was a shortlived operation between
1901 and 1904 before being taken over by the Fort Wayne & Wabash
Valley Traction Company.
Gary & Interurban Railroad: The Gary & Interurban
Railroad was created in 1913 through the mergers of the Goshen, South
Bend & Chicago Railroad; Valparaiso & Northern Railway; Gary
Connecting Railways Company; and Gary & Interurban Railway.
Bluffton, Geneva & Celina Traction: The Bluffton,
Geneva & Celina Traction connected Bluffton and Geneva beginning
operations in 1910. It was a mostly unsuccessful operation serving
sparsely populated towns and went bankrupt in 1917.
Chicago & Calumet District Transit: The Chicago &
Calumet District Transit was a very late interurban operation created
in 1931 through the merger of the Calumet Railways, Gary Railways, Shore
Line Motor Coach Company, and Midwest Motor Coach Company. By this time part
of the route also operated buses but rail service was still being
provided as well. The C&CDT would survive all of the way into 1974
before being dissolved. However, its interurban rail operations had
been abandoned some years earlier in the mid-1940s.
Union Traction Company:
The Union Traction Company was by
far Indiana's (and one of the country's) largest interurbans, operating
an impressive 410-mile system serving the region surrounding
Indianapolis. It began operations in the late 1910 when the
Indianapolis, New Castle & Toledo Electric Railway was reorganized
as the Union Traction Company upon the completion of its line between
Indianapolis and New Castle. The UTC quickly grew through construction
and merger. Some of its acquisitions included the Marion Electric Street
Railway; Elwood & Alexandria Railway; Indiana
Northern; Muncie, Hartford & Fort Wayne; Dayton & Muncie
Traction; and the Muncie & Portland Traction. After 1917, however,
the system would not earn a
profit through its passenger services. Freight continued to carry the
railroad until it too began to decline after 1926. In 1930 the UTC
became part of Samuel Insull's Midland United Corporation (the UTC
routes not abandoned were operated by Insull's Indiana Railroad).
Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company: The Indianapolis
& Cincinnati Traction Company was an ambitious plan to connect its
namesake cities. Unfortunately it would not come to pass although it
would operate a 91-mile system. The I&CT was created in 1902
extending from Indianapolis to Rushville by 1905 and then to
Connersville a year later. In 1906 the railroad purchased the
Shelbyville & Southeastern Traction which operated a 28-mile system
between Indianapolis and Shelbyville as well as a branch to Greensburg, a
21-mile line. The I&CT was unique in that it operated single-phase
AC electrification instead of the traditional direct-current systems.
While more efficient and powerful AC system are also much more
expensive. By 1906 the I&CT was bankrupt and while it emerged in
1910 found little success. In 1923 it switched to a more conventional
DC system and was reorganized as the Indianapolis & Southeastern
Railroad in 1929. Three years later in January of 1932 the rail service
was discontinued altogether in favor of buses.
Indianapolis & Eastern Railway: The Indianapolis & Eastern Railway operated between Indianapolis
and Richmond. It began services in July of 1902 and was purchased by
the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern Traction Company in March of
Indianapolis & Louisville Traction: The Indianapolis
& Louisville Traction Company began operations in 1907 connecting
Seymour and Sellersburg and was one part of three different interubans
that completed the link between Indianapolis and Louisville, Kentucky.
It operated on a 1200-volt D.C. electrification system and remained in
service until 1931 when it was purchased by the Indiana Railroad.
Indianapolis, Columbus & Southern Traction: The
Indianapolis, Columbus & Southern Traction was created in 1895 as
the Indianapolis, Greenwood & Franklin Railroad, changing its name
to the IC&S in 1901. The interurban would eventually connect
Indianapolis with Columbus serving a 59-mile system. It became part of
the Indiana Railroad in 1930.
Indiana Railroad: The Indiana Railroad was a creation in
1930 by its owner Samuel Insull and was made up of five of Indiana's
largest interurbans; the Union Traction Company, Interstate Public
Service Company, Indiana Service Corporation, Northern Indiana Power and
Terre Haute, Indiana
& Eastern Traction. In total it operated about a 600-mile system,
which included both freight and passenger services. Unfortunately the
Great Depression was very hard on the IR, along with increased
competition from buses and automobiles and by July of 1933 it was in
receivership. In 1937 IR's parent, Midland Utilities, was dissolved by
the Securities and Exchange Commission due to bankruptcy and its system
was mostly abandoned by the early 1940s.
Indianapolis Traction Terminal: The Indianapolis Traction
Terminal was more of a terminal railroad but which operated to serve
interurban lines. It was created in 1904 to manage and consolidate the
stations of the various interurbans serving Indianapolis. It's decline
followed the interurbans and was gone by the 1930s although its
impressive station, staging tracks and shed had been built for large
amounts of traffic that never came.
Lafayette Street Railway: The Lafayette Street Railway
was an interurban serving downtown Lafayette. It was created in 1884
originally operated as a horse-powered service but by 1888 had been
electrified. In 1903 it became part of the Fort Wayne, Logansport,
Lafayette & Lima Traction Company although after a number of name
changes became the Lafayette Street Railway again in 1922. Interurban
rail service remained in operation until 1940 when it was discontinued
in favor of buses.
St. Joseph Valley Traction Company: This interurban
operated a system serving Elkhart and Bristol, opening in 1910 and
covering about 9 miles. It later expanded operations building a 24-mile
line serving Bristol and La Grange. It also operated a subsidiary, the
St. Joseph Valley Railway, which connected La Grange and Columbia,
Ohio, a distance of 37 miles. It was never a profitable system given
the small communities it served and abandoned operations on April 17,
Northern Indiana Railway: This line was created in 1905
through the merger of smaller systems that served South Bend, Goshen,
Elkhart, La Porte, Niles, and Michigan City as well as St. Joseph,
Michigan. It was later renamed as the Chicago, South Bend &
Northern Indiana Railway but never built any further than its 1905
merger. The company also operated a subsidiary, the Michigan Railway.
Initially profitable, the early 1920s were difficult on the company and
bankruptcy occurred by 1927. It was reorganized as the Northern Indiana
Railways but it also fell into bankruptcy by the end of 1931. The
system was eventually completely converted to buses in 1940.
Chicago-New York Air Line: The Chicago-New York Air Line
was an ambitious, almost impossible, plan to connect Chicago and New
York via a 742-mile straight and flat "air line". It was chartered in
1906 but made it no further than a few miles of line constructed near
LaPorte, Indiana. The scheme turned out to be nothing more than a scam
as the builders took the Chicago investors' money who had financed the
fist stages of the grand railroad and were never heard from again.
Marion City Railway: The Marion City Railway was a shortlived interurban that took over the Indiana
Railroad's street operations in Marion in 1933. It remained in
operation until 1947 when the service was abandoned altogether in favor
Marion, Bluffton & Eastern Traction: The Marion,
Bluffton & Eastern Traction was created in December of 1905 and
connected its namesake cities. It remained in operation until 1931 when
rail services were abandoned.
Twin Branch Railroad: The Twin Branch Railroad was not
really an interurban passenger railroad but did operate electrified
trackage (about two miles) hauling coal to a Michigan Power Company
power plant located near Mishawka.
Marion & Bluffton Traction Company: The M&BT was
incorporated in 1905 as the Marion, Bluffton & Eastern Traction
Company to serve its namesake towns as well as Decatur. It opened a
year later on December 1, 1905 operating a total of 32 miles. In 1912
it was reorganized as the Marion & Bluffton Traction and operated
for another 14 years before being purchased by the Indiana Service
Corporation and later as another component of the Indiana Railroad.
Southern Indiana Gas & Electric Company: This system
had a history that dated back to the Evansville & Princeton Traction
Company of December, 1903 that served its two primary cities on a
28-mile system. It came under different ownership throughout the first
decade of the 20th century and later added a route to Patoka by 1908.
In 1912 it was taken over by the Public Service Company of Evansville
and renamed as the Southern Indiana Gas & Electric. It remained in
operation until 1933.
Lebanon-Thorntown Traction Company: This tiny interurban
began operations in July, 1905 connecting its namesake towns and a
connection with the THI&E. It remained in operation until July,
Angola Railway & Power Company: This small street railway served Paltytown and Lake James on a 3-mile system that opened in 1904 and was abandoned by 1918.
Fort Wayne & Northwestern Railway: The FW&N began
life in 1907 as the Toledo & Chicago Interurban Railway opened a
42-mile route serving Kendallville, Garrett, Fort Wayne, and Waterloo.
In 1913 the company was reorganized as the Fort Wayne & Northeastern
until 1924 when it was sold to the Indiana Service Corporation, later
becoming part of the Indiana Railroad.
Home Transit, "The Daisy Line": Home Transit, also known
as the "Daisy Line", served the town of New Albany and took over
operations of the street lines after the Indiana Railroad gave up on the
route in the early 1930s. It remained in operation until the mid-1940s
before abandoning all operations itself.
New Albany & Louisville Electric Railway: The New
Albany & Louisville Electric Railway was a latecomer to interurban
operation beginning service in 1934 on a 4.75 mile railroad line in
Louisville, a former Interstate Public Service property. The NA&L
lasted until 1945 when it was discontinued.
Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana Railway: The
Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana Railway was created in 1907
and took over the operations of the Northern Indiana Railway Company
which served Michigan City. In 1930 the CSB&NI was sold to the
Northern Indiana Railway, Inc. and two years later all streetcar service was mothballed for buses.
Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction Company: The
FW&WV began operations in 1904 as a Schoepf-McGowan property
(although it had a history of predecessors that dated back to 1901) and
eventually connected Fort Wayne, Wabash, Peru, Logansport, and
Lafayette. By 1907 it had reached Bluffton, Muncie, and Indianapolis as
well as the Tippecanoe Battle Ground. In 1911 the system was
reorganized as the Fort Wayne & Northern Indiana Traction Company
and again fell into bankruptcy, this time purchased by the Indiana
Service Corporation. By 1930 it became part of the large Indiana
Interstate Public Service Company: This company operated a
significant interurban between Indianapolis and Louisville, Kentucky
with a history that dated back to 1895 as the Indianapolis, Greenwood
& Franklin Railroad. Other lines that became part of the system
included the Louisville & Southern Indiana Traction Company (a Sam
Insull property), which was building north from Louisville (it was
purchased by the Louisville & Northern Railway & Lighting
Company in 1905); as well as the Indianapolis & Louisville Traction
Company created in 1905 to connect the two above systems giving a
seamless right-of-way between Indianapolis and Louisville. The
Interstate proved to be one of the state's most successful systems
offering upgraded passenger service between the two cities with sleepers
and parlor cars. They even had two named trains; the Dixie Flyers and Hoosier Flyers.
The line was completely upgraded around 1920 and in 1931 it was
renamed as the Public Service Company of Indiana. It later became part
of the Indiana Railroad system.
Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern Traction Company:
The Terre Haute, Indianapolis
& Eastern Traction Company was one of the state's largest operating
over 400 miles of routes. It began operations in 1907 from four
smaller companies: the Indianapolis & Western Railway, Indianapolis
& Eastern Railway, Richmond Street & Interurban Railway and
Indianapolis Coal Traction Company. Soon after it took over several
other lines: the Terre Haute Traction & Light Company, Indianapolis
& Northwestern Traction Company, Indianapolis & Martinsville
Rapid Transit Company and the famed Indianapolis,
Crawfordsville & Danville Electric Railway (also known as the "Ben
Hur Route"). It system radiated out in all directions from Indianapolis
and remained in service until April of 1930 when it fell into
bankruptcy. A year later it was acquired by Samuel Insull's Midland
Utilities and operated by his Indiana Railroad.
Winona Railroad: The Winona Railroad began life in 1902 and
known as the Winona & Warsaw Railway. The route served its namesake
city but unfortunately the system was in bankruptcy for most its
existence changing its name in 1905 to the Winona Interurban Railway and
in 1924 was renamed the Winona Service Company before its final
reorganization in 1926 when it came to be known as the Winona Railroad.
Passenger service on the line survived until September 1 of 1934 with
freight services lasting until May 31, 1952.
Cedar Rapids & Marion City Railway: The Cedar Rapids & Marion City Railway was one of Iowa's
first interurbans completed in 1892 on an 8-mile system connecting its
namesake cities. It later became part of the United Light and Railways
Company with the interurban rail service abandoned in 1938 in favor of
Charles City Western Railway: The Charles City Western
Railway is the predecessor to today's Iowa Traction Railroad, the last
remaining interurban freight railroad that still uses classic electric
motors in regular service. The CCW dates back to 1911 when its main
line between Marble Rock and Colwell was completed, a distance of about
21 miles. The railroad would eventually connect into downtown Charles
City as well as a route built around the town for freight service. Its
freight operation survived and carries on today as the Iowa Traction.
If you get the chance, go check out the IATR in person, it's a fascinating operation!
Des Moines & Central Iowa Railroad: The Des Moines
& Central Iowa
Railroad began operations as the Inter-Urban Railway, incorporated in
1899 and soon after in 1902 connected Des Moines to Colfax, a distance
of 23 miles. Four years later in 1906 the railroad built a 35-mile
branch connecting Des Moines to Perry. In 1922 the system was
reorganized as the Des Moines & Central Iowa Railroad. Passengers
services on the system were discontinued in 1949 and the remaining
freight business was switched from electric to diesel locomotives, which lasted into the 1950s.
Cedar Rapids & Iowa City Railway: The Crandic Route
began operations on August 13, 1904 as a mid-sized interurban directly
from the beginning serving Cedar Rapids, Iowa City, Swisher, and North Liberty
(back from parent Iowa Railway & Light Company certainly helped its
cause). In 1914 it looked to extend further to Davenport but after
seeing profits slip and what construction
had been completed, and opened, was abandoned by 1928. It continued to
provide passenger service until May 30, 1953 when this was abandoned at
which point the electricity was scrapped and diesels replaced the
motorcars. Today, it remains a profitable shortline system.
Des Moines Railway: The Des Moines Railway was a small
interurban railroad serving its namesake town between the late 1880s and
early 1930s. It was abandoned in favor of buses.
Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern Railway: Also known as the
Cedar Valley Road, the WCF&N was the second-largest in the state.
It began life as the Cedar Falls Rapid Transit Comapny of 1895 building
an eight-mile line serving Waterloo and Cedar Falls. In 1901 a 14-mile
extension reached Denver and two years later it was able to establish a
connection with the friendly CGW and gained trackaged rights to Sumner
(it was later able to build its own line to serve the town). By 1914 it
also reached La Porte City, Urbana, and Cedar Rapids were it
interchanged with the Crandic. The WCF&N was quite successful
because of the importance it placed on freight operations, allowing it
to operate top-notch and high speed passenger service. It was the last
interurban to provide passenger service when it abandoned the operation
in 1956. Soon after it was purchased by the Illinois Central and Rock
Island, which renamed the system as the Waterloo railroad.
Sioux City Service Company: The
Sioux City Service Company resulted from the renaming of the Sioux City
Traction Company, a local system created in 1899 to serve its namesake
city. In 1922 the SCS became part of the Sioux City Gas & Electric.
Southern Iowa Railway: The Southern Iowa Railway was
created in 1941 from several former companies which served Albia, Mystic
and Centerville, which began as a route built by the Wabash Railroad.
After the Wabash the route came under the control of the Iowa Central
Railroad (a Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway subsidiary), Southern
Iowa Traction in 1910, Centerville Light & Traction Company in 1914,
Southern Iowa Utilities Company in 1926 and finally the Southern Iowa
Railway in 1941. Freight service on the railroad lasted until 1960.
Albia Interurban Railway: The Albia Interurban Railway
served Albia, Hiteman and Hocking on an 11-mile railroad which opened in
1908. It was abandoned by 1925.
Tama & Toledo Electric Railway: The Tama & Toledo Electric
Railway was a very small railroad serving its two equally small
namesake towns. Passenger service lasted from the late 19th century
through 1925 but interestingly freight service remained on the route until 1954.
Oskaloosa-Buxton Electric Railway: The Oskaloosa-Buxton Electric
Railway began operations in 1907 connecting Oskaloosa and Beacon, a
distance of three miles. It remained in operation until 1920.
Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railway: The Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railway was Iowa's
largest interurban beginning operations in 1906 when it took over the
little Newton & Northwestern. The FDDM&S's main line operated
between Fort Dodge and Des Moines along with branches reaching Ames,
Rockwell City, Webster City and Lehigh. In total the system operated
147 miles of track. The railroad abandoned electric operation for
diesel locomotives in 1954 and a year later passenger service ended as
well. In 1968 the railroad was purchased by the Chicago & North
Western Railway from the Salzburg interests and much of the main line
today continues to carry freight, particularly gypsum.
Kansas City, Kaw Valley & Western Railway: The Kansas
City, Kaw Valley & Western Railway was intended to connect Kansas
City to Topeka but it only ever reached as far as Lawrence, which was
opened in 1915 (its original main line between Kansas City
and Bonner Springs opened a year earlier). The KCKV&W ended
passenger operations in 1935 after its 1929 bankruptcy. Interestingly,
freight operations on the railroad prospered for many years until 1963
using classic Baldwin-Westinghouse electric motors.
Union Traction Company of Kansas: The Union Traction
Company of Kansas
was created in 1904 by the state initially linking Coffeyville,
Independence and Cherryvale. At the peak of operations the system was 88
miles in length and connected a number of additional towns in southern
Kansas and northern Oklahoma. It remained in operation until 1947 at
which time rail services were replaced by buses.
Hutchinson & Northern Railway:
The Hutchinson &
Northern Railway began operations in the early 20th century and was
never really a true interurban railroad but did operate classic General
Electric freight motors. The H&N was built to serve a salt mine
near Wichita in Hutchinson and continues to operate a five-mile railroad
still moving the same commodity. It ended electric operation in 1970
but today still operates two EMD SW900 switchers.
Iola Electric Railroad: The Iola Electric Railroad began
operations in 1901 and connected Iola, Gas and La Harpe on a 10 1/2-mile
system. It was never a very profitable railroad and discontinued
services in March of 1919.
Kansas City, Leavenworth & Western Railway: The
Kansas City, Leavenworth & Western Railway was a 26-mile system
connecting Wolcott, Kansas City, Lansing and Leavenworth. It began
operations in 1900 as the Kansas City-Leavenworth Railway but was sold
in 1905 and renamed the Kansas City
Western Railway. It gained its final name as the KCL&W in 1920
when it entered receivership, although for several years prior to that
time it was a rather profitable enterprise for only hauling passengers.
Interestingly it was shutdown in 1938 when the building of a dam and
resulting track relocation proved to be too expensive for the railroad
to carry out.
Missouri & Kansas Railroad: The Missouri & Kansas Railroad operated between 1906 and 1940 serving the East St. Louis area along the Missouri River.
Topeka Railway Company: The Topeka Railway Company was
a local interurban railroad serving its namesake city. It employed all
Birney-built streetcars and lasted until July of 1937 when services were
St. Joseph & Savannah Electric Railway: The StJ&S
began operations in 1911, operating an 11-mile system serving its
namesake towns. It was owned by the St. Joseph Railway Light Head &
Power Company. Service remained until the late 1930s when it was
Joplin & Pittsburg Railway: The J&P began
operations in 1907 and resulted from a merger between the Pittsburg
Street Railway and Joplin & Pittsburg Street Railway. By around
1910 it had reached (aside from its namesake cities) Weir City, Scammon,
Columbus, Cherokee, Mulberry, Croweburg, West Mineral, Dunkirk, Ringo,
and Girard. By that point it had also acquired the smaller Girard Coal
Belt Electric Railway in 1909. At its peak the system stretched 82 miles and interchanged with the Southwest Missouri Electric
and Northeast Oklahoma Railroad. By the early 1930s it had abandoned
all passenger service but freight operations remained until 1951.
Northeast Oklahoma Railroad: This interurban, which began
operations in 1908 as the Kansas & Missouri Inter-Urban Railway was
situated more in the southern Kansas than Oklahoma. By 1922 it was
continuing to build new lines and reached Miami, Commerce and Picher,
Oklahoma (where it interechanged with the Southwest Missouri) as well as
Columbus, Kansas and an interchange with the J&P. In 1930 it also
purchased former J&P lines north to Cherokee and in 1939 took over a
Southwest Missouri branch to Baxter Springs, Oklahoma. In 1940 all
passenger services were discontinued. However, it had built up enough
freight service that it remained in operation as a shortline until 1967
when it was purchased by the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway (Frisco).
Manhattan City & Interurban Railway: The MC&I was a merger between two systems that came to form a main line serving Manhattan
and Junction City. The operation was created in 1914 through the
merger of the two systems, covering 16 miles. Service was abandoned by
Arkansas Valley Interurban Railway: The Arkansas Valley
Interurban Railway was an interurban which connected Wichita, Newton and
Hutchinson operating roughly a 42-mile railroad (its main line served
Wichita and Newton while it had branches serving Hutchinson and Bethel
College). The Great Depression
hit the line hard and it was sold in 1939 and named changed to the
Arkansas Valley Railway. By 1940 passenger services were nearing
discontinuance and in the summer of 1942 the track and other capital of
the line was sold for the war effort.
Winfield Street Railroad: The Winfield Street Railroad
served its namesake town operating in the downtown area. It began
operations in the early 1900s and lasted until the 1930s when it was
Kansas City, Clay County & St. Joseph Railway: The Kansas City,
Clay County & St. Joseph Railway operated a 79-mile railroad
connecting Kansas City and St. Joseph which opened in 1913. Its main
line serving its namesake city was a 51-mile segment while it also
operated a 28-mile branch to Excelsior Springs. It lasted until early
March of 1933 when services were suspended.
Kansas City, Lawrence, & Topeka Railway: The Kansas City,
Lawrence, & Topeka Railway was created in 1909 through the merger of
the Kansas City & Olathe Railway and Kansas City & Topeka
Railway. The new KCL&T was intended to connect Kansas City, Lawrence
and Topeka but only was able to complete an 11-mile railroad serving
Kansas City and Zarah. It was never a very profitable operation and
called it quits in 1927.
Southwest Missouri Electric Railway: The Southwest
Missouri Electric Railway was one of the state's first began operations
in 1890 (as a mule powered operation, it upgraded to electric
in 1903) and would eventually radiate out of Joplin connecting the
small towns of Cartersville, Carthage, Galena, Webb City, Baxter Springs
and and Picher. Along with passenger services the railroad also
carried some freight traffic. It remained in operation until 1940 when
services were discontinued.
Ohio Valley Electric Railway: The Ohio Valley Electric Railway served Huntington, West Virginia; Ashland, Kentucky;
and Ironton, Ohio beginning operations in September of 1899 when it
took over the operations of three smaller systems the Consolidated Light
& Railway Company, Ashland & Catlettsburg Street Railway, and
Ironton & Petersburg Street Railway. It remained in operation until
1937 when streetcar service was discontinued.
Cincinnati, Newport & Covington Railway: The Cincinnati, Newport & Covington Railway began operations in 1892 taking over the South Covington & Cincinnati
Street Railway a railroad which was made up of several small lines.
The line served Covington and Newport. The CN&C's streetcar
remained in operation until 1950 when it was discontinued in favor of
Kentucky Traction & Terminal Company: The Kentucky Traction
& Terminal Company began operations in the early 1900s connecting
Lexington, Paris, Georgetown, Frankfort, Versailles and Nicholasville.
It remained in operation until 1934 when streetcar operations were
Louisville & Eastern Railroad: The Louisville
& Eastern Railroad began operations in 1901 connecting Louisville
and Crestwood and six years later extended its route to LaGrange.
Because the route was built to a five-foot gauge specification it was
extremely difficult to interchange with, thus the L&E was a rather
unprofitable railroad. It lasted until October of 1935 when service was
Louisville & Interurban Railroad: The Louisville & Interurban Railroad opened in 1901 connecting Louisville
to La Grange and soon after extended to Jefferstown (1904), Prospect
(1904), Okalona (1905), Orell (1907), Fern Creek (1908) and Shelbyville
(1910). It remained in operation until 1935 when its final operating
route between Louisville and Orell was discontinued.
Louisville Railway: The Louisville Railway was one of the
state's oldest interurbans dating back to 1859 when it was a
horse-powered operation known as the Louisville City Railway. It was
renamed the Louisville Railway in 1890 when the Louisville
City Railway and another small operation merged. Streetcar service
survived until 1948 when it was discontinued in favor of buses.
Orleans-Kenner Electric Railway: The Orleans-Kenner Electric Railway connected New Orleans
(using a private right-of-way located on the north side of the city)
and Kenner operating between 1914 and 1930 before service was
discontinued in favor of buses. Before service was completely abandoned
the system had come under the management of the New Orleans Public Service Company
Southwestern Traction & Power Company: The Southwestern Traction & Power Company was never a very profitable operation. It served New Iberia
and Jeanerette operating a 12-mile system between 1912 and 1918 before
falling into bankruptcy and service was abandoned. The line was not
taken up for scrap, however, until the early 1920s.
St. Tammany & New Orleans Railway & Ferry Company: The
St. Tammany & New Orleans
Railway & Ferry Company was a very short-lived interurban railroad.
It served Mandeville and Covington on a system covering some 14 miles.
It was opened in 1909 as a standard railroad using gasoline-powered
"Doodlebugs". However, in 1915 the service was upgraded to full
electric power. From this point it operated until 1918 until the system
was completely abandoned due to low traffic.
New Orleans City & Lake Railroad: The New Orleans
City & Lake Railroad was created in 1883 from the New Orleans City
Railroad. It operated until 1892 when it became part of the New Orleans
Bangor, Hampden, & Winterport Railway: The Bangor,
Hampden, & Winterport Railway was chartered in the late 19th
century to connect its namesake cities. The system later became part of
the Bangor Electric & Railway Company.
Biddeford & Saco Railway: The Biddeford & Saco Railway connected its namesake cities and operated until 1939 upon which time it was abandoned.
Bangor Hydro Electric Company: The Bangor Hydro Electric
Company today is a utility company. However, it once also operated a
streetcar operation which served Bangor. It lasted until the final day
of December, 1945 when operations were discontinued.
Calais Street Railway: The Calais Street Railway was
chartered in March of 1893 to operate the St. Stephen Street Railway
Company, which was created in 1891. Streetcar lasted until 1929 when it
Rockland, Thomaston & Camden Street Railway: The
Rockland, Thomaston & Camden Street Railway served Rockland and Glen
Cove operating between 1892 and 1931 before become part of Middle West
Utilities. Streetcars were discontinued that same year (1931).
Bangor Railway & Electric Company: This interurban
began operations in 1906 as the Bangor & Northern Railroad
connecting its home city with Charleston, a distance of 26 miles. It
did operate some freight service, notably moving potatoes. However,
with little of either freight or passenger traffic service only survived
until around 1930.
Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville Street Railway: The
LA&W served its namesake cities as well as Bath and Yarmouth. It
began life as the Auburn, Mechanic Falls & Norway Street Railway and
later was renamed the Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville Street
Railway. It took over a number of small systems, notably the Lewiston,
Brunswick & Bath Street Railway, August Winthrop & Gardner
Railway, Brunswick & Yarmouth Railway, and the Auburn & Turner
Railroad. It went bankrupt in 1919 and reemerged as the Androscoggin
& Kennebec Railway. It fell apart piecemeal through the 1930s
before finally being sold at auction in early 1941.
Androscoggin & Kennebec Railway: The Androscoggin
& Kennebec Railway was created in 1919 and took over the operations
of the Lewiston Augusta & Waterville Street Railway (successor to
the Lewiston Brunswick & Bath Street Railway, originally known as
the Bath Railway chartered in 1891). It operated until 1932 when
streetcar was discontinued in favor of buses.
Norway & Paris Street Railway: The Norway & Paris
Street Railway connected the small towns of Norway and Paris which were
once home to paper mills. It operated on a just a two-mile railroad
and was abandoned in 1918.
Portland Railroad: The Portland Railroad was one of the state's
first interurban railroads. It opened in 1860 as a horse-powered
operation and and was operated for over 50 years before being taken over
by the Cumberland County Power & Light Company in 1912. Streetcar
service in Portland remained until 1941 when it was discontinued.
Portsmouth, Kittery & York Street Railway: The
Portsmouth, Kittery & York Street Railway began operations in 1897
serving Badger's Island, Kittery and York Beach. The PK&Y became
part of the Portsmouth, Dover & York Street Railway in November,
1901. It remained in service until 1923 when streetcar railroad
operations were discontinued.
Atlantic Shore Line Railway: The Atlantic Shore Line
Railway served Sanford operating until the spring of 1947 when it became
part of the York Utilities Company.
The history of the line dated back to 1893 and was created through
several small streetcar systems in southern Maine. At its peak the
company served Kittery, Biddeford, Saco, Dover, South Berwick, and
Portland (where it interchanged with the Portland Railroad). It operate
some LCL freight service but nothing of significant profit. It fell
into bankruptcy a few times before being purchased York Utilities in
1922, which a year later constructed a new line between Sanford and
Springvale and abandoning much of the original system. The last
remaining part of the interurban served York and Springvale before being
Somerset Traction Company: The Somerset Traction Company
began operations in 1895 serving Madison, Lakewood and Skowhegan. The
interurban railroad was built for local residents and tourists to enjoy
the attractions in the area, such as the amusement park built by the
company at Lake Wesserunsett. It remained in operation until 1928 when
services were discontinued.
Aroostook Valley Railroad: The Aroostook Valley Railroad
dates back to 1909 when it was chartered to connect Washburn and Presque
Isle (it later also connected New Sweden, Carson and Caribou). At the
railroad's peak it operated 32 miles of track and was electrified
between 1910 and the mid-1940s. Around this time passenger operations
were also discontinued. Interestingly, however, the AVR continued on as
a freight line using General Electric 44-tonners and remained in
service until April, 1996 when operations were finally suspended.
Waterville, Fairfield & Oakland Street Railway: The
Waterville, Fairfield & Oakland Street Railway served its namesake
cities operating from around the turn of the 20th century until 1937
when services were abandoned.
Portland-Lewiston Interurban Railroad: This system dated back to the Portland, Gray & Lewiston Railroad of 1907. However, due to securing financing
the line did not open between the two cities until 1914. Soon after it
was opened it was purchased by another party, the Androscoggin Electric
Company, and renamed as the Portland-Lewiston Interurban. It was built
to high standards not commonly found the east (especially in New
England) and more resembled western interurbans in that it tried to act
as a feeder freight line for railroads. However, its connections were
with the Maine Central, a railroad never interested in dealing with
interurbans. Still, it did its best to serve freight on the 31-mile
line dispatching two box motors daily. The state forced the power
company to divest itself of the interurban in 1932 cutting off the
line's funds. As such, a year later on June 29, 1933 service was
Other notable Maine interurban railroads:
Auburn & Turner Railroad
Augusta, Winthrop & Gardiner Street Railway
Rockland, South Thomaston & St. George Railway
Lewiston & Auburn Street Railway
Portland & Yarmouth Street Railway
York Utilities Company
Annapolis Short Line (Annapolis and Baltimore Short Line): The Annapolis Short Line, officially known as the Annapolis and Baltimore Short Line
was created in March of 1887. It was a shortlived interurban railroad
that served the Annapolis area, near Baltimore until 1907 when it was
purchased by the Maryland Electric Railway. Later the route was purchased by the Washington, Annapolis & Baltimore Electric
Railroad in 1921. Finally the route became part of the Baltimore &
Annapolis Railroad in 1935. In 1952 passenger service was discontinued
followed by freight operations in 1968.
Cumberland & Westernport Electric Railway: The
C&W began operations in 1902 operating a 25-mile system connecting
Cumberland, Lonaconing, and Westernport. It was to be western
Maryland's only interurban but unfortunately was never able to earn much
in the way of income. It was finally abandoned in 1926.
Cumberland Electric Railway: The Cumberland Electric Railway
began operations on the Fourth of July, 1891 connecting North Centre
Street to Narrows Park in Cumberland. The railroad remained in
operation until 1932 when it was discontinued.
Frederick & Middletown Railway: The Frederick &
Middletown Railway was the name initially given to the Hagerstown &
Frederick Railway, which connected its namesake towns. Services began
in August of 1896 and by October of that year had connected Frederick
and Middletown. Passenger services on the railroad ended in 1939 while freight operations remained until 1961.
Hagerstown & Frederick Railway Company: The H&F began operations in 1913 through the formation of several small systems.
It was a quite large interurban at 76 miles in length and connecting
its namesake cities as well as smaller communities such as Boonesboro,
Myersville, Middletown, Jefferson, Braddock Heights, and Thurmont.
Additionally, it reached Pennsylvania towns like Williamsport, and Shady
Grove. In 1906 it established interchange service with the
Chambersburg, Greencastle & Waynesboro. The H&F was one of the
few eastern lines to actually build up a profitable freight business,
thanks in part to its connections with the Western Maryland Railway
which was willing to negotiate into interchange agreements (the nearby
Baltimore & Ohio, however, was not). It was the last interurban to
provide passenger service east of the Mississippi when service was
finally discontinued on February 20, 1954. From there, the line was
converted to diesels for freight traffic although this too was abandoned four years later in 1958.
Connecticut Valley Street Railway: The Connecticut Valley
Street Railway was chartered in 1900 to connect Athol, Greenfield,
Northampton and Amherst. The railroad remained in operation until 1924
when streetcar service was abandoned.
Boston & Worcester Street Railway: The B&W was
the only true interurban in the state, or at least one which operated
with interurban equipment. It began operations over its entire 44 mile
main line on June 30, 1903 connecting its namesake cities. It later
built a short branch to serve Natick. The system remained somewhat
stable through 1918 until serious deficits began to occur. In 1925 it
fell into bankruptcy and was
renamed as the Boston, Worcester & New York Street Railway in 1927.
The company tried to establish a solid business of less-than-carload
freight (LCL) but lost this to truck traffic by the late 1920s. By 1932 the entire system had been converted to buses.
Interstate Street Railway: The Interstate Street Railway
began operations in 1892 connecting Pawtucket and North Attleboro. A
rather unprofitable operation from the start the property was
reorganized or purchased a number of times before streetcar service was
discontinued in 1933.
Boston & Northern Street Railway: The Boston &
Northern Street Railway served communities surrounding Boston and was
formed in 1901 from the Lynn & Boston
Railroad, itself a combination of several smaller interurban railroads.
At its peak the B&N operated over 16 miles of track and later
became part of the Bay State Street Railway. Overall the entire
railroad was never very profitable and was abandoned in 1918.
Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn Railroad: The Boston,
Revere Beach & Lynn Railroad was more of a commuter railroad than an
interurban streetcar line, at least when it was first constructed. The
BRB&L began operations in July of 1875 connecting East Boston,
Rowes Wharf, the Atlantic Avenue Elevated, Revere Beach, Winthrop and
Lynn. The commuter line was quite profitable, so much so that by 1914
it began updating its system to electric operation, which was completed
in 1928. However, like all interurbans the Great Depression and
automobile hit the railroad hard. It filed for bankruptcy in 1937 and
just three years later in January of 1940 discontinued all operations.
Warren, Brookfield & Spencer Street Railway: The
Warren, Brookfield & Spencer Street Railway connected Spencer,
Brookfield and Warren on a system that stretched nearly 20 miles. It
was a rather unprofitable railroad lasting only until 1912 when it
defaulted on its loans and was sold off in 1915.
Dedham & Franklin Street Railway: The Dedham &
Franklin Street Railway connected Dedham and Franklin. It began
operations in 1899 but was not very successful and was abandoned by
Gardner Electric Street Railway: The Gardner Electric
Street Railway served the City of Gardner. It began operations in 1894
before becoming part of the Gardner Westminster & Fitchburg Street
Railway just a few years later in 1899. Streetcar service in the city
lasted until 1924 when it was discontinued.
Grafton & Upton Railroad: The Grafton & Upton
Railroad dates back to 1873 when it was known as the Grafton Centre
Railroad which connected Grafton with the Boston & Maine Railroad
junction at North Grafton. It became the G&U in 1888 by order of
the state legislature. The railroad reached its final length when it
connected to Milford in 1890 operating a route of roughly 15 miles. The
G&U operated both passenger and freight services, the former via
streetcars until 1928 when it was discontinued. Freight service,
however, has prevailed on the line and the G&U remains an active
Class III shortline today.
Hingham Street Railway: The Hingham Street Railway served
the town of Hingham operating from the North Street depot to Queen
Anne's Corner. It remained in operation from the late 19th century
until the 1920s when service was discontinued.
Milford & Uxbridge Street Railway: The Milford &
Uxbridge Street Railway was the last interurban railroad to operate the
route serving Milford. Service dated back to the Milford Street Railway
of the late 19th century and the M&USR took over services in 1901
which lasted until 1928.
Holyoke Street Railway: The Holyoke Street Railway was
chartered in 1884 and was built to connect Holyoke with a nearby
amusement park the railroad constructed known as Mountain Park. While
the amusement park remained in service through the 1980s the streetcar
operation was discontinued in 1936.
Massachusetts Northeastern Street Railway: The Massachusetts
Northeastern Street Railway served Newburyport and Amesbury taking over
in 1912 the property operated by the Haverhill & Southern New
Hampshire Street Railway. It remained in service until 1930 when
service was abandoned.
Middlesex & Boston Street Railway: The
Middlesex & Boston Street Railway took over the operations of the
South Middlesex Street Railway in 1907 (the property dated back to the
Natick Electric Street Railway of 1891). It remained in service for
only three years before being purchased by the Boston Suburban Electric
Companies. Its name remained and the railroad actually survived into
Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) era when it began being subsidized
in 1964. The MBTA took over the operation in 1972 and continues to
provide commuter services over much of the route.
Union Street Railway: The Union Street Railway was
created in 1894 to serve New Bedford and Fall River. It later extended
services to Wareham, Onset, and Monument Beach in 1901. The interurban
railroad remained in operation until the 1940s when it was discontinued
in favor of buses.
Hoosac Valley Street Railway: The Hoosac Valley Street
Railway was a small interurban which served North Adams. It began
operations in 1886 and lasted for 20 years before becoming part of the Berkshire Street Railway in June of 1906.
Northampton Street Railway: The Northampton Street
Railway began operations in 1865 serving the town of Northampton. The
railroad remained in operation until 1952 but streetcar service had been
discontinued in 1933.
Oak Bluffs Street Railway: The Oak Bluffs Street Railway
began operations in 1895 serving the resort area of Martha's Vineyard.
It operated five miles of track and remained in service until 1917 when
operations were abandoned.
Pittsfield Electric Street Railway: The Pittsfield
Electric Street Railway came into being in 1886 after the Pittsfield
Street Railway electrified its operations. It remained in service until
1910 when it became part of the Berkshire Street Railway. Streetcar
service on the route lasted until 1932.
Bay State Street Railway: The Bay State Street Railway
served the Boston area and came into being in 1911 taking over the
operations of the Boston & Northern Street Railway. It remained in
operation until 1919 when it became the Eastern Massachusetts Street
Railway. Streetcar service on the line lasted as late as 1952.
Hartford & Springfield Street Railway: The Hartford &
Springfield Street Railway began operations in 1896 connecting Hartford
and Springfield. It operated streetcars until 1926 when the service was
Springfield Street Railway: The Springfield Street
Railway served the city of Springfield. It began operations in 1868 and
streetcar service lasted until 1940 when it was discontinued in favor
of buses (the company itself carried on until 1974).
Northern Massachusetts Street Railway: The Northern Massachusetts
Street Railway took over the operations of the Gardner, Westminster
& Fitchburg Street Railway. It remained in operation until 1924
when streetcar service on the route was abandoned.
Other notable Massachusetts interurbans:
Athol & Templeton Street Railway
Athol-Orange Street Railway
Bay Cities Consolidated Railway
Boston Worcester Trolley Air Line
Boston West End Street Railway
Citizens Electric Street Railway
Dartmouth & Westport Street Railway
Gloucester, Essex & Beverly Street Railway
Greenfield & Montague Transportation Company
Haverhill & Amesbury Street Railway
Mt. Tom Incline Railway
New Bedford & Ouset Street Railway
Newton Street Railway
Northampton & Amherst Street Railway
Shelburne Falls & Colerain Street Railway
Uxbridge & Blackstone Street Railway
Worcester & Marlboro Street Railway
Worcester & Southbridge Street Railway
Worcester Consolidated Railway
Ann Arbor & Ypsilanti Electric Railway: The Ann Arbor & Ypsilanti Electric
Railway took over the operations of the Ann Arbor Street Railway in
1896, which served the City of Ann Arbor. It remained in service for
only a few years before being reorganized as the Detroit, Ypsilanti
& Ann Arbor Railway in 1901. Never a very profitable railroad
streetcar service on the line was discontinued altogether in 1925.
Southern Michigan Railway: The Southern Michigan Railway
served the Berrien Springs area. It began operations in 1906 and
provided service until 1934 when it was abandoned.
Detroit United Railways: Detroit United Railways was
created on the last day of December, 1900 to consolidate the many
interurban railroads operating in and around Detroit.
Political tampering forced the interurban into bankruptcy in 1925 and
what was left of the system was finally abandoned in May of 1927.
Michigan United Railway: Another of Michigan's large
interurban systems, the Michigan United began operations in 1906 through
the formation of several smaller lines and served Lansing, Battle
Creek, Owosso, Kalamazoo, Jackson,
Flint, and Saginaw. It was also another of the state's well engineered
lines providing high speed service with heavyweight equipment. The
company was even profitable enough to purchase the Michigan Central's
former main line (a standard railroad) between Kalamazoo and Mattawan
when the company realigned its route. In 1911 the Michigan United
leased a small standard railroad, the Kalamazoo Lake Shore
& Chicago Traction, which was abandoned by 1925 due to lack of
profits. Prior to this the company had also acquired another small
line, the Grand Rapids, Holland & Chicago Railway. By 1923 the MU
was in financial trouble and was reorganized as the Michigan Electric
Railway. Profits continued to decline through the 1920s and service was
finally abandoned by 1929.
Eastern Michigan Railways: Eastern Michigan Railways was created in 1928 from the Lincoln Park Coach Line, a route originally built by the Detroit
& Toledo Shore Line Railroad in 1904. It remained in service for
just a few years until 1932 when streetcar service was discontinued.
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon Railway: The
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon Railway was funded and owned by
Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Company. It began in 1902 and
eventually its main line connected Grand Rapids and Muskegon Heights
with a branch to Fruitport. It was sold in 1912 to the United Light and
Railways Company and until the "Roarin' Twentys" made healthy profits.
However, as automobiles and highways improved earnings declined. The
GRGH&M was in bankruptcy by 1926 and abandoned altogether by 1928.
Grand Rapids, Holland & Chicago Railway: The Grand
Rapids, Holland & Chicago Railway was created in 1904 from the
reorganization of the Grand Rapids, Holland & Lake Michigan Rapid
Railway of 1902. It connected the cities of Grand Rapid, Holland and
Saugatuck and operated until 1926 when streetcar service was abandoned.
Grand Rapids Railroad: The Grand Rapids Railroad served the City
of Grand Rapids and remained in operation until 1935 when service was
abandoned in favor of buses.
Detroit United Railway: The state's largest
interurban, the Detroit United was created in 1901 through several small
Detroit interurban systems thank to the Everett-Moore interests. By
1915 the interurban had four major main lines that radiated away from
Detroit serving Monroe, Toledo (Ohio), Almont, and Imlay City. The
company was large enough and connected several towns of size that it
operated by local service as well as through ("limited") service. Its
various main lines were broken down into separate named lines including
the Detroit Monroe & Toledo Short Line, Detroit Jackson &
Chicago, and the Rapid Railway. The company was able to provide through
service to such far away cities as Cleveland, Kalamazoo, Lansing, and
Ann Arbor thanks to connections with the Lake Shore Electric, Michigan
United, and Cincinnati & Lake Erie. It also owned a Canadian line,
the Sandwich, Windsor & Amhersburg. Unfortunately, with little
freight traffic profits fell apart after 1920. It slowly cutback
services for the rest of that decade and was gone altogether by October,
Lake Superior District Power Company: The Lake Superior
District Power Company operated streetcar railroads of Ashland. This
line was originally known as the Ashland Street Railway, which at first
used horses for power. The railway was merged into the Ashland Light,
Power & Street Railway Company and electrified in 1893. In 1922 it
became known as the Lake Superior District Power Company and services
lasted for another eleven years before being discontinued in 1933.
Jackson & Battle Creek Traction Company: The Jackson
& Battle Creek Traction Company completed half of a route which
connected Battle Creek and Kalamazoo (the other half being the Michigan
Traction Company). In 1906 the company became part of the expansive
Michigan United Railway.
Detroit, Jackson & Chicago Railway: The Detroit,
Jackson & Chicago Railway began operations in 1907 from the Detroit,
Ypsilanti, Ann Arbor & Jackson Railway (which had its beginnings as
Ypsilanti & Ann Arbor Railway of 1897). Serving Dearborn the
railroad remained until 1928 when it became known as the Eastern
Michigan Railways. A year later all streetcar service was abandoned.
Ludington & Northern Railway: The Ludington &
Northern Railway dates back to the Epworth League Railway of 1895, which
changed its name to the L&N in 1901. It served Mason County
connecting Ludington and Epworth Heights and operating only two miles of
trackage. Interestingly, the L&N remained in service hauling sand
until 1982 when it was abandoned.
Michigan Electric Railway: The Michigan Electric Railway
began operations in 1923 on a railroad route constructed by the Jackson
City Railway of 1882. Over the years the interurban was known by
different names such as the Jackson Street Railway, Jackson &
Suburban Traction Company, Jackson Consolidated Traction Company and
Michigan United Railways before known as the Michigan
Electric. It remained in operation for only five years before being
renamed the Jackson Transportation Company. Streetcar service ended
soon after in 1936.
Benton Harbor & St. Joe Railway: The BH&StJ dated
back to two small inteurbans that began service between 1906 and 1911
serving Benton Harbor, Dowagiac, Coloma, Watervliet, Paw Paw Lake, and
Eau Claire on a system that stretched about 44 miles and connected to
the Pere Marquette Railway. The company relied significant on steamboat
traffic coming to and from Benton Harbor. It passed into the hands of
different owners in the early 1920s until the American Gas &
Electric Company sold off or abandoned most of the system later that
decade. The remaining portion was abandoned in 1935.
Saginaw-Bay City Railway: This interurban began service
in 1896 as the Inter-Urban Railway between Saginaw and Bay City on a
13-mile route. In 1899 it was renamed as the Saginaw Valley Traction
Company and gained its final name in 1910. In 1914 it came under the
control of the Michigan Railway but lack of serious freight or passenger
traffic caused the system to enter receivership by 1921. It fought
with the city of Saginaw over fare increases and ended service
completely by that August. In 1923 a new system the Saginaw Transit
Company tried to restore service but eventually gave up altogether by
Escabana Traction Company: This small interurban served its
namesake city and Gladstone on an 11-mile system that opened in 1910.
In 1920 it was renamed as the Escabana Power & Traction Company but
was completely abandoned by May, 1932.
Houghton County Traction Company: Another small
interurban that began life as the Houghton County Street Railway serving
Houghton, Mohawk, Keweenaw, Peninsula, Red Jacket, and Hubbell on a
31-mile system. The history of the company dated back to 1901 and in
1908 was renamed as the Houghton County Traction. It first went
bankrupt in 1921 and ended services entirely by 1932.
Other notable Michigan interurban railroads:
Detroit & River St. Clair Railway
Escanaba Electric Street Railway
Kalamazoo Street Railway
Mt. Clemens Fast Line
Owasso & Corunna Traction Company
Port Huron & Gratiot Street Railway
Royal Oak, Birmingham, Bloomfield & Pontiac Railway
Saginaw Valley Railway
Gulfport & Mississippi Coast Traction Company: The
Gulfport & Mississippi Coast Traction connected Pass Christian,
Biloxi, and Gulfport on a system that was about 24 miles in length. The
interurban began operations in 1905 and later extended services through
1907. Early on the company was able to move substantial amounts of
passenger traffic given the larger cities it served. However, by the
oncoming of the automobiles in the 1920s and lack of freight service
this quickly played out. It remained in service until 1926 when
streetcar service was discontinued in favor of buses. Part of railroad
continued to carry the remaining freight services until 1949 when this
too was abandoned.
Greenville Street Railway: The Greenville Street Railway
served the City of Greenville beginning operations in 1901. At its peak
it would operation eight miles of track. Over the years it was known
by several different names; Greenville Light & Car Company, Delta
Electric Light Power & Manufacturing Company, Delta Light &
Traction Company and Mississippi Power & Light Company. Streetcars
remained in service until 1929 when they were discontinued.
Hattiesburg Street Railway: The Hattiesburg Street Railway was a
small interurban operation serving the City of Hattiesburg. It
operated between West Main Street and 8th Street remaining in service
until the late 1920s when it was abandoned.
Pascagoula Street Railway & Power Company: The
Pascagoula Street Railway & Power Company began operations in
January of 1903 and would eventually connect Anderson Park, Moss Point
and Dantzler Shipyard. It remained in service until 1925 at which time
streetcars were discontinued in favor of buses.
Vicksburg Street Railway: The Vicksburg Street Railway
dates back to 1891 and at its peak operated about seven miles of track
in the city. Over the years it was known by several different names;
Vicksburg Railroad Power & Manufacturing Company, Vicksburg Railway
& Light Company, Vicksburg Traction Company, Vicksburg Light &
Traction Company and the Mississippi Power & Light Company.
Streetcar service remained until 1935 when it was discontinued in favor
Joplin Street Railway: The Joplin Street Railway
served the City of Joplin, as its name implied. The railroad operated
under several different names following the Joplin Street Railway such
as the Joplin City Electric Railway, Joplin & Galena Electric
Railway, Southwest Missouri Electric Railway, and Southwest Missouri
Railway. Streetcar service remained until 1940 when it was abandoned in
favor of buses.
Kansas City, Clay County & St. Joseph Railway: The
Kansas City, Clay County & St. Joseph Railway began operations in
1913 connecting Kansas City, St. Joseph and Excelsior Springs. It
remained in operation for twenty years before abandoning streetcars in
favor of buses.
Springfield Traction: Springfield Traction was the third company
to operate a railroad originally built by the Citizens Railway, which
began operations in 1880. Springfield Traction took over in 1895 and
was the final company to operate the line although it did come under
different ownership during this time (the Federal Light & Traction
Company and Cities Service Company). Streetcar service survived until
1937 when it was discontinued in favor of buses.
St. Joseph & Savannah Interurban Railway: The St.
Joseph & Savannah Interurban Railway began operations in 1911
connecting St. Joseph and Savannah on an 11-mile railroad. It remained
in operation until the late 1930s when the service was discontinued.
St. Francois County Railroad: This interurban was the
state's only located in its region. It opened on December 22, 1904
connecting De Lassus, Flat River and Farmington. The line was able to
establish interchange service with the Missouri Pacific allowing it to
develop some carload freight traffic. This business allowed the company to remain in business
after passenger service was discontinued in 1927. It eventually
converted to diesel locomotives and remained in operation until 1957.
Mexico Investment & Construction Company: The
MI&C opened in 1915 serving Santa Fe, Mexico, Perry, and Molino on a
system that stretched 25 miles. It was never very profitable from the
outset due to the small towns it served and only remained in operation
until 1918 when operations were abandoned and sold for scrap.
Kansas City, Clay County & St. Joseph: The
KCCC&SJ, despite its name was situated primarily in Missouri. It
connected Excelsior Springs, Kansas City, and St. Joseph and was the
state's largest interurban by far. It originally opened in 1913
operating a system covering 158 miles. It was fairly profitable until
the Great Depression when it was hit hard by the loss of traffic. By
March, 1933 the entire operation was abandoned.
St. Joseph & Savannah Electric Railway: The
StJ&S's only connection to the outside world was through the
KCCC&SJ at St. Joseph. It operated an 11-mile system that also
served Savannah, opening in 1911. Operations remained until the
St. Louis, St. Charles & Western Railroad: The St.
Louis, St. Charles & Western Railroad served the St. Louis area
beginning operations in 1902. Its time was short as it was taken over
by the Missouri Electric Railroad in 1908.
Anaconda Street Railway: The Anaconda Street Railway
served the City of Anaconda until the early 1940s. The interurban
railroad is survived today by two of its carbarns which still stand in
Billings Traction Company: The Billings Traction Company
served the City of Billings. The operation was shortlived beginning in
1906 and abandoning railroad operations around 1917.
Butte Electric Railway: The Butte Electric
Railway began operations in 1899 taking over property originally built
by the Butte City Street Railroad in 1886. It continued operating
streetcars until the service was discontinued in 1937 and sold to National City Lines, which began operating buses.
Great Falls Street Railway: As its name implies the Great
Falls Street Railway served the City of Great Falls operating
streetcars from 1890 until it was sold to the Montana Power Company in
1931. In 1938 the railroad was sold to National City Lines, which
discontinued streetcar service in favor of buses.
Missoula Street Railway: The Missoula Street Railway was
incorporated in 1912 serving the City of Missoula. It operated
streetcars until the 1930s when the railroad was replaced by buses.
Lincoln Traction Company: The Lincoln Traction Company, as its name implies served the City
of Lincoln. It began operations in 1897 after the Lincoln Street
Railway was reorganized. The interurban railroad operated until 1943
when it was sold to National
City Lines. NCL continued to operate streetcars for about three years
until all rail service was discontinued in 1946 being replaced by buses.
Nebraska Traction & Power Company: The Nebraska
Traction & Power Company began operations on May 19, 1909,
connecting Omaha and nearby suburbs of South Omaha,
Ralston and Papillion. In total the interurban railroad operated about
14 miles of track. It would eventually become part of the Omaha &
Lincoln Railway & Light Company. It was never a particularly profitable operation and was abandoned by 1926.
Omaha, Lincoln & Beatrice Railway, "The Big Red Line":
The Omaha, Lincoln & Beatrice Railway today is a Class III,
shortline freight railroad. However, it has its roots dating back to
1903 when it was originally meant to connect Lincoln, Omaha and Beatrice
but was unable to complete the planned route operating only around Lincoln.
In 1928 it gave up on passenger service but in 1929 was purchased by a
company called NEBCO and began hauling freight. The company still owns
the railroad today although it has long since scrapped its freight
motors for more traditional diesel locomotives. Part of the reason the
company has been able to sustain for so many years is that it earned
significant profits as a kind of terminal railroad transferring and
shuffling freight around Omaha.
Omaha & Southern Interurban Railway: The O&SI was Nebraska's last notable electric
line. It operated an 8-mile line serving Omaha and Fort Cook opening
to the public on October 20, 1906. It was never able to develop a
successful freight business and began seeing deficits by the 1920s when
automobiles came into widespread use. The system was abandoned by 1931.
Reno Traction Company: The Reno Traction Company
served its namesake city beginning operations around the turn of the
century. It operated on a 600-volt DC system and acquired power by the
Reno Power, Light & Water Company. It remained in service until
1927 when operations were abandoned in favor of buses.
Berlin Street Railway: The Berlin Street Railway, as
its name implies served the City of Berlin. It began operations in 1898
and operated streetcars until 1938 when the service was discontinued.
Claremont Railway: The Claremont Railway served the City
of Claremont and operated streetcars until 1932. However, the railroad
also provided freight services, which continue on to this day. During
its electrified years the Claremont Railway used electric motors but it
has long since scrapped these in favor of diesel locomotives.
Exeter, Hampton & Amesbury Street Railway: The
Exeter, Hampton & Amesbury Street Railway took over the operations
of the Exeter Street Railway in 1899, a system that was incorporated
just two years prior in 1897. It operated under a number of different
owners (New Hampshire Traction Company, New Hampshire Electric Railways and the Exeter Railway & Lighting Company)
during the company's existence but always retained its original name.
Streetcar service lasted until 1924 when it was discontinued.
Laconia Street Railway: The Laconia Street Railway served
the City of Laconia. It began operations in 1882 and provided
streetcar service until 1926 when it was discontinued.
Manchester Street Railway: The
Manchester Street Railway served
the cities of Manchester and Nashua. It began operations in 1899 taking
over the property of the Manchester Horse Railroad, which had its roots
dating back to 1871. It remained the Manchester Street Railway until
1925 when it became known as the Manchester Traction Light
& Power Company, and then a year later was purchased by the Public
Service Company of New Hampshire. Streetcar service lasted until 1940
when it was discontinued in favor of buses.
Nashua Street Railway: The Nashua Street Railway
served the City of Nashua. It was the only interurban railroad to serve
the town and began operations in 1886, providing passenger service
until 1932 when it was abandoned.
Uncanoonuc Incline Railway: The Uncanoonuc Incline
Railway was a unique interurban railroad operation. It began operations
in June of 1907 operating from a connection with the Manchester Street
Railway at Shirley Junction to a station based at the bottom of the
bottom of a nearby mountain. From there it operated an incline railway
to the Uncanoonuc Hotel, which
provided a spectacular view into the surrounding states of Maine,
Vermont and Massachusetts (not to mention the Atlantic Ocean itself).
The railway operated into the 1940s when it was finally abandoned.
Other Notable New Hampshire interurbans and streetcar railroads:
Berlin-Gorham Street Railway
Concord Electric Railway
Atlantic Coast Electric Railway: The Atlantic Coast Electric
Railway connected Allenhurst with Long Branch and Sea Girt. It began
operations in 1895 and operated until 1927 when it became known as the
Coast Cities Railway. It lasted only four years more until being
discontinued in favor of buses.
Atlantic City & Shore Railroad: The Atlantic City & Shore Railroad began operations in 1906 and connected Atlantic City
with Ocean City. Lasting longer than most other interurban railroads
it was finally discontinued in 1948 in favor of buses. Interestingly
the interurban never purchased much new equipment operating its original
fleet of streetcars from its inception.
Pennsylvania-Reading-Seashore Lines: The
Pennsylvania-Reading-Seashore Lines or PRSL was a jointly operated
electrified commuter operation between the Pennsylvania and Reading
Railroads in southern New Jersey. It connected Camden with Atlantic
City, Cape May and several branches extending south and west of these
points. To learn more about the PRSL please click here.
Morris County Traction: The Morris County Traction began
operations in July of 1904 originally serving Dover. Ten years later,
however, the system had expanded service to also reach Newark,
Morristown and Summit. The interurban railroad was abandoned in 1928
and its operations converted to buses.
Atlantic & Suburban Railway: The Atlantic &
Suburban Railway began operations in 1908, created by the reorganization
of the Atlantic City & Suburban Traction Company. The interurban
railroad operated about 16 miles of track connecting Atlantic City,
Pleasantville, Absecon and Somers Point.
Atlantic Highlands, Red Bank & Long Branch Electric Railway:
The Atlantic Highlands, Red Bank & Long Branch Electric
Railway was the first incorporated interurban railroad to serve Red
Bank. It began operations in 1896 and lasted just five years until 1901
when it became the Monmouth County Electric Railway. Streetcar service
lasted another twenty years before being discontinued in 1921 when
buses replaced the operation.
Jersey Central Traction: Despite
its name, this line was not affiliated with the Central Railroad of New
Jersey (a main line railroad also often referred to as the Jersey
Central). The Jersey Central Traction Company
began operations in 1901 taking over from the Keyport & Matawan
Street Railway, which dated back to 1891, when the line was electrified.
At its peak Jersey Central Traction connected Perth Amboy, Red Bank
and Highlands. In 1917 the interurban was purchased by the American
Railways Company and streetcar service was discontinued by 1923.
Trenton Princeton Traction Company: The Trenton Princeton
Traction Company operated within the City of Trenton and would come
under the control of the Reading Railroad. Passenger service on the
railroad lasted until 1941 but freight service carried on into the 1970s before the route was finally abandoned.
Trenton Transit: Trenton Transit was another interurban
railroad serving the City of Trenton. It remained in operation until
December of 1934 when service was discontinued in favor of buses.
Bergen County Traction Company: The Bergen County
Traction Company began operations in 1896 serving the City of Weehawken.
It lasted only four years before becoming the New Jersey & Hudson
River Railway & Ferry Company in 1900. The property again changed
hands in 1910 when it was purchased by the Public Service Railway
Company. Streetcar service lasted until 1938 when it was abandoned in
favor of buses.
Public Service Corporation of New Jersey: This company
was not a true interurban but did operate numerous streetcar systems
across the state. Its history dated back to 1899 and by 1902 offered
streetcar service between Jersey City
and Camden along with trackage rights over the Pennsylvania Railroad.
In 1904 it opened the Camden & Trenton Railway serving its namesake
towns. By 1912 it also operated a route known as the Public Service
Fast Line and purchased a defunct railroad, the New Jersey Short Line
Railroad. By 1915 it was serving more towns including Perth Amboy,
Carteret, Bayway, and Bonhamtown. With little freight service
cutbacks began as early as 1924. Over the next decade its remaining
lines were slowly converted to bus service until the final segment was
abandoned by 1937.
New Jersey Rapid Transit Company:
This company opened to the public in 1910 connecting East Paterson and
Ho-Ho-Kus, later reaching Suffern, New York. It was never very
profitable and after being purchased by the Public Service Corporation
in 1927 was abandoned two years later.
New Jersey Interurban Company: The New Jersey Interurban
began operations in 1906 connecting Phillipsburg, Easton, Washington,
and Port Murray on an 18-mile system originally known as the Easton
& Washington Traction Company. It had difficulty from the start and
was abandoned by 1925, less than two years after being renamed as the
New Jersey Interurban Company.
Bridgeton & Millville Traction Company: The B&MT was an
early streetcar system, dating back to 1892 when it was chartered to
connect its namesake towns. By 1922, with little freight traffic, the
first cutbacks began and it was renamed as the Cumberland Traction
Company. In 1931 the line was entirely abandoned.
Five Mile Beach Electric Railway: The Five Mile Beach Electric
Railway is one of the rare few interurban railroads to still be in
operation today. It began operations in 1902 and has served the Cape
May area for over a century, and now also provides bus services.
Other notable New Jersey interurbans and streetcar railroads:
Brunswick Traction Company
Burlington & Mt. Holly Railroad (A Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiary, later known as the Burlington County Traction Company.)
Camden & Trenton Railway
Camden Ferry Terminal
Cape May, Delaware Bay & Sewells Point Railroad
Jersey City, Hoboken & Patterson Street Railway
Perth Amboy Railroad
Trenton & Mercer County Traction Corporation
Trenton, New Hope & Lambertville Street Railway
Union Traction Company
West Jersey & Shore Railroad (Served Atlantic City.)
City Electric Railway
Las Vegas & Hot Springs Electric Railway
Albany & Southern Railroad: The Albany &
Southern Railroad served the City of Albany and surrounding area.
Perhaps most unique about the A&S was that it used third-rail for
electric power instead of the more traditional overhead catenary. The
line lasted until the 1920s when it was abandoned.
United Traction Company: The United Traction Company
served the City of Albany and operated through the mid-1940s before
finally discontinuing streetcar service.
Auburn & Syracuse Railway: The Auburn & Syracuse
Railway connected Auburn and Skaneatles operating a 27-mile system
between the two cities. Streetcar service lasted until 1930 when the
final segment of the route was abandoned.
International Railway: The International Railway began operations in 1895 originally connecting Buffalo and Niagara Falls.
A few years later it built extensions serving both Lockport and
Olcott. The last remnants of streetcar service remained until 1939 when
it was entirely replaced by buses, notably Central Greyhound Lines and
Lockport Bus Lines. In 1950 the interurban railroad became known as the
Niagara Frontier Transit System, Inc. predecessor to today's Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority.
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester Railway: The Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester
Railway began operations in 1908 eventually connecting Lockport and
Rochester. It operated streetcars until 1931 when the service was
discontinued in favor of buses.
Elmira Street Railway: The Elmira Street Railway served the City of Elmira operating until March of 1939 when the service was discontinued.
Geneva, Seneca Falls & Auburn Railroad: The Geneva,
Seneca Falls & Auburn was incorporated in 1895. The interurban
railroad was only able to connect Geneva and Seneca Falls, never
reaching Auburn. It operated until 1928 when streetcars were replaced
Geneva, Waterloo, Seneca Falls & Cayuga Lake Traction:
The Geneva, Waterloo, Seneca Falls & Cayuga Lake Traction Company
was the merged name of two former systems, the Geneva & Waterloo
Railway and Geneva Surface Railway beginnign operatins in 1895. The
inteurban railroad would go on to connect its namesake towns (Geneva,
Waterloo, Seneca Falls and Cayuga Lake) operating about 18 miles of
trackage in total. In 1909 the line fell into bankruptcy and was
renamed the Geneva & Auburn Railway. This railroad also fell into
bankruptcy and was reorganized in 1913 as the Geneva, Seneca Falls &
Auburn Railroad. The system was never very successful and finally
called it quits in 1925.
Hudson Valley Railway: The Hudson Valley Railway
connected Mechanicville and Stillwater and operated until 1928 when the
service was abandoned due to increased competition from automobiles and highways.
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville Railroad: The Fonda,
Johnstown & Gloversville Railroad was more of a traditional railroad
than an interurban but it did operate some electrified lines. The
FJ&G began operations in 1867 and at its peak reached a maximum
length of 130 miles. Its interurban operations lasted only until the
latter 1930s but freight operations remained through 1974 when it was
taken over by the Delaware Otsego System.
Hornell Traction Company: The Hornell Traction Company
operated a short interurban railroad operation between Hornell and
Canisteo. The service remained until August of 1926 when it was
Ithaca Traction Corporation: The Ithaca Traction
Corporation connected Ithaca and Remington but primarily served Cornell
University and movie studios located at Renwick Park. It remained in
service until 1935 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Chautauqua Traction Company: The Chautauqua Traction Company served the Chautauqua Lake area connecting Jamestown, Mayville, Westfield and Barcelona.
It began operations in 1903 and would eventually gain connections to
two large Class Is including the Pennsylvania Railroad and Nickel Plate
Road. Service lasted until 1925 when it was abandoned.
Jamestown Street Railway: The Jamestown Street Railway served the City of Jamestown
and was incorporated in 1883, originally being horse-powered. It began
operations a year later in the summer of 1884 and by 1891 replaced its
horses with electrified streetcars. During this time the interurban
built extensions to Lakewood, Celoron Park and Ashville. The railroad
lasted until January of 1938 when its last segment still operating in Jamestown was abandoned.
Jamestown, Westfield & Northwestern Railroad: The Jamestown,
Westfield & Northwestern Railroad began operations in June of 1881
originally connecting Mayville with the Chautauqua area (including Lake
Chautauqua). At its peak the JW&NW connected Jamestown
and Westfield. When the line upgraded to electrified operations in
1913 it used a 650-volt DC system. Interestingly, the interurban lasted
until 1950 when the final segment of the route was finally abandoned.
Niagara Gorge Railroad, "The Great Gorge Route": The Niagara Gorge Railroad operated between Niagara Falls and Lewiston through the Niagara
Gorge, as its name implied. It was incorporated in 1895 and remained
in operation until a massive rock slide shutdown the interurban railroad
for good in 1935.
Niagara Junction Railway: The Niagara Junction Railway
was more of a traditional freight railroad than an interurban. Still,
it was an entirely electrified operation serving 11 miles of trackage
throughout the City of Niagara. For much of its life the Niagara
Junction was controlled by Erie Railroad but became part of Conrail upon
its startup in the spring of 1976 (at which point its electrified
operations were swiftly scrapped). The Niagara Junction Railway is perhaps most famous for its General Electric-built
"Juice Jacks", which it began acquiring in the early 1950s (they
resembled traditional GE diesel switchers like the 44-tonner).
Western New York & Pennsylvania Traction Company: The Western New York
& Pennsylvania Traction Company began operations in 1894 originally
connecting Olean and Alleghany. At its peak the system also connected
Bolivar, Shingle House, Salamanca, Little Valley and Bradford and Lewis
Run, Pennsylvania. In 1921 it was reorganized as the Olean Bradford
& Salamanca Traction Company and by 1927 all streetcar operations
had been replaced by buses.
Oneida Railway: The Oneida Railway began operations in
1885 and would eventually connect Syracuse and Oneida. The interurban
railroad was unique in that it used nontraditional third-rail pickup for
power instead the typical overhead catenary. In 1909 the system became
part of the massive New York State Railways system, which was formed
through by the merger of several upstate interurbans. Streetcar service
on the line remained until 1930 when it was abandoned in favor of
Oneonta Street Railway: The Oneonta Street Railway was the first
of many names on a line that would eventually connect Oneonta,
Richfield Springs, Laurens, Hartwick, Mohawk, Albany, Utica, Rome and
Cooperstown. The Oneonta Street Railway began operations in 1888,
originally as a horse-powered operation. In 1897 the interurban
railroad changed its name to the Oneonta & Otego Valley Railroad to
reflect its intent to further push the line beyond its original line
connecting Oneonta and Richfield Springs. After this the line would
change names no less than five additional times; Oneonta, Cooperstown
& Richfield Springs Railway (1900-1906), Oneonta & Mohawk Valley
Railway (1906-1908), Otsego & Herkimer Railroad (1908-1916),
Southern New York Power & Railway, (1916-1924) and finally Southern New York
Railroad. Interurban service was discontinued on the route in 1933 but
freight traffic survived all of the way through the early 1970s.
Cortland County Traction Company: This interurban
began operations in 1895 as the Cortland & Homer Traction Company
operating a five-mile system serving Cortland and McGrawville. In 1901
it gained its final name and built further to Little York Lake and
Preble giving it a total of 11 miles. The company remained in service
until 1931 when operations were suspended.
Penn Yan, Keuka Park & Branchport Railway: This
little operation began in 1897 connecting Penn Yan and Branchport on a
nine-mile system. It was never extremely successful given the small
communities it served but it did provide some freight service on the
route. Service was ended by 1928.
Peekskill Lighting & Railroad Company: The Peekskill
Lighting & Railroad Company operated between Peekskill, Verplanck
and Mohegan Falls. Service lasted until early 1926 when the line was
Port Jervis Electric Street Railway: The Port Jervis
Electric Street Railway served the City of Port Jervis and was never a
very profitable/successful system. It began operations in 1899 and the
original company lasted only until 1901 when it became known as the Port
Jervis Electric, Light, Power, Gas & Railroad. The railroad lasted
until 1910 when it again changed names as the Port Jervis Traction
Company which was abandoned that same year.
Poughkeepsie & Wappingers Falls Railway: The
Poughkeepsie & Wappingers Falls Railway served the City of
Poughkeepsie and was most famous for connecting the Vassar College. The
interurban railroad lasted until November 25, 1935 when service was
abandoned in favor of buses.
New York-Auburn & Lansing Railroad: The NY-A&L
began operations in 1906 serving Ithaca and Auburn on a 36-mile main
line that was mostly build over an abandoned freight line. Almost from
the start the company hit financial problems and was in bankruptcy by
1912. In 1914 it emerged as the Central New York Southern Railroad but
was finally abandoned altogether by October, 1923.
Rochester Subway: The Rochester Subway was a unique
operation that employed the old Erie Canal as its right-of-way. It
never really operated underground only in a "ditch" so to speak. The
interurban connected the downtown Rochester area with a nearby General
Motors plant. Interestingly the railroad lasted until June of 1956
before discontinuing services.
Rochester & Eastern Rapid Railway: The Rochester
& Eastern Rapid Railway connected Rochester and Geneva. It was
incorporated in 1901 and opened for business in 1903. The route
remained in service until 1930 when it was replaced by buses.
Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction Company: The B&LET
was one of the state's largest interurbans. Located along Lake Erie the
system connected both Buffalo and Erie on a system that stretched about
92 miles in length. The earliest predecessor of the company dated back
to the Dunkirk & Fredonia Railroad of 1891 and the B&LE did not
complete its main line until 1909. Over the years it acquired smaller
systems like the Buffalo & Hamburg Railway and Buffalo &
Lackawanna Traction Company. Unfortunately, financial problems resulted
early as the line had become to large to support itself. In early 1925
it was reorganized as the Buffalo & Erie Railway and featured
updated equipment. However, this did little to stave off traffic
decline and the final remnants of the railroad were abandoned by 1935.
Lewiston & Youngstown Frontier Railway: This
interurban began operations early, in 1896 serving a 7-mile system
connecting Lewiston and Fort Niagara. Surprisingly, this little line
turned out to be quite profitable as it was able to build up a
substantial carload freight business with area railroads like the Erie,
Wabash, and even the New York Central operating around Niagara Falls.
As such, the L&YF survived well into the 1960s moving freight.
Rochester & Sodus Bay Railway: The Rochester &
Sodus Bay Railway served the Rochester area and was part of the original
New York State Railways system, which was born in 1909 (a New York
Rochester & Suburban Railway: The Rochester &
Suburban Railway served the Rochester area and was part of the original
New York State Railways system, which was born in 1909 (a New York
Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern Rapid Railroad: The Rochester,
Syracuse & Eastern Rapid Railroad had big dreams but actually
earned few profits. The interurban railroad began operations in 1906
and would eventually link Rochester with the nearby towns of Newark,
Egypt, Fairport and Palmyra. At its peak the railroad was 87 miles in
length and employed third-rail for power instead of the more traditional
overhead catenary. Financial issues in 1913 forced it to merge with
two nearby interurbans the Auburn & Northern Electric Railroad and
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern Railroad forming the Empire United
Railways. Never successful itself this system was broken up in 1916
with the RS&E becoming the Rochester & Syracuse Railroad. It remained in operation until 1931 when it was abandoned.
Schenectady Railway: The Schenectady Railway primarily
served Schenectady and Albany but would also have branches serving
Albany, Troy, Saratoga Springs and Ballston Spa operating a system of
over 30 miles. The interurban railroad began operations in 1902 and
lasted until 1946 when it was abandoned in favor of bus service.
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern Railroad: The
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern Railroad served the Oswego area. It
began operations in 1909 taking over from the Lake Ontario &
Riverside Railway, which dated back to 1896 on a system originally built
by the Oswego Street Railway. It lasted until 1917 when it became
known as the Empire State Railroad Corporation. Streetcar service on
the route lasted until 1931 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Troy & New England Railway: The Troy & New
England Railway served the area of Troy and began operations in 1895.
Service on the route lasted until March of 1925 when it was abandoned.
Troy City Railway: The Troy City Railway took over
operations in 1891 from the Troy & Albia Horse Railroad, which dated
back to 1866. The little line lasted only until 1899 when it became
part of the United Traction Company. Interestingly, streetcar service
on the line lasted as late as 1972 before being abandoned.
Syracuse Northern Electric Railway: The Syracuse Northern
began operations in 1908 as the Syracuse & South Bay Electric
Railroad serving Syracuse, South Bay, Oneida Lake, and Brewerton with a
branch extending to Cicero by 1912. It fell into bankruptcy shortly
thereafter and reemerged as the Syracuse Northern Electric in 1917.
Never very profitable it was finally abandoned on January 11, 1932.
Utica & Mohawk Valley Railway: The Utica & Mohawk
Valley Railway began operations in 1901 taking over from the Utica Belt
Line Street Railroad, which dated back to 1886 (the line was originally
built by the Utica & Westerville Railroad of 1864). It lasted only
eight years before becoming part of the New York State Railways in 1909. Streetcar service on the route was abandoned by 1941.
Albany & Hudson Railroad: The A&H began life as
the Albany & Hudson Railway & Power Company of 1899, itself a
conglomerate of three small streetcar systems that had merged; the
Hudson Street Railway, Kinderhook & Hudson Railway, and the
Greenbush & Nassau Electric Railway. Four years later it was
reorganized as the Albany & Hudson due to financial problems, which
persisted throughout its existence despite a well-built route. In 1909
it changed names again as the Albany Southern, and again in 1923 as the
Eastern New York Utilities Corporation. After the latest change the
company purchased new equipment in hopes of regaining ridership, which
proved unsuccessful. Final abandonment came in 1929.
Black River Traction Company: The Black River Traction
Company served the City of Watertown and began operations in 1896 taking
over from the Watertown Street Railway. The interurban railroad
remained in operation until 1937 when it was abandoned in favor of bus
Elmira, Corning & Waverly Railway: A very small
interurban that began as the street car system Waverly, Sayre &
Athens Traction Company in 1900. The company originally connected
Elmira and Watkins Glen on a 23 mile line but soon reorganized as the
Elmira, Corning & Waverly in 1906. It was an early casualty of
highway traffic and abandoned in 1923.
Lima, Honeoye Electric Light: This interurban served the
town of Lima and Honeoye Falls on a five-mile system that first started
in 1892 but proved unsuccessful by 1895 as a standard railroad. In 1899
it began service again as an interurban but was abandoned altogether by
New Paltz, Highland & Poughkeepsie Traction Company:
This company began as the New Paltz & Walkill Valley Railroad in
1897 on a nine-mile system that connected Highland, New Paltz and a
local resort in the nearby Catskill Mountains. In 1900 it was
reorganized as the New Paltz & Poughkeepsie Traction, and again
changed names as the NPH&PT in 1903. Services were abandoned by
Orange County Traction Company: This tiny interurban
served Newburgh and Walden on a 10-mile system that first opened in
1895. It operated some freight service but was abandoned by 1925.
Walkill Transit Company: The Walkill Transit began as the
Middletown-Goshen Traction Company of 1895 connecting its namesake
towns on a 12-mile system. It went bankrupt twice, the first time in
1899 and again in 1905 when it was reorganized into its final name. New
funds allowed the company to upgrade the property in 1906 but profits
were simply not there and the operation was abandoned by 1924.
Keeseville, Ausable, Chasm & Lake Champlain Railroad: Despite its long name the KAC&LC was not very big, just 6 miles in
length connecting Keeseville with the Delaware & Hudson Railroad
near Port Kent. It remained in operation until about 1924.
Paul Smith's Electric Light Power & Railroad Company:
The unique name of this line was due to its service of connecting the
Paul Smith's Hotel in the Adirondack Mountains with Lake Clear Junction
on a small, seven-mile system. Naturally, it was extremely vulnerable
to vehicular traffic and only survived until 1936.
Other notable New York interurbans and streetcar railroads:
Auburn Interurban Electric Railway
Batavia Traction Company
Elmira Light & Railroad Company
Empire State Railways
Ogdensburgh Street Railway (Served the City of Ogdensburgh.)
Paul Smith's Electric Railway (Served the Saranac Lake area.)
Rochester & Brighton Street Railway
Syracuse & Suburban Railway
Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway
Asheville & Eastern Tennessee Railroad: The Asheville
& Eastern Tennessee Railroad began operations in 1909 after it
purchased the Weaverville Electric
Railway & Power Company. This railroad began operations in 1901
connecting Grace, Weaverville and Pack Square in Asheville. The line
remained in service until November, 1922 when it fell into receivership
and was purchased by the Asheville Electric Company. In 1925 the
railroad was again renamed, this time the Carolina Power & Light
Company, which lasted until September 1934 when services were finally
Piedmont & Northern Railroad: The Piedmont &
Northern Railway began in 1910 serving two disconnected routes in North
Carolina and South Carolina: the first stretched from Greenwood to
Belton, Anderson and Clifton, all of which were located in South
Carolina; the second segment connected Gastonia, Belmont, Mt. Holly and
Charlotte in North Carolina. The North Carolina segment was originally
known as the Piedmont Traction Company before the two company's merged
in 1914. The P&N also owned the Greenville, Spartanburg &
Anderson Railway, which operated 96 miles of trackage. The P&N's
original route ran on a 1500-volt, direct current system that carried
both freight and passengers and used heavyweight passenger equipment
throughout much of its existence. The railroad had hoped to close the
gap between its two lines but was denied building the 51-mile extension
by the Interstate Commerce Commission (thanks in part to petitions by
the Southern Railway). For many years the company was owned by the Duke
Power company. Passenger operations lasted until 1951 while freight
used diesel locomotives after 1954. The P&N continued to haul
freight until it came under Seaboard Coast Line control in 1969. Today,
part of the route is being rebuilt in North Carolina for use as a
freight carrier once again using the original P&N name.
Tidewater Power Company: This operation serve the port city of Wilmington and connected to Wrightsville and Wrightsville Beach,
opening in 1902. It remained somewhat profitable for many years thanks
to the popular nearby beaches but finally abandoned operations by 1940.
Piedmont Railway & Electric Company: The Piedmont Railway & Electric
Company served the City of Burlington. It began operations in 1912
eventually operating about eight miles of track. The railroad remained
in service until 1922 when streetcar operations were abandoned.
Charlotte Street Railway: The Charlotte Street Railway
was the first of many interurban operations to serve the city. It began
in 1887 as a horse-powered railroad but had switched to electric
streetcars by 1891. In 1896 the system became the Charlotte Electric
Railway and fourteen years later in 1910 changed again to the Southern
Public Utilities Company. The last owner of the railroad was Duke Power
and at its peak the operation contained 29 route miles. Duke Power
owned the interurban until operations were discontinued in 1938. Today,
light-rail service has returned to Charlotte in the way of the
Charlotte Area Transit System or CATS which began operations in 2003.
North Carolina Public Service Company: The North Carolina
Public Service Company began operations in 1911 connecting Concord and
Kannapolis. It operated about four miles of trackage and lasted until
1925 when services were abandoned.
Durham Street Railway: The Durham Street Railway, incorporated in 1891, was the first of many interurban railroads
to serve the City of Durham. In 1902 the system became known as the
Durham Traction Company and by 1921 was purchased by the Durham Public
Service Company. At its peak the system operated about 11 miles of
track and was discontinued by 1930.
Fayetteville Street Railway & Power Company: The Fayetteville Street Railway & Power Company was the first of several interurban railroads
to serve Fayetteville. It began operations in 1889 but by 1908 became
the Consolidated Railway & Power Company. In 1919 it was again
renamed, this time the Cumberland Railway & Power
Company with its final reorganization coming in 1921 as the Cape Fear
Railways. Never a very profitable railroad operation it was
discontinued by 1926.
Goldsboro Traction Company: The Goldsboro Traction
served the City of Goldsboro. It began operations in 1910 operating
five miles of track and just two years later was renamed the Goldsboro
Electric Railroad company. Services lasted until 1920 when the line was
Greensboro Electric Company: The Greensboro Electric
Company, which began operations in 1902 was the first of three different
names to operate the route. In 1909 it became the North Carolina
Public Service Company, which was purchased by Duke Power in 1927. At
its peak the system operated 11 miles of track and was abandoned in July
of 1934 in favor of buses.
Hendersonville Street Railway: The Hendersonville Street
Railway served the small town of Hendersonville beginning operations in
1891 on three miles of track. It remained in service until 1904 when it
became the Appalachian Interurban Railroad, was continued the
streetcars until 1920 when all operations were discontinued.
New Bern-Ghent Street Railway: The New Bern-Ghent Street
Railway served the coastal town of New Bern beginning operations in 1913
on three miles of track. It lasted until 1929 when services were
Pinehurst Electric Railroad Company: The Pinehurst Electric
Railroad Company served the Pinehurst area and Southern Pines golf club
from 1896 until only 1911 when the unprofitable railroad was abandoned.
At its peak the railroad operated nine miles of track.
Raleigh Street Railway: The Raleigh Street Railway was
the first of three interurban railroads to operate in the city. It
began operations in 1886 as a horse-powered line but by 1891 had
upgraded to electric streetcars. At its peak the railroad operated 11
miles of track. In 1894 the operation was taken over by the Raleigh
Electric Company and then again renamed the Carolina Power & Light
Company in 1908. This railroad operated under two different owners
(Electric Bond & Shares Company and National Power & Light
Company) before being abandoned in favor of buses in 1934.
Salisbury & Spencer Railway: The Salisbury &
Spencer Railway began operations in 1901 and at its peak served nines of
track. In 1924 it was acquired by the North Carolina Public Service
Company and three years later came under Duke Power ownership and
renamed the Southern Public Utilities Company. Service lasted until 1938
when streetcars were scrapped.
Wilmington Street Railway: The
Wilmington Street Railway was the
first of several interurban railroads to serve the port city of
Wilmington. This little railroad began operations in 1892 and remained
until 1902 when it was renamed the Consolidated Railways Light &
Power Company. This operation lasted only five years and in 1907 was
purchased by the Tidewater Power
Company. At its peak the system operated 22 miles of track and
continued to operate streetcars until 1940 when they were discontinued
in favor of buses.
Winston-Salem Street Railway: The Winston-Salem Street
Railway began operations in 1890 and lasted only a year before being
renamed the Winston-Salem Railway & Electric Company. This operated
lasted until 1900 when it was renamed the Fries Manufacturing &
Power Company. In 1913 the railroad became known as the Southern Public
Utilities Company and by 1935 was under Duke Power control. At its peak
the system operated nine miles of track and was abandoned in late
The Capitol Line: The Capitol Line served the capitol building in Bismark on a one-mile system that was state-owned and operated.
Grand Forks Street Railway: The Grand Forks Street
Railway served the City of Grand Forks beginning operations in 1908 and
taking over from the Grand Forks Transit Company of 1904. Streetcar
service on the line lasted until 1934.
Valley City Street & Interurban Railway: The Valley
City Street & Interurban Railway began operations in 1905 connecting
its namesake city. Streetcar service was abandoned in 1948.
Wahpeton Breckenridge Street Railway: The Wahpeton Breckenridge Street Railway served Wahpeton beginning operations in 1910 and discontinuing service in 1925.
Northern States Power Company
Akron Street Railroad: The Akron Street Railroad took
over the operations of the Akron Street Railway & Herdic Company in
1888, which itself was incorporated in 1883. A year later the railroad
was renamed the Akron Electric
Street Railway and again in 1895 as the Akron Street Railway &
Illuminating Company. In the 20th century the railroad was renamed
numerous times; the Northern Ohio Traction Company (1899), Northern Ohio Traction & Light Company (1902), Northern Ohio
Power & Light Company (1926) and finally the Akron Transportation
Company (1930). This last company was the final one to operate
streetcars in Akron as the service lasted until 1947 when it was
discontinued in favor of buses (the company itself survived until 1969).
Scioto Valley Traction Company: The Scioto Valley
Traction Company or SVT was the state's only third-rail operated
interurban railroad using a 600-volt DC system. It began operations in
1904 primarily serving the Columbus area but also built extensions to
Lancaster, Circleville and Chillicothe. Along with passenger services
the SVT also provided some freight service, notably to a nearby power
plant. After passenger operations were discontinued in 1930 freight
service carried on under the Ohio Midland Light & Power Company name. Electric
locomotives provided service until the 1950s when the line was
dieselized and soon after operations were discontinued altogether.
Inter-City Rapid Transit Company: The Inter-City Rapid
Transit Company served both Canton and Massillon. It began operations
in 1930 as it had purchased its route from the Northern Ohio Traction & Light
Company. The NOT&L operated several railroad lines and served
Cleveland, Canton, Akron, Massillon, Uhrichsville, Wadsworth, East
Greenville, Kent, Ravenna, Alliance and Warren. In 1926 the operation was renamed the Northern Ohio
Power & Light Company and it had discontinued operations altogether
by 1932. The Inter-City Rapid Transit Company remained in operation
until 1940 when it too was abandoned.
Stark Electric Railroad: The Stark Electric Railroad
served Salem, Alliance and Canton and began operations in 1904.
Streetcar operations lasted until 1937 when they were abandoned in favor
Chillicothe Electric Railroad, Light & Power Company: The Chillicothe Electric
Railroad, Light & Power Company was one of the first interurban
railroads to operate in the city. It began operations in 1894 and
lasted until 1904 when it became part of the Scioto Valley Traction.
The route itself survived until 1930 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Cincinnati Street Railway: The Cincinnati Street Railway
was the city's primary interurban railroad. The operation dated back to
1859 as a horse-powered service. It remained in operation as late as
1959 when streetcars were finally scrapped in favor of buses.
Cincinnati & Lake Erie Railroad: The Cincinnati &
Lake Erie Railroad, most famous for operating its blazing fast "Red
Devil" streetcars, was one of the largest interurban railroads to ever
operate in the country. Its roots date back to the Cincinnati &
Dayton Traction Company of 1925 which was a 44-mile interurban railroad
operating in southwest Ohio. In January, 1930 this line was merged with
the Indiana Columbus & Eastern and Lima-Toledo Railroad to form the
& Lake Erie Railroad. The C&LE was able to turn around the
misfortunes of its latter two acquisitions (the IC&E and LT) and
with a sizable base of freight traffic on a railroad that stretched over
200 miles in three different states (Ohio, Indiana and Michigan) the
system was one of the most profitable interurbans to ever operate.
Regardless the Great Depression was no easier on the C&LE than other interurban railroads,
not to mention the encroachment of highways and automobiles. By the
late 1930s the C&LE was in serious financial trouble and by May of
1939 abandoned its remaining line between Hamilton and Dayton.
Cincinnati, Milford & Blanchester Traction Company, "The Milford Line": The Cincinnati, Milford & Blanchester Traction Company was the 1917 reorganization of the Cincinnati,
Milford & Loveland Traction Company, which began operations in 1903
connecting Madisonville to Milford on a 17-mile route. It remained in
operation until 1942 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Interurban Railway & Terminal Company: The Interurban
Railway & Terminal Company was the merger of the Cincinnati &
Eastern Electric Railway, Suburban Traction Company and Rapid Railway in
1902. These interurbans connected Cincinnati with New Richmond, Bethel
and Lebanon. The IR&T provided service until 1922 when it was
discontinued in favor of buses.
Cleveland Transit System: The Cleveland Transit System
dates back to the early 20th century and provided service between
Windermere and Cleveland Hopkins Airport. In 1975 it became part of the
Regional Transit Authority when it merged with the Shaker Heights Rapid
Transit and operations were subsidized and taken over by the city. Much of the
railroad system continues to operate today serving the Cleveland area.
Cleveland & Berea Railway: The Cleveland & Berea
Railway dates back to the late 19th century and was a predecessor
company of the Cleveland Southwestern & Columbus Railway.
Eastern Ohio Traction Company: The Eastern Ohio Traction
Company, which would later be reorganized as the Cleveland & Eastern
Traction Company, operated a 33-mile railroad between Cleveland and
Chardon. It remained in operation until 1926 when services were
abandoned in favor of buses.
Cleveland & Elyria Electric Railroad: The Cleveland & Elyria Electric
Railroad was the first of several different named railroads to operate
interurban service in the Elyria area. It was chartered in 1884 but by
1886 had been renamed the Cleveland, Berea & Elyria Railway. A year
later it was again renamed, the Cleveland, Berea, Elyria & Oberlin
Railway. The railroad would then go through four additional name
changes: the Cleveland, Elyria & Western Railway (1900); Cleveland
& Southwestern Traction Company (1903); Cleveland, Southwestern
& Columbus Railway (1907); and finally the Cleveland, Southwestern
Railway & Light Company (1924). Streetcar service on the route was discontinued in 1931.
Broadway & Newburgh Street Railroad: The Broadway
& Newburgh Street Railroad began operations in late 1873 providing
transportation services to steel mills located in Newburgh (a suburb of
Beginning as a horse-powered operation the six-mile route switched to
electric streetcars in 1890. In 1893 it merged with the East Cleveland
and Brooklyn & South Side Street Railway to form Cleveland Electric
Cleveland, Painesville & Ashtabula Railroad: The Cleveland, Painesville & Ashtabula Railroad was a subsidiary interurban of the Cleveland,
Painesville & Eastern Railroad. It operated a route connecting
Painesville and Ashtabula, which began service in 1904 and was
discontinued in 1926.
Cleveland, Southwestern & Columbus Railway: The
Cleveland, Southwestern & Columbus Railway began operation in 1895
originally connecting Cleveland and Berea, and known as the Cleveland
& Berea Street Railway. By 1907 the railroad was able to complete
its line to Columbus covering 225 miles and was renamed accordingly, the
Cleveland, Southwestern & Columbus Railway. It remained in service
until 1931 when the interurban was replaced by buses.
Columbus Consolidated Street Railway: The Columbus
Consolidated Street Railway began operations in 1891 and was the first
of many companies to operate the property. In 1892 it was renamed the
Columbus Street Railway and by 1899 had changed again to the Columbus
Railway. In 1914 the system was renamed the Columbus Railway Power
& Light Company and finally in 1937 it became known as the Columbus
& Southern Ohio Electric Company. The C&SOE remained in service
until 1948 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Columbus, Delaware & Marion Railway: The Columbus,
Delaware & Marion Railway began operations in March of 1903 after
acquiring a number of small interurban railroads including the Columbus,
Clintonville & Worthington Railway. By the time the CD&M began
it had routes serving downtown Columbus, Worthington, Delaware,
Prospect and Marion. Later it also reached Bucyrus through subsidiary Cleveland Southwestern & Columbus
Railway. The CD&M relied heavily on the CSW&C for freight
service and when it bankrupt in 1930 the parent soon followed. By 1933
the CD&M had abandoned all operations, replacing streetcars with buses.
Columbus, New Albany & Johnstown Traction Company: The
Columbus, New Albany & Johnstown Traction Company connected
Columbus to Gahanna. In 1923 it was sold to the Columbus Railway Power
& Light Company and by 1928 operations had been completely abandoned
in favor of buses.
Dayton & Western Traction Company: This interurban
began operations in June, 1898 serving Dayton and Easton as well as
Richmond, Indiana. At its peak the company operated 41 miles of track
(including a short 3-mile branch). In 1907 it came under the control of
the Ohio Electric but was independent again in 1921. It again came
under ownership by another line in 1931, the C&LE, which operated
the company until 1936. With the effects of the Great Depression the
company was finally abandoned by 1937.
Ohio Electric Railway: The Ohio Electric Railway began
operations in 1907 and would control numerous smaller companies until
its 1921 bankruptcy at which point its subsidiaries once again became
independent operations. These interurban railroads included the
Cincinnati & Hamilton Electric Street Railway; Cincinnati
& Miami Valley Traction Company; Miamisburg & Germantown
Traction Company; Dayton, Springfield & Urbana Railway; Urbana,
Bellefontaine & Northern Railway; Lima & Toledo Traction
Company; Dayton & Western Traction Company; Dayton & Northern
Traction Company; Dayton & Muncie Traction Company; Fort Wayne, Van
Wert & Lima Traction Company; Columbus & Lake Michigan Railway;
Columbus, Buckeye Lake & Newark Traction Company; Columbus, Newark
& Zanesville Electric Railway; and the Columbus, Grove City &
Columbus, Urbana & Western Railway: The Columbus,
Urbana & Western Railway began operations in 1903 connecting
Columbus with Fishinger’s Bridge on a 9-mile railroad system. It
remained in service until 1925 when operations were abandoned.
Columbus Interurban Terminal: The Columbus Interurban Terminal was a freight and passenger station complex built by the Ohio
Electric Railway to serve the city's exploding interurban railroad
operations and give passengers a central hub from which to arrive and
depart in the city. It was built in 1912 and remained in service until
the early 1930s when it was converted to a supermarket and eventually
torn down in the 1960s.
Ohio & Southern Traction Company: The Ohio & Southern Traction Company was a privately owned interurban by a Dr. Samuel Hartman. It connected Columbus
with a Hartman Stock Farm on a five-mile railroad that began operations
in 1903. It remained in service until the late 1920s when operations
Dayton & Xenia Transit Company: The
Dayton & Xenia Transit Company of 1901 was the renamed operation of
the Dayton & Xenia Traction Company of 1899. The D&XT
connected Dayton, Xenia, Belmont and Spring Valley and remained in
operation until 1937 when streetcars were replaced by buses.
Dayton & Troy Electric Railway: The Dayton &
Troy Electric Railway began operations in 1893 originally connecting
Troy and Piqua. In 1901 it extended its reach by opening a new line
between Troy and Dayton. The interurban remained in service until 1932 when it was discontinued.
Dayton, Covington & Piqua Traction Company: The
Dayton, Covington & Piqua Traction Company began operations in 1903
serving its original main line connecting Dayton and Piqua. It was a
rather unsuccessful venture remaining in operation only until 1926 when
operations were abandoned.
Fostoria & Fremont Railway, "The Lima Route": The
Fostoria & Fremont Railway began operations in 1911 connecting
Fostoria and Fremont on its only line. It was sold to the Western Ohio
Railway & Power Company in 1930 and by 1932 had abandoned all
Lake Shore Electric Railway: The Lake Shore Electric
Railway began operations in August of 1901 through the merger of the
Lorain & Cleveland
Railway; Sandusky & Interurban Railway; Toledo, Fremont &
Norwalk Railway; and Sandusky, Milan & Norwalk Railway. It would
later also add the Lorain Street Railway and Avon Beach & Southern
Railway to its system. At its peak the LSE hugged the Lake Erie
shoreline connecting Cleveland with Detroit via Norwalk, Fremont and
Toledo. A strike in 1938 forced the carrier to suspend all operations.
Maumee Valley Railways & Light Company: This
interurban began service in August, 1894 as the Toledo & Maumee
Valley Railway connecting its namesake towns on a 22-mile system. It
merged with the Toledo, Waterville & Southern Railway in 1902 to
form the Maumee Valley Railways & Light Company which added lines to
Defiance and Napoleon. It also operated a branch to Waterville. It
was later purchased by the Toledo Railways & Light Company but by
the early 1920s was in financial trouble. Operations ended by 1924.
Lake Erie, Bowling Green & Napoleon Railway: The
LEBG&N began operations in in late November, 1902 serving Bowling
Green and Pemberville, where there would later be an interchange witht
he TF&F. Unfortunately, it served communities too small to remain
profitable very long. At its peak the system was about 23 miles in
length when it also reached Woodville in 1906 and later Tontogany in
1910. It had plans to continue further but was never profitable enough
to do so. In 1911 it entered bankruptcy and suspended operations by
1916 when it was sold to the TF&F.
Fort Wayne, Van Wert & Lima Traction Company: The
FWVW< would become another Ohio Electric affiliate. It was rather
large when it opened in November, 1905 connecting Fort Wayne (Indiana)
and Lima on a 62-mile system. Unfortuately, it mostly paralleled the
Pennsylvania and by 1907 had become part of the OE. From 1921 to 1926
it was independent after the OE collapsed but entered bankruptcy itself
that decade and emerged as the Fort Wayne-Lima Railroad and was again
under outside control by the Indiana Service Corporation. It again fell
into bankruptcy in 1931 and was abandoned a year later.
Lancaster Electric Railway: The Lancaster Electric
Railway began operations in 1895 serving the City of Lancaster. Three
years later in 1898 it changed its name to the Lancaster Traction
Company and again in 1906 as the Lancaster Traction & Power Company.
It remained in service until 1937 when streetcar service was replaced
Springfield & Xenia Railroad: The S&X began
service in 1902 serving its namesake cities and was originally known as
the Springfield & Xenia Traction Company. However, after just two
years of operation it fell into bankruptcy and was reorganized into its
final name. It was marginally provided serving the local Antioch
College but fell into bankruptcy again in 1928 and was finally scrapped
in the summer of 1934.
Springfield & Washington Railway: The S&W was
another small interurban serving small towns. It began in late
December, 1904 as the Charleston, Washington Court House &
Chillicothe Traction Company operating a 15 mile system from Springfield
to South Charleston. It never made it to Chillicothe and struggled
from the start falling into bankruptcy by 1904. The line went through a
few name changes before being abandoned altogether by 1922.
Springfield, Troy & Piqua Railway The ST&P never
reached Piqua but did open a 30-mile route serving Troy and Springfield
in 1904. Most of the system was abandoned by 1923 but about 3 miles was
saved for freight services as the Springfield Suburban Railroad and
remained in operation until 1959.
Lorain Street Railway: The Lorain Street Railway began
operations in 1894 serving the City of Lorain. It was renamed the
Lorain Street Railroad in 1906 and continued on under this banner until
streetcar service was abandoned in 1937 in favor of buses.
Kanawha Traction & Electric Company: The Kanawha Traction & Electric Company served Parkersburg, West Virgina and Marietta, Ohio
via a rail/highway bridge at Williamstown, West Virginia. It began
operations as the Parkersburg, Marietta & Interurban Traction
Company being renamed the Kanawha Traction & Electric in 1915. In
1923 this operation became part of the expansive Monongahela-West Penn
Public Service Company, which had operations in western West Virginia
around Parkersburg and north-central West Virginia around Fairmont. In
1943 the company sold off the Parkersburg-Marietta division with it
being renamed the City Lines of West Virginia. The operation lasted
only a few years after the war and was subsequently abandoned (today the
rails remain in the historic brick streets in downtown Marietta).
Ohio River Electric Railway & Power Company: The Ohio
River Electric Railway & Power Company served Racine, Pomeroy and
Gravel Hill beginning operations in 1900. It operated streetcar service
on about a 15-mile railroad system until 1929 when operations were
Indiana, Columbus & Eastern Traction Company: The
IC&ET was chartered in 1906 to take over several regional systems
that were having monetary difficulty due to the 1903 financial panic.
Towns it would served included New Paris, Union City, Dayton, Columbus,
Orient, Lima, and Defiance and had numerous connections with other lines
including the large Western Ohio. In 1907 it became part of the OE
system but was again independent by 1921. Unfortunately, throughout the
1920s the company remained in bankruptcy and was slowly abandoned or
sold off various lines. In 1929 it became part of the C&LE and was
completely abandoned by 1939.
Southeast Ohio Railway & Light Company: This small
interurban served Zanesville and Crooksville on a 14 mile line that
opened in 1906. It was never profitable and changed names early as the
Southeastern Ohio Railway Company but was abandoned by 1924.
Mansfield Railway Light & Power Company: Another
small line that was not very profitable. The company began life as the
Citizens Electric Light & Power Company serving the streets of
Mansfield until 1901 when it constructed a 12-mile extension to Shelby
and reorganized into as the MRL&P. It was sued in 1915 and forced
to end operations. As such, it was reorganized as the Mansfield Public
Utility & Service Company and was last part of the Ohio Public
Service Company before being abandoned in March, 1934.
Columbus, Magnetic Springs & Northern Railway: The
CMS&N was a very small operation operating 18 miles between a
connection at Delaware with the CD&M with the resort area of
Magnetic Springs. It originally started in 1904 as the Delaware &
Magnetic Springs Railway but was merged with the Richwood & Magnetic
Springs Railway in 1906 to form the CMS&N. These types of small
operations never survived long and abandonment occurred early on the
first day of 1919.
Wellston & Jackson Belt Railway: The W&JB began
operations around 1895 as a subsidiary of the standard railroad,
Columbus, Hocking valley & Toledo, serving its namesake towns. It
was quite unsuccessful and abandoned very early, in 1915.
Gallipolis & Northern Traction Company: The G&NT
was another small interurban that was not very successful from the
started. It took over street operations in 1905 of the former
Gallipolis & Point Pleasant Railway along the Ohio River near West
Virginia. In 1907 it too was taken over by the Kanauga & Gallipolis
Traction Company which connected Gallipolis and Point Pleasant, West
Virginia in 1908 using its own bridge across the river. This company
failed as well and became the Gallipolis & Northern Traction
Company. None of these companies could ever turn a profit and the
entire operation was finally scrapped in 1923.
Portsmouth Street Railroad & Light Company: This
interurban was about 29 miles in length and served Ironton and
Portsmouth. It took the company nearly 25 years to complete the route
after first opening in 1893 (around 1917). It too could not earn much
profit and was abandoned by 1929 after having been renamed as the
Portsmouth Public Service Company in 1923.
Sandusky, Norwalk & Mansfield Railway: The Sandusky,
Norwalk & Mansfield Railway began operations in 1904 initially
serving Norwalk and Plymouth. By 1907 it had extended a branch between
Plymouth and Shelby. In 1921 operations were sold and subsequently
Cambridge Power, Light & Traction Company: This small
interurban operated just seven miles between Cambridge and Byesville,
opening in 1903. In 1910 it was purchased by the Midland Power &
Traction Company, which two years later was changed to the New Midland
Power & Traction company. It was able to complete a short branch to
Pleasant City, about five miles, but was never able to gain an
interchange with the nearby Pennsylvania Railroad. It was again
acquired in 1915 by the Ohio Service Company, in whose possession it
remained until abandonment in early 1927.
Cleveland, Alliance & Mahoning Valley Railway: The
CA&MV was the last interurban built in Ohio, opening in early
January, 1913 purchasing a 13 mile section of the B&O's original
main line between Ravenna and Alliance. It was never able to reach
Cleveland and was likewise never profitable. Abandonment came very soon
in just 1920.
Pennsylvania & Ohio Electric Railway: Despite its
grand name, this company operated only in Ohio on a 25 mile system that
connected Conneaut, Ashtabula, and Jefferson that first opened in 1901.
It had an interchange with the Cleveland, Painesville & Erie
although it was never able to generate much in the way of revenue. It
was bankrupt by 1919, reorganized as the Pennsylvania & Ohio
Traction Company and finally abandoned altogether by 1924.
East Liverpool & Wellsville Street Railway: The East
Liverpool & Wellsville Street Railway began operations in 1892
serving the City of East Liverpool. In 1897 the railroad system was
renamed the East Liverpool Railway and again in 1905 as the East
Liverpool Traction & Light Company. This interurban operated for
about ten years before changing hands again as the Steubenville, East
Liverpool & Beaver Valley Traction Company, which it remained until
1939 when operations were discontinued in favor of buses.
Tiffin, Fostoria & Eastern Electric Railway: The
Tiffin, Fostoria & Eastern Electric Railway was the 1898
reorganization of the Tiffin & Fostoria Electric Railway. It
operated a main line between Tiffin and Fostoria before being sold to
the Toledo, Fostoria & Findlay Railway in 1925, which operated the
line for another five years before abandoning all services in 1930.
Toledo & Indiana Railroad: The Toledo & Indiana
Railroad in 1911 on a system originally called the Toledo & Indiana
Railway (and after 1910 as the Toledo & Indiana Traction Company).
The line opened in 1905 connecting Toledo
to Bryan, never reaching Indiana. It was abandoned in 1939 and after
1926 was under the direction of the Cities Service Company.
Monroe Traction Company: The Monroe Traction Company of
1901 was actually a Michigan interurban but would connect to Toledo in
later years. In 1902 the system was renamed the Toledo & Monroe
Railway and a year later was known as the Detroit, Monroe & Toledo
Short Line Railway. It changed hands again as the Detroit United
Railway in 1906 and remained under this direction until services were
suspended in 1928.
Toledo & Western Railway: The Toledo & Western
Railway was primarily a freight railroad but did provide interurban
service. It began operations in 1901 connecting Toledo with Adrian,
Michigan. Passenger services survive until 1933 and freight followed
soon after in 1935.
Toledo, Port Clinton & Lakeside Railway: The Toledo,
Port Clinton & Lakeside Railway began operations in 1906 connecting
Toledo with Marblehead. It provide passenger service until 1939 when
streetcars were promptly replaced by buses.
Toledo, Bowling Green & Southern Traction Company:
The Toledo, Bowling Green & Southern Traction Company began
operations in 1902 connecting Toledo with Findlay. It operated until
1930 when operations were discontinued.
Toledo, Fostoria & Findlay Railway: The Toledo,
Fostoria & Findlay Railway began operations in 1901 originally
connecting Toledo with Findlay. Later, the TF&F extended operations
and Fostoria via Pemberville. The TF&F was discontinued in 1930
but its main line between Fostoria and Findlay remained in service until
1932 under the Western Ohio Railway & Power Company.
Mahoning Valley Railway: The Mahoning Valley Railway
began operations around the turn of the 20th century on a railroad
system originally built by the Mineral Ridge & Niles Electric Street
Railway of 1894 serving the Youngstown area. It was renamed the
Mahoning & Shenango Railway & Light Company in 1906 and again in
1920 as the West End Traction Company. Passenger operations survived
until 1927 when they were abandoned in favor of buses.
Hocking-Sunday Creek Traction Company: The H-SCT was
chartered in 1909 and eventually connected Nelsonville and Athens on a
system that covered 15 miles. It failed after the area's coal mines
played out in the early 1920s, which resulted in decreased ridership.
After being renamed as the Nelsonville-Athens Electric Railway Company
it was finally abandoned by 1932.
Youngstown & Ohio River Railroad: The Youngstown &
River Railroad began operations in 1909 connecting East Liverpool with
Salem. The Y&OR provided both freight and passenger service with
connections to both the Youngstown & Southern Railway and
Pittsburgh, Lisbon & Western Railroad. It remained in service until
1931 when operations were abandoned.
Youngstown & Southern Railroad: The Youngstown &
Southern Railroad began operations in 1904 originally connecting
Youngstown and Columbiana on a railroad that stretched 16 miles. A few
years later in 1907 it extended its reach via a three-mile branch to
Leetonia where it connected with the Youngstown & Ohio River. In
1916 the passenger and freight line was reorganized as the Youngstown
& Suburban Railway only to be returned to its original name in 1944.
Passenger service ended in 1948 and the remaining freight operations
were converted to diesel locomotives as electric service was scrapped.
Cincinnati, Lawrenceburg & Aurora Electric Street Railroad Company:
The CL&AE dated back to 1900 connecting Anderson's Ferry (near
Cincinnati) with Aurora, Indiana along a main line that stretched about
25 miles. In 1913 a flood forced the company into bankruptcy and was
finally abandoned by 1930.
Cincinnati, Georgetown & Portsmouth Railroad: The
CG&P began early in the industry, in 1886, starting as a 3-foot
narrow-gauge line connecting Cincinnati and nearby Georgetown, 41 miles
away. It was standard gauged and converted to electric power in 1902
extending to Lake Allyn, Coney Island, and Russellville. Ownership of
the Felicity & Bethel Railroad gave the company an additional nine
miles of system. It tried to develop an extensive freight business,
even using steam locomotives for the service, but had difficulty doing
so. It fell into bankruptcy in 1928 and became the Cincinnati
Georgetown Railroad Company. In 1936 the road finally succumbed to
Lebanon & Franklin Traction Company: The L&FT
began operations in May of 1904 serving an 11 mile system serving its
namesake towns where it also had an interchange with the Ohio Electric
and Interurban Railway & Terminal Company although the latter
company's broad gauge prevented much use of such. Serving a very small
area resulted in a quick abandonment as it ceased operations by just
Cincinnati & Columbus Traction Company: The C&CT
began operations on April 22, 1906 connecting Cincinnati, Hillsboro, and
Norwood on a 53-mile line. It was never able to reach its original
charter of Columbus and was only marginally profitable (due to the fact
that the B&O had a line close by that served nearly the same towns).
It fell into bankruptcy early, in 1913 and was abandoned quite early
Zanesville Street Railway:
The Zanesville Street Railway was the
first of many interurban railroads to serve the city. It began
operations in 1891 but by 1896 was known as the Zanesville Railway &
Electric Company. It was renamed four more times (Zanesville Electric
Railway, 1899; Zanesville Railway Light & Power Company, 1902;
Columbus Newark & Zanesville Electric Railway, 1904; Southern Ohio
Public Service Company, 1925) before streetcar operations were
abandoned in 1929 in favor of buses.
Western Ohio Railway: As mentioned above, the Western
Ohio owned a number of small systems. It was chartered in 1900 to
connect Lima, Wapakoneta, and Minster and completed the 36-mile route
two years later. Through the next several years it grew into a 115 mile
operation serving Piqua to the south and Findlay to the north along
with its subsidiary systems. The company hoped to also build into
Indiana but funds never allowed this and financing could no be secured.
By the early 1920s monetary difficulties slowly eroded the company and
fell into bankruptcy emerging as the Western Ohio Railway & Power
Company in 1928. Four years later the system was abandoned in entirely
in January, 1932.
Other notable Ohio interurbans:
Cleveland West Side Street Railway
Community Traction (Served the Toledo area.)
Conneaut & Erie Traction Company
Consolidated Company, The (Served the area of Cambridge.)
Cuyahoga Falls Rapid Transit Company
Dayton, Springfield & Xenia Southern Railroad
Mahoning & Shenango Valley Traction Company
Mansfield Electric Railway (Served the City of Mansfield.)
Mt. Vernon Railway & Light Company
Ohio Central Traction Company
Ohio River & Columbus Railway
Richland Public Service Company
Springfield Suburban Railroad
Steubenville Traction & Light Company
Steubenville, Wierton & Wellsburg Traction Company
Toledo & Eastern Railroad
Toledo & Maumee Valley Railway
Toledo Railway & Light Company
Youngstown & Sharon Street Railway
Tulsa-Sapulpa Union Railway: The T-SU became one of
Oklahoma's larger interurbans. It began service in 1908 connecting
Sapulpa, Kiefer and Mounds but fell into bankruptcy
just a few years later in 1912 at which point it was merged with the
Oklahoma Union Railway. This interurban had completed a route from
Tulsa to Sapulpa giving the entire operation a through line between
Mounds and Tulsa (about 25 miles). Bankruptcies in the late 1920s
reorganized the system as the Tulsa-Sapulpa Union Railway by 1943.
Interestingly, its freight operations became more profitable as time
went on, largely thanks to the regional oil business. Today, it has a
much wider array of freight it moves.
Pittsburg County Railway: This small operation eventually
served McAlester, Haileyville, and Hartsthorne on a 17-mile system that
dated back to a streetcar line of McAlester, which later became known
as the Choctaw Railway & Lighting Company. It was owned by several businesses
over the years but became independent by the 1920s. The company was
able to build up a somewhat profitable freight business that carried
through the end of World War II. It was finally forced to abandon in
Shawnee-Tecumseh Traction Company: The S-TT was a very
small operation using a 6-mile line serving its namesake towns and
opening in early September, 1906. Given the small towns it served it
was never very profitable although did survive until 1927.
El Reno Interurban Railway : The El Reno Interurban
Railway began operations in 1902 serving the City of El Reno. In 1911
the railroad was renamed the Oklahoma Railway and survived until 1933
when streetcar service was abandoned.
Metropolitan Railway: The Metropolitan Railway was
Oklahoma City's first interurban beginning operations in 1902. It
lasted only two years before being renamed the Oklahoma City Railway in
1904, which then became just the Oklahoma
Railway that same year. This interurban railroad lasted until 1947 and
streetcar service was abandoned a year earlier in favor of buses.
Chickasha Street Railway: The Chickasha Street Railway
served the town of Chickasha beginning operations in 1910. It remained
in service until 1927 when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Guthrie Railway: The Guthrie Railway was a line that should have
never been built. It was meant to serve the town of Guthrie but
quickly ran into financial trouble and was abandoned by 1905.
Tulsa Street Railway: The Tulsa Street Railway was the City of Tulsa's
primary interurban railroad line. It began operations in 1906 and
provided streetcar service until 1928 when it was abandoned in favor of
Lawton & Fort Sill Electric Railway: The Lawton & Fort Sill Electric
Railway served the area of Lawton and was the first interurban
railroad, becoming the Lawton Railway & Lighting Company in 1912.
Streetcar service on the line lasted until 1928 when it was abandoned in
favor of buses.
Northeast Oklahoma Railroad: The Northeast Oklahoma Railroad served the Miami area connecting such towns as Commerce,
Cardin, Picher, Treece, Cravensville and Columbus. It operated about
23 miles of trackage and remained in service until the 1930s when it was
Oklahoma Railway: This interurban had a late start and
did begin operations until December, 1911 when it purchased the El Reno
Interurban Railway that had recently completed a 29-mile route
connecting Oklahoma City and El Reno. A few years the company had two
additional lines radiating from Oklahoma City serving Guthrie and
Norman. In total, it was a rather large company owning 78 miles of main
line. After passenger traffic began to seriously decline in the 1920s
the Oklahoma finally looked to develop a more serious carload freight
business, which it actually became quite successful with. To help
facilitate this business it purchased the small Oklahoma Belt and
Oklahoma City Junction Railway. The company was able to stay in
operation until World War II when it finally sold the freight lines to
the Rock Island and Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway (the Santa
Muskogee Electric Traction Company: Another small
Oklahoma interurban that connected Muskogee and Gibson on a 10-mile
system that opened in 1911. Interestingly, because it was able to build
up some freight service the company survived much longer than may have been expected. It was finally abandoned in 1934.
Bartlesville Interurban Railway: This little interurban
opened in 1908 on an eight-mile line that connected Bartlesville and
Smeltertown. It struggled throughout most of its existence and was
abandoned by 1921.
Sand Springs Railway: The
Sand Springs Railway dates back to
1911 when it began operations as an interurban railroad and freight line
serving Sand Springs and Tulsa on a 32-mile system. Interestingly the
little line survived the interurban fallout that left many systems
bankrupt and out of service as early as the 1920s. In the mid-1950s it
ended electric operations and
switched its locomotive fleet entirely to diesel. Today, it carries on
as a Class III, shortline railroad with connections with the Union
Pacific, BNSF Railway and South Kansas Oklahoma Railroad and traffic
based in everything from steel and scrap iron to chemicals, paper,
plastic and lumber.
Other notable Oklahoma interurbans:
Ardmore Traction Company
Cushing Traction Company
Sapulpa & Interurban Railway
Pacific Power & Light Company: The Pacific Power
& Light Company operated streetcar service in the City of Astoria.
It remained in service until a massive downtown fire thoroughly
destroyed the interurban's infrastructure causing it to close forever.
Portland Traction Company: The Portland Traction,
commonly known as Pepco in its later days, moved significant amount of
passengers although its system was only about 50 miles in length
altogether. Its history dates back to the earliest days of the industry
when a line from Oregon City (just south of Portland) to Portland was
completed and known as the East Side Railway, opening in February, 1893.
A second route was opened ten years later, covering 36 miles and
southeastward to Cazadero. This line was primarily used to tap freight
business and interchange with the Southern Pacific and Union Pacific.
Later that decade the interurban continued to grow, reaching Troutdale
and Gresham as well as Bull Run and Ruby via its ownership of the Mount
Hood Railway & Power Company. During the late 1920s and through the Great Depression
the company was hard pressed and forced to cut back some of its lines.
However, World War II allowed it to rebound to some degree
but after the war's end passenger traffic continued to decline.
Interestingly, Pepco was the longest operated interurban in the country
to carry on passenger operations when it finally ended these in 1958.
Its freight business carried on far longer although the company slowly
eroded away, especially in the 1980s. The last remnants of the company
were abandoned by 1990.
Oregon Electric Railway: The Oregon Electric
Railway is the state's most famous interurban, mostly due to the
company's many years of operation. It began operations in 1907
connecting Portland and Salem. In 1910 it became part of the Spokane,
Portland & Seattle Railway, which extended the main line to Eugene.
While passenger service on the line only survive until 1933 freight
service remained until the 1990s under then Burlington Northern control.
City & Suburban Railway: The City & Suburban Railway of 1891 was not Portland's first interurban but it was the first to consolidate
many of the smaller lines that had sprung up in the city dating back to
Portland Street Railway of 1872. In 1904 the Portland Consolidated
Railway came into existence when the Portland Railway and City &
Suburban merged, the city's largest two interurbans up to that time. A
year later the line became known as the Portland Railway and by 1906
this company had merged with the Oregon Water Power & Railway to
form the Portland Railway, Light & Power Company, the last remaining
interurban in the city. Over the subsequent years this system was
known by several different names; the Mount Hood Railway & Power
Company (1911); Portland Electric Power Company
(1924); Portland Traction Company; and lastly the Portland Railroad
& Terminal Division (1946). Streetcar service survived until 1950
when it was abandoned in favor of buses.
Willamette Valley Southern Railway: This interurban was owned by Portland Electric
Power and connected with the Pepco at Oregon City, heading southward to
reach Mt. Angel about 32 miles away. It was a late operation and did
not begin services until 1915. The company built up some freight service only to lose most of it during the Great Depression.
By that point passenger traffic had also severely declined and was
completely discontinued by 1933. Total abandonment occurred in 1938.
United Railways: This interurban was one of the few to be
owned by a main line railroad, in this case the Spokane, Portland &
Seattle. It began as the West Side & Suburban to serve Portland
and later renamed as the Oregon Traction. In 1908 Unite Railways took
over the company and its charter, opening a route a year later between
Portland, Linnton, and Burlington covering about 12 miles. Extensions
by 1911 gave the company a 28-mile system and served Wilkesboro and
Banks, including a massive 4,100-foot tunnel thanks to financing
from parent SP&S. In 1922 it took over the Portland, Astoria &
Pacific but a year later slowly began to convert to standard steam
locomotives. It continue to operate until World War II and was finally
absorbed by the SP&S in 1943.
Southern Oregon Traction Company: This interurban was the only
one located in the southern region of the state, opening a six-mile
route between Medford and Jacksonville in 1890 as the Rogue River Valley
Railway. In 1915 the system became the Southern Oregon Traction but
was in bankruptcy by 1918. It ended passenger service by 1922 and was
abandoned by 1926.
Portland, Eugene & Eastern Railway: The Portland, Eugene & Eastern Railway, also known as the Red Electric,
was a Southern Pacific subsidiary serving Bertha, Beaverton, Hillsboro,
Forest Grove, McMinnville, Portland, Lake Oswego, Tualatin, Sherwood
and Newburg. The service lasted until 1927 at which point the SP was
successful in discontinuing streetcars after several years of bottom
Allentown & Reading Traction Company: The Allentown & Reading Traction Company Allentown,
Kutztown and Reading beginning operations in 1902. It remained in
operation until 1930 when streetcars were replaced by buses.
Altoona & Logan Valley Electric Railway: The Altoona & Logan Valley Electric
Railway began operations in 1893 originally connecting Altoona with
Hollidaysburg. In 1894 it built a branch between Altoona and Bellwood,
and later extended it to Tyrone in 1902. Its original main line
continued to operate streetcars until 1954 when it was finally replaced
Butler Passenger Railway: The Butler Passenger Railway
began operations in 1899 serving the town of Butler. In 1914 it was
renamed the Pittsburgh & Butler Railway and again in 1917 as Butler
Railways. Streetcar operations remained until 1941 when they were
abandoned in favor of buses.
Chambersburg, Greencastle & Waynesboro Street Railway: The Chambersburg, Greencastle & Waynesboro Street Railway began operations in 1903 and connected its namesake cities
(as well as the towns of Rouzerville and Pen Mar), completed the line
by 1908. It remained in operation until 1932 when streetcar services
Chambersburg & Shippensburg Railway: The Chambersburg
& Shippensburg Railway began operations in 1914 connecting its
namesake cities. It operated streetcars until 1928 when bus services
took over being operated by the Cumberland Valley Transit Company.
Danville & Bloomsburg Street Railway: The Danville
& Bloomsburg Street Railway served the City of Danville and also
connected the nearby town of Bloomsburg. It began operations in October
of 1904 and remained in service until March of 1924 when operations
were discontinued in favor of buses.
Columbia & Montour Electric Railway: The Columbia & Montour Electric
Railway served the City of Bloomsburg beginning operations in 1901. It
was renamed North Branch Transit in 1913 and remained in service until
1926 when operations were discontinued in favor of buses.
Berwick & Nescopeck Street Railway: The Berwick &
Nescopeck Street Railway served the town of Berwick operating from 1910
to 1924 before streetcars were replaced by bus service.
Bradford & Kendall Passenger Railway: The Bradford
& Kendall Passenger Railway began operations in 1879 serving the
Bradford area. It was renamed the Bradford Electric Street Railway in
1896, again in 1906 as the Western New York & Pennsylvania
Traction Company and finally as the Olean Bradford & Salamanca
Railway Company in 1921. Streetcar service survived until 1927 when
buses took over.
Du Bois Traction Passenger Railway: The Du Bois Traction
Passenger Railway began operations in 1891 serving the City of Du Bois.
In 1897 the line was renamed the Du Bois Traction Company and was again
changed in 1902 as the Du Bois Electric & Traction Company.
Streetcar service lasted until 1926 when buses took over interurban
Gettysburg Electric Railroad: The Gettysburg Electric
Railroad served the famous Civil War town of Gettysburg beginning
operations in 1894. It was renamed the Gettysburg Transit Company in
1897 and again changed its name in 1909 as the Gettysburg Railway. It
was discontinued a short time later, a rather unsuccessful venture.
Indiana County Street Railway: The Indiana County Street
Railway served the town of Indiana beginning operations in 1907. It
remained in service until 1933 when streetcars were abandoned in favor
Lock Haven Electric Railway: The Lock Haven Electric
Railway served the town of Lock Haven beginning operations in 1894. A
year later it was renamed the Lock Haven Traction Company and again
changed its name in 1900 as the Susquehanna Traction Company. Streetcar
service survived until 1930 when operations were abandoned.
Meadville Traction Company: The Meadville Traction
Company served the town of Meadville from 1898 until its discontinuance
in 1927 when rail services were abandoned in favor of buses.
Harrisburg City Passenger Railway: The Harrisburg City Passenger Railway was the first interurban to serve the capital city dating
back to 1861 as a horse-powered operation. It remained in service for
thirty years before being renamed the East Harrisburg Passenger Railway
in 1891 and again changed its named as the Harrisburg Traction Company
in 1895. In 1903 the system once more changed hands as the Central
Pennsylvania Traction Company with its final reorganization in 1912 as
Harrisburg Railways, which provided streetcar service until 1939 when
buses replaced interurban lines.
Harrisburg & Mechanicsburg Electric Railway: The Harrisburg & Mechanicsburg Electric
Railway began operations in 1894 serving the area of Mechanicsburg. It
was renamed the Valley Traction Company in 1904 and again changed hands
in 1913 as Valley Railways. Streetcar service remained until buses
took over after 1938.
Lebanon & Annville Street Railway: The Lebanon &
Annville Street Railway began operations in 1891 serving the area of
Lebanon. It was renamed the Lebanon Valley Street Railway in 1899,
Reading Transit Company in 1910, Reading Transit & Light Company in
1913, Reading Transit Company in 1919 and finally the Reading Street
Railway Company in 1929. Streetcar service was discontinued a year
later in 1930.
Hershey Transit Company: The Hershey Transit Company was
created in 1913 through the merger of several smaller surrounding
systems. It operated a system that stretched roughly 32 miles and
remained in operation until 1955 when buses took over.
Southern Cambria Railway: The Southern Cambria Railway served the town of Jackson
and began operations in 1912. The line also connected the towns of
Nanty-Glo, Ebensburg and Johnstown. Operations survived until the 1920s
when they were abandoned in favor of buses.
Conestoga Transportation: Conestoga Transportation served
the Lancaster area and remained in operation until its discontinuance
in 1947. The operation began as the Conestoga Traction Company
connecting Lancaster with Millersville, Columbia, Marietta, Lititz,
Ephrata, Manheim, Strasburg, Adamstown, Rocky Springs, Terre Hill,
Quarry Hill, Elizabethtown and Coatesville. Interestingly, the line was
reopened due to the traffic rush of World War II and survived another
six years until its final closure in 1947.
Lehigh Valley Transit Company: The Lehigh Valley Transit
Company began operations at the turn of the 20th century and would
eventually connect the Upper Darby area of Philadelphia with Allentown
(it also reached Bethlehem and Easton) on a system that stretched 45
miles. It remained in service until 1951 when it suddenly discontinued
operations without warning.
Latrobe Street Railway: The Latrobe Street Railway served
the town of Latrobe beginning operations in 1900. In 1906 it was
renamed the West Penn Railways and operated streetcars until 1952 when
service was abandoned in favor of buses.
Northwestern Pennsylvania Railway: The Northwestern Pennsylvania
Railway began operations in 1911 taking over several smaller operations
which connected Erie, Cambridge Springs, Meadville, Conneaut Lake and
Linesville. In 1923 the system became part of the Northwestern Electric
Service Company and was discontinued in 1928.
Conneaut & Erie Traction Company: The Conneaut &
Erie Traction Company began operations in 1903 serving a 33-mile system
connecting its namesake cities. Unable to earn much in the way of
profits it fell into bankruptcy in 1907 and was renamed the Cleveland
& Erie Railway. It operated until 1920 when services were abandoned
and the system was sold for scrap.
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Railroad, "The Laurel Line":
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Railroad began operations in 1903
connecting Scranton to Wilkes-Barre on a system that stretched 19 miles.
The L&WV operated both interurban passenger and freight service,
the former being abandoned in 1952. Electric operation lasted a year
later until 1953 before it too was scrapped. Freight service survived
until 1976 when it was folded into a Conrail having been a subsidiary of
the Erie Lackawanna Railway (the railroad had been purchased by the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad in 1957).
Philadelphia & Easton Electric Railway: The
Philadelphia & Easton Electric Railway began operations in 1904
connecting Doylestown and Easton, suburbs of Philadelphia, on a 5.5 mile
system. It remained in operation until 1926 when operations were
replaced by buses.
New Jersey & Pennsylvania Traction Company: The New Jersey & Pennsylvania
Traction Company began operations in 1901 consolidating several smaller
lines. In all it served the communities of Bristol, Langhorne,
Newtown, Wycombe, Doylestown, Trenton, Yardley and Lambertville.
Passenger service ended in 1934 but then owner of the line, Reading
Railroad, continued operating freight trains on the line as far as
Eastern Pennsylvania Railway: The Eastern Pennsylvania
Railway was the creation of a merger by several smaller lines in 1906.
It connected Pottsville to Mauch Chunk on a 35-mile route that remained
in operation until 1931.
Ephrata & Lebanon Traction Company: The Ephrata &
Lebanon Traction Company began operations in 1915 connecting its
namesake towns. The E< fell into bankruptcy in 1923 and emerged as
the Lancaster, Ephrata & Lebanon Railway in 1925. Losses continued
to mount and operations were abandoned in 1931.
Valley Railways: Valley Railways dates back to the Valley Traction Company of 1903 which connected Harrisburg
with the west bank of the Susquehanna River. Later extensions reached
Carlisle, Marysville, White Hill and New Cumberland. The VT was a
rather unprofitable operation and was reorganized in 1913 as Valley
Railways. In 1922 the railroad was forced to repave city streets in
Carlisle but opted to abandon the route instead. All operations were
abandoned by 1938.
Jefferson County Traction Company: The Jefferson County
Traction Company served Big Run, Punxsutawney and Reynoldsville on a
system that stretched 35 miles beginning operations in 1902. It
remained in service until 1927 at which point operations were abandoned.
United Traction Street Railway: The United Traction
Street Railway began operations in 1906 serving Du Bois and Sykesville.
It remained in operation until its abandonment in 1928.
Pittsburgh, Harmony, Butler & New Castle Railway: The Pittsburgh, Harmony, Butler & New Castle Railway began operations in 1907 originally connecting Pittsburgh
and Butler. A year later the line was extended to Evans City, Butler
and New Castle. Streetcar service survive until 1931 when buses took
Scranton & Binghamton Traction Company: The Scranton &
Binghamton Traction Company began operations in 1908 connecting Scranton
and Montrose. It remained in service until 1931 when operations were
Warren & Jamestown Street Railway: The Warren
& Jamestown Street Railway connected its namesake cities beginning
operations in 1905. Service lasted only until 1929 when buses replaced
Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton Railway: The Wilkes-Barre
& Hazelton Railway began operations in 1903 connecting its namesake
cities. It remained in service for 30 years before buses took over for
streetcars after 1933.
Beaver Valley Traction Company: Beaver Valley Traction
Company began operations in 1908 connecting Leetsdale, Morado, Rochester
and Vanport. It remained in operation until 1937 when buses replaced
Centre & Clearfield Railway: The Centre &
Clearfield Railway began operations in 1903 connecting Philipsburg and
Winburne. It remained in service until 1927 when operations were
Corry & Columbus Street Railway: The Corry &
Columbus Street Railway began operations in 1906 connecting its namesake
towns. A rather unprofitable operation it was abandoned after 1924.
Johnstown & Somerset Railway: The Johnstown &
Somerset Railway was a shortlived interurban connecting Johnstown and
Jerome. It remained in operation between 1921 and 1933 before
Lancaster & York Furnace Railway: The Lancaster &
York Furnace Railway connected its namesake towns beginning operations
in 1903. Operations lasted until 1930 before being abandoned.
Northampton Traction Company: The Northampton Traction
Company connected Easton and Portland beginning operations in 1903.
Services survived until 1933 before operations were abandoned.
Northern Cambria Railway: The Northern Cambria Railway connected Patton and Barnsboro, operating streetcar service for 20 years between 1906 and 1926.
Pennsylvania & Maryland Street Railway: The Pennsylvania
& Maryland Street Railway began operations in 1908 connecting
Salisbury, Meyersdale and Garrett. The original line between Salisbury
and Meyersdale remained in service until 1927.
Philadelphia Suburban Transportation Company: The
Philadelphia Suburban Transportation Company began operations in 1899
connecting many areas of Philadelphia. Today it is operated by SEPTA
the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority.
Pittsburgh Railways: Pittsburgh Railways served the Pittsburgh
area connecting the city with Washington (Pennsylvania), Charleroi,
Black Diamond and Donora. Operations survived as late as 1952 before
being replaced by buses.
Schuylkill Railway: The Schuylkill Railway connected
Mahanoy City and Ashland operating between 1893 and 1931 before services
were replaced by buses.
South Fork-Portage Railway: The South Fork-Portage
Railway operated between South Fork and Summer Hill from 1913 to 1928
before operations were abandoned.
Slate Belt Electric Street Railway: The Slate Belt
Electric Street Railway served the towns of Nazareth and Bangor
beginning operations in 1899. Streetcar service remained until 1926
when operations were suspended.
Stroudsburg, Water Gap & Portland Railway: The
Stroudsburg, Water Gap & Portland Railway began operations in 1907
originally connecting Stroudsburg and Water Gap. In 1911 the line was
extended to Portland and the interurban remained in service until 1928
when operations were abandoned.
West Chester, Kennett & Wilmington Electric Railway:
The West Chester, Kennett & Wilmington Electric Railway connected
Wilmington to Kennett Square beginning operations in 1903 and lasted for
20 years before abandoning services in 1923.
York Railways: York Railways began operations in 1901
originally connecting York with Bittersville and Dover. It soon had
built branches reaching York Haven, Wrightsville and Hanover.
Operations survived until 1939 when buses replaced streetcars on the
final two lines still in service.
New Castle Electric Street Railway: The New Castle
Electric Street Railway served the town of New Castle beginning
operations in 1890. The operation was renamed several times over the
course of its life including the New Castle Traction Company (1897),
Mahoning & Shenango Valley Railway & Light Company (1906), Pennsylvania-Ohio Electric Company (1920), Pennsylvania-Ohio
Public Service Company (1929) and finally the New Castle Electric
Street Railway of 1930. After this final reorganization the system
lasted only until 1939 when operations were abandoned.
Citizens Traction Company: The Citizens Traction Company served Franklin and Oil City operating until 1928 when operations were discontinued.
Pottstown Passenger Railway: The Pottstown Passenger
Railway served the city of Pottstown beginning operations in 1890. It
was renamed the Pottstown & Reading Street Railway in 1905 and again
changed hands as the Pottstown & Phoenixville Railway in 1912. It
was changed back to the Pottstown Passenger Railway in 1922 and lasted
for another 15 years before abandoning streetcar operations in 1937.
Shamokin Street Railway: The Shamokin Street Railway
began operations in 1891 serving its namesake town. It was renamed the
Shamokin & Edgewood Electric Railway in 1900 and remained in service
until 1929 when streetcars were replaced by buses.
Shamokin & Mount Carmel Electric Railway: The
Shamokin & Mount Carmel Electric Railway served the town of Mount
Carmel beginning operations in 1894. It was renamed the Shamokin &
Mount Carmel Transit Company in 1906 and operated for another 30 years
until 1936 when bus service replaced streetcars.
Montgomery County Rapid Transit: The Montgomery County
Rapid Transit began operations in 1907 intending to connect Norristown
and Souderton. However, the interurban only ever reached Harleysville
and was never a very profitable operation, discontinuing service in June
Sunbury & Selinsgrove Railway: The Sunbury &
Selinsgrove Railway was a small operation serving its namesake towns
beginning operations in 1908. It remained in service until the late
1930s when operations were abandoned.
Pittsburgh, Harmony, Butler & New Castle Railway: The
PHB&NC was another of Pittsburgh's numerous interurban systems. It
dates back to two predecessor lines, the Pittsburgh & Butler Street
Railway and the Harmony Route serving New Castle, Elwood City, Beaver
Falls, Morado, and Butler. Both systems were opened between 1907-1908
and combined in 1917 to form the Pittsburgh, Mars & Butler Railway.
The company went through several ownership changes in the 1920s until
finally being abandoned in favor of buses in 1931.
Chambersburg & Gettysburg Electric Railway: This
little interurban served Chambersburg and Caledonia Park, opening in
1903. It was intended to also link the historic town of Gettysburg but
was far too expensive due to the hilly terrain and was never completed.
It was purchased by the main line railroad, Cumberland Valley, in 1905
and electrified. Given the lightly populated area the company only
survived until late 1926.
Cumberland Railway: This company was created in 1908,
just after the end of the last major construction period and connected
Carlisle to Newville, a distance of 12 miles. Further expansions were
hoped for but never realized. It did acquire the nearby Carlisle &
Mount Holly but was abandoned early in 1920.
West Penn Railways: The West Penn Railways was a
consortium of interurbans located in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and
Ohio that was very large when combined, spanning 339 miles. The
earliest lines were built in 1889 and at its peak the company's
operations in Pennsylvania were located primarily southeast of
Pittsburgh serving towns such as Greensburg, Connellsville, Fairchance,
Irvin, Scottsdale, and Mt. Pleasant. The company slowly began to
cutback services in the late 1930s and also switched over to bus
operations. It was a long-lasting interurban and did not give up
services entirely until August, 1952.
Tarentum, Brackenridge & Butler Street Railway: The
Tarentum, Brackenridge & Butler Street Railway never reached its
ending point of Butler only connecting Tarentum, Brackenridge and the
small community of Birdville. It remained in service until its
abandonment in 1937.
Williamsport Railway: The Williamsport Railway, the
city's first, dates as far back as 1865 when it operated a short stretch
(about 1 mile) of horse-powered streetcar trackage in the city. In
1891 streetcar operations in Williamsport were electrified and a year
later six interurbans chartered to operate within the city. By the
early 1950s the city had lost all of its streetcar service.
Woodlawn & Southern Street Railway: The Woodlawn
& Southern Street Railway served the town of Aliquippa. It began
operations in 1912 and lasted until 1937 when buses replaced streetcar
service in the town.
Allentown & Reading Street Railway: The A&R dated back
to the Allentown & Kutztown Traction Company, which began operations
in 1902 on a 20-mile system that served its namesake towns. It was
renamed later that year as the Allentown & Reading when it took over
another operation that connected to Reading, a distance of 20 miles.
It remained in operation until 1934 when the Great Depression forced it
out of business.
Northampton Traction Company: Northampton Traction
began service in 1903 serving Easton and Bangor on a 22 mile system,
later building to Portland giving it an additional nine miles. It was
an early casualty and went bankrupt in 1919. It was reorganized as the
Northampton Transit Company, which purchased new equipment and operated
the line for another 10 years or so before finally abandoning in 1933.
Other notable Pennsylvania streetcar railways:
Carlisle & Mt. Holly Railway
Chester Traction Company
Dallas & Harvey Lake Railway
Easton & Nazareth Street Railway
Easton Transit Company
Erie Traction Company
Greensburg & Hempfield Electric Railway
Hestonville, Mantua & Fairmount Park Railroad
Homestead & Mifflin Street Railway
Irwin & Herminie Traction Company
Lewistown & Readsville Electric Railway
Magee Shortway Electric Railway
Monongahela Traction Company
Newtown, Langhorne & Bristol Trolley Street Railway
Oley Valley Railway
Pittsburgh-Butler Short Line
Slate Belt Street Railway
Southern Penn Traction Company
Sunbury & Northumberland Railway
Tamaqua & Lansford Street Railway
Tarentum, Brackenridge & Butler Street Railway
Waverly, Sayre & Athens Street Railway
Union Railroad of Providence: The Union Railroad of
Providence dates back to 1865 as a horse-powered operation serving the
Providence area. In 1894 the system was electrified and in 1921 it was
renamed United Electric Railways. Streetcar service was abandoned in 1948.
Pawtucket Street Railway: The Pawtucket Street Railway,
serving Pawtucket, began operations in 1885 and became part of United
Electric Railways in 1921. Streetcar service was abandoned in 1948.
Woonsocket Street Railway: The Woonsocket Street Railway
served Woonsocket beginning operations in 1887 and becoming part of
United Electric Railways in 1921. Streetcar service was discontinued in 1929.
Newport Street Railway: The Newport Street Railway began
operations in 1889 connecting the Newport area. It was renamed the
Newport & Fall River Street Railway in 1900 and again changed hands
in 1920 as the Newport Electric Corporation, which discontinued streetcar service in 1925.
Pawcatuck Valley Street Railway
Providence & Burrillville Street Railway
Rhode Island Company
Anderson Traction Company: The Anderson Traction
Company began operations in 1904 serving its namesake city. It was
renamed the Greenville, Spartanburg & Anderson Railway in 1909 and
again changed hands in 1924 as the Southern Public Utilities Company
before abandoning streetcar operations in 1934.
Spartanburg Railway Gas & Electric Company: The Spartanburg Railway Gas & Electric
Company served the Spartanburg area beginning operations in 1900. In
1912 it was renamed the South Carolina Light Power & Railway Company
and changed hands twice more (South Carolina Electric & Gas Company, 1912; Southern Public Utilities Company, 1928) before abandoning operations in 1935.
Columbia Street Railway
Mitchell Street & Interurban Railway: The Mitchell
Street & Interurban Railway began operations around the turn of the
century serving Mitchell operating a 7-mile system that was electrified
in 1913. The operation was never profitable and discontinued service
soon after electrification.
Sioux Falls Traction System: The Sioux Falls Traction
System served its namesake city beginning operations in 1908 and
abandoning service in 1930 in favor of buses.
Chattanooga Traction Company: The Chattanooga Traction Company served the Chattanooga
area from around the turn of the 20th century to 1940 at which time bus
operations, operated by the Southern Bus Company, replaced streetcars.
However, rail service continued until 1946 due to the war.
Memphis Street Railway: The Memphis Street Railway was
created in March of 1895 through the merger of several smaller systems
including the Memphis & Raleigh Springs Railroad, Easte End Street
Railway, Citizens Street Railroad and City & Suburban Railway. At
its peak the interurban operated nearly 77 miles of trackage, 51 one of
which was double-track. Service lasted until the 1940s when operations
were abandoned in favor of buses.
Chattanooga Railway & Light Company: The
& Light Company also serve Chattanooga beginning operations in 1909
from several smaller operations. It was purchased by the Tennessee
Electric Power Company in 1922 and streetcar service survived until 1940
when it was replaced by buses.
Knoxville Street Railway: The Knoxville Street Railway
was the first of many interurbans to serve the city beginning
operations in 1876 as a horse-powered operation. It was renamed the
Knoxville Traction Company in 1897 and again in 1904 as the Knoxville
Power & Light Company. The operation changed hands twice more as
the Tennessee Public Service Company in 1930 and again in 1938 as the
Knoxville Transit Lines before streetcars were discontinued in 1947 in
favor of buses.
Nashville-Franklin Railway: The Nashville-Franklin
Railway began operations in 1909 connecting its namesake cities. It
remained in service until 1943 when streetcars were replaced by buses
operated by the Franklin Interurban Bus Company.
Nashville-Gallatin Interurban Railway: The Nashville-Gallatin
Interurban Railway connected its namesake cities beginning operations
in 1913. Streetcar service survived until 1932 when the line was
Memphis & Lake Traction Company: The small M<
operated a 12-mile system that served Memphis and Lakeview, Mississippi.
It was first known as the Lakeview Traction Company and later became
the Memphis Street Railway Company. In 1913 it gained its final name as
the Memphis & Lake Traction. It was never very profitable and was
abandoned before the depression in 1928.
Other notable Tennessee interurbans:
Bristol Street Railway
Austin Rapid Transit Company: The Austin Rapid Transit
Company served the City of Austin beginning operations in 1890. In
1902 the railroad was renamed the Austin Electric Railway and again in
1911 as the Austin Street Railway. It remained in service until 1945
when operations were suspended in favor of buses.
Amarillo Street Railway: The Amarillo Street Railway was chartered in 1906 and began operations on January 1, 1908. It was designed to promote a local real estate venture and eventually grew to a length of 9 miles. Never a particularly successful line the system was sold at a sheriff's sale on September 14, 1917 to G. Gordon Brownell who immediately ended service a month later on October 19th. The city purchased the property and restarted operations on July 5, 1920 but with perennial losses afflicting the company it made its final run on September 1, 1923 and the rails were later sold for scrap.
Amarillo Traction Company: Another streetcar operation in the city of Amarillo was the Amarillo Traction Company was formed in 1909 by N.A. Brown for the purpose of connecting the city with the San Jacinto Heights area. Service began on June 23, 1911 and the system originally used gasoline-powered rail cars but upgraded the line with electrified, overhead trolley wire in 1913. As was so often the case with such operations it could never turn a profit and shutdown in 1920. The city re-initiated service in January of 1923 but this arrangement lasted only until January of 1924 when operations were suspended indefinitely. After some debate it was decided to replace the trolleys with buses.
Beaumont Traction Company: The Beaumont Traction Company
served the city of Beaumont beginning operations in 1909. In 1918 the
system was purchased by the Eastern Texas Electric Company and streetcar
service remained until 1937 when buses replaced railrpad operations.
Port Arthur Traction Company: The Port Arthur Traction
Company served the city of Port Aurthur beginning operations in 1910.
In 1918 it was purchased by the Eastern Texas Electric Company and
operated until 1937 when sold to National City Lines and streetcar
operations were abandoned in favor of buses.
Texas Electric Railway: The Texas Electric was formed
through two predecessor roads; the Texas Traction Company and the
Southern Traction Company. These two interurbans were built between
1908 and 1912 and served north, south, and west of Dallas connecting to
Denison, Terrell, Hillsboro, Waco, and Corsicana. The two merged in
1916 to form the Texas Electric Railway. From the beginning both lines
were quite profitable and moved a large amount of passenger traffic
thanks to the large population area they served along with interchanges
to Northern Texas Traction Company and Texas Interurban Railway that
gave it interchange connections to Denton and Fort Worth. The company
was very late in developing freight services,
not until the late 1920s, but once it did earned substantial profits
from the operation with friendly interchanges to neighboring railroads.
During World War II it grossed
more than $2 million annually although it it quickly declined after the
war. By 1948 the entire system was abandoned.
Corpus Christi Improvement Company: The oddly named
Corpus Christi Improvement Company began operations in 1890 serving its
namesake city. It was renamed the Corpus Christi Street & Interurban
Railway in 1910 and again changed hands in 1925 as the Nueces Railway
Company. Streetcar services survived until 1934 when buses replaced rail operations.
El Paso Electric Company: The El Paso ElectricCompany
began operations in 1901 taking over from several smaller interurban
operations in the city. In 1943 it was renamed the El Paso City Lines
and streetcars lasted all of the way until 1977 before finally being
Texas Interurban Railway: As mentioned above, the Texas Interurban was one of the final
interurbans ever built when it opened to the public in January, 1923
serving Dallas and Terrell on a 33 mile system. It somewhat paralleled
the Texas Electric as it also operated a line to Denison beginning in
1924, thanks to trackage rights over the Katy system. It was never very
profitable thanks to the TE already entrenched in the region and was
abandoned in just 1931.
Laredo Electric & Railway: The Laredo Electric &
Railway began operations in 1892 taking over from several smaller lines.
It was renamed the Central Power & Light Company in 1930 and
streetcar service survived a few years longer until 1934.
Citizens Railway: The Citizens Railway served the Waco
area and began operations in 1877. The railroad was renamed three more
times during its existence including the Southern Traction Company in
1913, Texas Electric Railway in 1917 and finally as the Waco Transit
Company in 1946. Streetcar service survived a few years longer until
1948 when buses replaced railroad operations.
Witchita Falls Traction Company: The Witchita Falls Traction
Company began operations in 1909 serving its namesake city. Streetcar
service lasted until 1935 when buses replaced railroad operations.
Bryan & College Interurban Railway: The Bryan &
College Interurban Railway began operations in 1910 serving Bryan and
College Station on a seven mile railroad system. It was sold in 1923
and renamed the Bryan-College Traction Company which operated the line
until 1930 when operations were abandoned.
Dallas Consolidated Electric Street Railway: The Dallas
Consolidated Electric Street Railway began operations in 1898 serving
the Dallas area. It was purchased by the Dallas Electric
Corporation in 1902 and again changed hands in 1925 as the Dallas
Railway & Terminal Company. In 1955 the operation became the Dallas
Transit Company and operated for one more year before discontinuing
Fort Worth Street Railway: The Fort Worth Street Railway
dates back to 1874 as a horse-powered streetcar operation. It was
renamed the Northern Texas Electric
Company in 1902 and again changed hands in 1938 as the Fort Worth
Transit Company. Streetcar service survived until 1939 when buses took
over transit operations.
Texas Traction Company: The Texas Traction Company served
the town of McKinney beginning operations in 1907. In 1917 it was
renamed the Texas Electric Railway and streetcar service survived until
Lake Park Street Railway: The Lake Park Street Railway
began operations in 1887 serving the town of Waxahatchie. In 1891 it
was renamed the Waxahachie Street Railway and again changed hands in
1912 as the Southern Traction Company before being purchased by the
Texas Electric Railway in 1917. Streetcar operations were discontinued
Houston North Shore Railway: From a technical standpoint this interurban was the final
such company ever chartered in the country. It did begin service until
1927 when the industry, in general, was in severe decline. It served
Houston, Highlands, Goose Creek, and Baytown on a system that stretched
34 miles. From a planning standpoint it was very well conceived and
served more as a standard railroad with the significant freight traffic
it was able to build, despite being electrically operated. Not long
after it was built it was purchased by the Missouri Pacific and became a permanent part of the company.
Eastern Texas Electric Company: Another lately
constructed interurban, the Eastern Texas began service in 1913 serving
Port Aurthur and Beaumont on a 20 mile system. It served a highly
populated area and also was able to derive considerable earnings from
carload freight. Unfortunately, it was not allowed to continue building
new freight feeder lines and was forced to abandon in 1935.
Roby & Northern Railroad: The R&N was a very
small operation, operating a four-mile line serving the town of Roby
with the Katy at Roby Junction. Partly due to its small size it was
operated for a very long time between 1915 and 1941 before ending
Southwestern Traction Company: The Southwestern Traction
Company served Belton and Temple on a 15-mile system that began in 1905.
It attempted to expand but never had the funds to do so. Abandonment
came in 1923.
Rio Grande Valley Traction Company: A medium-sized
interurban that served West Texas and the towns of El Paso and Isleta,
about 13 miles. It began operations in 1913 and at its peak operated
about 40 miles of track. Service was suspended by 1932.
San Antonio Traction Company: The San Antonio Traction
Company was formed in 1900 by several smaller railroad systems. At its
peak the interurban served downtown San Antonio and the suburbs of
Beacon Hill, Denver Heights, and Alamo Heights. Operations survived
until 1933 when buses replaced railroad services.
Northern Texas Traction Company: The Northern Texas began
operation in June, 1902 serving the large cities of Fort Worth and
Dallas on a 35-mile system that was immediately profitable thanks to the
region it served. Additionally, thanks to interchanges with the later
Texas Electric, the company derived additional traffic from folks
traveling to Waco, Denison, and other nearby towns. At its peak nearly
half of the main line was double tracked and featured trains running on a
half-hour basis. Unfortunately, it was never able to develop much
freight business and lost substantial traffic during the 1920s. As
such, by 1934 the system was out of business.
Tarrant County Traction Company: This operation began service in
late 1912, as the Fort Worth Southern Traction Company, serving Fort
Worth and Cleburne to the south on a 31 mile system. It failed two
years later and was purchased by the Northern Texas Traction which
renamed it as the Tarrant County Traction. It had difficulty earning
much revenues, despite a well-engineered route, and was abandoned by
Galveston-Houston Electric Railway: This company began
operations in 1911 serving its namesake cities on a system that covered
50 miles. Very well built with little competition from other
interurbans or railroads in terms of the services provided it prospered.
Strangely, it weathered the Great Depression as well as could be
expected and was still earning a profit but decided to abandon
operations in 1936 in favor of buses as revenues were declining.
Other notable Texas interurbans:
Bonham Railway, Power & Light
Brownsville Street & Interurban Railway
Corsicana Traction Company
Dallas Interurban Terminal
Galveston Electric Company (Operated streetcars in Galveston until 1938.)
Houston Electric Company
Roby Northern Railroad
Southwestern Gas & Electric Company (Purchased by the Middle
West Utilities Company in 1925 and discontinued railroad services ten
Thanks to Robert Carter for help with the information on this section.
Bamberger Electric Railroad: The Bamberger Electric
Railroad (originally known as the Salt Lake & Ogden Railway, but
changed its name in 1917) began operations in 1908 although the system
dated back to the Great Salt Lake & Hot Springs Railway of the
1890s. At its peak the system connected Ogden and Salt Lake City
line that was built to very high standards. It was electrified soon
after its 1908 opening and carried heavy freight and passenger traffic
during its early years. The depression
was unkind to the system and it fell into bankruptcy in 1933 emerging
as the Bamberger Railroad in 1939. In 1957 the system was sold to
investors, which sold portions of the line to Union Pacific and Denver
& Rio Grande Western in 1958.
Utah-Idaho Central Railroad: The Utah-Idaho Central Railroad dates back to the Ogden Rapid Transit
Company of 1900. At its peak this system would operate 95 miles of
railroad between Ogden, Utah and Preston, Idaho. The Utah-Idaho Central
Railroad began operations in 1918 and operated until February of 1947
when operations were abandoned.
Ogden Rapid Transit Company:
The Ogden Rapid Transit Company began operations in 1900 taking over
that of the Ogden Electric Railway. The system became part of the
Utah-Idaho Central Railroad in 1918.
Salt Lake, Garfield & Western Railway
Barre & Montpelier Street Railway: The Barre &
Montpelier Street Railway began operations in June of 1889 connecting
downtown Montpelier with the nearby town of Barre. In 1919 the system
was renamed the Barre & Montpelier Traction & Power Company and
remained in operation until the late 1920s when rail service was
replaced by buses.
Rutland Street Railway: The Rutland Street Railway began
operations in 1872 using horses for power. It was renamed the Rutland
Railway Light & Power Company in 1906 and remained in service until
1924 when buses replaced railroad operations.
Springfield Terminal Railway:
The Springfield Terminal Railway connected Charlestown, New Hampshire
with Springfield, Vermont
on an eight-mile railroad system and for many years was a subsidiary of
the Boston & Maine. Passenger service survived until
1947 and freight remained powered by electric
motors until October of 1956. After this it normally used a former
Sacramento Northern 44-tonner for freight service, continuing to operate
until the 1980s.
St. Albans Street Railway: The St. Albans Street
Railway served the town of St. Albans beginning operations in 1904. In
1912 it was renamed the St. Albans & Swanton Traction Company. The
interurban was never a very profitable operation and abandoned services
Mount Mansfield Electric Railroad: The Mount Mansfield Electric
Railroad began operations in 1897 connecting Waterbury and Stowe on a
12-mile railroad system. It abandoned operations in 1932 and today much
of the right-of-way is Vermont State Route 100.
Winooski & Burlington Horse Railroad: The Winooski
& Burlington Horse Railroad began operations in 1872 serving the
city of Burlington. It was renamed the Burlington Traction Company in
1893 and again changed names in 1928 as the Burlington Rapid Transit
Company. Services were abandoned a year later.
Other notable Vermont interurban railroads:
Bellows Falls & Saxton River Street Railway
Bennington & Woodford Electric Railway
Brattleboro Street Railroad (Operated between Brattleboro and West Brattleboro.)
Hoosick Falls Street Railway
Arlington & Fairfax Electric Railway: The Arlington & Fairfax Electric
Railway began operations in 1891 connecting its namesake towns.
Streetcar operations survived until 1937 when buses replaced railroad
Washington, Alexandria & Mount Vernon Electric Railway: The Washington, Alexandria & Mount Vernon Electric
Railway served the Alexandria area beginning operations in 1892. It was
renamed the Alexandria, Barcroft & Washington Transit Company in
1921 and discontinued streetcar railroad operations in 1932.
Charlottesville & University Street Railway: The
Charlottesville & University Street Railway served the City of
Charlottesville and Virginia University. It began operations in 1887 on
a five-mile railroad system and was renamed the Charlottesville &
Albemarle Railway in 1903. Streetcar operations survived until 1935.
Danville Street Car Company: The Danville Street Car
Company began operations in 1886 serving its namesake city. It was
renamed the Danville Railway & Electric Company in 1900 and again
changed hands in 1911 as the Danville Traction & Power Company.
Streetcar operations survived until 1938.
Lynchburg Street Railway Company: The Lynchburg Street
Company began operations in 1891 serving its namesake city. It was
renamed a number of times during its existence including as the
Lynchburg Electric Railway & Light Company (1898) and Lynchburg
Traction & Light Company (1901). Streetcar services survived until
Norfolk City Railway: The Norfolk City Railway was the first of many interurban railroads
to serve the port city, dating back to 1866 as a horse-powered
operation. It was renamed the Norfolk Street Railroad in 1894, again in
1899 as the Norfolk Railway & Light Company, again in 1902 as the
Norfolk & Portsmouth Traction Company, and finally in 1911 as the
Virginia Railway & Power Company. Streetcar service survived until
the mid-1940s when buses replaced railroad operations.
Newport News, Hampton & Old Point Railway:
The Newport News, Hampton & Old Point Railway served the Newport
News area beginning operation in 1891. It was renamed three more times
during operations as the Newport News & Old Point Railway &
Electric Company (1898), Newport News & Hampton Railway Gas &
Electric Company (1914) and finally as the Citizens Rapid Transit
Company in 1925. Streetcar service survived until 1945.
Richmond Railway: The Richmond Railway is one of the
oldest interurbans to ever operate in the country dating
back to 1860 and operations were actually suspended during the Civil
War. In 1881 it was renamed the Richmond City Railway Company and
changed hands several more times during streetcar service (Richmond
Passenger & Power Company, 1900; Virginia Passenger & Power
Company, 1901; Virginia Railway & Power Company, 1909; Virginia
Electric & Power Company, 1925; and finally in 1944 as the Virginia
Transit Company). Streetcar service survived until 1949.
Petersburg Electric Railway: The Petersburg Electric
Railway began operations in 1896 taking over from several smaller
operations serving Petersburg. This operation did not last long as it
was renamed the South Side Railway & Development Company in the same
year. In 1901 it was renamed the Virginia Passenger & Power
Company, again in 1909 as the Virginia Railway & Power Company and
finally in 1925 as the Virginia Electric & Power Company. Streetcar service remained until 1936.
Roanoke Street Railway: The Roanoke Street Railway began
operations in 1887 serving its namesake city. It was renamed the
Roanoke Railway & Electric Company in 1901 and carried on streetcar
operations until 1940 when services were abandoned.
Virginia Electric Power Company:
The Virginia Electric
Power Company was actually a conglomeration of street railway systems
in Richmond and Norfolk was as an interurban line serving Petersburg and
Richmond. It was a well maintained electric operation, partly due to
its power plant subsidiary. Operations continued through 1936 until it
was finally discontinued.
Bristol Traction Company: The small Bristol Traction
was actually a narrow-gauge steam line that operated part of its route
as an interurban system between 1912 and 1918 connecting Bristol and Big
Richmond & Chesapeake Bay Railway: The R&CB began
operations in October, 1907 serving Richmond and Ashland on a 15-mile
system. It never reached the Chesapeake Bay and the original system
only survived into 1918. It was reorganized as the Richmond-Ashland
Railway and survived until 1938 when it was finally abandoned.
Other notable Virginia interurbans:
Washington, Arlington & Falls Church Railway
Bristol Street Car Company
Norfolk & Atlantic Terminal Company
Norfolk & Ocean View Railway
Roanoke Railway & Light Company
Shenandoah Traction Company
Seattle Electric Company: The Seattle Electric
Company took over the operations of several smaller interurban
railroads in 1900 that served the port city. In 1919 the operation was
renamed the Seattle Municipal Railway and again changed hands in 1939 as
the Seattle Transit System. Streetcars survived another two years
Everett Railway & Electric Company: The Everett Railway & Electric
Company began operations in 1893 serving its namesake city. It was
renamed three times during operations including as the Everett Railway
Light & Water Company in 1905, Puget Sound International
Railway & Power Company in 1907 and finally the Puget Sound Power
& Light Company in 1930. Streetcar operations were discontinued in
Tacoma Railway & Power Company: The Tacoma Railway
& Power Company began operations in 1899 taking over for a number of
smaller companies serving Tacoma. Its name was unchanged during its
operations until services were suspended in 1935.
West Side Railway: The West Side Railway began operations
in 1891 serving Olympia. It was renamed the Olympia Light & Power
Company in 1894 and again in 1923 as the Puget Sound Power & Light
Company. Streetcar operations were discontinued in 1930.
Skagit River Railway: The Skagit River Railway was never
really a true interurban but did carry out electrified railroad
operations. It began life in 1920 as a temporary system managed by
Seattle City Light in the construction of hydro-electric dams on the
Skagit River. The railroad outlived its temporary status operating
until 1954 before being abandoned.
Puget Sound Electric Railway: The Puget Sound Electric Railway began operations in September of 1902 connecting areas of Tacoma and Seattle
serving such communities as Milton, Tukwila, Fife, Pacific, Jovita,
Algona, Auburn, Kent, Orillia, and Renton. The interurban operated
until 1928 when streetcar service was abandoned in favor of buses.
Spokane, Coeur D'Alene & Palouse Railway:
The Spokane, Coeur D'Alene & Palouse Railway connected Spokane
and Coeur D'Alene on a 32-mile system beginning operations in late
December of 1903. It operated on a 600-volt DC system and in 1907 built
a branch to Liberty Lake. A few
years later it extended its reach to Vera. The railroad survived until
1939 when passenger operations were abandoned. Freight service
survived until 1960 although in 1943 the system had become part of the
Great Northern Railway.
Washington Water Power Company: The Washington Water
Power Company began operations in 1905 connecting Spokane with Medical
Lake on a system that stretched 17 miles. Operations were abandoned in
Yakima Valley Transportation Company: The Yakima Valley
Transportation Company began operations in 1907 originally connecting
Yakima on a three-mile streetcar system. In 1909 it became part of the
Union Pacific and was initially expanded between Ahtanum and Wiley City
by 1910. Later in 1912 services were further expanded and reached
Selah. Passenger service was entirely abandoned in 1947 although freight service
survived until 1985 by Union Pacific. Also, of note, a tourist trolley
operation began in 1974 thus reviving passenger service which remains
to this day (which was eventually donated by UP to the City of Yakima in
Walla Walla Valley Railway: The Walla Walla
Valley Railway (initially known as the Walla Walla Traction Company)
connected Walla Walla
with Milton-Freewater, Oregon on a 14-mile railroad that began
operations in April of 1907. Northern Pacific Railway purchased the
property in 1921 and ten years later passenger operations were
discontinued. Electric service ended in 1950 and by the 1980s
then-owner Burlington Northern abandoned what remaining freight
Pacific Northwest Traction Company: The Pacific Northwest Traction Company began operations in 1909 and would eventually connect Seattle,
Everett, Mt. Vernon, Snohomish, and Bellingham on a system that reached
62 total miles (the state's largest single interurban railroad). While
the PNT had healthy freight earnings to supplement passenger revenue it lasted no longer until the mid-1920s.
Tacoma & Steilacoom Railway: The Tacoma &
Steilacoom Railway began operations in 1891 connecting its namesake
cities. Soon after it was purchased by the Tacoma Railway & Motor
Company and operations lasted only until 1916 before being abandoned.
Seattle, Renton & Southern Railway: The Seattle,
Renton & Southern Railway began operations in the 1890s connecting
Seattle and Renton. It was reorganized in 1916 as the Seattle &
Rainer Valley Railway and operations continued for another 21 years before being abandoned in 1937.
Fidalgo City & Anacortes Railway: The Fidalgo City
& Anacortes Railway began operations in March of 1891 connecting its
namesake cities on an 11-mile interurban railroad. A horribly planned
system it operated only a few years before being abandoned in 1893.
Vancouver Traction Company: The Vancouver Traction
Company began operations in 1910 connecting Vancouver with Orchards and
Sifton on a 7-mile railroad that was abandoned in 1925.
Twin City Railroad: The Twin City Railroad was owned by Puget
Sound Power & Light Company and connected Chehalis and Centralia
beginning operations in 1910. Passenger operations were abandoned in
1929 and freight followed seven years later in 1936.
Grays Harbor Railway & Light Company: The Grays
Harbor Railway & Light Company began operations in 1904 connecting
Hoquiam, Cosmopolis and Aberdeen on a 9-mile railroad. Passenger
operations were abandoned in 1932 with freight services lasting until 1941.
Willapa Electric Company: The Willapa Electric Company,
originally known as the Willapa Harbor Railway, operated a six-mile
which connected South Bend, Raymond and Grays Harbor. All operations
were abandoned in 1930.
Tri-City Traction Company: The Tri-City Traction
Company (owned by Princeton Power Company) connected Princeton and
Bluefield beginning operations in 1916 on a 12-mile railroad. It
operated until 1946 when railroad services were abandoned in favor of
Wellsburg, Bethany & Washington Railroad: The
WB&W began operations in June, 1908 serving the hamlet of Bethany
with Wellsburg in the state's Northern Panhandle on a line that was juts
under eight miles in length. It was meant to reach Washington,
Pennsylvania but the expense of construction never allowed such. Operations lasted until 1926.
Charleston Interurban Railroad: The Charleston Interurban
Railroad began operations in 1912 and would eventually connect downtown
Charleston, St. Albans and Cabin Creek Junction (a connection with the
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway). In 1935 it was purchased by the
Charleston Transit Company and rail services were abandoned in 1939.
City & Elm Grove Railroad: The City & Elm Grove
Railroad dates back to 1877 as a traditional steam line but was
electrified in 1898. It operated a 13-mile railroad serving the
Wheeling and was never very profitable with the final segments of the
route abandoned by 1937.
Union Traction Company of West Virginia: The Union
Traction Company of West Virginia dates back to the Wetzel & Tyler
Railway of 1903 which served the small town of Sistersville on the Ohio
It operated an 11-mile railroad that became the UTC in 1908 and was
succeeded by the Sisterville & New Martinsville Traction Company in
1919. Never very profitable the operation ended service by 1925.
Parkersburg & Ohio Valley Electric Company: The
Parkersburg & Ohio Valley Electric Company was chartered in 1903
and was planned to connect Parkersburg and Wheeling following the Ohio
River the entire way. The interurban began construction
about at the half-way point of Sistersville building south.
Unfortunately, it only reached as far south as Friendly about five
miles, a town no larger than a few hundred residents. With no hope of
attracting much ridership it was abandoned by 1918.
Tyler Traction Company: The Tyler Traction Company was
another interurban to serve the town of Sistersville beginning
operations in 1913 connecting with Middlebourne, a town to the east. It
provided some freight and passenger service but with the population
centers so small not enough to sustain the system. It was abandoned by
Lewisburg & Ronceverte Railway: The Lewisburg &
Ronceverte Railway was charted in 1906 and would connect its namesake
towns on about a 6-mile railroad (which connected with the C&O at
Ronceverte). It fell into bankruptcy several times and was abandoned by 1931.
Ohio Valley Electric Railway: The Ohio Valley Electric
Railway began operations in 1900 connecting Huntington, Ashland
(Kentucky) and Ironton (Ohio). It remained in service until 1939 when
operations were abandoned.
Morgantown & Dunkard Railway: The Morgantown &
Dunkard Railway was chartered at the beginning of the 20th century meant
to connecting Morgantown and Wheeling. However, it only ever made it
as far as Brave, Pennsylvania and was only able to actually electrify a
few miles of railroad (the rest of which was handled by steam
locomotives). It was renamed the Morgantown-Wheeling Railway in 1912
and again changed hands in 1923 as the Scotts Run Railway. It later
became part of the Monongahela Railway and the line is said to still be
used for freight service today.
Monongahela West Penn Public Service Company: The largest interurban in the state this company began operations as the Fairmont & Clarksburg Electric
Railroad Company. The line was able to connect to the cities by 1908
on a 25-mile system. It was later renamed as the Monongahela Valley
Traction Company and by 1913 had reached such areas as Weston, Wolf
Summit, Wyatt, Fairview, and Mannington. The interurban provided both
street services as well as main line running on a surprisingly
well-built system that was even able to enter into some interchange
agreements with the B&O providing for a bit of carload freight
revenue. In 1921 it was renamed as the Monongahela Power & Railway
Company as the operation had expanded into the power business.
years later in 1923 it came under West Penn control and was known as the
subsidiary, Monongahela West Penn Public Service Company. West Penn
operated interurbans in southern Pennsylvania, throughout West
Virginia, and into eastern Ohio. As with the Kanawha Traction & Electric
Company the Monongahela West Penn was sold to the City Lines of West
Virginia around 1945, which slowly converted the entire system to bus
operations by 1947.
Kanawha Traction & Electric Company: The Kanawha Traction & Electric Company served Parkersburg, West Virginia and Marietta, Ohio via a rail/highway
bridge at Williamstown, West Virginia. It began operations as the
Parkersburg, Marietta & Interurban Traction Company being renamed
the Kanawha Traction & Electric in 1915. In 1923 this operation
became part of the expansive Monongahela-West Penn Public Service
Company, which had operations in western West Virginia around
Parkersburg and north-central West Virginia around Fairmont. In 1943 the
company sold off the Parkersburg-Marietta division with it being
renamed the City Lines of West Virginia.
The operation lasted only a few years after the war and was
subsequently abandoned (today the rails remain in the historic brick
streets in downton Marietta).
Wheeling Traction Company: The Wheeling Traction Company provided interurban operations to the one-time major commercial hub of Wheeling, West Virginia.
It was renamed a number of times during operations (Wheeling Street
Railway, Wheeling Public Service Company and Panhandle Traction Company)
lasting until the 1940s as a wholly-employee owned interurban known as
the Cooperative Transit Company.
Other notable West Virginia interurbans:
Bluefield & Hinton Electric Railway
Wheeling Street Railway
Eastern Wisconsin Electric Company: The Eastern Wisconsin Electric
Company began operations in 1917 through the merger of the Sheboygan
Light, Power & Railway; Fond Du Lac & Oshkosh Railway; and the
Winnebago Traction Company. Together these interurban railroads served
Shegoygan, Plymouth, Elkhart Lake, Fond Du Lac, Oshkosh and Neenah.
Streetcar operations survived until 1927 when buses replaced rail
Wisconsin Traction, Light, Heat & Power Company: The
Wisconsin Traction, Light, Heat & Power Company began operations in
1900 through the acquisition of the Fox River Valley Electric Company and Appleton Electric Light
& Power Company. The interurban operations served Neenah,
Appleton, and Kaukauna. It was renamed Wisconsin-Michigan Power Company
in 1927 and a year later interurban services ended.
Wisconsin Public Service Company: The Wisconsin Public
Service Company began operations in 1911 connecting Kaukauna and Green
Bay. Most notable is the subsidiary, Green Bay Traction which served
many parts of the port city on a 23-mile railroad. Streetcar operations
survived until 1928 when buses replaced rail service.
The Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Company: The Milwaukee Electric became so successful thanks in part to its strong financial
backing by the North American Company. The earliest history of the
line dated back to a local Milwaukee street railway system of 1890 that
originally used horse power. North American acquired this line and soon
after incorporated the Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Company
or also known as the TREM. It had built up a 100+ mile system in just
over 10 years. When construction had completed in 1909 it reached
Kenosha (and a connection with the North Shore Line), Burlington, East
Troy, Waukesha, Watertown, Port Washington, and Sheboygan where it also
connected with the Wisconsin Power & Light Company.
While building had ended before 1910 the TREM spent the next decade or
so upgrading its routes by double (or even triple) tracking some lines
and eliminating street-running to improve operating times (it spent more
than $6 million to do this, an astronomical sum for most interurbans).
In 1928 it reached its final length when it acquired the nearby
Milwaukee Northern Railway Company. The company did well to weather the Great Depression,
much better than most lines, but its downfall began around this time.
Through the 1930s it slowly began to cut back services and during the
1940s its routes were either sold to bus lines or outright abandoned.
By 1945 the original Milwaukee Electric was no more although its lines
carried on under different owners for a few years. A small five-mile
section of its southern network remained in use for freight operations
through the 1960s.
Manitowoc & Northern Traction Company: The Manitowoc
& Northern Traction Company began operations in 1902 connecting
Manitowoc and Two Rivers on an 8-mile railroad. It came under different
ownership twice first by the Wisconsin-Minnesota Light & Power
Company and later by the Wisconsin Public Service Company. Streetcar
operations ended in 1926.
Northern States Power Company: The Northern States Power
Company of 1923 (which purchased the property), originally known as the
Chippewa Valley Light Railway & Power Company incorporated in 1898,
connected Chippewa Falls and Eau Claire on a 14-mile railroad.
Streetcar service was abandoned in 1926.
Wisconsin Valley Electric Railway: The Wisconsin Valley Electric
Railway began operations in 1909 connecting Wausau and Schofield on a
9-mile railroad. Interurban service was abandoned by 1926.
Bay View Street Railway: The Bay View Street Railway,
opened in 1909, served a 1 1/2-mile system connecting northeast Green
Bay with an amusement park. The railroad would become part of the Green
Bay Traction Company.
Wisconsin Power & Light Company: This interurban was created
through the merger of several smaller lines that served Sheboygan,
Plymouth, and Elkhart Lake dating back to the Sheboygan Light Power
& Railway of the 1890s. The WP&L would become another Insull
property and was able to build a bit of carload freight business, which
it interchanged with the Milwaukee Road. In 1924 the WP&L gained
ownership of the Wisconsin Power Company properties, unconnected lines
that reached Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Omro, Neenah, Menasha, and Appleton
all near Lake Winnebago. These routes dated to between 1899 and 1903
and were originally known as Winnebago Traction. Much of its passenger
services were gone by 1929 although part of its line remained in use for
freight traffic until 1939.
Douglas County Street Railway: The Douglas County
Street Railway was a little operation that began in 1892 soon after
becoming the Superior Rapid Transit Railway. It became part of the
Duluth Street Railway in August of 1900.
Other notable Wisconsin interurban railroads:
Beloit Traction Company
Chippewa Valley Electric Railway
Fort Howard Electric Railway (Served the area now known as Green
Bay, beginning operations in 1894 and becoming part of the Green Bay
Sheridan Interurban Railway
Thanks to Ken Johnsen and Yakima Valley Trolleys for help with the information on this page.
Please Click Here To Return To The Home Page
|The last surviving interurban still operating electrically, Iowa Traction's Baldwin-Westinghouse #60 totes a single gondola through Emery, Iowa on August 6, 2003.|
| 19 |
Sunday, Mar. 29, 2015
32 ° Fair
While our allegiance to God takes precedence over our allegiance to any state, we acknowledge the vital function of government as a principal vehicle for the ordering of society. Because we know ourselves to be responsible to God for social and political life, we declare the following relative to governments:
C) Church and State Relations -- The United Methodist Church has for many years supported the separation of church and state. In some parts of the world this separation has guaranteed the diversity of religious expressions and the freedom to worship God according to each person's conscience. Separation of church and state means no organic union of the two, but it does permit interaction. The state should not use its authority to promote particular religious beliefs (including atheism), nor should it require prayer or worship in the public schools, but it should leave students free to practice their own religious convictions. We believe that the state should not attempt to control the church, nor should the church seek to dominate the state. The rightful and vital separation of church and state, which has served the cause of religious liberty, should not be misconstrued as the abolition of all religious expression from public life.
from the Social Principles of the United Methodist Church, 2005-2008.
| 19 |
Adam Winkler: Is the Filibuster Unconstitutional?tags: Constitution, filibuster, Adam Winkler
Adam Winkler is a professor at UCLA School of Law and the author of Gunfight: The Battle over the Right to Bear Arms in America.
As political theatre, Senator Rand Paul's marathon, 13-hour filibuster to protest the Obama administration's dreadful drone policy was gripping. While filibusters have become commonplace these days, they usually only involve a simple notice that one intends to filibuster, which then puts the onus on the other side to round up the 60 votes for "cloture" to end the threat. Paul, however, chose to filibuster the old-fashioned way, by standing on the Senate floor and speaking, as Paul said, "until I can no longer speak." While Paul's valiant protest captured the attention of the political twitterati and evoked comparisons to the classic Jimmy Stewart filibuster film, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, it raised an important question few people were asking: Is the filibuster unconstitutional?
Surely not, you say. There's something quintessentially American about the lone dissenter, standing up for core principles of due process and the rule of law. Even the mighty Senate cannot silence his voice. The filibuster represents the best of American constitutionalism: protecting political minorities against the aggressive power of the majority. After all, how in the world could Jimmy Stewart be unconstitutional?
The answer, however, isn't quite so clear. While many people might assume that the filibuster is provided for in the Constitution, that document doesn't refer in any way to the tactic. The first Congresses did not have nor recognize a filibuster. Senators had the option of invoking a "previous question" motion, which by majority vote would end debate on whatever topic was being discussed. When that type of motion was eliminated in 1806, the reform wasn't intended to create the filibuster; it was, instead, instigated by the presiding officer of the Senate who thought the previous question motion wasn't needed in a house comprised of "gentlemen" who'd know when to move on. According to one historian of the filibuster, "Far from being a matter of high principle, the filibuster appears to be nothing more than an unforeseen and unintended consequence" of this house-keeping revision of the Senate rules....
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| 19 |
Cheaper rent East of the River has drawn arts organizations and artists to places like historic Anacostia. We explore the arts scene and what increasing development will mean.
In 1939, five young black men walked into Alexandria, Virginia’s public library to request they be issued library cards. When borrowing rights were denied on the grounds the facility was for whites only, the men took books from the shelves and began to read. This peaceful protest led to their arrest and foreshadowed the coming Civil Rights Movement. We learn about the event and the legacy of protest organizer Samuel Wilbert Tucker today as we mark the 75th anniversary of the event.
- Nancy Noyes Silcox author, 'Samuel Wilbert Tucker: The Story of a Civil Rights Trailblazer and the 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In'; librarian
MR. KOJO NNAMDIFrom WAMU 88.5 at American University in Washington, welcome to "The Kojo Nnamdi Show," connecting your neighborhood with the world. Later in the broadcast, love, Latinos and conflict, all found this weekend in the African Diaspora film festival. But, first, 75 years ago today, five young black men entered the public library in Alexandria, Va., one by one and requested library cards that would grant them borrowing privileges. When each request was denied on the grounds that the facility was for whites only, the men picked books off shelves, sat down and began to read.
MR. KOJO NNAMDIWith that, they staged one of the nation's first sit-ins, foreshadowing a strategy the Civil Rights Movement would deploy in decades that followed. Here to tell us more about the man behind that protest, Samuel Wilbert Tucker, and his legacy, is Nancy Noyes Silcox. She is the author of "Samuel Wilbert Tucker: The Story of a Civil Rights Trailblazer and the 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In." She's a retired teacher and school librarian. Nancy Noyes Silcox, thank you for joining us.
MS. NANCY NOYES SILCOXThank you for inviting me.
NNAMDIYou too can join this conversation. Give us a call, if you're curious. 800-433-8850. Or have you heard Samuel Wilbert Tucker's story before? Tell us where and what you remember most about it. 800-433-8850. Send us email to [email protected]. You can shoot us a tweet @kojoshow or go to our website, kojoshow.org, and join the conversation there. Nancy Noyes Silcox, before we talk about the man himself, can you describe for us the Alexandria, Va., that Samuel Wilbert Tucker grew up in?
SILCOXWell it was quite different than the Alexandria today. In Tucker's day, Alexandria was a segregated city. And Tucker lived on Queen Street in what is called the Uptown section of Alexandria. But it was segregated. And although Tucker's neighborhood was a mixed neighborhood, there were white families and black families living near to each other, which is not uncommon on the borders between segregated neighborhoods. But his area on Queen Street was only a block and a half from -- his house was a block and a half from the library that was built.
NNAMDIBut he also apparently lived right across the street from Ebenezer Baptist Church, but didn't go there.
SILCOXNo. The family went to Zion Baptist Church on South Lee Street. And that was the family's church. His father grew up a couple of houses away from Zion. And that was the family church. They went every Sunday. His father had lots of jobs in the church.
NNAMDIYou kept your allegiance to the church. Apparently, he was raised in a family that stressed the value of education. Where did young Samuel Tucker go to school? And what field did he eventually go into?
SILCOXWell he -- he actually started second grade at Parker-Gray Elementary school, which was the segregated school in Alexandria that finished in eighth grade. And to get a high school education, he had to go take the streetcar across in to D.C. to Armstrong High School and walked two-and-a-half miles both ways, to get to...
NNAMDITo get from the streetcar to the school?
SILCOXTo get from the streetcar to the school.
NNAMDIOh, yeah. That's -- that's paying a lot of attention to education.
SILCOXEducation was important. His mom was a teacher. He learned to read when he was four. Education was very important for the family.
NNAMDIWell, he also had an early encounter with police when he was a teenager. What happened when he and a pair of friends were riding a streetcar from D.C. back to Virginia in the year 1927?
SILCOXThat was when he was 14. And the streetcar, from my research, I understand that the streetcar had a back that could be shifted forward or backward so that the seat of the -- could face either the white section or the black section. And the boys wanted to sit facing each other. And they moved the seat. A white woman got on the streetcar and walked past empty seats and demanded that the boys...
SILCOX...get up. And they refused because they weren't doing anything wrong. And when they got into Alexandria, she found a policeman to arrest them and they were arrested for disorderly conduct on the streetcar. They were found guilty. But then when the case was appealed, a jury of five white men found them not guilty. And from that he really learned that in a court of law you could sometimes get justice.
NNAMDIThat had to be really different, that in the year 1927, an all-white male jury would find these young black men innocent of what they did.
NNAMDIAnd it obviously inspired him to get into law. He then later goes on to Howard University.
NNAMDIAnd after graduating from Howard University, goes on to law school?
NNAMDIDidn't go to law school?
SILCOXHe didn't go to law school. He could have gone to Howard University Law School. But he says that he didn't want to continue going to school broke. And so he read the law. His father had a friend who was a lawyer, who was his mentor. And he worked in the law office from the time he was about 10 years old. And he instead read the law on his own.
NNAMDIAnd became a lawyer.
SILCOXAnd took the bar exam in 1934 and passed.
NNAMDIOn his own.
SILCOXOn his own, without going to law school.
NNAMDIWe're talking about the remarkable story of Samuel Wilbert Tucker with Nancy Noyes Silcox. She is author of the book, "Samuel Wilbert Tucker: The Story of a Civil Rights Trailblazer and the 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In." You can call us at 800-433-8850. Do you worry the stories of the pre-Civil Rights Era and quieter figures from that movement are being lost to history?
NNAMDIGive us a call, 800-433-8850. Or if you've heard stories in your family about your family and friends, about their involvement in the Civil Rights Movement. You can also send us email to [email protected]. Shoot us a tweet @kojoshow. Or you can go to our website, kojoshow.org, and join the conversation there. 75 years ago today, when that protest at the library occurred, Samuel Wilbert Tucker was not among the protesters at the Alexandria Library. But he did mastermind the event. What happened that day?
SILCOXHe knew that the protesters would be arrested for disorderly conduct. And he coached them on how to carry out a nonviolent protest. He wanted them to be respectful, peaceful. And he knew that he would be defending them. So he couldn't be one of the protesters if he was going to be defending them.
NNAMDIThe protesters. So he wasn't a part of the protest himself. What happened that day?
SILCOXThe -- after the young men came into the library, one by one, about five minutes apart and were refused library cards, and they sat down to read, they were eventually -- the police were eventually called and they were arrested. Tucker said later, that the protest was so peaceful and the arrest was so peaceful that some people suggested that he had coached the police on how to handle themselves.
NNAMDIWell, that certainly hits a chord, a responsive chord today with what we're experiencing around the country. What was the reaction within the community, including the authorities and local media, to those arrests?
SILCOXWell, again, Tucker planned well. And he had notified the media that the protest was happening. And he had a lookout, the younger brother of one of the protesters ran back and forth to Tucker's law office to tell him what was going on and tell him when the police were coming. And the reporters and photographers were already waiting outside, and about 300 people as well were waiting outside to see the protest.
SILCOXWord spread. Word spread quickly.
NNAMDIThree hundred people were waiting around to see the protest.
SILCOXTo see what would happen.
NNAMDIThere were reporters, et cetera. What was the ultimate response of the community?
SILCOXWell, not the one that Tucker wanted. Alexandria very quickly built a separate and not equal library for the African-American citizens in Alexandria.
SILCOXHis objective was to integrate the public library.
SILCOXAbsolutely. And he wanted all of Alexandria's citizens, the taxpaying citizens, to be able to use the same library. And so he refused to use the Robinson Library that was built very quickly. It actually opened April 24, 1940.
NNAMDIYou say it was separate but not equal.
SILCOXIt was smaller. The books were mainly used. The furniture was old. The librarian was paid half as much as the librarian at the library for whites. Tucker was disgusted.
NNAMDIBut that library is, today, a museum.
SILCOXYes. And Tucker appreciated irony. He would appreciate the fact that now that Robinson Library houses the permanent collection and permanent display of African-American history in Alexandria. And it's part of the Black History Museum.
NNAMDIOur guest is Nancy Noyes Silcox. She's a retired teacher and school librarian and author of the book, "Samuel Wilbert Tucker: The Story of a Civil Rights Trailblazer and the 1939 Alexandria Library Sit In." Please don your headphones because I'm about to speak with Howard in Clifton, Va. Howard, you are on the air. Go ahead, please.
HOWARDWell, thank you. And thank you for this program. I knew Attorney Tucker. He and my father and my mother were really very good friends. And I remember spending a summer with him down in Emporia and just spending a lot of time with him. He was a brilliant attorney. He helped my father a lot. He helped a lot of people. He was a ghost writer and gave ideas and concepts and thoughts on pursuing civil rights. And he was so -- I can still see him, listening to your guest speak, I can see him at the dinner table now.
HOWARDHe was so intense. It's funny, but really, really, truly, truly dedicated. And I asked him one day, well, why don't you write a book or something about these experiences. And he said, I'll have to leave that to the historians because I'm too busy pursuing civil rights. I just want to mention one other thing. His wife, Julia, was wonderful. Just a -- they were like an aunt and uncle to me. And lastly, he was -- participated in World War II. And he had -- he taught me how -- he was an outdoorsman.
HOWARDAnd when I would spend the summers -- some summers with him and his -- and Julia, Aunt Julia, out in -- down in Emporia, and he taught me how to shoot. And we'd go shooting rabbits and squirrels and things of that nature. But really just a brilliant attorney. And he had his hands in so many things that we don't know about.
NNAMDIVery glad to hear that reflection, Howard. Do you think he had some influence on you?
HOWARDOh, absolutely. I'm an attorney.
HOWARDAs a matter of fact, I'm a retired Army Colonel. And I -- part of my familiarity with weapons and the military came through him, because he -- I didn't -- my father was not in the military, but also, just that -- that sense of dedication and that kind of thing, you know.
HOWARDIn the military now -- well, I'm retired now, but when I was in there -- I'm in private practice now -- but I translated the concept of civil rights from Virginia -- my father was a civil rights attorney and my mother was involved in civil rights -- I translated that into the military where, an organization that is somewhat repressive in nature by its operations, but it's ultimate objective is to achieve civil rights and to defend the free world. But the veracity and the thought process and the dedication has to be the same.
NNAMDIClearly, he had an impact on you. I'm going to do two things, Howard. I'm going to have Nancy Noyes Silcox respond. And then I'm going to put you on hold so that we can take your number in case Nancy Noyes Silcox wants to get in touch with you -- I could see that in her eyes -- at a later date. So care to respond to what Howard just said?
SILCOXYes. Howard, thank you so much for calling in. In my research, I found many stories from people who knew Tucker, but I believe that there were so many more out there. I'm hoping that one of the things that my book will generate will be these conversations and memories that can be shared by people who went through the Civil Right Movement and faced discrimination, that they can share those stories with people in their family and young people who have no idea about what it was like really to face that kind of discrimination.
NNAMDIHoward, thank you very much for your call. I'm going to put you on hold. We'll take your number and pass it on to Nancy Noyes Silcox after the broadcast is over. Nonviolence and sit-ins became hallmarks of the Civil Rights Movement, but in 1939 in the nascent years before the movement coalesced, they were not so familiar. Just how unusual was this form of protest in the U.S. at that time?
SILCOXWell, it was not unheard of. And Tucker, through his studies at Howard University, became familiar with Mahatma Gandhi's civil rights protests and peaceful protests in India. And around that same time there were labor strikes, labor sit-down strikes they called them. In fact, the newspaper article that announced the library sit-in called it a sit-down strike.
NNAMDIThey called it a sit-down strike?
SILCOXA sit-down strike, but there were labor strikes. But this, from what the research shows, was the earliest sit-in for civil rights.
NNAMDIIn 1939, 75 years ago today. We move on now to Gretchen in Washington, D.C. Gretchen, you're on the air. Go ahead, please.
GRETCHENThanks very much. I'm really enjoying this program. I grew up in Alexandria in the '50s as a white person. And I remember how segregated it was. My family was from Montana and so my parents always said to us, you know, this is not right. This is not the way things should be. But at Murphy's there was the regular soda fountain counter and then there was a small standup counter that sold hotdogs and things that only the African Americans could us.
GRETCHENAnd there were white and I think it was called even colored restrooms, separate, and also drinking fountains. I used that library many times and I don't remember seeing any African Americans in it. I didn't know about Tucker and I'm really eager to read about him. I went to St. Mary's grade school. There were only white children. The black children went to St. Joseph's. And there were two parishes, St. Mary's parish and St. Joseph's parish. And essentially St. Mary's was white and St. Joseph's was black.
GRETCHENSo I really appreciate knowing about this person. And in the '60s when I was away at college I remember my mother writing and saying there are sit-ins in Alexandria. And she was so happy about it because things were finally beginning to change. But it was a very strange experience to live in a place that you knew things weren't right and yet didn't quite know what to do about it at the time. So thanks very much for the program.
NNAMDIThank you very much for your call. Care to comment? Not really. She speaks...
NNAMDIWell, I want to talk a little bit about your own experience because though you settled in Virginia, you spent your childhood in Minnesota and you traveled with the Peace Corp. What was your experience of the Civil Rights Movement?
SILCOXI really had limited direct experience with the Civil Rights Movement. I was in Peace Corp. from 1968 to '70.
NNAMDIAnd spent that time in Guyana, South America, which I had just left a year before. But obviously you experienced a lot of the things that I experienced growing up while you were there. But that's when the Civil Rights Movement, or part of it was unfolding here.
SILCOXRight. And that's during the time that there were a lot of riots going on in the states. And we just got the New York Times Week in Review. And it sounded like the whole country was burning up.
NNAMDIIt seemed from far away at the time. Tucker went on to be part of a storied Richmond law firm, argued four cases before the Supreme Court including one considered by many to be the case that produced results in desegregating schools. Yet his story is not so well known, even though Green versus County School Board of New Kent County was a very significant case. Why do you think he's not so well known? And do you think that might change?
SILCOXWell, I hope it will. I think there are many people who feel that he never got the full recognition for his work that he deserved. The -- he said about the Brown decision that it didn't go far enough. And that was in 1954. And the decision was reviewed again in '55. But it didn't give any mechanism for integrating. And it allowed people to delay and have freedom of choice plans. And it wasn't until 1968 when the Supreme Court finally said to school boards that they needed to desegregate immediately, show some progress in segregating.
NNAMDIFor the benefit of Howard who called in and others, I should mention that this book also talks about his -- that is, Samuel Wilbert Tucker's service in World War II. But what is it that motivated you to study, to research on him and write this book?
SILCOXI was the first librarian at Samuel W. Tucker Elementary School in Alexandria. It opened in 2000 and was named for Tucker for his civil rights work and for his dedication to desegregating public schools.
NNAMDISo you had a reason to be interested in him. There may -- there's a lot that could be learned from his story but I wonder what lessons from his storied career would you most like to see people embrace and consider today?
SILCOXI think that an important lesson that comes out of Tucker's life and his work is the idea that you can see things that are wrong and do something to make them right. He spent his whole life fighting injustice and racial discrimination and working to desegregate public schools. And he didn't give up. He loved research. He liked -- he was on the debate team at Howard. He liked creating a strong compelling argument. So that was important to him and that was his strength.
NNAMDISignificant parts of his legacy. The name is Samuel Wilbert Tucker. The name of the book "The Story of a Civil Rights Trailblazer and the 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In." The name of the author Nancy Noyes Silcox. Thank you so much for joining us.
SILCOXThank you so much for inviting me.
NNAMDIWe're going to have a short break. When we come back, love, Latinos and conflict all playing roles this weekend in the African Diaspora Film Festival. I'm Kojo Nnamdi.
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|City of Bowie|
Old Town Bowie, as seen from the intersection of Maryland Route 564 and Chapel Avenue in January 2008
|Motto: "Growth, Unity and Progress"|
Location of Bowie in the State of Maryland
|Country||United States of America|
|• Mayor||G. Frederick Robinson|
|• Total||18.51 sq mi (47.94 km2)|
|• Land||18.43 sq mi (47.73 km2)|
|• Water||0.08 sq mi (0.21 km2)|
|Elevation||154 ft (47 m)|
|Population (2010 U.S. Census)|
|• Estimate (2012)||56,129|
|• Density||2,969.5/sq mi (1,146.5/km2)|
|Time zone||EST (UTC-5)|
|• Summer (DST)||EDT (UTC-4)|
|GNIS feature ID||0597104|
Bowie // is a city in Prince George's County, Maryland. The population was 54,727 at the 2010 U.S. Census. Bowie has grown from a small railroad stop to the largest municipality in Prince George's County, and the fifth most populous city and third largest city by area in the U.S. state of Maryland.
- 1 History
- 2 Geography
- 3 Demographics
- 4 Government
- 5 Crime
- 6 Economy
- 7 Education
- 8 Notable people
- 9 Sports
- 10 Historic sites
- 11 See also
- 12 References
- 13 External links
The city of Bowie owes its existence to the railway. In 1853, Colonel William Duckett Bowie obtained a charter from the Maryland legislature to construct a rail line into Southern Maryland. In 1869, the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad Company began the construction of a railroad from Baltimore to Southern Maryland, terminating in Pope's Creek. The area had already been dotted with small farms and large tobacco plantations in an economy based on agriculture and slavery. In 1870, Ben Plumb, a land speculator and developer, sold building lots around the railroad junction and named the settlement Huntington City. By 1872, the line was completed, together with a "spur" to Washington, D.C. and the entire line through Southern Maryland was completed in 1873.
Huntington City was renamed in honor of the son of William Duckett Bowie and his business partner, Oden Bowie, who was President of the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad at the time, and previously Governor of Maryland. The town was subsequently rechartered as Bowie in 1880. In the early days the land was subdivided by developers into more than 500 residential building lots, to create a large town site at a junction of the Baltimore and Potomac's main line to southern Maryland, and the branch line to Washington, D.C.
|This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013)|
By 1902, the Baltimore & Potomac was purchased by the powerful Pennsylvania Railroad. A second railroad entered the community when the Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Electric Railway electric trolley line commenced service in 1908. The large interurban cars brought rapid transit to the area, with trains running hourly. Bowie area stations included High Bridge, Hillmeade, and the Race Track.
The convergence of the two rail systems induced the Southern Maryland Agricultural Society to build the Bowie Race Track in 1914. The track enabled the Belair Stud to become one of Maryland's premier areas for thoroughbreds. Also in 1914, a teacher-training college, or normal school as it was referred to then, was built for African-Americans, just outside the town. This now has become Bowie State University. The town of Bowie was incorporated in 1916.
Belair at Bowie
In 1957, the firm of Levitt and Sons acquired the nearby Belair Estate, the original colonial plantation of the Provincial Governor of Maryland, Samuel Ogle, and developed the residential community of Belair at Bowie. Two years later the town of Bowie annexed the Levitt properties, and then re-incorporated the now-larger area as a city in 1963. The overwhelming majority of Bowie residents today live in this 1960s Levitt planned community, whose street names are arranged in alphabetical sections. Levitt & Sons had a long history of prohibiting the sale of houses (including resale by owners) to African Americans which led to civil rights protests in Bowie in 1963.
The original Belair Estate contains the Belair Mansion (circa 1745), the five-part Georgian plantation house of Governor Samuel Ogle and his son Governor Benjamin Ogle. It was purchased in 1898 by the wealthy banker James T. Woodward who, on his passing in 1910, left it to his nephew, William Woodward, Sr., who became a famous horseman. Restored to reflect its 250-year-old legacy, the Mansion is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Belair Stable, on the Estate, was part of the famous Belair Stud, one of the premier racing stables in the 1930s, '40s, and '50s. Owned and operated by William Woodward, Sr. (1876–1953), it closed in 1957 following the death of his son, Billy Woodward. Belair had been the oldest continually operating thoroughbred horse farm in the country. It is said that the blood of Belair horses flows through the veins of every American race horse of distinction.
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|This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013)|
Bowie's rail town history is on display via the Huntington Railroad Museum, within the local rail station's restored railroad buildings. In 2006, the city reopened the Bowie Building Association building, a small brick and block structure constructed circa 1930, as a Welcome Center; it originally housed the Bowie Building Association, which helped finance much of the community's early development.
Bowie has an area of 16 square miles (41 km2) and approximately 50,000 residents. It has nearly 2,000 acres (8.1 km2) set aside as parks or open space. It has 72 ball fields, three community centers, an ice arena at Allen Pond Park, the Bowie Town Center, the 800-seat Bowie Center for the Performing Arts, a 150-seat theatrical playhouse, a golf course, and three museums. Bowie is home to the Bowie Baysox, a Class AA Eastern League professional baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles. The Baysox currently play their home games at Prince George's Stadium. The city has recently added a state-of-the-art senior citizens center and a gymnasium for community programs. The city is a family-oriented community whose motto is "Growth, unity and progress".
Bowie is located at (38.964727, -76.744531).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 18.51 square miles (47.94 km2), of which, 18.43 square miles (47.73 km2) is land and 0.08 square miles (0.21 km2) is water.
- Glenn Dale (northwest)
- Crofton (northeast)
- Davidsonville (east)
- Queen Anne (southeast)
- Brock Hall (south)
- Kettering (southwest)
- Woodmore (southwest)
- Fairwood (west)
20715, 20716, 20717, 20718, 20719, 20720, 20721
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Bowie has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.
According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $99,105, and the median income for a family was $109,157. Males had a median income of $52,284 versus $40,471 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,703. About 0.7% of families and 1.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 1.8% of those age 65 or over.
- Rank by Per Capita Income in Prince George's County: 7
- Rank by Per Capita Income in Maryland: 65
As of the census of 2010, there were 54,727 people, 19,950 households, and 14,264 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,969.5 inhabitants per square mile (1,146.5/km2). There were 20,687 housing units at an average density of 1,122.5 per square mile (433.4/km2). The ethnic makeup of the city was 41.4% White, 48.7% African American, 0.3% Native American, 4.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.9% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.6% of the population.
There were 19,950 households of which 37.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.5% were non-families. 23.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.73 and the average family size was 3.23.
The median age in the city was 40.1 years. 24.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.2% were from 25 to 44; 30.1% were from 45 to 64; and 11.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.9% male and 53.1% female.
The City of Bowie operates under a council-manager government as established by the city charter. This means that the mayor and council are responsible for making policy, passing ordinances, voting appropriations, and having overall supervisory authority in the city government.
|This section is outdated. (January 2014)|
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The council appoints a professional city manager responsible for supervising government operations and implementing the policies adopted by the council. As of the November 2011 election, the members of the council are:
- Mayor: G. Frederick Robinson
- Diane Polangin – Mayor Pro Tem & Councilmember, District 2
- City Council:
- James Marcos – Councilmember, District 1
- Henri Gardner – Councilmember, District 3
- Isaac Trouth – Councilmember, District 4
- Dennis Brady – At-Large Councilmember
- Todd Turner – At-Large Councilmember
- City Manager: David J. Deutsch
- Assistant City Manager: John L. Fitzwater
The primary law enforcement agency for the city is the Bowie Police Department. The Bowie Police Department is also aided by the Prince George's County Police and the Sheriff's Office as directed by authority.
Despite its low crime rate, Bowie has seen high profile criminal activity.
Michael Bray was co-pastor at the Reformation Lutheran Church in Bowie when he conspired to bomb 10 clinics and offices of abortion supporters in three states and the District of Columbia from January 1984 through January 1985. He eventually served almost 4 years in prison for these crimes.
On October 7, 2002, a 13-year old boy, Iran Brown, was critically wounded by a sniper soon after he was dropped off at Benjamin Tasker Middle School in Bowie. This shooting was one in a series of murders and attempted murders referred to collectively as the Beltway sniper attacks.
Although relatively low compared to surrounding areas, Bowie has an average of 91 vehicle thefts per year.
According to the City's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the largest employers in the city are:
|#||Employer||# of Employees|
|1||Inovalon||2500 (As of March 2015)|
|2||Prince George's County Public Schools||1,063|
|3||City of Bowie||418|
Primary and secondary schools
Bowie is within the Prince George's County Public Schools system.
Elementary schools in Bowie include Heather Hills, High Bridge, Kenilworth, Northview, Pointer Ridge, Rockledge, Tulip Grove, Whitehall, and Yorktown Elementary Schools. Two special education centers are Chapel Forge and C. Elizabeth Reig. A voc/tech school is located at Tall Oaks High School.
Bowie is home to several private schools:
- Ascension Day Care and Kindergarten
- Belair Baptist Christian Academy
- Bowie Montessori Children's House
- Christian Community Presbyterian Church Nursery School
- Cornerstone Christian Academy
- Cresthill Christian Academy
- Grace Christian School (Grades K–8)
- Holy Trinity Episcopal Day School
- Patuxent Montessori School
- Redeemer Child Care Center
- St. Matthew's Early Education Center
- St. Pius X Regional School (Grades K–8)
Colleges and universities
Bowie State University, located north of Bowie, has been open since 1865.
- Taylor Brown, top leading scorer on the 2014–15 George Mason Patriots women's basketball team and the Atlantic 10 Conference.
- JC Chasez, singer and former member of 'N Sync
- Eva Cassidy, singer and songwriter
- Kathy Lee Gifford, television host, singer, songwriter, comedian, and actress
- Mike Lonergan, Head Coach of the George Washington University men's basketball team
|Bowie Baysox||Baseball||Eastern League; South Division||0||Prince George's Stadium|
The following is a list of historic sites in the city of Bowie and vicinity identified by the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission:
|Site Name||Image||Location||M-NCPPC Inventory Number||Comments|
|1||Belair||Tulip Grove and Belair Drives||71B-004||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1977-09-16|
|2||Belair Stables||Belair Drive||71B-005||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1973-05-08|
|3||Bowie Railroad Buildings||8614 Chestnut Ave.||71B-002-09||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1998-11-04|
|4||Boyden House||6501 Hillmeade Road||71A-034|
|5||Fair Running (Maenner House)||7704 Laurel-Bowie Road||71B-015|
|6||Fairview Plantation||4600 Fairview Vista Drive||71A-013|
|7||Don S. S. Goodloe House||13809 Jericho Park Rd.||71A-030||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1988-10-13; African American Heritage site|
|8||Governor's Bridge||Governors Bridge Road at Patuxent River||74B-001||Historic American Engineering Record,|
|9||Harmon-Phelps House||8706 Maple Avenue||71B-002-08|
|10||Holy Trinity Episcopal Church||13104 Annapolis Road||71A-009a|
|11||Holy Trinity Church Rectory||13106 Annapolis Road||71A-009b|
|12||Ingersoll House||9006 Laurel-Bowie Road||71A-003|
|13||Knights of St. John Hall||13004 12th Street||71B-002-23|
|14||Melford||17107 Melford Boulevard||71B-016||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1988-04-06; also listed at Mitchellville|
|15||Mitchellville Storekeeper's House and Store Site||2608 Mitchellville Road||71B-007|
|16||Ryon House||13125 11th Street||71B-002-03|
|17||Sacred Heart Catholic Church||16101 Annapolis Road||71A-019||Site where the Catholic Church in America was first organized, and the first US Catholic Bishop, John Carroll was petitioned, then named by the Vatican.|
|18||Albert Smith House||9201 Laurel-Bowie Road||71A-002|
|19||St. James Episcopal Chapel||13010 8th Street||71B-002-05|
|20||Straining House||13005 7th Street||71B-002-01|
|21||Williams Plains||MD 3, White Marsh Recreational Park||71B-003||Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, 1980-11-28|
Bowie travel guide from Wikivoyage
- "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-01-25.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-01-25.
- "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
- U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bowie, Maryland
- [dead link]
- "Revitalization of Old Town Bowie". City of Bowie, Maryland. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
- "The Prince George's Hall of Fame". Prince George's County Historical Society. 2003. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
- "Prince George's County: Over 300 years of History – Oden Bowie". Prince George's County Historical Society. 1996. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
- Wilson, William Bender (1895). History of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company: With Plan of Organization. Henry T. Coates & Company. p. 279.
- Wilson, William Bender (1895). History of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company: With Plan of Organization. Henry T. Coates & Company. pp. 333–334.
- "Governor's Information: Maryland Governor Oden Bowie". National Governors Association. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
- Suburban Legend WILLIAM LEVITT
- "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- Climate Summary for Bowie, Maryland
- American FactFinder. Factfinder.census.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-21.
- Sanchez, Rene (January 15, 1999). "Abortion Foes' Internet Site on Trial". Washington Post (The Washington Post). pp. A03.
- "10 Years Later: Profiles of Sniper Victims". WUSA 9. CBS. October 2, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
The sniper's eighth victim was a 13-year-old boy who was shot in the abdomen October 7 after his aunt dropped him off at Benjamin Tasker Middle School in Prince George's County. His aunt, a nurse, rushed him to a hospital clinic in Bowie. He was airlifted to a Washington hospital, where doctors removed his spleen and parts of his stomach and pancreas.
- "Bowie, MD Vehicle Theft Statistics".
- "City of Bowie 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report" (PDF).
- Kamath, Sudha (January 13, 2015). "Mason Junior Excels on and off the Court". George Mason University. Retrieved January 26, 2015.
- Cruz, Anne Marie (April 5, 2004). "Hit Single". People (Time, Inc.). Retrieved December 21, 2013.
As a kid in suburban Bowie, Md....
- Songbird Sherri Dalphonse, Washingtonian, May 1, 2001. Retrieved on September 3, 2013.
- Gleick, Elizabeth (November 2, 1992). "Kathie Lee's Story". People (Time, Inc) 38 (18). Retrieved December 21, 2013.
When Kathie Lee was 4, the family... set up house in Bowie, Md.
- M-NCPPC Illustrated Inventory of Historic Sites (Prince George's County, Maryland), 2006.
- Lavoie, Catherine C. (1992). Historic American Engineering Record, Governor's Bridge, HAER NO. MD-85. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, Department of the Interior. pp. 1, 2.
- Maryland Historical Trust Property Number PG-74B-1 & AA-85I, Maryland Inventory of Historic Bridges, retrieved 5 January 2013
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bowie, Maryland.|
| 19 |
Introduction: Gena Philibert-Ortega is a genealogist and author of the book “From the Family Kitchen.” In this blog article, Gena shows how engagement, wedding and anniversary announcements in old newspapers provide a wealth of genealogical information to help with your family history research.
What should you be searching for when conducting family history research in newspapers? Vital record events are some of the most common newspaper articles about our ancestors, such as birth notices and obituaries. There’s another broad category of newspaper articles that is extremely helpful to genealogists: engagement, wedding and anniversary announcements. Falling in love and getting married can result in multiple articles rich in genealogical data.
Whether you are tracing an ancestor’s courtship, marriage, or wedding anniversary, you can find it in the newspaper. And once you find these news articles, make sure to carefully note mentions of family members, dates, places and other information that you can follow up with additional research in newspapers and other ancestry records.
Researching Courtship & Engagement
Engagement notices are a good example of newspaper articles with surprising information in addition to the names of the happy betrothed couple. Street addresses, former city residences, parents’ and other relatives’ names, occupations, alumni information, and pending nuptial dates can be found in these announcements. This engagement notice titled “News of Engagement Interests Society Folk” from 1914 would interest present-day descendants of these couples.
20th century engagement announcements often included a photo of the bride-to-be. One good weekend project would be to find the engagement notices for more recent generations in your family to include in your genealogy.
A bridal shower for one friend may also be the perfect place to announce another’s wedding engagement. This unique event provides the researcher with information about those closest to their ancestor.
Genealogy Tip: If you know the marriage date for an ancestor, don’t narrow your search to that date. You may miss an engagement notice printed months or even a year prior to the big day.
Tracing Marriage Licenses & Weddings
Don’t forget that you may be able to use newspapers to follow your ancestral couple from engagement to marriage license, and then from wedding to milestone anniversaries. In this 1927 San Francisco newspaper article listing vital record events, names of those applying for marriage licenses as well as those being issued licenses span San Francisco and nearby cities.
Genealogy Tip: Don’t assume that a marriage license means the couple went through with a wedding.
Newspaper articles about weddings can be full of surprises. They may include not only the names of the couple, their respective families, and details of the day – but they can also provide information about occupations and future residences. In this 1900 recounting of the wedding of Edmond Hughes and Edith Wakeman in Bismarck, North Dakota, we not only learn about the wedding but the character of the bride (“charming, accomplished and worthy”) and groom (“a young man of integrity and ability”), as well as where they will honeymoon, and then reside.
Your Ancestors’ Wedding Anniversaries
How long was your ancestor married? If they stuck it out for the long ride, that accomplishment might be found in the newspaper. Typically, milestone wedding anniversaries like 25th, 50th or even beyond can be found.
What’s interesting about the following historical newspaper article is that it not only marks the occasion of the 25th wedding anniversary of Rev. E. N. Maynard, but notes that it’s the second time he’s been married 25 years. His first marriage “nearly 60 years ago” lasted 25 years and ended with the death of his wife. The Reverend then married again to Susan Paine “considerably his junior” and that marriage was now at the 25-year mark. What I love most about this article is all the great genealogical information found for both wives – including their names and who their fathers were – as well as the age for Rev. E. N. Maynard. Notice too that the article mentions that Maynard had no children from his first wife, but now has two daughters, a son and a grandson.
Genealogy Tip: Newspapers may include articles about parties given to honor a couple for their milestone wedding anniversary. Search for these news articles to find mentions of out-of-town family members in attendance.
Some couples make 25 years of marriage look like child’s play. Consider this couple, Mr. and Mrs. Henry G. Lay, who were 100 and 99 years old at their 75th wedding anniversary in 1924.
And of course once you’ve successfully been married for such a long time, people are going to wonder what your secret to marital bliss is. This anniversary notice from a 1938 Kentucky newspaper may sum it up best.
Be sure to search old newspapers for engagement, wedding and anniversary announcements when researching your ancestors – one more reason why newspapers are an essential genealogy resource for finding your family’s stories.
- Wedding Belles! How to Find Your Ancestors’ Marriage Records
- Wedding Records: Everyone Loves a Rainbow
- Marriage by Proxy & More Stories of Attendance from Afar
- Researching the Not-So-Romantic History of Eloping
| 19 |
Civil Rights Leader
Born Feb. 4, 1913 - Died Oct. 24, 2005
When Rosa Parks was born, she was named Rosa Louise by her parents. Her father was a carpenter and her mother was a teacher. Her parents separated when she was two years old, and she with her mother and brother moved to her grandparents' farm.
Her mother, Leona, homeschooled her until she was eleven, then she attended a private school; the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls. Her training there helped to shape her views which would guide her later in life.
During this time in America blacks did not enjoy the rights they have today. Rosa remembered living in fear when she was a child as a result of the insults and prejudices against people of her race.
She attended college, but had to drop out to care for her grandmother who became ill. Later she cared for her mother. She married Raymond Parks, who was a barber. They were active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the NAACP (pronounced "N double A C P").
Rosa worked as a seamstress. It was very tiring sitting at a sewing machine and sewing all day. To get to work she rode the bus.
Black people could not sit just anywhere they wanted in the bus. They had to sit in the back of the bus. If white people were already sitting in the front of the bus, the black person had to pay the fare, get off the bus, and reenter at the back door. Sometimes the bus driver just drove off and left them before they could get back on at the back door. If the bus filled up with people, the driver would ask a black person to move so he could reposition the movable sign which divided the black and white sections.
On December 1, 1955 after a hard day at work, Rosa was riding the bus home when the driver asked her and three black men to move to make more room in the white section. The three men moved, but Rosa refused. A police officer came, arrested her and took her to jail. She was bailed out that evening.
She didn't plan the incident, but when it happened, she decided to stand up for her rights. She was tired of being humiliated and treated unfairly.
She was not the first black person to refuse to move on a bus, but when the event happened to her
, civil rights leaders knew they had found someone to champion their cause. Rosa was a person who was above reproach, and people could not find fault with her character.
A group was formed and 35,000 handbills were distributed calling for a boycott
of the buses. This meant the blacks would refuse to ride the buses unless they were desegregated and they could sit anywhere in the bus. And refuse they did! For more than a year, 381 days, they boycotted the buses. They carpooled, rode in cabs, and walked to work.
There was a lot of violence and bombings. Martin Luther King rose as a leader during this time and his house was bombed. Black churches were destroyed.
On November 13, 1956 the United States Supreme Court ruled that segregation was unlawful, and the city of Montgomery, Alabama had no right to impose it on people riding their buses. The next month the signs on the bus seats designating white and colored sections were removed. The boycott was over.
Rosa lost her job and was unable to get another one in Montgomery. She and Raymond moved to Virginia.
During her lifetime she was awarded many honors for her courageous stand. There was the Rosa Parks Peace Prize in 1994, the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1999. A library and museum is dedicated to her in Montgomery, Alabama.
Rosa Parks passed away on October 24, 2005 at the age of 92. Her casket was placed in the rotunda of the United States Capitol for two days. This is an honor usually only reserved for Presidents when they die. People waited in line for pay their respects.
Today people of all color can sit wherever they wish on buses throughout the nation due to the courage and determination of one woman, Rosa Parks.
This biography by Patsy Stevens, a retired teacher, was written in 2006.
Other Activities View a slideshow about Rosa Parks
Play an Online Game at Quia
From Word Central's Student Dictionary
by Merriam - Webster
(Pronunciation note: the schwa sound is shown by ə)
a woman who sews especially for a living
Pronunciation: hyoo'mil-E-'At, yoo-
to cause a loss of pride or self-respect : to humble
- hu mil i a tion /-"mil-E-'A-shən/ noun
Word History: In modern English we sometimes say that a person who has been
criticized or humiliated has been put down. We speak as though the person
had actually been forced to the ground or made to bow down in front of
someone else. The origins of the word humiliate itself also suggest the idea
of physically putting someone down to the ground.
Function: noun plural
the nonpolitical rights of a citizen; especially : the rights of personal
liberty guaranteed to U.S. citizens by the 13th and 14th amendments
to the Constitution and by acts of Congress
refusing to do business with someone or to buy a certain product.
(Look up the word at Word Central to find out how the term came to be called "boycott".)
1 : the act or process of segregating : the state of being segregated
2 : the separation or isolation of a race, class, or group
(as by restriction to an area or by separate schools)
1 : a round building; especially : one covered by a dome
2 a : a large round room b : a large central area (as in a hotel)
Research Links Rosa Parks
from the Academy of Achievement
information from Wikipedia
The Time 100
an interview by Kira Albin
Myth and Fact in the Story of Rosa Parks
biography with audio version
Rosa Parks Lesson Plan
(You must register to use, a limited number of lessons free)
Rosa and Raymond Parks
Institute for Self Development
Rosa Parks Lesson
worksheet and quiz
Rosa Parks Lesson
printable study sheet
The Florida Memory Project
photographs documenting the civil rights movement
My Own Books
personalize an online story about Rosa Parks
by inserting your name in the story
At biography.com search for Rosa Parks Jailed.
Scroll the panel for the "Video & Audio Results".
Press "Go" to search for books about
A LIBRARY OF
20th Century Biographies- Rosa Parks
ONLINE BOOKS and BOOK PREVIEWS
Order the following books from Amazon.
by Anne E. Schraff (selected pages) Order here
by Kathleen V. Kudlinski, Meryl Henderson (selected pages) Order here
The Bus Ride That Changed History, the story of Rosa Parks
by Pamela Duncan Edwards (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks, First Biographies
by Lola M. Schaefer (selected pages) Order here
by Sandra Donovan (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks, Buddy Books
by Sarah Tieck (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks: The Courage to Make a Difference
by Sneed B. Collard (selected pages) Order here
by Erinn Banting (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks: The Life of a Civil Rights Heroine
by Rob Shone, Nik Spender (selected pages) Order here
A picture book of Rosa Parks
by David A. Adler (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks: Civil Rights Pioneer
by Erika L. Shores (selected pages) Order here
by Nikki Giovanni, Bryan Collier (selected pages) Order here
Meet Rosa Parks
by Melody S. Mis (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Movement
by Terri DeGezelle (selected pages) Order here
The Black girl next door: a memoir
by Jennifer Lynn Baszile (selected pages) Order here
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
by Sabrina Crewe, Frank Walsh (selected pages) Order here
U.S. Facts & Fun, Grades 4-6
by Joanne Mattern (selected pages) Order here
Rosa Parks, A Life of Courage
by Ann-Marie Kishel (selected pages)
Rosa Parks, Courageous Citizen
by Ruth Ashby (selected pages)
by Michelle Levine (selected pages)
People We Should Know - Rosa Parks
by Jonatha A. Brown (selected pages)
Photo Illustrated Biographies- Rosa Parks
by Muriel L. Dubois (selected pages)
Don't Know Much About Rosa Parks
by Kenneth C. Davis (selected pages)
Rosa Parks, History Maker Bios
by Maryann N. Weidt (selected pages)
Credits and Solutions
Puzzles on these pages courtesy of
Songs of Praise
and Armored Penguin
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| 19 |
All the societies of the vanguard — Social Democrats, revolutionaries of all shades, various communists — say that the individual is a “product of his environment.” It would be more exact to say that individuals are products of their environment, adding that the individual person, more especially, is the end of an ancestral line, which traces its origin back into animal darkness, holding this fact accountable for certain individuals in whom essentially predominate the characteristics of temperament and disposition of a particular ancestry. All societies — religious, lay, collectivist revolutionaries or not — say that the individual is a composite, therefore a dependent upon his environment. The anarchist individualists wish to make the individual person an independent, therefore a decomposite of his environment. The societies see in the individual a stone of the structure, a member of the body. The anarchists aim to make each individual person a distinct organism, a unified freeman. Whence two conceptions of education and propaganda:
1st. The social conception, which regards the individual as a wheelwork of society, and in its most audacious dreams does not go beyond the idea of the tremendous final transformation or revolution of the environment. It regards evolution as a quantitative result, a question of numbers. It takes the child or the adult, and, a priori, fills him with the concept of binding solidarity, of necessary harmony, of a communal organization inevitable and universal. It proceeds by shaping the brain after a pattern arranged in advance. It prescribes a special education.
2nd. The anarchistic conception, which regards the individual as detached — as the cause or reason of all association — who opposes it to society, and who would daringly like to make each personal life a ferment destructive to the prescribed or submissive life of the environment. It considers that all emancipation is due to quality, to individual effort. It seeks to make the child or the adult more competent for resistance, better endowed, a being deciding for himself as much as he can his own needs, and supplying them as much as possible; a union now or to come of others more capable or better endowed in one way or another. Outside of all intervention, of all guardianship, of all protection of the state or the community. Anarchistic education does not proceed by force, but by free examination, by approved elimination. It suggests, it selects.
And these two points of view are irreconcilable.
| 19 |
Celebrating the 60th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education - The Past, The Present & The Future
Amber Racine on 5/20/2014
About The Author
Amber Racine is an attorney at Raynes McCarty where she represents catastrophically injured plaintiffs in product liability, premises liability and general negligence actions in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
Separate but equal. Prior to 1954, this was the fiction that our country believed. In 1896, the Supreme Court, in deciding Plessy v. Ferguson, upheld a Louisiana statute which required whites and blacks to ride in separate railroad cars (just one example of the "separate but equal" mindset). The Court's opinion stated:
The underlying fallacy of the plaintiff's argument…consist[s] in the assumption that the enforced separation of the two races stamps the colored race with a badge of inferiority. If this be so, it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses to put that construction upon it…[t]he argument also assumes that social prejudices may be overcome by legislation, and that equal rights cannot be secured to the negro except by an enforced commingling of the two races. We cannot accept this proposition.
For more than fifty years, America held tight to the idea that the legislatively-supported segregation had no hand in the inferior treatment, the substandard opportunities and the plain discrimination that African-Americans faced. In truth, segregation prevented African-Americans from gaining any semblance of equality and maintained the status quo of open, free racism and prejudice. Early in the 1950s, the wheels of change began to turn.
In 1951, Kansas parents, supported by the NAACP, attempted to enroll their twenty children in the closest integrated neighborhood schools. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools - some miles away from the families' homes. Through the denial of admission, the case of Oliver Brown, et al. v. The Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas was born. Eventually, several cases involving the disparities and inferiorities in segregated schools from around the country were consolidated for oral argument before the Supreme Court.1
On May 17, 1954, America took a huge step towards equality when the Supreme Court held that segregation was unconstitutional, stressing the point that the practice in and of itself harmed black students psychologically and socially:
Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other 'tangible' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does...Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn….We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.
This year, we celebrate the 60th Anniversary of that first step. We honor the NAACP attorneys who skillfully battled years of segregationist precedent; we applaud the parents who were courageous enough to put their lives on the line to gain more opportunities for the children and for children around the nation; and we commend the Justices of the Supreme Court for issuing a unanimous decision which underscored the significance of the change in the law. During Law Week, the Barristers' Association and the Philadelphia Bar Association joined forces to celebrate this symbol that Brown v. Board is today. The film, "Remembering the Legacy: Brown v. Board of Education - 60 Years Later", which presents stories of local attorneys and judges impacted by the Brown v. Board decision is the result of that partnership. Without prompting, many participants discussed the fact that the true ideal of Brown had not yet been realized; that Brown v. Board was a beginning and the ending is still yet to come.
Since 1954, there have been more steps forward: Brown II (a 1955 Supreme Court cases where the Justices ordered the district courts to implement desegregation "with all deliberate speed"); Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (a 1964 Supreme Court case which upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, banning racial discrimination in public places); and Brown III (a 1978 case filed in Topeka's district court which eventually resulted in the Topeka schools developing a plan to meet court standards of racial balance by 1998). But, as we all know, the journey is not yet complete. Schools across the country are faced with significant obstacles and classes in many areas often resemble the pre-Brown days of segregation. Spending disparities between public schools in suburban areas and cities continue to grow. Locally, Philadelphia schools struggle with ongoing budget shortfalls, increased violence and high school graduation rates hovering around 60%. The journey continues, because one fact remains true whether it is 1954, 2014 or 2074 - education is the one great equalizer. We must take action to ensure that all children, regardless of race or socioeconomic status have the access and opportunity to succeed.
The wheels that began turning in the 1950s cannot stop, but must continue until the destination - the true equality sought by the attorneys, families and even the unanimous Supreme Court in 1954 - is reached. And so, we recognize the 60th Anniversary of the Brown decision by celebrating the past, encouraging action in the present and holding out hope for the future.
1Briggs v. Elliott, South Carolina case originally filed in 1950; Brown v. Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas case originally filed 1951; Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia case also filed in 1951; and Gebhart v. Belton, filed in Delaware in 1952 - the only case where discrimination was held to be unconstitutional at the lower court level. See also Bolling v. Sharpe, a related case originally filed in Washington D.C. and separately heard by the Supreme Court for decision as to whether segregation violated the due process clause of the 5th Amendment.
Amber Racine is an attorney at Raynes McCarty where she represents catastrophically injured plaintiffs in product liability, premises liability and general negligence actions in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Ms. Racine is also president of The Barristers' Association of Philadelphia. She can be reached at [email protected].
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||This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (October 2010)|
Slave Codes were sets of laws during the colonial period and/or in individual states after the American Revolution, which defined the status of slaves and the rights and responsibilities of slave owners.
The slave codes in general gave slave holders absolute power over the enslaved.
- 1 Provisions
- 2 Violence and other injustices against slaves
- 3 Example slave codes
- 4 See also
- 5 Notes
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Definition of "slaves"
- Virginia, 1639
- “Act XI. All persons except the African slaves are to be provided with arms and ammunitions or be fined at the pleasure of the governor and the council.”
- Virginia, 1662
- “Whereas some doubts have arisen whether children got by any Englishmen upon a Negro shall be slave or Free, Be it therefore enacted and declared by this present Grand assembly, that all children born in this country shall be held bond or free only according to the condition of the mother."
- Maryland, 1664
- “That whatsoever free-born [English] woman shall intermarry with any slave [...] shall serve the master of such slave during the life of her husband; and that all the issue of such free-born women, so married shall be slaves as their fathers were.”
- Virginia, 1667
- “Act III. Whereas some doubts have arisen whether children that are slaves by birth [...] should by virtue of their baptism be made free, it is enacted that baptism does not alter the condition to the person as to his bondage or freedom; masters freed from this doubt may more carefully propagate Christianity by permitting slaves to be admitted to that sacrament.”
- Virginia, 1682
- “Act I. It is enacted that all servants [...] which shall be imported into this country either by sea or by land, whether Negroes, Moors, mulattoes or Indians who and whose parentage and native countries are not Christian at the time of their first purchase by some Christian [...] and all Indians, which shall be sold by our neighboring Indians, or any other trafficking with us for slaves, are hereby adjudged, deemed and taken to be slaves to all intents and purposes any law, usage, or custom to the contrary notwithstanding.”
- Virginia, 1705
- "All servants imported and brought into the Country...who were not Christians in their native Country...shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion...shall be held to be real estate."
- South Carolina, 1712
- "Be it therefore enacted, by his Excellency, William, Lord Craven, Palatine.... and the rest of the members of the General Assembly, now met at Charles Town, for the South-west part of this Province, and by the authority of the same, That all negros, mulattoes, mestizo's or Indians, which at any time heretofore have been sold, or now are held or taken to be, or hereafter shall be bought and sold for slaves, are hereby declared slaves; and they, and their children, are hereby made and declared slaves..."
Violence and other injustices against slaves
- Virginia, 1705 – "If any slave resists his master...correcting such a slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction...the master shall be free of all punishment...as if such accident never happened."
- South Carolina, 1712 - "Be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That no master, mistress, overseer, or other person whatsoever, that hath the care and charge of any negro or slave, shall give their negroes and other slaves leave...to go out of their plantations.... Every slave hereafter out of his master's plantation, without a ticket, or leave in writing, from his master...shall be whipped...."
- Louisiana, 1724 - "The slave who, having struck his master, his mistress, or the husband of his mistress, or their children, shall have produced a bruise, or the shedding of blood in the face, shall suffer capital punishment."
Reading by slaves illegal
Some Slavery Codes made teaching Mulatto, Indian and indentured slaves illegal.
- Alabama, 1833, section 31 - "Any person or persons who attempt to teach any free person of color, or slave, to spell, read, or write, shall, upon conviction thereof by indictment, be fined in a sum not less than two hundred and fifty dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars."
- Alabama, 1833, section 32 - "Any free person of color who shall write for any slave a pass or free paper, on conviction thereof, shall receive for every such offense, thirty-nine lashes on the bare back, and leave the state of Alabama within thirty days thereafter..."
- Alabama, 1833, section 33 - "Any slave who shall write for any other slave, any pass or free-paper, upon conviction, shall receive, on his or her back, one hundred lashes for the first offence, and seven hundred lashes for every offence thereafter..."
Example slave codes
South Carolina established its slave code in 1712, based on the 1688 English slave code employed in Barbados. The South Carolina slave code served as the model for other colonies in North America. In 1770, Georgia adopted the South Carolina slave code, and then Florida adopted the Georgia code. The 1712 South Carolina slave code included provisions such as:
- Slaves were forbidden to leave the owner's property, unless accompanied by a white person, or obtaining permission. If a slave leaves the owner's property without permission, "every white person" is required to chastise such slaves
- Any slave attempting to run away and leave the colony (later, state) receives the death penalty
- Any slave who evades capture for 20 days or more is to be publicly whipped for the first offense; branded with the letter R on the right cheek for the second offense; and lose one ear if absent for thirty days for the third offense; and castrated for the fourth offense.
- Owners refusing to abide by the slave code are fined and forfeit ownership of their slaves
- Slave homes are to be searched every two weeks for weapons or stolen goods. Punishment for violations escalate to include loss of ear, branding, and nose-slitting, and for the fourth offense, death.
- No slave shall be allowed to work for pay, or to plant corn, peas or rice; or to keep hogs, cattle, or horses; or to own or operate a boat; to buy or sell; or to wear clothes finer than 'Negro cloth'
The South Carolina slave code was revised in 1739 with the following amendments:
- No slave shall be taught to write, work on Sunday, or work more than 15 hours per day in Summer, and 14 hours in Winter.
- Willful killing of a slave exacts a fine of 700 pounds, and "passion" killing 350 pounds
- The fine for concealing runaway slaves is $1,000 and a prison sentence of up to one year
- A fine of $100 and six months in prison are imposed for employing any Black or slave as a clerk
- A fine of $100 and six months in prison are imposed on anyone selling or giving alcoholic beverages to slaves
- A fine of $100 and six months in prison are imposed for teaching a slave to read and write, and death is the penalty for circulating incendiary literature
- Freeing a slave is forbidden, except by deed, and after 1820, only by permission of the legislature [Georgia required legislative approval after 1801]
Some elements of these codes were rarely or laxly enforced as they imposed costs or limitations upon (politically powerful) slaveowners. For instance, well after 1712, slaves commonly worked for hire in Charleston.
The slave codes of the tobacco colonies (Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, and Virginia) were modeled on the Virginia code, which was initially established in 1667. The 1682 Virginia code included the following provisions:
- Slaves were prohibited from possessing weapons
- Slaves were prohibited from leaving their owner's plantations without permission
- Slaves were prohibited from lifting a hand against a white person, even in self-defense
- A runaway slave refusing to surrender could be killed without penalty
District of Columbia slave codes
Slaves were a common sight in the nation's capital. Harsh regulation of these urban slaves, most of whom were servants for the government elite, was in effect until the 1850s. Compared to some southern codes, the District of Columbia was relatively moderate. Slaves were allowed to hire their services, live apart from their masters, and free blacks were even allowed to live in the city and operate schools. The code could be used by attorneys and clerks who referred to it when drafting contracts or briefs. By 1860, there were over 11,000 free blacks and over 3,000 slaves in the District of Columbia. Following the Compromise of 1850, the sale of slaves was outlawed within Washington D.C. Slavery in the District of Columbia ended in 1862 and nearly 3,000 slaves were offered a compensation. The official printed slave code was issued only a month before slavery ended there.
Slave codes in the Northern colonies, before slavery was abolished, were less harsh than slave codes in the Southern colonies, but contained many similar provisions, such as forbidding slaves from leaving the owner's land, forbidding whites from selling alcohol to slaves, and specifying punishment for attempting to escape.
Proper treatment of slaves
|This section requires expansion. (August 2013)|
Southern slave codes did make willful killing of a slave illegal in most cases. For example, in 1791 the North Carolina legislature made the willful killing of a slave murder, unless done in resisting or under moderate correction. Historian Lawrence M. Friedman wrote: "Ten Southern codes made it a crime to mistreat a slave. ... Under the Louisiana Civil Code of 1825 (art. 192), if a master was “convicted of cruel treatment,” the judge could order the sale of the mistreated slave, presumably to a better master."
Due Process Rights for Slaves
In Florida, a slave charged with a capital offense was entitled to legal counsel to represent him, on the theory that the master should not be deprived of his property (through hanging) unless the slave got a fair trial. In at least one case, a slave charged with raping a white woman was acquitted.
- Atlantic slave trade
- Barbados Slave Code
- Code Noir; French black code
- Convict leasing
- Debt bondage
- Forced labor
- Indentured servants
- International Year to Commemorate the Struggle against Slavery and its Abolition
- Slave narrative
- Slave rebellion
- Slave Trade Acts
- Slave trade
- Slavery in Africa
- Slavery in Canada
- Slavery in the colonial United States
- Slavery in the United States
- Trafficking in human beings
- Unfree labour
- Wage slavery
- "Laws on Slavery". Virtual Jamestown.
- Slave Codes of 1705
- Christian, pp 27-28
- Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-674-81092-9
- Christian, pp 19
- Christian, p 30
- Morris, Thomas D. (1999). Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619-1860. University of North Carolina Press. p. 172. ISBN 0807864307.
- Lawrence M. Friedman (2005). A History of American Law: Third Edition. Simon and Schuster. p.163 ISBN 0743282582
- Cato, a slave v. State, 9 Fla. 160 (1860).
- Christian, Charles M., and Bennet, Sari, Black saga: the African American experience : a chronology, Basic Civitas Books, 1998
- Thomas Cooper and David J. McCord, ed., Statutes at Large of South Carolina, (10 Vols., Columbia, 1836–1841) VII, pp. 352–356.
- B. F. French, Historical Collections of Louisiana:Embracing Translations of Many Rare and Valuable Documents Relating to the Natural, Civil, and Political History of that State (New York: D. Appleton, 1851)
- Slave Code for the District of Columbia
- Laws of the State of Alabama, 1833
- Goodell, William (1853). The American Slave Code in Theory and Practice: Its Distinctive Features Shown by Its Statutes, Judicial Decisions, and Illustrative Face
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Definitions for casting vote
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word casting vote
the deciding vote cast by the presiding officer to resolve a tie
A casting vote is a vote given to the presiding officer of a council or legislative body to resolve a deadlock and which can be exercised only when such a deadlock exists. Examples of officers who hold casting votes are the Speaker of the British House of Commons and the Vice President of the United States. In some legislatures, a casting vote may be exercised however the presiding officer wishes. An example is the Vice President of the United States, who may exercise his casting vote in the Senate according to his party affiliation or according to his own personal beliefs. By virtue of the Vice President's casting vote, when the Senate as elected is equally divided between two parties, the Vice President's party automatically becomes the official majority party in the Senate. The exercise of the Vice President's casting vote has become increasingly rare throughout American history as the size of the Senate has grown from 26 to 100 and ties have become less probable. In some other legislatures, by contrast, a casting vote can only be exercised according to strict rules or conventions. For example, the Speaker of the British House of Commons is expected by constitutional convention to follow Speaker Denison's rule, i.e. to vote to allow further discussion, if this is possible, and otherwise to vote against the proposal concerned.
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Barack Obama Speaks at Selma, Alabama
Seeking to build upon the success in Montgomery, King and other southern black ministers founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. In 1959, King toured India in order to further develop his understanding of Gandhian nonviolent strategies. Later that year, King resigned from Dexter and returned to Atlanta to become co-pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church with his father.
In 1960, black college students initiated a wave of sit-in protests that led to the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). King supported the student movement and expressed an interest in creating a youth arm of the SCLC. Student activists admired King, but they were critical of his top-down leadership style and were determined to maintain their autonomy. As an adviser to SNCC, Ella Baker, who had previously served as associate director of SCLC, made clear to representatives from other civil rights organizations that SNCC was to remain a student-led organization. The 1961 “Freedom Rides” heightened tensions between King and younger activists, as he faced criticism for his decision not to participate in the rides. Conflicts between SCLC and SNCC continued during the Albany Movement of 1961 and 1962.
In the spring of 1963, King and SCLC led mass demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, where local white police officials were known for their violent opposition to integration. Clashes between unarmed black demonstrators and police armed with dogs and fire hoses generated newspaper headlines throughout the world. President Kennedy responded to the Birmingham protests by submitting broad civil rights legislation to Congress, which led to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Subsequent mass demonstrations culminated in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, in which more than 250,000 protesters gathered in Washington, D. C. It was on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial that King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech.
King’s renown continued to grow as he became Time Magazine’s Man of the Year in 1963 and the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. The Presidential Medal of Freedom was awarded to Dr. King by President Jimmy Carter in 1964. However, along with the fame and accolades came conflict within the movement’s leadership. Malcolm X‘s message of self-defense and black nationalism resonated with northern, urban blacks more effectively than King’s call for nonviolence; King also faced public criticism from “Black Power” proponent, Stokely Carmichael.
King’s efficacy was not only hindered by divisions among black leadership, but also by the increasing resistance he encountered from national political leaders. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover’s extensive efforts to undermine King’s leadership were intensified during 1967 as urban racial violence escalated, and King’s public criticism of the U. S. intervention in the Vietnam War led to strained relations with Lyndon Johnson’s administration.
In late 1967, King initiated a Poor People’s Campaign designed to confront economic problems that had not been addressed by earlier civil rights reforms. The following year, while supporting striking sanitation workers in Memphis, he delivered his final address, “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop.” The following day, April 4, 1968, Dr. King was assassinated.
To this day, King remains a controversial symbol of the African-American civil rights struggle, revered by many for his martyrdom on behalf of non-violence, but criticized by others for his militancy and insurgent views.
Clayborne Carson, Editor
“Martin Luther King Biographic Note”
CORETTA SCOTT KING
After her husband’s death in 1968, Coretta King emerged as an important activist in her own right. She founded the Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change and led the fight to make her husband’s birthday a national holiday. Yet she also was known as a loving mother who reared four children alone. She instilled in them a reverence for the ideals their father espoused, as well as an independence to chart their own courses, even if it challenged long-standing ideals of who or what they should be.
She became an international advocate for peace and human rights. She met with presidents and world leaders and was arrested fighting against apartheid. And well into her 70s, she traveled the globe to speak against racial and economic injustice, promote the rights of the powerless and poor, and advocate religious freedom, full employment, health care, educational opportunities, nuclear disarmament and AIDS awareness.
Coretta Scott King, 78, of Atlanta, died on February 4, 2006, at a holistic hospital in Rosarito Beach, Mexico, about 17 miles south of San Diego. Despite her physical struggles, friends and family members said her last days were painful, she had made a surprise appearance the previous month during The Martin Luther King Center’s annual “Salute to Greatness Awards Dinner” in downtown Atlanta. She was wheeled into the ballroom of the Hyatt Regency Hotel, triggering an admiring standing ovation. She smiled, waved and kissed family members, but she did not speak. It would be her last public appearance.
A Musical Tribute to Correta Scott King:
On January 31, 2006, National Public Radio broadcast “A Musical Tribute to Corretta Scott King.” To honor Mrs. King’s memory, the program drew upon music from a long-standing tradition in Atlanta. From the 2005 edition of the annual King Celebration concert, the tribute to Mrs. King included Lift Every Voice and Sing, performed by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the glee clubs of Morehouse and Spelman colleges. The tribute also included a 1998 interview on National Public Radio, during which Mrs. King had reflected upon the importance of music to the Civil Rights Movement.
A Tribute to Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement
Technorati: Dr. Martin Luther King, Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, Montgomery, Alabama, African-American, I Have a Dream, I’ve Been to the Mountaintop, Coretta Scott King, SCLC, March on Washington, Bette Midler, The Rose, art, celebrities, personalities, photos, photographs, photography, gallery, photo-gallery, slideshow, video, WordPress video, culture, cultural issues, cultural, segregation, integration, freedom, rights, politics, political issues, political social, social issues, social life, society, freedom, world
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When a Road Opened Under the Hudson
LATE one November evening in 1927, the cars trying to get into the Holland Tunnel were pressed up against the eastbound entrance — a vehicular scrum, moving nowhere — when their drivers began to communicate in what has since become the customary language of that dense, acrid patch of Jersey City. They began to honk their horns.
What moved them to honk then, though, was not what moves drivers to honk now. It wasn’t the other side of the tunnel they were impatient to reach, but the inside of the tunnel itself. A miraculous thing was about to happen — the opening of a road beneath the Hudson River — and their honking was a chorus of excitement.
“It’s clear a lot of people absolutely hate the Holland Tunnel now, but at the time it opened they thought it was wonderful,” said Robert W. Jackson, author of a recently published history of it, “Highway Under the Hudson,” which recounts that evening in 1927. “They were enchanted by the whole idea that you could actually drive under water.”...
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This is the work in which Louis Althusser formulated some of his most influential ideas. For Marx, first published in France in 1968, has come to be regarded as the founding text of the school of “structuralist Marxism” which was presided over by the fascinating and enigmatic figure of Louis Althusser. Structuralism constituted an intellectual revolution in the 1960s and 1970s and radically transformed the way philosophy, political and social theory, history, science, and aesthetics were discussed and thought about. For Marx was a key contribution to that process and it fundamentally recast the way in which many people understood Marx and Marxism.
This book contains the classic statements of Althusser's analysis of the young Marx and the importance of Feuerbach during this formative period, of his thesis of the “epistomological break” between the early and the late Marx, and of his conception of dialectics, contradiction and “overdetermination.” Also included is a study of the materialist theater of Bertolazzi and Brecht and the critique of humanist readings of Marxism. Since his death in 1990, Althusser's legacy has come under renewed examination and it is increasingly recognized that the influence of his ideas has been wider and deeper than previously thought: reading For Marx, in its audacity, originality and rigor, will explain why this impact was so significant.
Just imagine we did all live in the future utopia that is Constant’s New Babylon. What would the library be like? I expect it would feature a greatest hits edition of the theory that helped us all get there. Here’s some notes towards it.
Sometimes to take three steps forward, you have to first take two steps back. I have been thinking that it might be worth stepping back into the archive of historical materialisms, critical theories and such, to see if there are neglected resources there. Perhaps we can’t just built on previous selections from it.
Perhaps we have to find new ways of reading even those texts that have become relentlessly canonic. New futures call for new pasts. So let’s find some! Here I have organized some working notes towards a revised resource guide to the past for this present.
If we were to apply Freud's model of the psyche to left academia, Zizek would be the id, twitching, telling dirty jokes, uttering obscenities, promiscuously combining comments on sex, politics, art, science and popular culture. Badiou would be the ego, offering a calm, steady defense of communism, universality and truth. Which means that the superego would have to be Noam Chomsky, struggling to repress the id with his prohibitions on theory and abstraction.
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Henry VIII was known to self-medicate. The king had a book of prescriptions for treating his own ailments, and even concocted some of his own remedies.
The Middle Passage: 1699
Date: May, 31st 2013 12:30 pm - 12:45 pm
Taken from the memoir of James Barbot, the part-owner and “supercargo” of the slave ship The Albion-Frigate, this is an account of the harrowing “middle passage.” It is also a frank look at the slave trade of the late 17th and early 18th centuries.*****
Great Hall Stage
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19th-Century School Raises 20th-Century Issue of Burden of Racial Balance
By GEORGE JUDSON,
Published: November 21, 1991
WATERBURY, Conn., Nov. 19— The sooty hulk of Maloney School, built in 1889, sits on a hill above South Main Street, as forbidding as a haunted castle. Every weekday more than 300 children enter it to study in classrooms out of a past century. Even the Irish name is out of date at a school where 79 percent of the pupils are Hispanic.
But the school is at the center of a debate that is very much part of the 20th century: Who should bear the burden of racial balance?
Since the Justice Department sued Waterbury in 1969, the city has desegregated its schools the way most cities have, by closing older, inner-city schools and busing their black and Hispanic children to newer suburban neighborhoods.
Maloney was the exception. Despite its condition, it remained open and segregated as parents fought to force the city to replace Maloney with a new elementary school in the South End. Their children, they vowed, would not be integrated by putting them on buses and sending them out of their own neighborhood. It was time for whites to come to them.
Aldermen refused to appropriate money for a new school. In 1987 Connecticut sued to enforce its law requiring individual schools to reflect the racial makeup of the district as a whole. Stricter Standards
Now Maloney is to be integrated the hard way. Last June a Superior Court judge, John P. Maloney, upheld the law but said Waterbury could not be forced to build a school. On Nov. 6 he ordered Waterbury to achieve balance by redrawing school districts.
Because of stricter standards imposed by the court, 6 of the 18 elementary schools are now out of balance. And, the judge said, "the burden of desegregation" must be "borne equally by all racial and ethnic groups."
The order, almost certainly, also marks the end of Maloney as a neighborhood school for the South End. If white children are bused in, Hispanic children will have to be bused out to make room for them.
More alarming to parents, last week the school board voted to close Maloney in January because of its poor condition. Most pupils are to move to Notre Dame Academy, a former parochial school just half a mile away, but in another world, in the middle of downtown on the other side of Interstate 84.
"My little girl, she said, 'I want to stay in Maloney,' " said Wanda Rodriguez, the president of the parent-teacher organization at Maloney. "She cried."
Parents intend to fight the closing because there is no plan to renovate Maloney or to replace it.
"It seems to me that a new school is never going to get through because it's proposed for the South End," said Luz Collazo, a mother who has been involved so long that her three children have graduated from Maloney. "I really believe that if the school had been planned for anywhere else in the city, it would have been built by now."
She and other parents suspect Maloney is to be closed now only because the city has to redistrict and the school is in such poor condition that white parents would be outraged if their children were sent to it.
The parents also question the racial balance law, saying it has served mainly to integrate schools in white neighborhoods by closing the neighborhood schools in black and Hispanic areas.
Maloney, they say, provides a good education despite its physical shortcomings. And its location -- nearly all its pupils walk to school -- meets the needs of the South End, with its many newcomers from Puerto Rico and South America who are uneasy with English, unfamiliar with the city and often without cars.
"I love that school," said Mrs. Collazo, a former head of the parent-teacher organization who is now the group's spokeswoman. "I don't know why. Everybody's happy there. The teachers who are there were my teachers. I went to kindergarten there back in 1960. When I graduated in 1969, we were told we would be the last graduating class."
Kenneth Kimerling, a lawyer with the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund who has helped parents in their fight since 1975, said: "They join in these lawsuits because they believe in desegregation, but they want a school of their own. They don't want it on the backs of Latinos."
Dr. Guy N. DiBiasio, the school superintendent since 1987, said the school board's plans to build a new school had been blocked by the aldermen's refusal to appropriate money. In the meantime, he said, Maloney has kept pace with other schools in terms of teacher-pupil ratios and supplies, while falling farther out of racial balance because of population changes.
Between 1980 and 1990, according to the Census, Waterbury's Hispanic population more than doubled, to 14,578, or 13.4 percent of the city's 109,000 residents, outnumbering blacks, although they also grew in number, to 13,230, or 12.1 percent. Whites declined by nearly 4,000, to 73.3 percent.
Now, Dr. DiBiasio said, the school board is closing Maloney for health and safety reasons. The building, first marked for closing in 1947, "is in a difficult, difficult situation," he said. "You're looking at a high cost just to Band-aid the place."
Connecticut's racial balance law requires all schools in a community to have minority enrollments within 25 percentage points of the average for the entire student population of the district. In Waterbury, where elementary schools are 54.3 percent minority, schools between 29.3 percent and 79.3 percent minority would be considered balanced. First City Taken to Court
Several cities, including Stamford, Norwalk and Meriden, have voluntarily complied with the law. The law has little meaning in cities like Hartford, where 90 percent of the students are minority, and in the vast majority of suburbs and small towns, where minorities often make up less than 5 percent of the population. Waterbury was the first city taken to court.
A few other states, including New Jersey, use a formula to determine the range of minority enrollment. New Jersey has 84 districts with state-approved desegregation plans, at least 50 of which have been upheld in court.
Because of the court order, Waterbury now faces much stricter standards than the law. Judge Maloney, at the state's request, ordered the city to keep each school's minority enrollment within 15 percentage points, rather than 25, of the average. And the growing Hispanic population means the city, after years of resistance, has little choice but to bus white children into the South End.
Mr. Kimerling fears Waterbury is risking its chance to continue its growth of the 1980's, when relatively affordable housing began attracting new middle-class families.
"Waterbury does itself a disservice by not acting the right way," he said. "It makes itself into a Yonkers that is anathema for people to move into. It becomes a controversial place, rather than a place where people want to live."
Graphs: "ETHNIC MAKEUP: Skewed in Schools" shows the ethnic makeup of Waterbury, Connecticut, and the ethnic makeup of the public school. (Sources: Census Bureau, Waterbury Board of Education); "COMPLIANCE: The Racial Spectrum" shows the percentage of enrolled children in Waterbury public elementary schools who are of any nonwhite race or who are Hispanic. (Source: Waterbury Board of Education) Map of Waterbury, Connecticut showing location of Maloney School.
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Railroads and the American People
Publication Year: 2012
In this social history of the impact of railroads on American life, H. Roger Grant concentrates on the railroad's "golden age," 1830-1930. To capture the essence of the nation's railroad experience, Grant explores four fundamental topics—trains and travel, train stations, railroads and community life, and the legacy of railroading in America—illustrating each topic with carefully chosen period illustrations. Grant recalls the lasting memories left by train travel, both of luxurious Pullman cars and the grit and grind of coal-powered locals. He discusses the important role railroads played for towns and cities across America, not only for the access they provided to distant places and distant markets but also for the depots that were a focus of community life. Finally, Grant reviews the lasting heritage of the railroads as it has been preserved in word, stone, paint, and memory. Railroads and the American People is a sparkling paean to American railroading by one of its finest historians.
Published by: Indiana University Press
Series: Railroads Past and Present
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Nearly twenty years ago an editor at a New York City publishing house suggested that I write a social history of American railroads. The idea appealed to me, and a contract and advance were forthcoming. Yet I could not rapidly deliver a manuscript, not because I had lost interest, but because I changed jobs, ...
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For more than 150 years railroads have exerted a pronounced influence on the American people. The iron horse literally became the engine for development and general well-being. By routinizing movements of raw materials, goods, and people, railroads orchestrated the growth of the national economy. ...
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From the time that the first train in America turned a wheel, the railroad generated excitement. Powered by its captivating steam locomotive, the moving train was much more than an instrument of progress; it was a true wonder. In his 1876 “To a Locomotive in Winter” poet Walt Whitman captured the essence of the attraction for this mechanical marvel: ...
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It would be during the “Demonstration Period,” roughly the 1830s and 1840s, that the railroad station evolved. At the dawn of intercity railroads, officials did not fret much about depot design or construction, instead concentrating on tracks, bridges, and other physical aspects of their new lines. ...
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When railroads made their debut, there were Americans who seemed uncertain about this exotic transportation form, failing to foresee that rail lines would rapidly become the nation’s economic arteries. Individuals occasionally expressed real hostility. “If God had designed that His intelligent creatures should travel at the frightful speed of 15 miles an hour by steam, ...
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The legacy of the railroad in American life is enormous, extensively documented, and remembered by passing generations. In the twentieth century the automobile became the dominant form of personal transport and in the process helped to shape the national identity. Still, the railroad had a greater initial impact; ...
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading
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Page Count: 328
Illustrations: 122 b/w illus.
Publication Year: 2012
Series Title: Railroads Past and Present
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Great Genesee RoadEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
As westward expansion began after the American Revolution, the only central New York pathways west of Fort Schuyler (Utica, New York) were rivers and a footpath called the Mohawk Trail or Iroquois Trail. The land companies which began developing large tracts of land for settlement started clamoring for the state to make better roads for their customers.
In 1794 the state legilature authorized a road from Fort Schuyler to Canawaugus to help settlers reach the New Military Tract. This area was set aside as 500 acres of bounty land to compensate each New York Revolutionary War veteran for his service. The new road followed the route of the old Mohawk Trail. An extension to Buffalo was authorized four years later.
However, the road construction was spotty and in places incomplete. In 1800 the legislature chartered the Seneca Road Company to charge tolls for improving the road. The road was macadamized to reduce pot holes. High-quality, privately-controlled, toll roads were called turnpikes. This one was completed in 1808 and was called the "Seneca Turnpike," 157 miles (253 km) from Utica to Canandaigua, longest such road in New York. In 1805 the western extension to Buffalo was changed from a public road to a private turnpike. This "Ontario and Genesee Turnpike" was completed in 1813. In 1806 the Seneca Road Company began developing a more northerly alternate route to the Seneca Turnpike (Great Genesee Road) through Syracuse. In time this became the more popular route west.
The completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 reduced traffic on the turnpikes. Later railroads also began to compete for traffic. Reduced revenue on the turnpikes made the road companies unprofitable. By 1852 the Seneca Road Company was dissolved and the turnpikes became public roads again.
The counties along this migration route (east to west) were as follows:
Settlers and Records
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Wikipedia contributors, "New York State Route 5" in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Route_5 (accessed 28 June 2011).
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Seneca Turnpike" in Clinton Historical Society at http://www.clintonhistory.org/A011.html (accessed 29 June 2011).
- ↑ Compare the more northerly route to Fort Niagara in Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America, 10th ed. (Draper, Utah: Everton Pub., 2002), 849, WorldCat entry, FHL Book 973 D27e 2002 with the more southerly route to Buffalo described in Wikipedia contributors, "New York State Route 5" in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Route_5 (accessed 28 June 2011).
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Voter ID laws
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2014)|
A voter ID law is a law that requires some form of identification in order to vote or receive a ballot for an election. In most jurisdictions, voters must present an ID, usually a photo ID. Because of purported differences in ability to obtain identification on the basis of socioeconomic status, they are controversial, notably in the United States and Canada.
- be registered to vote;
- report in person to the his/hers voting section;
- present an official identity document with photo, usually the regular ID card (cédula de identidade).
Since 2006 the Brazilian Electoral Justice is re-registering voters with biometric identification. In the 2014 elections more than 22 million voters (out of 141 million) will be identified by fingerprints.
In Canada the Federal government will send out, by mail, an Elections Canada registration confirmation card, which the voter takes to the polling station, in advance detailing the where and when that individual should vote. To vote, one must prove their identity and address. A voter has three options:
(1) Show one original piece of identification with photo, name and address like a driver's license or a health card. It must be issued by a government agency.
(2) Show two original pieces of authorized identification. Both pieces must have a name and one must also have an address. Examples: student ID card, birth certificate, public transportation card, utility bill, bank/credit card statement, etc.
(3) Take an oath and have an elector who knows the voter vouch for them (both of which will be required to make a sworn statement). This person must have authorized identification and their name must appear on the list of electors in the same polling division as the voter. This person can only vouch for one person and the person who is vouched for cannot vouch for another elector.
However in some provinces like in Quebec, one has to establish their identity by presenting a health insurance card, a driver’s license, a Canadian passport, a certificate of Indian status or a Canadian Forces ID. These are all photos IDs.
Germany has a community-based resident registration system and everyone eligible to vote receives a personal polling notification some weeks before the election by mail, indicating the polling station of the voter's precinct. Voters have to present their polling notification or a piece of photo ID (identity card, passport, form of identification) when voting. The election officials may refrain from demanding identification when the voter is personally known to them, given his or her name is in the polling station's register of voters.
The registration office of each municipality in the Netherlands maintains a registration of all residents. Every eligible voter receives a personal polling notification by mail some weeks before the election, indicating the polling station of the voter's precinct. Voters have to present their polling notification and a piece of photo ID (passport, identity card, or drivers license) when voting. Such photo ID may be expired but not more than 5 years.
In cantons of Switzerland where the Landsgemeinde or "cantonal assembly" is still being used, men may identify themselves as freeman allowed to bear arms and vote by showing their sword. Women, and men who choose to do so, may show their voting card instead.
Because of Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, voting rights must be extended freely and without monetary cost to every legally eligible voter. Many states have some form of voter ID requirement to vote.
Critics of voter ID laws in the United States claim that the laws are primarily designed to prevent certain, primarily lower class, voters from voters citing the lack of evidence of significant voter fraud. Proponents of these laws claim that they are necessary to maintain the integrity of elections.
An alternative to voter ID in many countries is the use of indelible ink, into which a finger is dipped, which makes it difficult to vote more than once.
- Timothy J. Power: Compulsory for Whom? Mandatory Voting and Electoral Participation in Brazil, 1986–2006, in: Journal of Politics in Latin America. S. 97–122
- Zonas eleitorais, 25 de janeiro de 2013 - 16h05 (in Portuguese)
- Biometria e urna eletrônica, 21 de junho de 2013 - 18h31 (in Portuguese)
- The Biometrical System in Brazil, 27 de junho de 2013 - 18h29
- "Elections 2012 (in Dutch)". Retrieved September 16, 2012.
- "Voter identification: First, show your face". The Economist. September 17, 2011. Retrieved November 12, 2011.
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- n. Law based on judicial decision and precedent rather than on statutes.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- n. Law or system of laws established based on judicial precedent rather than on statutory laws created by legislation.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. a system of jurisprudence based on judicial precedents rather than statutory laws
- n. (civil law) a law established by following earlier judicial decisions
Sorry, no etymologies found.
Sorry, no example sentences found.
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history of Chester...a trading centre for an agricultural area yielding wheat, corn (maize), and soybeans. Agriculture is still important, and flour milling and food processing also contribute to the local economy. The Menard Correctional Center (the state’s second oldest prison and largest maximum-security prison) was established there in 1878 and is a major factor in the city’s economy. Two other state...
Menard Correctional Center
Prison, Chester, Illinois, United States
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.
Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review.
| 19 |
Originally published 03/07/2013
Arthur M. Sackler GalleryWashington, D.C.March 9 through April 28When Thomas Jefferson was in need of guidance he turned, as many statesmen did, to that handbook of political subtleties, Machiavelli's "The Prince." But arguably more important to the third U.S. president was a biography by the Greek historian Xenophon called "Cyropedia." In fact, he seems to have admired the book so much he owned two copies. With many an imaginative flourish, it told the story of King Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire, whose realm stretched from the Mediterranean to eastern Iran and from the Black Sea to the borders of Arabia in the south.Xenophon, who lived between 430 and 355 B.C., described how Cyrus owed his triumphs to "the sheer terror of his personality," but what made him attractive to Jefferson was not his military prowess but his enlightened approach to government....
- Joan Baez, Sly Stone, Steve Martin, Ben E. King -- all honored by the Library of Congress
- StoryCorps to Launch Global Expansion With $1M TED Prize
- Hofstra Event Looks at Bush Presidency
- Did Israel steal uranium from a town in Pennsylvania in the 1960s?
- Sequel to Nelson Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom to be published next year
- U.S. historian denounces Japanese scholars' statement over wartime sexual slavery
- Timothy V Johnson Named Head of Tamiment Library
- History Camp "unconference" returns for the second year in Boston
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Q: I have a list of New York Censuses that were compiled in the "off years" such as 1845, 1855, 1865. Does anyone know how to access these? They would be very useful in tracking my great-grandfather across the US. -- Sharon
A: Most genealogists, if they have been researching for any time, are aware of the decenniel federal census. Begun in 1790, there has been one every ten years since then, though the 1890 was destroyed by fire and the most recently released census is the 1930, released in April, 2002.
What many researchers don't know is that many states took their own census enumerations over the years. These state censuses will, at the very least, help you establish an ancestor's residency in a given town or county.
State censuses offer enumerations in between federal census years.
State Census Records
The federal government began enumerating the population through the census so that it could keep track of the population for a number of reasons, including building the military and determining the respresentation in the government in Washington. District boundaries are redrawn sometimes after a census has been tabulated, for instance.
Some states have canvased for similar tabulations during off-federal census years. Some states, like Illinois and New York took census records half way between the federal decenniel census. When combined with the federal census research, you get a good picture of the family with only five year gaps instead of the traditional ten year gaps.
Other states, like the 13 original colonies, may have taken enumerations before the federal government began the federal enumerations. Not all states have taken state censuses and the information collected varies widely from state to state and sometimes from year to year.
Many researchers ignore those state census records that enumerated the individuals in a household as tally marks, much as the early federal censuses were enumerated. This is a mistake. While you may not be able to identify the individuals in the household by name, it may help you determine when a child left the household or when someone died. It's often much easier to search a five year span of time than it is to have to go through an entire ten years.
By far the best resource to learn more about the state census records is Ann Lainhart's State Census. This small book, published by Genealogical Publishing Company is packed with a great deal of information about the states that have taken their own enumerations. For each year that has been taken in a given state, Lainhart has detailed the questions asked and how the information is displayed - head of household or everyone in the household listed. Another important aspect to the book is where you can find these state census records. She has listed the state repositories where the records may be found and also indicates if the Family History Library has any of the state's census enumerations available.
New York State Census
The New York state census records are one of the better state census enumerations. Each year offers you information about everyone in the household. Some of them include relationship to the head of the household. In some instances you will find that the state census tells you not only that the individuals was born in the state of New York, but more specifically which county. The state censuses also offer you an indication as to how long a person has been in the given county in which they are now being enumerated.
Of course, none of this does you any good if you cannot find the state census enumerations in question. Fortunately, you will find many New York state census records available on microfilm through the Family History Library. This means that they are available to your local Family History Center for a nominal fee to cover the postage and handling. The bad news about the New York state census is that you will not find many of them indexed. You will also find that they are not all available online like we are coming to expect from the federal census records. However, you may want to check with the county in question in New York through the USGenWeb Project . If it is not available online, you might find that individuals who frequent the USGenWeb project site for that county have quick access to it. The USGenWeb Project pages for the counties in New York may also have begun to offer online indexes to the state censuses.
Many researchers are unaware of the potential use of state census enumerations. Keep in mind that the state census enumerations have to do with the state in question for the year enumerated. In the case of New York, it will not enumerate someone who is living in Ohio in 1865. It will help you isolate approximately when the family migrated, though, if you discover them in Ohio in 1870 and they were in New York in 1860. If you can find them enumerated in the 1865 New York state census, then you know that they migrated to New York after that and before 1870. Take advantage of them, especially those that are available on microfilm through the Family History Library.
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May 05, 2009, 06:28 PM
Gypsyheart~ Queen of Rust
Middletown was along one branch of the old underground railroad, which had a major station at West Elkton. But this organized route of escape for black slaves was neither underground nor a railroad.
In this story, an exception to the rule, the "station" was indeed underground. Hidden in the yellowed files of an old local newspaper of 1892 is the narrative of an elderly resident describing an old cave near Middletown, which he wrote was not over six miles from the downtown corner of Main and Central Avenue. His farm homestead had been adjacent to the cave. The narrator's grandfather, one of the area's pioneers, had discovered it. He noted that some mysterious, poisonous gas filled its inner chamber and therefore concealed its opening to keep anyone from entering it.
While the family tried to keep this death-trap a secret, others had heard rumors of the underground cave, and a few knew its approximate location. Among these were an Abolitionist who lived at Hamilton, a prominent doctor dedicated to helping. free slaves by assisting in the underground railroad. The narrator's family, being of Quaker background, also believed and supported the cause.
One night in 1849 a knock came at the back door of the farmhouse. The narrator of the story and his parents were in the parlor reading. His father was alerted when he heard four slow and distinct raps at the back door---a signal used by the underground railroad "conductors." Not wishing to involve his son, he asked him to remain in the parlor, but he and his wife went to answer the kitchen door. All lamps were extinguished. The youth quietly walked over to the closed door between the rooms, climbed up on a chair to look through the transom. he watched and listened.
He recognized the Hamilton physician and "conductor" on the Butler County section of the underground railroad. The doctor revealed that he had brought two wagon loads of slaves up the highway hoping to get them to West Elkton, but discovered they were being followed by bounty hunters. He told the farmer he had taken the liberty of hiding them in the secret cave adjacent to his farm. Upon hearing of this, the farmer warned that he knew the cave to be a tomb of death, filled with a poisonous gas (probably methane.) He feared that none of the 21 would ever emerge alive.
Being very disturbed by the warning, the doctor decided to go back to the cave, after a few hours' rest. It then being well past midnight, the doctor slept until about 4 a.m., then was on his way. He was accompanied by the farmer's son, the farmer being Ill and the son volunteering to go. Both were careful not be observed.
They stood before the hidden entrance, nervous, apprehensive. The doctor fell to his knees in prayer. He took a few steps into the cave, and began to call. Getting no response, he tied a handkerchief around his face to prevent the inhalation of any gases, instructing the youth to stand guard at the entrance.
After some moments that seemed like hours, the doctor returned, his hands pressing the sides of his head. he fell in a stupor, and was at once revived by the fresh air. He then cried, "We are in the midst of death! They are all dead ... I saw them, counted them --- 21 ---all dead." The doctor then said he must return to Hamilton with the bad news, but warned his friend never to enter the cave, nor to allow others to enter it, asking that he replace the ground so as
to conceal it from the sight of man. He told the youth to tell his father at home that his predictions were right, and that the doctor took full responsibility for the fate of the men. The doctor stated, "I alone am to blame and no one can share any of it. It was God's will they should die rather than be recaptured and taken back into slavery. At least they are buried in free land, and their graves on free soil."
To this day that cave remains hidden from the sight of man, and the tragic story long forgotten.
I go a great distance,while some are considering whether they will start today or tomorrow
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| 19 |
- On Wednesday, the Supreme Court will review the Voting Rights Act of 1965
- Penda Hair, Benjamin Jealous: Losing Section 5 of the Act would harm our democracy
- Leading up to the 2012 elections, we saw great efforts to pass restrictive voting laws, they say
- Hair, Jealous: Without Section 5 of the Act, unfair voting policies would go unchecked
On Wednesday, the U.S. Supreme Court will review the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a landmark legislation that cleared barriers to the ballot box for all American citizens.
In Shelby County v. Holder, the Court will hear arguments on Section 5 -- the heart of the Voting Rights Act -- that allows the federal government to block state election practices that are discriminatory. A predominantly white county in Alabama, Shelby County, charges that the decision of Congress in 2006 to reauthorize Section 5 is unconstitutional.
The case comes on the heels of a federal election last fall in which our nation witnessed the greatest assault on voting rights in more than a half century. Drastic cuts to early voting hours, restrictive photo ID laws, tens of thousands of registered voters being dropped from poll books due to illegitimate purges were only a few of the tactics used to keep people from voting.
Desiline Victor, a 102-year-old Miami resident who was invited to join first lady Michelle Obama at the recent State of the Union address, stood in line for more than three hours to cast a ballot. Sadly, thousands of voters had to endure waiting times up to eight hours, prompting President Barack Obama to call for the nation to "fix it."
New laws and policies are being considered on the state and federal level now that will make it harder to vote -- particularly for the elderly, the young and people of color. Without the protections afforded by Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, many Americans would find voting even more difficult.
Election Day is the one day where we are all equal. Black, brown or white, rich or poor, we all have an equal say in the ballot box. Voting is the most fundamental pillar of a democracy and it is imperative that we keep elections free, fair and accessible to all.
As this important debate begins anew, here are five key misconceptions you need to know about the Voting Rights Act and why it remains as relevant today as the day it was originally signed.
Section 5 unfairly punishes the South for its past
This provision of the Voting Rights Act requires jurisdictions with a history of discriminatory voting practices to get federal "pre-clearance" (essentially, permission from the Department of Justice) before changing any voting procedure. This applies to not just Southern states, but also to other states such as Alaska, Arizona, along with certain counties in New York, Michigan, South Dakota, New Hampshire and California.
Once a state has demonstrated that it can fairly run elections for a period of 10 years, it can be exempted from Section 5. In fact, every jurisdiction that has sought this "bailout" since 1982 has been approved. The jurisdictions that remain covered by Section 5 have not applied for bailouts. They are not being punished for their past, but held accountable for their present practices.
The formula is outdated
Section 5 is not static, and dozens of jurisdictions have been added under the provision since it was first passed. In fact, Section 5 was reconsidered and reauthorized by Congress in 1970, 1975, 1982 and 2006 based on extensive evidence of continuing discrimination.
The NAACP, Advancement Project and other civil rights advocates have long pushed for expanding Section 5's "pre-clearance" to include more states with voting problems, such as Ohio and Colorado, and more counties with records of egregious discrimination in voting. Doing so, however, takes Congressional action. So far, Washington's lawmakers have not demonstrated the political will. We should not revoke critical protections for fair voting simply because Congress has failed to act on expanding them.
Section 5 is no longer applicable
The Voting Rights Act was passed not only for the most extreme acts of intimidation, but also for the small changes, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, that made voting harder for people of color and poor whites. The last few years leading up to the 2012 elections saw the greatest efforts to pass restrictive voting laws since the post-Reconstruction era, including limiting the type of ID that people can use, and requiring additional proof of citizenship to register and vote, all of which disproportionately impact people of color and the working poor. These adjustments unfairly shift the goal line and demonstrate why Section 5 is still needed.
Section 2 is sufficient to ensuring fair voting procedures
While Section 2 of the law bans voting practices that discriminate on the basis of race or ethnicity, it is enforced only through lawsuits. When lawsuits are filed, the burden of proof rests with the challenger (not the local or state government that has changed voting rules).
In contrast, Section 5 ensures that discrimination can't take hold by blocking problematic policies from going into effect in the first place. Without these precautions, unfair voting policies would go unchecked, leaving disenfranchised voters to face harm later.
The country reelected an African-American president, with a large share of support from black and Latino voters, so we no longer need their votes to be protected by Section 5
Section 5 made a difference in the 2012 elections. It blocked restrictive photo ID laws in Texas and South Carolina, and was used to reject a Texas redistricting plan that would undercut Latino voting power. And as the U.S. Department of Justice reviews Mississippi's photo ID law, that measure is on hold.
It is against this backdrop that the Supreme Court will hear the challenge to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. Losing this provision would signal a green light for even more partisan legislatures to manipulate election laws for political gains.
At a time when voting rights are increasingly under attack, we should be expanding federal oversight of voting laws -- not scrapping the most effective civil rights legislation ever enacted.
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5 Written questions
5 Matching questions
- Phylicia Rashad
- April 4, 1968
- The March on Washington of 1963
- Maggie Lee Walker who founded the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank in Virginia
- Lorraine Hansberry and the play was "Raisin in the Sun"
- a Who was the first African-American woman to win a Tony Award for best leading actress?
- b Who was the first black woman bank president; what was the name of the bank she founded; where was the bank located?
- c What was the largest civil rights protest in America?
- d What African-American woman was the first to write a broadway play?
- e On what date was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated?
5 Multiple choice questions
- Who invented the elevator?
- Who is the first African-American to discover a method to store blood and who made blood banks more effective?
- Who was the first African-American female to integrate Spartanburg High School?
- Who invented the shoe making machine?
- Who was the first to popularize the slogan, "Black Power"?
5 True/False questions
Tony Fisher → Who was the first African-American to become police chief of Spartanburg?
Henry O. Tanner → Who was the first African-American painter to gain international fame?
Wilberforce University → Who was the first African-American to walk in space?
Dr. Benjamin Carson → Who was the first African-American woman astronaut?
John Standard → What African-American woman made history when she refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man?
| 19 |
The Extraordinary Story of the Hanging of the Black Man Who Owned Slaves
When I first read about Jeremiah in the work of the outstanding scholars of South Carolina’s early history, including Peter H. Wood, Robert M. Weir, and Philip D. Morgan, my initial reaction was an instinctive, “What a story!” In part this was because it embodied the themes I had written about in my career as a historian of the 19th and 20th century South–the deeply intertwined histories of slavery and freedom, race and power. My reaction, though, was really more elemental. The rise of fall of this black man in the era of the Revolution seemed worthy of an opera.
It was only some years later that I decided I might be able to move back a century from my usual research projects to try to write, if not an opera, a book about Thomas Jeremiah. I knew that the sources were scarce and difficult to interpret, but perhaps his story could capture the attention of readers who otherwise pass over monographs on the complex relationships of class, race, and ideology in American history. I began with a trip to Charleston; within minutes of starting to work in the South Carolina Historical Society, I came across a tidbit that had not appeared in any previous account: an advertisement, placed in the South Carolina Gazette, announcing the recovery of a ship’s anchor from the harbor by Thomas Jeremiah, “A FREE NEGRO.” Anticipating more such finds, I determined to write the book, even though, as it turned out, that was pretty much the last undiscovered “fact” about Jeremiah that I would come up with. Carolina’s early records have been savaged and scattered; no tax record existed to tell me how many slaves he owned, no inventory spelled out his wealth after his death, no record of emancipation explained when or how he became free.
But the other characters in the story added layers of complexity I had not anticipated. Henry Laurens, South Carolina patriot, later President of the Continental Congress and member of the Peace Commission in 1782, was a force behind the trial and execution. He had become known throughout the colonies as a critic of the British admiralty courts, because they violated the sacred rights of trial by jury. A hard-working businessman and planter and a pious Christian, Laurens was from time to time troubled about slavery--but only after he had risen to great wealth by selling slaves on commission for British merchants and buying hundreds to work on his own plantations. Lord William Campbell, the royal governor, was the son of the Duke of Argyll. He was born to privilege, but as just the fourth son, could expect neither title nor great wealth. He entered the Royal Navy as an adolescent and, in that meritocracy, worked his way up like other officers, showing, among other things, that he could tie all the proper knots. While commander of a ship on the Charles Town watch in 1763, he had met, wooed, and married Sarah Izard, heiress of one of South Carolina’s greatest fortunes. He was no egalitarian or anti-racist; just before coming to South Carolina as governor, he purchased a slave plantation on the Savannah River. But he did have a vision of the British Empire as a bastion of liberty, and I came to believe that this vision is one of the things that made him a champion of Thomas Jeremiah. It was the unfair trial – in a slave court, without a jury or sworn testimony, and with no right appeal – that appalled Campbell. But when he tried to intervene, he was informed that a pardon would prompt the Charles Town patriots to hang Thomas Jeremiah on Meeting Street, in front of the governor’s house.
It was only in following out the threads of the arguments about trials, well along in my research, that the story of Thomas Jeremiah began, for me, to intersect with another one. As I thought about Jeremiah waiting in the Charles Town Work House for his trial and, then, his hanging, I thought also of Guantanamo, another prison filled with people swept up in a Great Fear, where questions of individual guilt or innocence had taken a back seat to an overriding determination to protect the people’s safety. But this was personal story, too, because my wife’s sister, Laura Rockefeller, was at the top of the North Tower of the World Trade Center that day, murdered along with the other thousands. The parallel made me a bit more understanding of the panic of Charles Town’s whites in 1775, but at the same time still less accepting of the rank injustices perpetrated by our own government’s response to September 11. As I finished up, I decided to dedicate the book to Laura’s memory. Thus I felt, after having turned to a subject in an earlier century, that I was also writing about something as contemporary as today’s headlines. Following a distant story, I had, unexpectedly, been led back home.
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User:National Institute sandbox 8UEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
The original content for this article was contributed by The National Institute for Genealogical Studies in June 2012. It is an excerpt from their course Research: Grandmothers, Mothers and Daughters-Tracing Women by Lisa Alzo, M.F.A.. The Institute offers over 200 comprehensive genealogy courses for a fee ($).
Immigration and Naturalization Records
Locating an immigrant ancestor’s arrival and citizenship can provide valuable genealogical information, and clues that will help trace him or her back to the old country.
U.S. Immigration Records/Passenger Lists
An immigrant ancestor may have come to the New World on vessels and steamships that sailed to various North American ports: Baltimore, Boston, New York, Philadelphia and many others. Prior to mid-19th century, the United States had no immigrant inspection stations. In 1855, Castle Garden opened in New York City and served as that port’s immigrant inspection station until Ellis Island opened in 1892.
Records of your ancestors’ journey from old world to the new are commonly referred to as Passenger Lists or Ship Lists—but there are actually different classifications of passenger lists and for genealogists, it’s helpful to understand the distinctions.
First, be aware that passenger records might have been generated on both ends of the trip. Records kept at the port of departure are known as emigration passenger lists. The U.S. passenger records are called Passenger Arrival Lists.
Starting in 1820, the federal government required all U.S.-bound ships to keep lists of their passengers. These early passenger lists, known as customs lists, date from 1820 to 1891. Customs lists were usually printed in the United States, completed by the ship company personnel at the port of departure, and maintained primarily for statistical purposes. The data was really “bare bones” information (name, ship, ship master, departure and arrival ports, passenger’s name, sex, age, occupation, nationality).
Arrival records created from approximately 1891 to the 1950s are called Immigration Passenger Lists. Like Customs Lists, these were printed in the United States, but completed in the ports of departure and then filed in the United States once the ship docked. The kind of information provided in immigration passenger lists varied over the decades, as did the level of information (more and more columns were added over the years), but they’re more detail-rich than customs lists, with tidbits such as last residence, final destination in the United States, and where applicable, the name and address of a relative the immigrant was going to join.
Tracking down a passenger list from Ellis Island or any other port can sometimes be a tricky or complicated process. One of the biggest obstacles is determining the name in the record. Because the passenger lists were filled out at the port of departure, you’ll need to search on the name the immigrant used back in the old country. That original name might not be the same name he used in America. Many immigrants changed their names after they got here in order to assimilate into their new culture.
But don’t buy into the popular assumption and family lore that Ellis Island immigration officials changed people’s names upon arrival. This did not happen. They simply confirmed what had already been recorded by shipping company personnel on the preprinted forms at the port of departure. For more information, consult immigration historian Marian L. Smith’s article “American Names: Declaring Independence”.
Locating Passenger Arrival Records
Passenger arrival lists are available online and on microfilm. You can search for free the Ellis Island Database. It covers arrivals at the port of New York from 1892-1924 and contains text versions of the manifests, as well as images. Search the Castle Garden database for New York arrivals prior to 1892. The Record Search at FamilySearch also allows you to search Ellis Island arrivals for free. Search the Historical Records Collections for “New York Passenger Arrival Lists (Ellis Island), 1892-1924.” You can also order (for a small fee) microfilm of the lists from the Family History Library () to view at your local FamilySearch Center (FSC).
Passenger and customs lists for additional ports can be found on subscription-based websites Ancestry.com and Genealogy.com. Also be sure to check out Stephen P. Morse’s “One-Step Search Tools” for extended search criteria to mine the Ellis Island Database.
Immigration records often contain personal and family details about your female ancestor, for example, her closest relative in the old country, who she was going to join in America, etc.
Alien Registrations (A-Files)
If you have a relative who immigrated within the past 70 years, these records may be available to you. Between 1940 and 1982, resident aliens had to register their current addresses and places of employment with the federal government. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required aliens to report their address and employment, and to report any change of address immediately. Beginning in 1952, aliens had to report their address annually. Address reporting ended in the 1980s, and only the last or most recent address might remain on file.
Millions of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) alien case files, also called A-files, dating from 1944 and later were signed over to the National Archives. You can use the UCSIS genealogy service to request A-files. For more information, go to their website and search for Genealogy .
Canadian Immigration Records
There are no comprehensive nominal lists of immigrants arriving in Canada before 1865. Few such lists have survived. A few passenger lists and other records relating to immigrants can be found within various collections. For more information, consult the Library and Archives Canada website.
Emigration or Port of Departure Lists
While genealogists fervently scour Immigration Records (arrival, or passenger lists) for ancestors, records kept at the port of departure are often overlooked. Passenger lists for the Port of Hamburg are preserved in the German State Archives in Hamburg. These records include both “direct” and “indirect” lists and both should be searched so you don’t miss your ancestor. Check for these lists on microfilm (Auswandererlisten 1850-1934). Search the Library Catalog. These lists are also searchable online with a subscription to [http://www.ancestry.com/ Ancestry.com.
Border Crossing Records
Perhaps your ancestor lived in Canada then moved to the U.S. There are some border crossing records. Ancestry.com (subscription required) has added more than 4 million names of individuals who crossed the U.S.-Canadian border between 1895 and 1956. These records are part of their Immigration and Travel collection. Also see the Olive Tree website, Canadian Border Entries page for more information.
Passports and Passport Applications
Check home and family sources for an ancestor’s passport. The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) have passport applications from October 1795 through March 1925. The Department of State has them from April 1925 to the present. Don’t assume an individual never traveled overseas—middle class and naturalized citizens often traveled abroad. For information on passport applications and exceptions (such as aliens who had declared their intent to become citizens by filing “first papers” were eligible for passports from 1863-1866 and 1907-1920), check NARA’s Guide to Passport Applications.
The Family History Library also has microfilms of some passport application indexes. Do a subject search on “passports,” then choose “Passports—United States,” which takes you to the menu you want to browse. Since passports were generally valid for two years at most, search indexes covering the individual’s entire life.
Once you’ve identified an immigrant ancestor to the U.S., you’ll want to look for naturalization papers—the documentation of an immigrant becoming a U.S. citizen. Of course, not all immigrants became citizens, for a number of reasons. But for ancestors who were naturalized, the citizenship application process produced two very useful types of documentation.
U.S. Declaration of Intention (“First Papers”)
The first step in becoming a citizen involved the immigrant going to a courthouse to file a document in which he renounced his allegiance to his homeland and declared his intention to become a US citizen. The immigrant could file these papers as soon as he stepped off the boat—and he could choose to file in any court he wanted (local, state or federal).
United States Declarations of Intent for the 19th century usually contain the following information:
- immigrant’s name
- country of birth or allegiance
- application date
- applicant’s signature
Few of these early records show more than the country of origin or the date and port of arrival. But in 1906, the government required copies of all naturalization papers to be filed at the federal level, which led to more information being collected on these records in a more standardized fashion. As a result, post-1906 declarations of intention include the applicant’s name, age, occupation, personal description, birth date and place, citizenship, current address, last foreign address, vessel and port of embarkation, U.S. port and date of arrival, date of application and signature.
U.S. Petition for Citizenship (“Second Papers”)
After filing first papers and meeting residency requirements, an immigrant could formally petition for citizenship to complete the naturalization process. This might have happened at the same court where he filed his first papers—or another court entirely. Also, courts didn’t always make immigrants file second papers before 1903, even though it was technically required. Post-1906 petitions include:
- immigrant’s name
- current residence
- birth date and place
- original citizenship
- personal description
- dates of immigration
- arrival and departure ports
- marital status (with wife’s name and date of birth, if married)
- names, dates and places of birth and residence of the applicant’s children
- start of US residency
- length of residence in the state
- name changes
- photos (after 1929)
Before 1906, your ancestor could go to any courthouse to become a citizen. An immigrant could begin the process in one court and finish it another. Check municipal, county, state and federal courthouses where the immigrant arrived or settled. Many of these records and the indexes have been microfilmed, and you can get them through the FamilySearch Centers. Search the online FamilySearch Library Catalog by place for the state and county (city, too, if it’s a large urban area), then look under Naturalization and Citizenship. You may also find records at city, county, regional or state archives.
U.S. Post-1906 Naturalizations
Try the Family History Library (FHL) again for post-1906 naturalizations. Fee-based websites like Fold3and Ancestry.com also have collections of naturalization records for some localities, as well as the National Archives and Records Administration. NARA’s regional facilities hold naturalizations from federal courts (the main branch in Washington, DC only holds records from that area). The subscription site Fold3 has indexes and images for some naturalization documents for certain states.
After 1906, courts had to file copies of naturalizations with the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and you can write to the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. The UCSIS now has a fee-based genealogy program in place for requesting alien registrations and naturalizations. Go and search on “Genealogy.” The USCIS can forward files 100 years after the birth date of the person whose file it is.
When researching women, it is especially important to take account of laws affecting their naturalization applications. See the Prologue Magazine article “Any woman who is now or may hereafter be married ... Women and Naturalization, ca. 1802-1940,” by Marian L. Smith.
“Derivative” citizenship was granted to wives and minor children of naturalized men. From 1790 to 1922, wives of naturalized men automatically became citizens. This also meant that an alien woman who married a U.S. citizen automatically became a citizen. (Conversely, an American woman who married an alien lost her U.S. citizenship, even if she never left the United States). From 1790 to 1940, children under the age of twenty-one automatically became naturalized citizens upon the naturalization of their father. Unfortunately, however, names and biographical information about wives and children are rarely included in declarations or petitions filed before September 1906.
For further information about the naturalization process and to see examples of the key documents, refer to the following websites:
National Archives and Records Administration - Naturalization Records
Genealogy Branches (Joe Beine) - Naturalization Records
Finding U.S. Naturalization Records: A Genealogy Guide (Joe Beine)
NaturalizationRecords.com - Samples of Naturalization Records
(This site is part of the Olive Tree Genealogy website.)
Canadian Citizenship (Naturalization) Records
From 1763-1947, people born in Canada were all British subjects. Since immigrants born in Great Britain and the Commonwealth were already British subjects, they had no need to become naturalized or to obtain British citizenship in Canada. A few naturalization registers exist for Upper Canada (Ontario), 1828-1850 only. Records of naturalization and citizenship from 1854 are held by Citizenship and Immigration Canada. The originals of records dated between 1854 and 1917 have been destroyed. However, a nominal card index has survived. Lists of naturalization certificates issued between 1915 and 1932 have been scanned and can be searched online using the Canadian Naturalization database. Requests for searches of naturalization/citizenship indexes and records from 1854 to the present must be from a Canadian citizen or an individual present in Canada and prepared on an Access to Information Request Form that can be obtained from most Canadian public libraries and federal government offices or download the form from the Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat website. Detailed instructions and cost per search are outlined on the website. The request must be accompanied by a signed consent from the person concerned or proof that he/she has been deceased twenty years. Proof of death can be a copy of a death record, a newspaper obituary or a photograph of the gravestone showing name and death date.
Information in this Wiki page is excerpted from the online course Research: Grandmothers, Mothers and Daughters-Tracing Women offered by The National Institute for Genealogical Studies. To learn more about this course or other courses available from the Institute, see our website. We can be contacted at [email protected]
We welcome updates and additions to this Wiki page.
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A term to describe or prescribe politics based on strictly practical rather than idealistic notions, and practiced without any sentimental illusions.
In Germany, the term Realpolitik is more often used to distinguish modest (realistic) politics from overzealeous (unrealistic) politics. That Prussia didn't demand territory from defeated Austria provided the impetus for coining this term, as was the sometimes very slow or indirect steps towards German unification under Prussia. Realistic compromises are reached instead of clinging to values like justice or nationalism.
In the United States, the policy of Realpolitik was formally introduced to the Nixon White House by Henry Kissinger. In this context, the policy meant dealing with other powerful nations in a practical manner rather than on the basis of political doctrine or ethics — for instance, Nixon's diplomacy with the People's Republic of China, despite the U.S.'s purported opposition to communism and the previous doctrine of containment. Another example is Kissinger's 'green lighting' of dictator Suharto's invasion of East Timor.
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Connecticut Naturalization and CitizenshipEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Naturalization records were filed in the city courts, superior courts, and the courts of common pleas. Many pre-1906 records are indexed and located at the Connecticut State Library. Some are in the county courts. For more information, go to http://www.cslib.org/natural.htm
The National Archives—Northeast Region (Boston) has some local court records for New Haven County, and the cities of Ansonia, Hartford, and Meriden. It also has applications filed in U.S. circuit and district courts from about 1842 to 1955.
New England naturalization records for 1791 to 1906 were copied and indexed by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in the late 1930s. Some of the records are more recent than 1906. The index gives the name and location of the court, the date of naturalization, and the volume and page number (or certificate number) of the naturalization record. The copies and index are at the National Archives— Northeast Region (Boston). The National Archives in Washington, D.C. and the Family History Library have microfilm copies of the index 1791-1906 (FHL films 1429671-787).
For records after 1906, contact the National Archives—Northeast Region (Boston) or the local office of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
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