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how much land does the united states government own | Just How Much Land Does the Federal Government Own — and Why? | The rough beauty of the American West seems as far as you can get from the polished corridors of power in Washington DC.
The rough beauty of the American West seems as far as you can get from the polished corridors of power in Washington DC. Until you look at the title to the land. The federal government owns large tracts of the western states: from a low of 29.9% in Montana, already more than the national average, up to a whopping 84.5% in Nevada.
This map, depicting the distribution and share of federal land per state, was first published on this blog way back in 2008. Nevertheless, it keeps accumulating comments and hits at a steady pace, and is still frequently shared around. Unlike hundreds of other random maps, this one has become a perennial. That raises an interesting question for map geeks like yours truly: Which nerve, exactly, does this map strike with the Great Online Public?
Let’s start with the most obvious answer: the map is stunningly effective at bringing home its message. And that message is: Federal land ownership out west is huge .
Few minds will stir when they learn that the US federal government owns a grand total of 640 million acres of land: that figure is so vast that it becomes meaningless [1]. The sum of all that acreage adds up to about 28% of the nation’s total surface, 2.27 billion acres. That sounds like a lot, but since it is an average, and because we have nothing to compare it to, that percentage is, to use one of my favorite quotes, “the kind of information they conceal in books” [2].
Both issues – the blandness of averages, the lack of comparison – are eliminated by the map, which presents an immediate, jaw-droppingly clear frame of reference. In the blink of an eye, the contrast between the west and the rest becomes clear.
The clever device delivering that instant insight: 50 icons, each shaped like the particular state they are centered on and sized to reflect the percentage of the federal lands in each particular state.
Back east, but even in the Midwest, those icons – colored red for better contrast – barely amount to a distant mirror of the state they’re modelled on. In those parts, the federal share of state territory rarely runs into the double digits. It even stays below 2% for the Top 10 states with the lowest percentage of federally owned land:
The largest splotches of red are all in the 11 westernmost states of the Lower 48. The federal government’s enormous share of Alaska is only less obvious because as usual the largest state in the Union is shown in an inset map, at a much larger scale [3].
These red icons look like parasites, about to take over the body of the host. Take a look at poor Nevada, where non-public land is pushed out to a narrow band skirting the state’s borders – marginalized, in the most literal sense of the word. Even in most other western states, that ledge is not much wider than a toehold.
The Top 10 list of states with the highest percentage of federally owned land on this map looks like this:
Both because of its enormous total size and its huge percentage of federal lands, Alaska alone represents almost half the government-owned area in the 10 most ‘federalised’ states combined. The only two western states falling out of the Top 10 are Montana (29.9%) and Washington state (30.3%).
What is all that federal land for? And exactly who is in charge? According to the Congressional Research Service [4], a total area of just under 610 million acres – more than twice the size of Namibia – is administered by no more than 4 federal government agencies:
* The United States Forest Service (USFS), which oversees timber harvesting, recreation, wildlife habitat protection and other sustainable uses on a total of 193 million acres – almost the size of Turkey – mainly designated as National Forests.
* The National Park Service (NPS) conserves lands and resources on 80 million acres – a Norway-sized area – in order to preserve them for the public. Any harvesting or resource removal is generally prohibited.
* the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), managing 248 million acres [5] – an area the size of Egypt – has a multiple-use, sustained-yield mandate, supporting energy development, recreation, grazing, conservation, and other uses.
* the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) manages 89 million acres – an area slightly bigger than Germany – to conserve and protect animal and plant species.
The first agency is part of the Department of Agriculture, the latter three of the Department of the Interior. The Department of Defense manages an additional 20 million acres – a bit larger than the Czech Republic – as military bases, testing and training grounds, etc.
Back to the map – apart from making its point in such an excellent manner, why is it so popular? The aforementioned Congressional Overview of Federal Land Ownership provides a broad outline of the answer:
“47% of the 11 coterminous western states [is federally owned]. By contrast, the federal government owns only 4% in the other states. This western concentration has contributed to a higher degree of controversy over land ownership and use in that part of the country”.
“Throughout America’s history, federal land laws have reflected two visions: keeping some lands in federal ownership while disposing of others. From the earliest days, there has been conflict between these two visions. During the 19th century, many laws encouraged settlement of the West through federal land disposal. Mostly in the 20th century, emphasis shifted to retention of federal lands.”
That conflict came to a head very publicly last year with the case of Cliven Bundy, a Nevada rancher whose conflict with the Bureau of Land Management over grazing rights led to the federal government impounding his cattle [6].
But the federal government’s extra-extra-large involvement in the management of western lands is far more than a conflict about grazing, water, mining, logging and other development. It pits the principle of good stewardship of the land, for the welfare of present and future generations, against one of America’s foundational axioms: That government is best which governs least [7].
The former attitude requires a central government to assume authority, restrict access, punish rule-breakers – and increasingly so, since resource depletion is a growing threat.
The latter viewpoint holds government intervention to be the problem, not the solution, and the stated reasons for it – be it conservation or climate change – as convenient cover stories at best.
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Two quotes from the story’s comments section illustrate the gap between the two extremes:
“It’s too late [to take back our country]. Jump ship and buy land in a poor undeveloped country, Start a farm and build a new community.”
“Or we could stop wasting time with this nonsense and get back to the real issues.”
Ultimately, this map reverberates and keeps bouncing around the internet because it touches a divide in American politics and wider society that is about much more than land use. It pits libertarians versus federalists, with the gap between them increasing to such an extent that the former often seem to the latter to be no more than right-wing vigilantes, the latter to the former nothing less than world-government-promoting socialists. Until some middle ground emerges to bridge that divide, this map (and other incendiary devices) will continue to add fuel to the ideological fire.
Many thanks to Jonathan Leblang and Adam Hahn for signaling this map, which appeared as an illustration to ‘ Can the West Lead Us To A Better Place? ‘, an article in Stanford Magazine , a periodical for and about alumni from that university. Update: the map can be found in higher resolution – and with a long, long comments section – here on Reddit .
Strange Maps #291
Got a strange map? Let me know at [email protected] .
[1] Remember the Joseph Stalin quote: “One death is a tragedy, one million is a statistic”. Not that one acre is a tragedy. But you catch our meaning.
[2] Oliver Platt as Hector Cyr in Lake Placid (1999).
[3] Contrary to intuition, map objects shrunk to fit in with others are shown at a larger, not a smaller scale. See the scales at the bottom: Alaska’s 500-mile line is 4 times shorter than the Lower 48’s. Meaning (a) that Alaska is shown 4 times smaller than the Lower 48; and (b) that if Alaska’s scale would have been as long as the other, it would have measured 2,000 miles – i.e. would measure a larger distance.
[5] The BLM is also responsible for subsurface mineral resources in areas totaling 700 million acres.
[6] The sentiment is often attributed to Jefferson, but the quote as such is from the opening lines of Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience .
[7] Mr. Bundy refused to pay $1.2 million in grazing fees to the BLM, arguing that the land his cattle uses belongs not to the federal, but the state government. In the spring of last year, BLM officials agreed to leave his property and release his cattle after hundreds of armed supporters showed up at the Bundy ranch. As the Washington Post recently reported , the conflict remains unresolved.
Related | https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/291-federal-lands-in-the-us/ | 104 |
how much land does the united states government own | Federal land ownership by state | This Ballotpedia article is in need of updates. Please email us if you would like to suggest a revision. If you would like to help our coverage grow, consider donating to Ballotpedia.
The following article outlines federal land data for all 50 states. An overview of federal land policy and how federal land is managed can be accessed here .
The federal government owns around 620 million acres of land (about 27 percent) of the 2.27 billion acres of land in the United States. Around 92 percent of federally owned acres are in 12 Western states. [1] [2]
HIGHLIGHTS
The table below summarizes the total acres and percentage of federal land in each state as of 2013 (the most recent year for which data is available).
Alaska had the most federal land (222.7 million acres) while Nevada had the greatest percentage of federal land within a state (80.1 percent). In contrast, Rhode Island and Connecticut had the fewest acres of federal land: 4,513 acres and 9,110 acres, respectively. Connecticut and Iowa tied for the lowest percentage of federal land at 0.3 percent each. [1]
|[ hide ] Federal land ownership by state (as of 2018)|
|State||Federal land acreage||Total state acreage||Percentage of federal land|
|Alabama||880,188||32,678,400||2.7%|
|Alaska||222,666,580||365,481,600||60.9%|
|Arizona||28,077,992||72,688,000||38.6%|
|Arkansas||3,159,486||33,599,360||9.4%|
|California||45,493,133||100,206,720||45.4%|
|Colorado||24,100,247||66,485,760||36.2%|
|Connecticut||9,110||3,135,360||0.3%|
|Delaware||29,918||1,265,920||2.4%|
|District of Columbia||9,649||39,040||24.7%|
|Florida||4,491,200||34,721,280||12.9%|
|Georgia||1,946,492||37,295,360||12.9%|
|Hawaii||829,830||4,105,600||20.2%|
|Idaho||32,789,648||52,933,120||61.9%|
|Illinois||423,782||35,795,200||1.2%|
|Indiana||384,726||23,158,400||1.7%|
|Iowa||97,509||35,860,480||0.3%|
|Kansas||253,919||52,510,720||0.5%|
|Kentucky||1,100,160||25,512,320||4.3%|
|Louisiana||1,353,291||28,867,840||4.7%|
|Maine||301,481||19,847,680||1.5|
|Maryland||205,362||6,319,360||3.2%|
|Massachusetts||62,680||5,034,880||1.2%|
|Michigan||3,637,599||36,492,160||10.0%|
|Minnesota||3,503,977||51,205,760||6.8%|
|Mississippi||1,552,634||30,222,720||5.1%|
|Missouri||1,702,983||44,248,320||3.8%|
|Montana||27,082,401||93,271,040||29.0%|
|Nebraska||546,852||49,031,680||1.1%|
|Nevada||56,262,610||70,264,320||80.1%|
|New Hampshire||805,472||5,768,960||14.0%|
|New Jersey||171,956||4,813,440||3.6%|
|New Mexico||24,665,774||77,766,400||31.7%|
|New York||230,992||30,680,960||0.8%|
|North Carolina||2,434,801||31,402,880||7.8%|
|North Dakota||1,733,641||44,452,480||3.9%|
|Ohio||305,502||26,222,080||1.2%|
|Oklahoma||683,289||44,087,680||1.5%|
|Oregon||32,244,257||61,598,720||52.3%|
|Pennsylvania||622,160||28,804,480||2.2%|
|Rhode Island||4,513||677,120||0.7%|
|South Carolina||875,316||19,374,080||4.5%|
|South Dakota||2,640,005||48,881,920||5.4%|
|Tennessee||1,281,362||26,727,680||4.8%|
|Texas||3,231,198||168,217,600||1.9%|
|Utah||33,267,621||52,696,960||63.1%|
|Vermont||465,888||5,936,640||7.8%|
|Virginia||2,373,616||25,496,320||9.3%|
|Washington||12,192,855||42,693,760||28.6%|
|West Virginia||1,134,138||15,410,560||7.4%|
|Wisconsin||1,854,085||35,011,200||5.3%|
|Wyoming||29,137,722||62,343,040||46.7%|
|United States||615,311,596||2,271,343,360||27.1%|
|Source: U.S. Congressional Research Service , "Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data"| | https://ballotpedia.org/Federal_land_ownership_by_state | 104 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | List of Star Wars films | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Star Wars films|
|Directed by||George Lucas|
|Story by||George Lucas|
|Based on|| Characters created |
by George Lucas
|Produced by|| Gary Kurtz |
Rick McCallum
Kathleen Kennedy
Production
companies
|Distributed by|
Release date
|1977–present|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget|| Total (11 films): |
$1.75–$1.815 billion
|Box office|| Total (11 films): |
$10.341 billion
The Star Wars franchise involves multiple live-action and animated films. The film series started with a trilogy set in medias res that was later expanded to a trilogy of trilogies, known as the " Skywalker Saga ".
The 1977 self-titled film , later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope , was followed by the sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), respectively subtitled onscreen as Episode V and Episode VI ; these films form the original trilogy . Sixteen years later, the prequel trilogy was released, consisting of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). After creator George Lucas sold the Star Wars franchise to Disney in 2012, a sequel trilogy consisting of Episodes VII through IX was released, consisting of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), The Last Jedi (2017), and The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The first three spin-off films produced were the made-for-television Star Wars Holiday Special (1978), The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985). Following Disney's 2012 acquisition of the franchise, these earlier films were dropped from the official canon , but the theatrical animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and its television series continuation retain their canonical status. Two standalone films were produced and released between the sequel trilogy films: Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), both set between the original and prequel trilogies. Untitled movies from Taika Waititi , James Mangold , Dave Filoni , and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy have been officially announced as being written, while other unspecified films are reportedly in early stages of development. [a]
The combined box office revenue of the films amounts to over ten billion dollars, and it is currently the second-highest-grossing film franchise . The major live-action releases (including all the films within the Skywalker Saga) were nominated for Academy Awards . The original film was nominated for most of the major categories, including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness (who played Obi-Wan Kenobi ), while all theatrical live-action films have been nominated for particular categories. Several official Star Wars television series have also been released, all now on Disney+ .
The main Star Wars film series is a trilogy of trilogies; as it neared completion, Disney began to refer to it as the "Skywalker Saga". [1] [2] It was released beginning with the original trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI , 1977–1983), followed by the prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III , 1999–2005) and the sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII and IX , 2015–2019). [b] The first film released, Star Wars (1977), is the fourth film chronologically and was later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope . The saga begins chronologically with Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) and concludes with Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The story follows each generation of the Force -sensitive Skywalker family and their struggle against the evil Sith Lord Darth Sidious (Palpatine) . The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker , his training as a Jedi , and his eventual fall to the dark side as Darth Vader due to Palpatine's machinations and his fear of losing his wife Padmé Amidala . The original trilogy follows their children, Luke and Leia , as they join the Rebel Alliance and battle Vader, Palpatine, and his Galactic Empire . The sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)—the son of Leia and Han Solo , nephew and former Jedi apprentice of Luke, and grandson of Padmé and Anakin—who fell to the dark side and seeks to rule the galaxy with Rey , the granddaughter of Palpatine and the last Jedi apprentice of Luke and Leia.
Each episodic film begins with an opening crawl , accompanied by the main Star Wars theme by John Williams , who composes the scores for each film. All nine films—most notably the original trilogy—have had retroactive changes made after their initial theatrical releases.
|Film||U.S. release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Prequel trilogy|
|Episode I – The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||George Lucas||Rick McCallum||[3]|
|Episode II – Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||George Lucas||George Lucas and Jonathan Hales||George Lucas||[4] [5]|
|Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||George Lucas||[6] [7]|
|Original trilogy|
|Episode IV – A New Hope||May 25, 1977||George Lucas||Gary Kurtz||[8] [9]|
|Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||Irvin Kershner||Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan||George Lucas||[10] [11]|
|Episode VI – Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||Richard Marquand||Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas||Howard Kazanjian||[12] [13]|
|Sequel trilogy|
|Episode VII – The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||J. J. Abrams||J. J. Abrams & Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt||Kathleen Kennedy , J. J. Abrams and Bryan Burk||[12] [14]|
|Episode VIII – The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||Rian Johnson||Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman||[15] [16]|
|Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||J. J. Abrams||Chris Terrio & J. J. Abrams||Derek Connolly & Colin Trevorrow and J. J. Abrams & Chris Terrio||Kathleen Kennedy, J. J. Abrams and Michelle Rejwan||[17] [18]|
As Lucas was outlining a trilogy of trilogies, he also imagined making additional movies unrelated to the Skywalker Saga. [19] The first theatrical films set outside the main episodic series were the Ewok spin-off films Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), the first of which was screened internationally after being produced for television . [20]
After the conclusion of his then-six-episode saga in 2005, Lucas returned to spin-offs in the form of television series . An animated film, The Clone Wars (2008), was released as a pilot to a TV series of the same name . An anthology series set between the main episodes entered development in parallel to the production of the sequel trilogy, [21] described by Disney chief financial officer (CFO) Jay Rasulo as origin stories . [22] The first entry, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016), tells the story of the rebels who steal the Death Star plans directly before Episode IV . [23] [24] Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018) focuses on Han's backstory, also featuring Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian .
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||Dave Filoni||Henry Gilroy , Steven Melching, and Scott Murphy||George Lucas, Dave Filoni, and Henry Gilroy||Catherine Winder||[25]|
Preceding the airing of the animated TV series in late 2008, the theatrical feature Star Wars: The Clone Wars was compiled from episodes "almost [as] an afterthought." [26] [27] It reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ; the series explains Padawan Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the latter film. The film and series exist in the same level of canon as the episodic and anthology films. [28]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||Gareth Edwards||Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy||John Knoll and Gary Whitta||Kathleen Kennedy, Allison Shearmur , and Simon Emanuel||[29]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||Ron Howard||Jonathan Kasdan & Lawrence Kasdan||[30]|
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and original trilogy co-screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a standalone film about a young Han Solo. [21] In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of a Kasdan film [31] and Entertainment Weekly reported that it would focus on Han Solo. [32] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories . [22] Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that there was "no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes." [33] The standalone films are subtitled "A Star Wars Story" . [23] [34]
Main article: Rogue One
Rogue One is set directly before Episode IV: A New Hope and focuses on the eponymous group of rebels who obtain the plans to the Death Star. [35] Its laser was developed by scientist Galen Erso (played by Mads Mikkelsen ) after the Empire forcibly abducted him, separating him from his daughter Jyn . Galen secretly sends a defecting Imperial pilot, Bodhi Rook , to deliver a message warning of the weapon's existence and revealing its weakness to his rebel friend Saw Gerrera . Under the false promise of her father's liberation, Jyn agrees to help Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor and his droid K-2SO retrieve the message from Saw, now the paranoid leader of an extremist cell of rebels.
The idea for the movie came from John Knoll , the chief creative officer of Industrial Light & Magic . [36] In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of an anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. [37] The film's title was revealed to be Rogue One , with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and Felicity Jones in the starring role. [38] Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also play new characters, [39] with James Earl Jones returning to voice Darth Vader . [40] Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy." [41] The film was the first to feature characters introduced in animated Star Wars TV series, namely The Clone Wars ' Saw Gerrera, portrayed by Forest Whitaker in the film. The movie received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US$500 million worldwide within a week of its release. [42]
Solo , the second anthology film, focuses on Han Solo about 10 years before A New Hope . [35] After an escape attempt from his Imperial-occupied home planet of Corellia goes wrong, a young Han vows to return to rescue his girlfriend Qi'ra . Han "Solo" joins the Imperial Academy; however, he is expelled for his reckless behavior. Han and his newfound Wookiee friend Chewbacca resort to a criminal life, mentored by veteran smuggler Tobias Beckett . After angering gangster Dryden Vos, Han and his company's lives depend on pulling a heist for him. Without a ship to travel, they hire Lando Calrissian , the captain and owner of the Millennium Falcon .
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas had hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran Lawrence Kasdan to write a film about a young Han Solo. [21] The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi ), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra, and Woody Harrelson as Beckett. Lucasfilm originally hired Phil Lord and Christopher Miller to direct, but they were fired during principal photography , and replaced by Ron Howard . A twist ending acknowledges one of the major story arcs of The Clone Wars and Rebels animated series, while leaving the story open ended for sequels. [43]
In mid-2018, Lucasfilm confirmed that multiple anthology films were in development, [44] with their release following a hiatus after 2019's The Rise of Skywalker . [45] Two films are scheduled for December 2025 and 2027. [46] [c]
Kathleen Kennedy stated in May 2022 that "There's a couple of [filmmakers] that we've been in conversation with over quite a long period of time that I'm hoping will come in" to oversee future films in the same way that Jon Favreau and Dave Filoni have done for multiple Star Wars television series. [48] Kennedy stated that "We need to create a whole new saga" [49] and that the sequel trilogy era was likely to be expanded from. [50]
Three separate new live-action films were officially announced at April 2023's Star Wars Celebration : a film about the dawn of the Jedi (set 25,000 years before A New Hope ) by James Mangold , a Dave Filoni-helmed film concluding the story set up by The Mandalorian and its spin-offs, and a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy -helmed film set 15 years after The Rise of Skywalker , with Daisy Ridley reprising her role as Rey. [51] [52] Upcoming films were announced to include the trademark opening crawl. [52]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Status||Ref.|
|Untitled Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy film||TBA||Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy||Steven Knight||TBA||Kathleen Kennedy||In development||[51]|
|Untitled Dave Filoni film||Dave Filoni||TBA||[51]|
|Untitled James Mangold film||James Mangold||[51]|
|Untitled Taika Waititi film||Taika Waititi||[53]|
In October 2022, The Hollywood Reporter reported that after a two-week writers' room in July (which included Patrick Somerville , Rayna McClendon, Andy Greenwald , and maybe Dave Filoni), Damon Lindelof and Justin Britt-Gibson were co-writing a Star Wars film, with Ms. Marvel director Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy attached as director. THR reported that according to its sources, "the project is intended as a stand-alone but in success could lead to more movies", taking place after the sequel trilogy and possibly featuring some of its characters. [54] [55] [56] In March 2023, it was reported that Lindelof and Britt-Gibson had left the project in mid-February and that Steven Knight was hired to replace them as screenwriter. Filming was reportedly set to begin in February 2024. [57] [58]
At April 2023's Star Wars Celebration, Kennedy officially announced a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy-directed movie, with Daisy Ridley returning as Rey as she constructs a new Jedi Order 15 years after the events of The Rise of Skywalker . [51] She reportedly may be a supporting character in the vein of Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Luke Skywalker in the original and sequel trilogies, respectively. [59] Lucasfilm reportedly hoped to release the film on the next scheduled date planned for a Star Wars film: December 19, 2025. [60]
On May 4 , 2020, Taika Waititi (who directed the first-season finale of The Mandalorian and voiced IG-11 ) was officially announced to direct a Star Wars film from a screenplay he was co-writing with Krysty Wilson-Cairns . [61] As of May 2022, his film was expected to be released before Rogue Squadron [62] (originally scheduled for December 2023 prior to its delay), [48] [47] with Kathleen Kennedy asserting that Waititi's film may be released in late 2023. [63] In June 2022, Waititi agreed with Kennedy's view that the films should move into new territory in favor of origin stories, [64] and stated he would continue writing the project through the end of 2022 while filming other projects. [65] In early July, The Hollywood Reporter indicated that "an early 2023 start" was being considered. [66] The movie will reportedly be shot in Los Angeles. [67] By March 2023, Waititi was also likely to appear in the film. [68] By April 2023, Kennedy stated that Waititi was now writing the film alone. [69] At the beginning of May 2023, Deadline Hollywood stated that filming for his film would begin in 2024. [70]
Rian Johnson , the writer/director of The Last Jedi (2017), is confirmed to write and direct the first film of a new trilogy he was outlining as of early 2019 with Ram Bergman producing alongside Kennedy. [71] [72] [73] It was said to differ from the Skywalker-focused films in favor of focusing on new characters and possibly a different era than the main film franchise. [74] The project was considered to have been "back-burnered" by May 2022 due to Johnson's involvement with other projects, including the Knives Out franchise. [62] In October, Johnson indicated that he would make at least one more film in that series before returning to Star Wars . [75] By April 2023, Kennedy agreed with Johnson that he would return to Star Wars after at least one more Knives Out film. [76]
In November 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Shawn Levy was in talks to direct a Star Wars film, following his work on Deadpool 3 (2024) and the fifth and final season of Stranger Things . [77]
The first spin-off film (also the first sequel to be released) was a holiday TV special aired in 1978. Two live-action TV films created in the mid-1980s feature the Ewoks.
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Network|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||November 17, 1978||Steve Binder||Pat Proft , Leonard Ripps, Bruce Vilanch , Rod Warren and Mitzie Welch||CBS|
Produced for CBS in 1978, the Star Wars Holiday Special was a two-hour television special, in the format of a variety show . Stars of the original film and archive footage from the original Star Wars film appeared alongside celebrity guest stars in plot-related skits, musical numbers, and an animated segment, all loosely tied together by the premise of Chewbacca 's family waiting for his arrival for the "Life Day" celebration on his home planet, Kashyyyk . The special is notorious for its extremely negative reception and was aired only once. [78] Only the 11-minute animated sequence, which features the debut of bounty hunter Boba Fett , was positively received. [79]
The Ewoks from Return of the Jedi were featured in two spin-off television films, The Ewok Adventure and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor . Both aired on ABC on the Thanksgiving weekends of 1984 and 1985, respectively, [80] with at least the first also being given a limited international theatrical release. [20] Warwick Davis reprised his debut role as the main Ewok, Wicket , in both. [81] [82] They are set between the events of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . [83] Both films were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and on a double-feature DVD. Although based on stories written by George Lucas, they do not bear Star Wars in their titles, and were considered to exist in a lower level of canon than the episodic films. Following Disney's acquisition of the franchise, they were excluded from the canon. [84] [20] The Battle for Endor would be the last live-action Star Wars television project produced by Lucasfilm until 2019's The Mandalorian .
|Film||Release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Network|
|The Ewok Adventure [d]||November 25, 1984||John Korty||Bob Carrau||George Lucas||ABC|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||November 24, 1985||Jim Wheat and Ken Wheat|
In a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, the Towani family spaceship shipwrecks on the forest moon of Endor . While trying to repair their ship, the castaway family is split, when a giant creature known as the Gorax kidnaps the parents. Taking pity on the kids, a group of native Ewoks led by Wicket decides to help little Cindel Towani and her older brother Mace, rescue their parents. [81] [82] Among other stylistic choices making the film unique from the Star Wars episodes is the inclusion of a narrator. [85]
The sequel focuses on the Ewoks protecting their village from marauders led by the evil Lord Terak, who killed all the members of the Towani family except for Cindel, in search of a power battery. [81] It was followed by the TV series Ewoks (1985–1987).
In December 2020, A Droid Story , an animated adventure film for Disney+ was announced. According to the official Star Wars Twitter , the "epic journey will introduce us to a new hero guided by R2-D2 and C-3PO ." [86]
The Star Wars films are the second-highest-grossing film franchise of all time worldwide, behind the Marvel Cinematic Universe , having grossed over $10 billion at the global box office. [87] [88] [89]
Each film is linked to the "Box office" section of its article.
|Film||US release date||Box office gross||All-time ranking||Budget||Ref.|
|US and Canada||Other territories||Worldwide||US and Canada||Worldwide|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||May 25, 1977||$460,998,507||$195,751,992||$775,398,007||19||98||$11 million||[90]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||$292,753,960||$190,685,234||$538,375,067||98||182||$18 million||[91]|
|Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||$309,306,177||$122,009,457||$475,106,177||82||231||$32.5 million||[92]|
|The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||$474,544,677||$552,538,030||$1,027,082,707||18||42||$115 million||[93]|
|Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||$310,676,740||$343,103,230||$653,779,970||80||140||$115 million||[94]|
|Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||$380,270,577||$488,119,983||$868,390,560||44||78||$113 million||[95]|
|The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||$936,662,225||$1,134,647,993||$2,071,310,218||1||4||$446 million||[96]|
|The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||$620,181,382||$714,226,324||$1,334,407,706||9||12||$317 million||[97]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||$515,202,542||$561,819,830||$1,077,022,372||14||32||$416 million||[98]|
|Spin-off films|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||$35,161,554||$33,121,290||$68,282,844||2,447||2,211||$8.5 million||[99]|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||$533,539,991||$525,142,151||$1,058,682,142||12||36||$200–265 million||[100] [101]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||$213,767,512||$179,157,295||$392,924,807||189||311||$300 million||[102] [103]|
|Total||$ 5,083,065,844||$ 5,040,322,809||$ 10,340,762,577||2||2||$ 2.092 -$ 2.157 billion||[104] [87]|
Each film is linked to the "Critical response" section of its article.
|Film||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic||CinemaScore [105]|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||93% (136 reviews) [106]||90 (24 reviews) [107]||—|
|The Empire Strikes Back||94% (109 reviews) [108]||82 (25 reviews) [109]||—|
|Return of the Jedi||83% (99 reviews) [110]||58 (24 reviews) [111]||—|
|Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace||51% (235 reviews) [112]||51 (36 reviews) [113]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones||66% (253 reviews) [114]||54 (39 reviews) [115]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||79% (302 reviews) [116]||68 (40 reviews) [117]||A−|
|Star Wars: The Force Awakens||93% (448 reviews) [118]||80 (55 reviews) [119]||A|
|Star Wars: The Last Jedi||91% (485 reviews) [120]||84 (56 reviews) [121]||A|
|Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker||52% (518 reviews) [122]||53 (61 reviews) [123]||B+|
|Spin-off films|
|Star Wars: The Clone Wars||18% (171 reviews) [124]||35 (30 reviews) [125]||B−|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||84% (461 reviews) [126]||65 (51 reviews) [127]||A|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||69% (483 reviews) [128]||62 (54 reviews) [129]||A−|
|Television films|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||27% (15 reviews) [130]||—||—|
|The Ewok Adventure||21% (14 reviews) [131]||—||—|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||33% (3 reviews) [132]||—||—|
The eleven live-action films together have been nominated for 37 Academy Awards , of which they have won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards . The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi received Special Achievement Awards for their visual effects, [133] [134] and Star Wars received a Special Achievement Award for its alien, creature and robot voices. [135] [136]
|Film||Best Picture||Best Director||Best Supporting Actor||Best Original Screenplay||Best Costume Design||Best Film Editing||Best Makeup||Best Original Score||Best Production Design||Best Sound Editing||Best Sound Mixing||Best Visual Effects||Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Nominated [i]||Nominated||Won||category not yet introduced||Won||Won||Won||[135]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||ineligible||Nominated||Special Achievement||[133]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[134]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[137]|
|Attack of the Clones||[138]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||[139]|
|The Force Awakens||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[140]|
|Rogue One||[141]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||Nominated||[142]|
|Solo||Nominated||[143]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[144]|
The franchise has received a total of fifteen Grammy Award nominations, winning six. [145]
|Film||Album of the Year|| Best Pop Instrumental |
Performance
| Best Score Soundtrack |
for Visual Media
| Best Instrumental |
Composition
|Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Won||Won||Won [ii]||[146]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||Nominated [iii]||Won||Won [iv]||[146]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[146]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[146]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||Nominated [v]||[146]|
|The Force Awakens||Won||[146]|
|Solo||Nominated||[147]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||[148]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||[149]|
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry , as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [150] The Empire Strikes Back was selected in 2010, while Return of the Jedi was selected in 2021. [151] [152] [153] 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, [154] [155] but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, Star Wars had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment. [156]
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure was one of four films to be juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards . [157] The film was additionally nominated for Outstanding Children's Program but lost in this category to an episode of American Playhouse . [158]
At the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards , Ewoks: The Battle for Endor and the CBS documentary Dinosaur! were both juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects. [159] The film additionally received two nominations for Outstanding Children's Program and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Special. [160] [161]
In the 2000s Zack Snyder pitched an adult-oriented film to Lucasfilm, but conversations ceased by the time Disney acquired the company in 2012. The project was redeveloped as Rebel Moon (2023). [162]
In early 2013, Bob Iger announced the development of a spin-off film written by Simon Kinberg , [163] reported by Entertainment Weekly to focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett during the original trilogy. [164] In mid-2014, Josh Trank was officially announced as the director of an undisclosed spin-off film, [165] but had left the project a year later due to creative differences, [166] causing a teaser for the film to be scrapped from Star Wars Celebration. [167] By October 2018, the Fett film [e] was reportedly no longer in production, with the studio instead focusing on The Mandalorian , which utilizes a similar character. [169]
Rogue One and Solo actors Felicity Jones, Alden Ehrenreich and Emilia Clarke all stated that their contracts also included future installments. [170] [171] [172] Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. [173] Kennedy and Glover also said that a film focusing on Lando could happen, but was not a priority. [174] (A Lando series was later announced.) [175] Although critics noted that Solo left room open for sequels, [45] in 2022, Howard confirmed that the studio had no plans to make one. [176]
In August 2017, it was rumored that films focused on Jabba the Hutt , and Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda were being considered or were in development. [177] Stephen Daldry was reportedly in early negotiations to co-write and direct the Obi-Wan movie. [178] At D23 Expo in August 2019, a TV series about the character was announced to be produced instead, which was released in 2022. [179]
Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were to write and produce a trilogy of Star Wars films scheduled to be released in December 2022, 2024, and 2026, [180] which were first announced to be in development in February 2018. [181] The duo stepped away from the project in October 2019, citing their commitment to a Netflix deal, although Kennedy stated her openness to their returning when their schedules allow. [182] [180]
In April 2019, Kathleen Kennedy was asked by MTV News about a potential Knights of the Old Republic adaption and stated, "Yes, we are developing something to look at. Right now, I have no idea where things might fall." [183] The following month, BuzzFeed News reported that Laeta Kalogridis had been hired in the spring of 2018 to write a film based on the 2003 video game , and that she was close to completing the first script of a potential trilogy. [184]
In September 2019, Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige reportedly began developing a Star Wars film with Kennedy; [185] Michael Waldron was later announced to write the screenplay. [186] [f] In May 2022, Waldron confirmed the project was moving forward and that it would more or less stand alone, [188] however in a separate interview the same month Kennedy denied that the film was in active development. [62] By March 2023, it was reportedly confirmed to no longer be in development. [68] Contrary to earlier comments, Kennedy clarified the following month that the project was more something conflated through the media, that "nothing ever got developed. We never discussed an idea... If [Feige] did come up with something, I would be all ears. But, that's never really happened, so it's not an abandoned project. It just never really happened." [189]
J. D. Dillard and Luke Cage writer Matt Owens were reportedly involved in the early stages of developing a film in February 2020, [190] which may have taken place on the Sith planet Exegol . [191] In November 2022, Dillard announced that he was no longer involved in the project. [192]
On December 10, 2020, during Disney Investor Day, Wonder Woman (2017) director Patty Jenkins was announced as the director of a film titled Rogue Squadron , initially set to be released on December 22, 2023. [193] [c] [g] According to the official Star Wars website, the film would "introduce a new generation of starfighter pilots as they earn their wings and risk their lives in a boundary-pushing, high-speed thrill-ride, and move the saga into the future era of the galaxy." [175] According to Jenkins, the film would be an original story "with great influence from the games and the books ". [194] A script was being worked on as of December 2020, [195] at which time, Wonder Woman 3 's story was still being worked on. [196] Matthew Robinson was hired to write Rogue Squadron in May 2021; [197] [198] late the next month, Jenkins revealed that the script was almost finished. [199] On November 8, the film's production was delayed from 2022 due to Jenkins' busy schedule. [200] A month later, Jenkins had left her planned Cleopatra film as director in order to focus on Rogue Squadron and Wonder Woman 3 . [201] Disney announced in April 2022 that the film was still set to be released in December 2023. [202] Kathleen Kennedy stated in May that the film has been "pushed off to the side for the moment", with the script still being worked on and Waititi's film expected to be released first. [48] On September 15, 2022, the film was confirmed to be taken off from Disney's release schedule, [47] although in December Jenkins said she was actively working on it amid the apparent cancellation of Wonder Woman 3 . [203] By March 2023, fans reported it as no longer in development. [68] The following month, Kennedy stated the project could still happen either as a film or a television series. [204]
Documentary films about Star Wars released by Lucasfilm include:
- ^ Retitled Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure for its theatrical and later releases
- ^ Reported to have also featured the other bounty hunters from The Empire Strikes Back [168]
- ^ When asked if his film would be a "solo" outing, Feige specified that his film would neither be about nor include the character Han Solo. [187]
- ^ The film would be the first in the franchise to be directed by a woman. [193]
Citations
- ^ Leadbeater, Alex (January 24, 2017). "A Brief History of Star Wars Titles" . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on February 6, 2019.
- ^ "Star Wars: Episode IX Cast Announced" . StarWars.com . July 27, 2018. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_films | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | List of Star Wars films | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Star Wars films|
|Directed by||George Lucas|
|Story by||George Lucas|
|Based on|| Characters created |
by George Lucas
|Produced by|| Gary Kurtz |
Rick McCallum
Kathleen Kennedy
Production
companies
|Distributed by|
Release date
|1977–present|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget|| Total (11 films): |
$1.75–$1.815 billion
|Box office|| Total (11 films): |
$10.341 billion
The Star Wars franchise involves multiple live-action and animated films. The film series started with a trilogy set in medias res that was later expanded to a trilogy of trilogies, known as the " Skywalker Saga ".
The 1977 self-titled film , later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope , was followed by the sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), respectively subtitled onscreen as Episode V and Episode VI ; these films form the original trilogy . Sixteen years later, the prequel trilogy was released, consisting of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). After creator George Lucas sold the Star Wars franchise to Disney in 2012, a sequel trilogy consisting of Episodes VII through IX was released, consisting of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), The Last Jedi (2017), and The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The first three spin-off films produced were the made-for-television Star Wars Holiday Special (1978), The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985). Following Disney's 2012 acquisition of the franchise, these earlier films were dropped from the official canon , but the theatrical animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and its television series continuation retain their canonical status. Two standalone films were produced and released between the sequel trilogy films: Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), both set between the original and prequel trilogies. Untitled movies from Taika Waititi , James Mangold , Dave Filoni , and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy have been officially announced as being written, while other unspecified films are reportedly in early stages of development. [a]
The combined box office revenue of the films amounts to over ten billion dollars, and it is currently the second-highest-grossing film franchise . The major live-action releases (including all the films within the Skywalker Saga) were nominated for Academy Awards . The original film was nominated for most of the major categories, including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness (who played Obi-Wan Kenobi ), while all theatrical live-action films have been nominated for particular categories. Several official Star Wars television series have also been released, all now on Disney+ .
The main Star Wars film series is a trilogy of trilogies; as it neared completion, Disney began to refer to it as the "Skywalker Saga". [1] [2] It was released beginning with the original trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI , 1977–1983), followed by the prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III , 1999–2005) and the sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII and IX , 2015–2019). [b] The first film released, Star Wars (1977), is the fourth film chronologically and was later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope . The saga begins chronologically with Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) and concludes with Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The story follows each generation of the Force -sensitive Skywalker family and their struggle against the evil Sith Lord Darth Sidious (Palpatine) . The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker , his training as a Jedi , and his eventual fall to the dark side as Darth Vader due to Palpatine's machinations and his fear of losing his wife Padmé Amidala . The original trilogy follows their children, Luke and Leia , as they join the Rebel Alliance and battle Vader, Palpatine, and his Galactic Empire . The sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)—the son of Leia and Han Solo , nephew and former Jedi apprentice of Luke, and grandson of Padmé and Anakin—who fell to the dark side and seeks to rule the galaxy with Rey , the granddaughter of Palpatine and the last Jedi apprentice of Luke and Leia.
Each episodic film begins with an opening crawl , accompanied by the main Star Wars theme by John Williams , who composes the scores for each film. All nine films—most notably the original trilogy—have had retroactive changes made after their initial theatrical releases.
|Film||U.S. release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Prequel trilogy|
|Episode I – The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||George Lucas||Rick McCallum||[3]|
|Episode II – Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||George Lucas||George Lucas and Jonathan Hales||George Lucas||[4] [5]|
|Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||George Lucas||[6] [7]|
|Original trilogy|
|Episode IV – A New Hope||May 25, 1977||George Lucas||Gary Kurtz||[8] [9]|
|Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||Irvin Kershner||Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan||George Lucas||[10] [11]|
|Episode VI – Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||Richard Marquand||Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas||Howard Kazanjian||[12] [13]|
|Sequel trilogy|
|Episode VII – The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||J. J. Abrams||J. J. Abrams & Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt||Kathleen Kennedy , J. J. Abrams and Bryan Burk||[12] [14]|
|Episode VIII – The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||Rian Johnson||Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman||[15] [16]|
|Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||J. J. Abrams||Chris Terrio & J. J. Abrams||Derek Connolly & Colin Trevorrow and J. J. Abrams & Chris Terrio||Kathleen Kennedy, J. J. Abrams and Michelle Rejwan||[17] [18]|
As Lucas was outlining a trilogy of trilogies, he also imagined making additional movies unrelated to the Skywalker Saga. [19] The first theatrical films set outside the main episodic series were the Ewok spin-off films Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), the first of which was screened internationally after being produced for television . [20]
After the conclusion of his then-six-episode saga in 2005, Lucas returned to spin-offs in the form of television series . An animated film, The Clone Wars (2008), was released as a pilot to a TV series of the same name . An anthology series set between the main episodes entered development in parallel to the production of the sequel trilogy, [21] described by Disney chief financial officer (CFO) Jay Rasulo as origin stories . [22] The first entry, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016), tells the story of the rebels who steal the Death Star plans directly before Episode IV . [23] [24] Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018) focuses on Han's backstory, also featuring Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian .
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||Dave Filoni||Henry Gilroy , Steven Melching, and Scott Murphy||George Lucas, Dave Filoni, and Henry Gilroy||Catherine Winder||[25]|
Preceding the airing of the animated TV series in late 2008, the theatrical feature Star Wars: The Clone Wars was compiled from episodes "almost [as] an afterthought." [26] [27] It reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ; the series explains Padawan Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the latter film. The film and series exist in the same level of canon as the episodic and anthology films. [28]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||Gareth Edwards||Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy||John Knoll and Gary Whitta||Kathleen Kennedy, Allison Shearmur , and Simon Emanuel||[29]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||Ron Howard||Jonathan Kasdan & Lawrence Kasdan||[30]|
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and original trilogy co-screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a standalone film about a young Han Solo. [21] In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of a Kasdan film [31] and Entertainment Weekly reported that it would focus on Han Solo. [32] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories . [22] Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that there was "no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes." [33] The standalone films are subtitled "A Star Wars Story" . [23] [34]
Main article: Rogue One
Rogue One is set directly before Episode IV: A New Hope and focuses on the eponymous group of rebels who obtain the plans to the Death Star. [35] Its laser was developed by scientist Galen Erso (played by Mads Mikkelsen ) after the Empire forcibly abducted him, separating him from his daughter Jyn . Galen secretly sends a defecting Imperial pilot, Bodhi Rook , to deliver a message warning of the weapon's existence and revealing its weakness to his rebel friend Saw Gerrera . Under the false promise of her father's liberation, Jyn agrees to help Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor and his droid K-2SO retrieve the message from Saw, now the paranoid leader of an extremist cell of rebels.
The idea for the movie came from John Knoll , the chief creative officer of Industrial Light & Magic . [36] In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of an anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. [37] The film's title was revealed to be Rogue One , with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and Felicity Jones in the starring role. [38] Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also play new characters, [39] with James Earl Jones returning to voice Darth Vader . [40] Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy." [41] The film was the first to feature characters introduced in animated Star Wars TV series, namely The Clone Wars ' Saw Gerrera, portrayed by Forest Whitaker in the film. The movie received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US$500 million worldwide within a week of its release. [42]
Solo , the second anthology film, focuses on Han Solo about 10 years before A New Hope . [35] After an escape attempt from his Imperial-occupied home planet of Corellia goes wrong, a young Han vows to return to rescue his girlfriend Qi'ra . Han "Solo" joins the Imperial Academy; however, he is expelled for his reckless behavior. Han and his newfound Wookiee friend Chewbacca resort to a criminal life, mentored by veteran smuggler Tobias Beckett . After angering gangster Dryden Vos, Han and his company's lives depend on pulling a heist for him. Without a ship to travel, they hire Lando Calrissian , the captain and owner of the Millennium Falcon .
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas had hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran Lawrence Kasdan to write a film about a young Han Solo. [21] The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi ), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra, and Woody Harrelson as Beckett. Lucasfilm originally hired Phil Lord and Christopher Miller to direct, but they were fired during principal photography , and replaced by Ron Howard . A twist ending acknowledges one of the major story arcs of The Clone Wars and Rebels animated series, while leaving the story open ended for sequels. [43]
In mid-2018, Lucasfilm confirmed that multiple anthology films were in development, [44] with their release following a hiatus after 2019's The Rise of Skywalker . [45] Two films are scheduled for December 2025 and 2027. [46] [c]
Kathleen Kennedy stated in May 2022 that "There's a couple of [filmmakers] that we've been in conversation with over quite a long period of time that I'm hoping will come in" to oversee future films in the same way that Jon Favreau and Dave Filoni have done for multiple Star Wars television series. [48] Kennedy stated that "We need to create a whole new saga" [49] and that the sequel trilogy era was likely to be expanded from. [50]
Three separate new live-action films were officially announced at April 2023's Star Wars Celebration : a film about the dawn of the Jedi (set 25,000 years before A New Hope ) by James Mangold , a Dave Filoni-helmed film concluding the story set up by The Mandalorian and its spin-offs, and a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy -helmed film set 15 years after The Rise of Skywalker , with Daisy Ridley reprising her role as Rey. [51] [52] Upcoming films were announced to include the trademark opening crawl. [52]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Status||Ref.|
|Untitled Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy film||TBA||Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy||Steven Knight||TBA||Kathleen Kennedy||In development||[51]|
|Untitled Dave Filoni film||Dave Filoni||TBA||[51]|
|Untitled James Mangold film||James Mangold||[51]|
|Untitled Taika Waititi film||Taika Waititi||[53]|
In October 2022, The Hollywood Reporter reported that after a two-week writers' room in July (which included Patrick Somerville , Rayna McClendon, Andy Greenwald , and maybe Dave Filoni), Damon Lindelof and Justin Britt-Gibson were co-writing a Star Wars film, with Ms. Marvel director Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy attached as director. THR reported that according to its sources, "the project is intended as a stand-alone but in success could lead to more movies", taking place after the sequel trilogy and possibly featuring some of its characters. [54] [55] [56] In March 2023, it was reported that Lindelof and Britt-Gibson had left the project in mid-February and that Steven Knight was hired to replace them as screenwriter. Filming was reportedly set to begin in February 2024. [57] [58]
At April 2023's Star Wars Celebration, Kennedy officially announced a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy-directed movie, with Daisy Ridley returning as Rey as she constructs a new Jedi Order 15 years after the events of The Rise of Skywalker . [51] She reportedly may be a supporting character in the vein of Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Luke Skywalker in the original and sequel trilogies, respectively. [59] Lucasfilm reportedly hoped to release the film on the next scheduled date planned for a Star Wars film: December 19, 2025. [60]
On May 4 , 2020, Taika Waititi (who directed the first-season finale of The Mandalorian and voiced IG-11 ) was officially announced to direct a Star Wars film from a screenplay he was co-writing with Krysty Wilson-Cairns . [61] As of May 2022, his film was expected to be released before Rogue Squadron [62] (originally scheduled for December 2023 prior to its delay), [48] [47] with Kathleen Kennedy asserting that Waititi's film may be released in late 2023. [63] In June 2022, Waititi agreed with Kennedy's view that the films should move into new territory in favor of origin stories, [64] and stated he would continue writing the project through the end of 2022 while filming other projects. [65] In early July, The Hollywood Reporter indicated that "an early 2023 start" was being considered. [66] The movie will reportedly be shot in Los Angeles. [67] By March 2023, Waititi was also likely to appear in the film. [68] By April 2023, Kennedy stated that Waititi was now writing the film alone. [69] At the beginning of May 2023, Deadline Hollywood stated that filming for his film would begin in 2024. [70]
Rian Johnson , the writer/director of The Last Jedi (2017), is confirmed to write and direct the first film of a new trilogy he was outlining as of early 2019 with Ram Bergman producing alongside Kennedy. [71] [72] [73] It was said to differ from the Skywalker-focused films in favor of focusing on new characters and possibly a different era than the main film franchise. [74] The project was considered to have been "back-burnered" by May 2022 due to Johnson's involvement with other projects, including the Knives Out franchise. [62] In October, Johnson indicated that he would make at least one more film in that series before returning to Star Wars . [75] By April 2023, Kennedy agreed with Johnson that he would return to Star Wars after at least one more Knives Out film. [76]
In November 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Shawn Levy was in talks to direct a Star Wars film, following his work on Deadpool 3 (2024) and the fifth and final season of Stranger Things . [77]
The first spin-off film (also the first sequel to be released) was a holiday TV special aired in 1978. Two live-action TV films created in the mid-1980s feature the Ewoks.
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Network|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||November 17, 1978||Steve Binder||Pat Proft , Leonard Ripps, Bruce Vilanch , Rod Warren and Mitzie Welch||CBS|
Produced for CBS in 1978, the Star Wars Holiday Special was a two-hour television special, in the format of a variety show . Stars of the original film and archive footage from the original Star Wars film appeared alongside celebrity guest stars in plot-related skits, musical numbers, and an animated segment, all loosely tied together by the premise of Chewbacca 's family waiting for his arrival for the "Life Day" celebration on his home planet, Kashyyyk . The special is notorious for its extremely negative reception and was aired only once. [78] Only the 11-minute animated sequence, which features the debut of bounty hunter Boba Fett , was positively received. [79]
The Ewoks from Return of the Jedi were featured in two spin-off television films, The Ewok Adventure and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor . Both aired on ABC on the Thanksgiving weekends of 1984 and 1985, respectively, [80] with at least the first also being given a limited international theatrical release. [20] Warwick Davis reprised his debut role as the main Ewok, Wicket , in both. [81] [82] They are set between the events of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . [83] Both films were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and on a double-feature DVD. Although based on stories written by George Lucas, they do not bear Star Wars in their titles, and were considered to exist in a lower level of canon than the episodic films. Following Disney's acquisition of the franchise, they were excluded from the canon. [84] [20] The Battle for Endor would be the last live-action Star Wars television project produced by Lucasfilm until 2019's The Mandalorian .
|Film||Release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Network|
|The Ewok Adventure [d]||November 25, 1984||John Korty||Bob Carrau||George Lucas||ABC|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||November 24, 1985||Jim Wheat and Ken Wheat|
In a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, the Towani family spaceship shipwrecks on the forest moon of Endor . While trying to repair their ship, the castaway family is split, when a giant creature known as the Gorax kidnaps the parents. Taking pity on the kids, a group of native Ewoks led by Wicket decides to help little Cindel Towani and her older brother Mace, rescue their parents. [81] [82] Among other stylistic choices making the film unique from the Star Wars episodes is the inclusion of a narrator. [85]
The sequel focuses on the Ewoks protecting their village from marauders led by the evil Lord Terak, who killed all the members of the Towani family except for Cindel, in search of a power battery. [81] It was followed by the TV series Ewoks (1985–1987).
In December 2020, A Droid Story , an animated adventure film for Disney+ was announced. According to the official Star Wars Twitter , the "epic journey will introduce us to a new hero guided by R2-D2 and C-3PO ." [86]
The Star Wars films are the second-highest-grossing film franchise of all time worldwide, behind the Marvel Cinematic Universe , having grossed over $10 billion at the global box office. [87] [88] [89]
Each film is linked to the "Box office" section of its article.
|Film||US release date||Box office gross||All-time ranking||Budget||Ref.|
|US and Canada||Other territories||Worldwide||US and Canada||Worldwide|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||May 25, 1977||$460,998,507||$195,751,992||$775,398,007||19||98||$11 million||[90]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||$292,753,960||$190,685,234||$538,375,067||98||182||$18 million||[91]|
|Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||$309,306,177||$122,009,457||$475,106,177||82||231||$32.5 million||[92]|
|The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||$474,544,677||$552,538,030||$1,027,082,707||18||42||$115 million||[93]|
|Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||$310,676,740||$343,103,230||$653,779,970||80||140||$115 million||[94]|
|Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||$380,270,577||$488,119,983||$868,390,560||44||78||$113 million||[95]|
|The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||$936,662,225||$1,134,647,993||$2,071,310,218||1||4||$446 million||[96]|
|The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||$620,181,382||$714,226,324||$1,334,407,706||9||12||$317 million||[97]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||$515,202,542||$561,819,830||$1,077,022,372||14||32||$416 million||[98]|
|Spin-off films|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||$35,161,554||$33,121,290||$68,282,844||2,447||2,211||$8.5 million||[99]|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||$533,539,991||$525,142,151||$1,058,682,142||12||36||$200–265 million||[100] [101]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||$213,767,512||$179,157,295||$392,924,807||189||311||$300 million||[102] [103]|
|Total||$ 5,083,065,844||$ 5,040,322,809||$ 10,340,762,577||2||2||$ 2.092 -$ 2.157 billion||[104] [87]|
Each film is linked to the "Critical response" section of its article.
|Film||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic||CinemaScore [105]|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||93% (136 reviews) [106]||90 (24 reviews) [107]||—|
|The Empire Strikes Back||94% (109 reviews) [108]||82 (25 reviews) [109]||—|
|Return of the Jedi||83% (99 reviews) [110]||58 (24 reviews) [111]||—|
|Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace||51% (235 reviews) [112]||51 (36 reviews) [113]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones||66% (253 reviews) [114]||54 (39 reviews) [115]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||79% (302 reviews) [116]||68 (40 reviews) [117]||A−|
|Star Wars: The Force Awakens||93% (448 reviews) [118]||80 (55 reviews) [119]||A|
|Star Wars: The Last Jedi||91% (485 reviews) [120]||84 (56 reviews) [121]||A|
|Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker||52% (518 reviews) [122]||53 (61 reviews) [123]||B+|
|Spin-off films|
|Star Wars: The Clone Wars||18% (171 reviews) [124]||35 (30 reviews) [125]||B−|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||84% (461 reviews) [126]||65 (51 reviews) [127]||A|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||69% (483 reviews) [128]||62 (54 reviews) [129]||A−|
|Television films|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||27% (15 reviews) [130]||—||—|
|The Ewok Adventure||21% (14 reviews) [131]||—||—|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||33% (3 reviews) [132]||—||—|
The eleven live-action films together have been nominated for 37 Academy Awards , of which they have won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards . The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi received Special Achievement Awards for their visual effects, [133] [134] and Star Wars received a Special Achievement Award for its alien, creature and robot voices. [135] [136]
|Film||Best Picture||Best Director||Best Supporting Actor||Best Original Screenplay||Best Costume Design||Best Film Editing||Best Makeup||Best Original Score||Best Production Design||Best Sound Editing||Best Sound Mixing||Best Visual Effects||Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Nominated [i]||Nominated||Won||category not yet introduced||Won||Won||Won||[135]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||ineligible||Nominated||Special Achievement||[133]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[134]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[137]|
|Attack of the Clones||[138]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||[139]|
|The Force Awakens||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[140]|
|Rogue One||[141]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||Nominated||[142]|
|Solo||Nominated||[143]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[144]|
The franchise has received a total of fifteen Grammy Award nominations, winning six. [145]
|Film||Album of the Year|| Best Pop Instrumental |
Performance
| Best Score Soundtrack |
for Visual Media
| Best Instrumental |
Composition
|Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Won||Won||Won [ii]||[146]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||Nominated [iii]||Won||Won [iv]||[146]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[146]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[146]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||Nominated [v]||[146]|
|The Force Awakens||Won||[146]|
|Solo||Nominated||[147]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||[148]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||[149]|
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry , as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [150] The Empire Strikes Back was selected in 2010, while Return of the Jedi was selected in 2021. [151] [152] [153] 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, [154] [155] but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, Star Wars had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment. [156]
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure was one of four films to be juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards . [157] The film was additionally nominated for Outstanding Children's Program but lost in this category to an episode of American Playhouse . [158]
At the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards , Ewoks: The Battle for Endor and the CBS documentary Dinosaur! were both juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects. [159] The film additionally received two nominations for Outstanding Children's Program and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Special. [160] [161]
In the 2000s Zack Snyder pitched an adult-oriented film to Lucasfilm, but conversations ceased by the time Disney acquired the company in 2012. The project was redeveloped as Rebel Moon (2023). [162]
In early 2013, Bob Iger announced the development of a spin-off film written by Simon Kinberg , [163] reported by Entertainment Weekly to focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett during the original trilogy. [164] In mid-2014, Josh Trank was officially announced as the director of an undisclosed spin-off film, [165] but had left the project a year later due to creative differences, [166] causing a teaser for the film to be scrapped from Star Wars Celebration. [167] By October 2018, the Fett film [e] was reportedly no longer in production, with the studio instead focusing on The Mandalorian , which utilizes a similar character. [169]
Rogue One and Solo actors Felicity Jones, Alden Ehrenreich and Emilia Clarke all stated that their contracts also included future installments. [170] [171] [172] Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. [173] Kennedy and Glover also said that a film focusing on Lando could happen, but was not a priority. [174] (A Lando series was later announced.) [175] Although critics noted that Solo left room open for sequels, [45] in 2022, Howard confirmed that the studio had no plans to make one. [176]
In August 2017, it was rumored that films focused on Jabba the Hutt , and Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda were being considered or were in development. [177] Stephen Daldry was reportedly in early negotiations to co-write and direct the Obi-Wan movie. [178] At D23 Expo in August 2019, a TV series about the character was announced to be produced instead, which was released in 2022. [179]
Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were to write and produce a trilogy of Star Wars films scheduled to be released in December 2022, 2024, and 2026, [180] which were first announced to be in development in February 2018. [181] The duo stepped away from the project in October 2019, citing their commitment to a Netflix deal, although Kennedy stated her openness to their returning when their schedules allow. [182] [180]
In April 2019, Kathleen Kennedy was asked by MTV News about a potential Knights of the Old Republic adaption and stated, "Yes, we are developing something to look at. Right now, I have no idea where things might fall." [183] The following month, BuzzFeed News reported that Laeta Kalogridis had been hired in the spring of 2018 to write a film based on the 2003 video game , and that she was close to completing the first script of a potential trilogy. [184]
In September 2019, Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige reportedly began developing a Star Wars film with Kennedy; [185] Michael Waldron was later announced to write the screenplay. [186] [f] In May 2022, Waldron confirmed the project was moving forward and that it would more or less stand alone, [188] however in a separate interview the same month Kennedy denied that the film was in active development. [62] By March 2023, it was reportedly confirmed to no longer be in development. [68] Contrary to earlier comments, Kennedy clarified the following month that the project was more something conflated through the media, that "nothing ever got developed. We never discussed an idea... If [Feige] did come up with something, I would be all ears. But, that's never really happened, so it's not an abandoned project. It just never really happened." [189]
J. D. Dillard and Luke Cage writer Matt Owens were reportedly involved in the early stages of developing a film in February 2020, [190] which may have taken place on the Sith planet Exegol . [191] In November 2022, Dillard announced that he was no longer involved in the project. [192]
On December 10, 2020, during Disney Investor Day, Wonder Woman (2017) director Patty Jenkins was announced as the director of a film titled Rogue Squadron , initially set to be released on December 22, 2023. [193] [c] [g] According to the official Star Wars website, the film would "introduce a new generation of starfighter pilots as they earn their wings and risk their lives in a boundary-pushing, high-speed thrill-ride, and move the saga into the future era of the galaxy." [175] According to Jenkins, the film would be an original story "with great influence from the games and the books ". [194] A script was being worked on as of December 2020, [195] at which time, Wonder Woman 3 's story was still being worked on. [196] Matthew Robinson was hired to write Rogue Squadron in May 2021; [197] [198] late the next month, Jenkins revealed that the script was almost finished. [199] On November 8, the film's production was delayed from 2022 due to Jenkins' busy schedule. [200] A month later, Jenkins had left her planned Cleopatra film as director in order to focus on Rogue Squadron and Wonder Woman 3 . [201] Disney announced in April 2022 that the film was still set to be released in December 2023. [202] Kathleen Kennedy stated in May that the film has been "pushed off to the side for the moment", with the script still being worked on and Waititi's film expected to be released first. [48] On September 15, 2022, the film was confirmed to be taken off from Disney's release schedule, [47] although in December Jenkins said she was actively working on it amid the apparent cancellation of Wonder Woman 3 . [203] By March 2023, fans reported it as no longer in development. [68] The following month, Kennedy stated the project could still happen either as a film or a television series. [204]
Documentary films about Star Wars released by Lucasfilm include:
- ^ Retitled Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure for its theatrical and later releases
- ^ Reported to have also featured the other bounty hunters from The Empire Strikes Back [168]
- ^ When asked if his film would be a "solo" outing, Feige specified that his film would neither be about nor include the character Han Solo. [187]
- ^ The film would be the first in the franchise to be directed by a woman. [193]
Citations
- ^ Leadbeater, Alex (January 24, 2017). "A Brief History of Star Wars Titles" . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on February 6, 2019.
- ^ "Star Wars: Episode IX Cast Announced" . StarWars.com . July 27, 2018. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_films | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | Here’s How to Watch the Star Wars Movies in Order (Chronologically and by Release Date) | By
Plus, see where 'The Mandalorian,' 'Rebels,' and 'The Clone Wars' fit in.
Lucasfilm has been making Star Wars movies since 1977, but when The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, it arrived sporting an “Episode V" subtitle (with the original film being redubbed Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope ). Ever since then, the film series has zipped backward and forward in time as it chronicles the history of the Skywalker family and fills in various narrative holes from a galaxy far, far away.
What this means is there are two different and distinct ways to tackle all the films: In the order they were released in theaters, or in order of chronological events. Both have their pluses and minuses but are equally legitimate ways to experience the saga as a whole.
RELATED:
Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace
Released to theaters in 1999 as the first installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy, The Phantom Menace is the earliest set film in the timeline and kicks off the story of Anakin Skywalker, a precocious child who seems preternaturally gifted in the ways of the Force, a mystical, magical power wielded by heroes and villains alike in the Star Wars universe. You’ll meet the Jedi, an order of knights who use the Force for good, and the Sith, acolytes of the dark side of the Force who are usually trying to take control of the galaxy. It takes place about 32 years before the Death Star is destroyed.
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones
In the prequel trilogy’s second film, set about 10 years after the events of The Phantom Menace , Anakin Skywalker ( Hayden Christensen ) has grown into a surly teenager and is continuing his Jedi training under Obi-Wan Kenobi (played by prequel trilogy MVP Ewan McGregor ). He also falls in love with Galactic Republic Senator Padmé Amidala ( Natalie Portman ) and starts to let his rising anger get the better of him.
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
It’s Anakin vs. Obi-Wan in the prequel finale, as Anakin falls to the dark side and eventually becomes the villainous Darth Vader. While he’s off battling his mentor, Padmé gives birth to twins, whom she names Luke and Leia. Meanwhile, the Republic is dismantled and the nefarious Empire takes its place. The film takes place about three years after the events of Attack of the Clones .
Solo: A Star Wars Story
An origin story for everybody’s favorite galactic smuggler, Han Solo, which takes place about 10 years before the events of A New Hope . Here Alden Ehrenreich plays young Solo, as he sets off to make his fortune and meets future Star Wars mainstays Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian along the way.
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story
Set immediately before the original Star Wars trilogy, Rogue One is a stand-alone film that tells the story of a group of Rebel spies who try to steal the plans for the Empire’s new secret weapon – the Death Star. Rogue One will offer up your first real glimpse of the Rebel Alliance, which has formed to fight back against the Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IV—A New Hope
Here it is, the original Star Wars film, and it features the defining versions of many of the franchise’s most popular characters, including eager farm boy Luke Skywalker ( Mark Hamill ), fearless Princess Leia Organa ( Carrie Fisher ), and cocksure smuggler Han Solo ( Harrison Ford ). Luke goes on a journey of self-discovery, and everyone joins forces in an attempt to take down the Death Star.
Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back
Largely considered the best of the Star Wars films (and for good reason), The Empire Strikes Back takes place about three years after the events of A New Hope and finds our heroes on the run from ruthless Imperial forces. A wise puppet named Yoda shows up to train Luke in the ways of the Force, and Darth Vader reveals the truth to Luke that … 40-year-old spoiler alert … he is Luke’s father! (One of the demerits of watching the films in chronological order is that this classic twist gets ruined many films in advance.)
Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi
The last installment of the original trilogy takes place about a year after the events of Empire Strikes Back and features the final confrontation between Luke, Vader, and Vader’s master – Emperor Palpatine ( Ian McDiarmid ), a Sith Lord who has been skirting around the fringes of the franchise since the beginning. Also included: A second Death Star, a bunch of ferocious (but cute) teddy-bear-like creatures called Ewoks, and a conclusion to the Skywalker saga that stood until …
Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens
32 years after the original cast wrapped up their battle against the Empire (and three years after Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his company, Lucasfilm, to Disney), Hamill, Fisher and Ford returned to the fold for director J.J. Abrams ’ continuation of the saga. The focus, however, turned to a new generation of heroes and villains, including Rey ( Daisy Ridley ), a poor junk-trader with a strong connection to the Force, and Kylo Ren ( Adam Driver ), a masked menace whose bloodline is deeply rooted in Star Wars lore. The film takes place about 30 years after the events of Return of the Jedi .
Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi
Set directly after the events of The Force Awakens , Rey continues her Jedi training under a reluctant Luke and forms an unlikely bond with a conflicted Kylo Ren, while the rest of the Resistance – a Rebel Alliance-esque offshoot commanded by Leia – fights back against the First Order, the evil regime that rose up to replace the fallen Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker
Emperor Palpatine has returned. (Seriously!) And it’s up to Rey and her sequel-trilogy friends Poe ( Oscar Isaac ) and Finn ( John Boyega ) to save the galaxy once and for all. Appearances are made by pretty much every living saga character (and even some of the dead ones), and the story wraps up the Skywalker saga in epic fashion. For now, anyway.
Watching the Star Wars films in the order of their release also has its benefits. You get some of the franchise’s strongest films right up front, and several of its big surprises are preserved for their proper reveal. The release order is:
1. Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977)
2. Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
3. Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (1983)
4. Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999)
5. Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002)
6. Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)
7. Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens (2015)
8. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016)
9. Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi (2017)
10. Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018)
11. Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019)
Some fans also suggest a third way to watch the films, sometimes called “the machete order,” which involves starting with A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , then going back to watch the prequel trilogy, before returning to the natural release order with Return of the Jedi and continuing on to The Force Awakens from there. The primary benefit to this order is it preserves the Luke/Vader surprise but still allows you to experience Anakin’s entire back-story before learning his ultimate fate.
These days, if you want to keep up with everything going on in the Star Wars universe, you can't just limit yourself to the films. Though Lucasfilm has always dabbled with TV spinoffs, the last few years have seen an explosion of Star Wars content on Disney+. Here is a complete list of shows Lucasfilm considers canon and that you would need to watch if you want to be fully caught up on the entire saga.
Star Wars: The Clone Wars
Produced (for the most part) when Lucas himself was still running the company, this animated series takes place between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith and follows Anakin and Obi-Wan on their adventures throughout the galaxy. It also introduces Ahsoka Tano, a young female Jedi-in-training and fan favorite. It begins with a feature-length movie and wraps up with a delayed seventh season that was finally released in 2020. Make sure you catch this one if you’re a big fan of the prequel trilogy.
The Bad Batch
An animated spinoff of The Clone Wars , The Bad Batch follows a group of genetically-mutated clone troopers who turn against the newly-formed Empire and become mercenaries. If you decide to binge all the animated series in chronological order, this should be the second one you watch, following The Clone Wars . (Though be aware a second season is expected to premiere sometime later this year.)
Star Wars: Rebels
Another animated series featuring a mostly brand-new group of characters who run missions for the Rebel Alliance against the Empire. Rebels follows both of the previous two animated shows, and if you're tackling all things Star Wars in chronological order, watch this one after Solo but before Rogue One .
Obi-Wan Kenobi
The most recent Star Wars release on Disney+, Obi-Wan Kenobi reunites McGregor's Jedi master and Christensen's Anakin Skywalker (who's now gone full Darth Vader) and shows what they've been up to following the events of Revenge of the Sith . Like The Bad Batch and Rebels , this live-action series is set in the time between the prequel trilogy and the original trilogy.
The Mandalorian
Disney+’s first live-action Star Wars series follows a masked bounty hunter, a member of the order of Mandalorian warriors, whose entire world is upended when he becomes the caretaker of a Force-sensitive infant who’s of the same species as Yoda. (Hence, “Baby Yoda.” Perhaps you’ve seen the memes?) The Mandalorian is set after the fall of the Empire but before the rise of the First Order, so chronologically it comes right after Return of the Jedi . Two seasons have aired, and a third is on its way.
The Book of Boba Fett
The Book of Boba Fett continues the adventures of several of the characters we first met on The Mandalorian and does a deep dive on Fett, Star Wars ' most notorious bounty hunter. The first season of this show picks up immediately after season two of The Mandalorian .
Star Wars Resistance
While the other three animated Star Wars series are all closely connected, Star Wars Resistance is largely a stand-alone affair that follows a young pilot who decides to fight back against The First Order. It takes place just prior to The Force Awakens .
So that would get you all caught up for now, but plenty more Star War s movies and shows are on the way. We mentioned that new seasons of The Bad Batch and The Mandalorian are in production. Also in the pipeline for Disney+ are Andor , a Rogue One spinoff that serves as a prequel to that film ; The Acolyte , a mysterious new series set 100 years before The Phantom Menace ; Ahsoka , a series that catches up with Ahsoka Tano ( Rosario Dawson ) following her live-action debut in The Mandalorian ; and Star Wars: Skeleton Crew , a newly announced kid-based adventure that will star Jude Law and be set after Return of the Jedi . Meanwhile, several new big-screen Star Wars adventures are currently in the works, including a space-pilot-focused Rogue Squadron movie from Patty Jenkins and a mysterious new Star Wars film being shepherded by Thor: Ragnarok director Taika Waititi . | https://collider.com/how-to-watch-star-wars-movies-in-order/ | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | List of Star Wars films | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Star Wars films|
|Directed by||George Lucas|
|Story by||George Lucas|
|Based on|| Characters created |
by George Lucas
|Produced by|| Gary Kurtz |
Rick McCallum
Kathleen Kennedy
Production
companies
|Distributed by|
Release date
|1977–present|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget|| Total (11 films): |
$1.75–$1.815 billion
|Box office|| Total (11 films): |
$10.341 billion
The Star Wars franchise involves multiple live-action and animated films. The film series started with a trilogy set in medias res that was later expanded to a trilogy of trilogies, known as the " Skywalker Saga ".
The 1977 self-titled film , later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope , was followed by the sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), respectively subtitled onscreen as Episode V and Episode VI ; these films form the original trilogy . Sixteen years later, the prequel trilogy was released, consisting of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). After creator George Lucas sold the Star Wars franchise to Disney in 2012, a sequel trilogy consisting of Episodes VII through IX was released, consisting of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), The Last Jedi (2017), and The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The first three spin-off films produced were the made-for-television Star Wars Holiday Special (1978), The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985). Following Disney's 2012 acquisition of the franchise, these earlier films were dropped from the official canon , but the theatrical animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and its television series continuation retain their canonical status. Two standalone films were produced and released between the sequel trilogy films: Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), both set between the original and prequel trilogies. Untitled movies from Taika Waititi , James Mangold , Dave Filoni , and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy have been officially announced as being written, while other unspecified films are reportedly in early stages of development. [a]
The combined box office revenue of the films amounts to over ten billion dollars, and it is currently the second-highest-grossing film franchise . The major live-action releases (including all the films within the Skywalker Saga) were nominated for Academy Awards . The original film was nominated for most of the major categories, including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness (who played Obi-Wan Kenobi ), while all theatrical live-action films have been nominated for particular categories. Several official Star Wars television series have also been released, all now on Disney+ .
The main Star Wars film series is a trilogy of trilogies; as it neared completion, Disney began to refer to it as the "Skywalker Saga". [1] [2] It was released beginning with the original trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI , 1977–1983), followed by the prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III , 1999–2005) and the sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII and IX , 2015–2019). [b] The first film released, Star Wars (1977), is the fourth film chronologically and was later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope . The saga begins chronologically with Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) and concludes with Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The story follows each generation of the Force -sensitive Skywalker family and their struggle against the evil Sith Lord Darth Sidious (Palpatine) . The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker , his training as a Jedi , and his eventual fall to the dark side as Darth Vader due to Palpatine's machinations and his fear of losing his wife Padmé Amidala . The original trilogy follows their children, Luke and Leia , as they join the Rebel Alliance and battle Vader, Palpatine, and his Galactic Empire . The sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)—the son of Leia and Han Solo , nephew and former Jedi apprentice of Luke, and grandson of Padmé and Anakin—who fell to the dark side and seeks to rule the galaxy with Rey , the granddaughter of Palpatine and the last Jedi apprentice of Luke and Leia.
Each episodic film begins with an opening crawl , accompanied by the main Star Wars theme by John Williams , who composes the scores for each film. All nine films—most notably the original trilogy—have had retroactive changes made after their initial theatrical releases.
|Film||U.S. release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Prequel trilogy|
|Episode I – The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||George Lucas||Rick McCallum||[3]|
|Episode II – Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||George Lucas||George Lucas and Jonathan Hales||George Lucas||[4] [5]|
|Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||George Lucas||[6] [7]|
|Original trilogy|
|Episode IV – A New Hope||May 25, 1977||George Lucas||Gary Kurtz||[8] [9]|
|Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||Irvin Kershner||Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan||George Lucas||[10] [11]|
|Episode VI – Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||Richard Marquand||Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas||Howard Kazanjian||[12] [13]|
|Sequel trilogy|
|Episode VII – The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||J. J. Abrams||J. J. Abrams & Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt||Kathleen Kennedy , J. J. Abrams and Bryan Burk||[12] [14]|
|Episode VIII – The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||Rian Johnson||Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman||[15] [16]|
|Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||J. J. Abrams||Chris Terrio & J. J. Abrams||Derek Connolly & Colin Trevorrow and J. J. Abrams & Chris Terrio||Kathleen Kennedy, J. J. Abrams and Michelle Rejwan||[17] [18]|
As Lucas was outlining a trilogy of trilogies, he also imagined making additional movies unrelated to the Skywalker Saga. [19] The first theatrical films set outside the main episodic series were the Ewok spin-off films Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), the first of which was screened internationally after being produced for television . [20]
After the conclusion of his then-six-episode saga in 2005, Lucas returned to spin-offs in the form of television series . An animated film, The Clone Wars (2008), was released as a pilot to a TV series of the same name . An anthology series set between the main episodes entered development in parallel to the production of the sequel trilogy, [21] described by Disney chief financial officer (CFO) Jay Rasulo as origin stories . [22] The first entry, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016), tells the story of the rebels who steal the Death Star plans directly before Episode IV . [23] [24] Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018) focuses on Han's backstory, also featuring Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian .
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||Dave Filoni||Henry Gilroy , Steven Melching, and Scott Murphy||George Lucas, Dave Filoni, and Henry Gilroy||Catherine Winder||[25]|
Preceding the airing of the animated TV series in late 2008, the theatrical feature Star Wars: The Clone Wars was compiled from episodes "almost [as] an afterthought." [26] [27] It reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ; the series explains Padawan Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the latter film. The film and series exist in the same level of canon as the episodic and anthology films. [28]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||Gareth Edwards||Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy||John Knoll and Gary Whitta||Kathleen Kennedy, Allison Shearmur , and Simon Emanuel||[29]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||Ron Howard||Jonathan Kasdan & Lawrence Kasdan||[30]|
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and original trilogy co-screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a standalone film about a young Han Solo. [21] In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of a Kasdan film [31] and Entertainment Weekly reported that it would focus on Han Solo. [32] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories . [22] Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that there was "no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes." [33] The standalone films are subtitled "A Star Wars Story" . [23] [34]
Main article: Rogue One
Rogue One is set directly before Episode IV: A New Hope and focuses on the eponymous group of rebels who obtain the plans to the Death Star. [35] Its laser was developed by scientist Galen Erso (played by Mads Mikkelsen ) after the Empire forcibly abducted him, separating him from his daughter Jyn . Galen secretly sends a defecting Imperial pilot, Bodhi Rook , to deliver a message warning of the weapon's existence and revealing its weakness to his rebel friend Saw Gerrera . Under the false promise of her father's liberation, Jyn agrees to help Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor and his droid K-2SO retrieve the message from Saw, now the paranoid leader of an extremist cell of rebels.
The idea for the movie came from John Knoll , the chief creative officer of Industrial Light & Magic . [36] In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of an anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. [37] The film's title was revealed to be Rogue One , with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and Felicity Jones in the starring role. [38] Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also play new characters, [39] with James Earl Jones returning to voice Darth Vader . [40] Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy." [41] The film was the first to feature characters introduced in animated Star Wars TV series, namely The Clone Wars ' Saw Gerrera, portrayed by Forest Whitaker in the film. The movie received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US$500 million worldwide within a week of its release. [42]
Solo , the second anthology film, focuses on Han Solo about 10 years before A New Hope . [35] After an escape attempt from his Imperial-occupied home planet of Corellia goes wrong, a young Han vows to return to rescue his girlfriend Qi'ra . Han "Solo" joins the Imperial Academy; however, he is expelled for his reckless behavior. Han and his newfound Wookiee friend Chewbacca resort to a criminal life, mentored by veteran smuggler Tobias Beckett . After angering gangster Dryden Vos, Han and his company's lives depend on pulling a heist for him. Without a ship to travel, they hire Lando Calrissian , the captain and owner of the Millennium Falcon .
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas had hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran Lawrence Kasdan to write a film about a young Han Solo. [21] The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi ), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra, and Woody Harrelson as Beckett. Lucasfilm originally hired Phil Lord and Christopher Miller to direct, but they were fired during principal photography , and replaced by Ron Howard . A twist ending acknowledges one of the major story arcs of The Clone Wars and Rebels animated series, while leaving the story open ended for sequels. [43]
In mid-2018, Lucasfilm confirmed that multiple anthology films were in development, [44] with their release following a hiatus after 2019's The Rise of Skywalker . [45] Two films are scheduled for December 2025 and 2027. [46] [c]
Kathleen Kennedy stated in May 2022 that "There's a couple of [filmmakers] that we've been in conversation with over quite a long period of time that I'm hoping will come in" to oversee future films in the same way that Jon Favreau and Dave Filoni have done for multiple Star Wars television series. [48] Kennedy stated that "We need to create a whole new saga" [49] and that the sequel trilogy era was likely to be expanded from. [50]
Three separate new live-action films were officially announced at April 2023's Star Wars Celebration : a film about the dawn of the Jedi (set 25,000 years before A New Hope ) by James Mangold , a Dave Filoni-helmed film concluding the story set up by The Mandalorian and its spin-offs, and a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy -helmed film set 15 years after The Rise of Skywalker , with Daisy Ridley reprising her role as Rey. [51] [52] Upcoming films were announced to include the trademark opening crawl. [52]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Status||Ref.|
|Untitled Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy film||TBA||Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy||Steven Knight||TBA||Kathleen Kennedy||In development||[51]|
|Untitled Dave Filoni film||Dave Filoni||TBA||[51]|
|Untitled James Mangold film||James Mangold||[51]|
|Untitled Taika Waititi film||Taika Waititi||[53]|
In October 2022, The Hollywood Reporter reported that after a two-week writers' room in July (which included Patrick Somerville , Rayna McClendon, Andy Greenwald , and maybe Dave Filoni), Damon Lindelof and Justin Britt-Gibson were co-writing a Star Wars film, with Ms. Marvel director Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy attached as director. THR reported that according to its sources, "the project is intended as a stand-alone but in success could lead to more movies", taking place after the sequel trilogy and possibly featuring some of its characters. [54] [55] [56] In March 2023, it was reported that Lindelof and Britt-Gibson had left the project in mid-February and that Steven Knight was hired to replace them as screenwriter. Filming was reportedly set to begin in February 2024. [57] [58]
At April 2023's Star Wars Celebration, Kennedy officially announced a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy-directed movie, with Daisy Ridley returning as Rey as she constructs a new Jedi Order 15 years after the events of The Rise of Skywalker . [51] She reportedly may be a supporting character in the vein of Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Luke Skywalker in the original and sequel trilogies, respectively. [59] Lucasfilm reportedly hoped to release the film on the next scheduled date planned for a Star Wars film: December 19, 2025. [60]
On May 4 , 2020, Taika Waititi (who directed the first-season finale of The Mandalorian and voiced IG-11 ) was officially announced to direct a Star Wars film from a screenplay he was co-writing with Krysty Wilson-Cairns . [61] As of May 2022, his film was expected to be released before Rogue Squadron [62] (originally scheduled for December 2023 prior to its delay), [48] [47] with Kathleen Kennedy asserting that Waititi's film may be released in late 2023. [63] In June 2022, Waititi agreed with Kennedy's view that the films should move into new territory in favor of origin stories, [64] and stated he would continue writing the project through the end of 2022 while filming other projects. [65] In early July, The Hollywood Reporter indicated that "an early 2023 start" was being considered. [66] The movie will reportedly be shot in Los Angeles. [67] By March 2023, Waititi was also likely to appear in the film. [68] By April 2023, Kennedy stated that Waititi was now writing the film alone. [69] At the beginning of May 2023, Deadline Hollywood stated that filming for his film would begin in 2024. [70]
Rian Johnson , the writer/director of The Last Jedi (2017), is confirmed to write and direct the first film of a new trilogy he was outlining as of early 2019 with Ram Bergman producing alongside Kennedy. [71] [72] [73] It was said to differ from the Skywalker-focused films in favor of focusing on new characters and possibly a different era than the main film franchise. [74] The project was considered to have been "back-burnered" by May 2022 due to Johnson's involvement with other projects, including the Knives Out franchise. [62] In October, Johnson indicated that he would make at least one more film in that series before returning to Star Wars . [75] By April 2023, Kennedy agreed with Johnson that he would return to Star Wars after at least one more Knives Out film. [76]
In November 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Shawn Levy was in talks to direct a Star Wars film, following his work on Deadpool 3 (2024) and the fifth and final season of Stranger Things . [77]
The first spin-off film (also the first sequel to be released) was a holiday TV special aired in 1978. Two live-action TV films created in the mid-1980s feature the Ewoks.
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Network|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||November 17, 1978||Steve Binder||Pat Proft , Leonard Ripps, Bruce Vilanch , Rod Warren and Mitzie Welch||CBS|
Produced for CBS in 1978, the Star Wars Holiday Special was a two-hour television special, in the format of a variety show . Stars of the original film and archive footage from the original Star Wars film appeared alongside celebrity guest stars in plot-related skits, musical numbers, and an animated segment, all loosely tied together by the premise of Chewbacca 's family waiting for his arrival for the "Life Day" celebration on his home planet, Kashyyyk . The special is notorious for its extremely negative reception and was aired only once. [78] Only the 11-minute animated sequence, which features the debut of bounty hunter Boba Fett , was positively received. [79]
The Ewoks from Return of the Jedi were featured in two spin-off television films, The Ewok Adventure and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor . Both aired on ABC on the Thanksgiving weekends of 1984 and 1985, respectively, [80] with at least the first also being given a limited international theatrical release. [20] Warwick Davis reprised his debut role as the main Ewok, Wicket , in both. [81] [82] They are set between the events of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . [83] Both films were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and on a double-feature DVD. Although based on stories written by George Lucas, they do not bear Star Wars in their titles, and were considered to exist in a lower level of canon than the episodic films. Following Disney's acquisition of the franchise, they were excluded from the canon. [84] [20] The Battle for Endor would be the last live-action Star Wars television project produced by Lucasfilm until 2019's The Mandalorian .
|Film||Release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Network|
|The Ewok Adventure [d]||November 25, 1984||John Korty||Bob Carrau||George Lucas||ABC|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||November 24, 1985||Jim Wheat and Ken Wheat|
In a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, the Towani family spaceship shipwrecks on the forest moon of Endor . While trying to repair their ship, the castaway family is split, when a giant creature known as the Gorax kidnaps the parents. Taking pity on the kids, a group of native Ewoks led by Wicket decides to help little Cindel Towani and her older brother Mace, rescue their parents. [81] [82] Among other stylistic choices making the film unique from the Star Wars episodes is the inclusion of a narrator. [85]
The sequel focuses on the Ewoks protecting their village from marauders led by the evil Lord Terak, who killed all the members of the Towani family except for Cindel, in search of a power battery. [81] It was followed by the TV series Ewoks (1985–1987).
In December 2020, A Droid Story , an animated adventure film for Disney+ was announced. According to the official Star Wars Twitter , the "epic journey will introduce us to a new hero guided by R2-D2 and C-3PO ." [86]
The Star Wars films are the second-highest-grossing film franchise of all time worldwide, behind the Marvel Cinematic Universe , having grossed over $10 billion at the global box office. [87] [88] [89]
Each film is linked to the "Box office" section of its article.
|Film||US release date||Box office gross||All-time ranking||Budget||Ref.|
|US and Canada||Other territories||Worldwide||US and Canada||Worldwide|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||May 25, 1977||$460,998,507||$195,751,992||$775,398,007||19||98||$11 million||[90]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||$292,753,960||$190,685,234||$538,375,067||98||182||$18 million||[91]|
|Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||$309,306,177||$122,009,457||$475,106,177||82||231||$32.5 million||[92]|
|The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||$474,544,677||$552,538,030||$1,027,082,707||18||42||$115 million||[93]|
|Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||$310,676,740||$343,103,230||$653,779,970||80||140||$115 million||[94]|
|Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||$380,270,577||$488,119,983||$868,390,560||44||78||$113 million||[95]|
|The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||$936,662,225||$1,134,647,993||$2,071,310,218||1||4||$446 million||[96]|
|The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||$620,181,382||$714,226,324||$1,334,407,706||9||12||$317 million||[97]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||$515,202,542||$561,819,830||$1,077,022,372||14||32||$416 million||[98]|
|Spin-off films|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||$35,161,554||$33,121,290||$68,282,844||2,447||2,211||$8.5 million||[99]|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||$533,539,991||$525,142,151||$1,058,682,142||12||36||$200–265 million||[100] [101]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||$213,767,512||$179,157,295||$392,924,807||189||311||$300 million||[102] [103]|
|Total||$ 5,083,065,844||$ 5,040,322,809||$ 10,340,762,577||2||2||$ 2.092 -$ 2.157 billion||[104] [87]|
Each film is linked to the "Critical response" section of its article.
|Film||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic||CinemaScore [105]|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||93% (136 reviews) [106]||90 (24 reviews) [107]||—|
|The Empire Strikes Back||94% (109 reviews) [108]||82 (25 reviews) [109]||—|
|Return of the Jedi||83% (99 reviews) [110]||58 (24 reviews) [111]||—|
|Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace||51% (235 reviews) [112]||51 (36 reviews) [113]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones||66% (253 reviews) [114]||54 (39 reviews) [115]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||79% (302 reviews) [116]||68 (40 reviews) [117]||A−|
|Star Wars: The Force Awakens||93% (448 reviews) [118]||80 (55 reviews) [119]||A|
|Star Wars: The Last Jedi||91% (485 reviews) [120]||84 (56 reviews) [121]||A|
|Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker||52% (518 reviews) [122]||53 (61 reviews) [123]||B+|
|Spin-off films|
|Star Wars: The Clone Wars||18% (171 reviews) [124]||35 (30 reviews) [125]||B−|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||84% (461 reviews) [126]||65 (51 reviews) [127]||A|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||69% (483 reviews) [128]||62 (54 reviews) [129]||A−|
|Television films|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||27% (15 reviews) [130]||—||—|
|The Ewok Adventure||21% (14 reviews) [131]||—||—|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||33% (3 reviews) [132]||—||—|
The eleven live-action films together have been nominated for 37 Academy Awards , of which they have won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards . The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi received Special Achievement Awards for their visual effects, [133] [134] and Star Wars received a Special Achievement Award for its alien, creature and robot voices. [135] [136]
|Film||Best Picture||Best Director||Best Supporting Actor||Best Original Screenplay||Best Costume Design||Best Film Editing||Best Makeup||Best Original Score||Best Production Design||Best Sound Editing||Best Sound Mixing||Best Visual Effects||Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Nominated [i]||Nominated||Won||category not yet introduced||Won||Won||Won||[135]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||ineligible||Nominated||Special Achievement||[133]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[134]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[137]|
|Attack of the Clones||[138]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||[139]|
|The Force Awakens||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[140]|
|Rogue One||[141]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||Nominated||[142]|
|Solo||Nominated||[143]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[144]|
The franchise has received a total of fifteen Grammy Award nominations, winning six. [145]
|Film||Album of the Year|| Best Pop Instrumental |
Performance
| Best Score Soundtrack |
for Visual Media
| Best Instrumental |
Composition
|Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Won||Won||Won [ii]||[146]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||Nominated [iii]||Won||Won [iv]||[146]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[146]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[146]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||Nominated [v]||[146]|
|The Force Awakens||Won||[146]|
|Solo||Nominated||[147]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||[148]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||[149]|
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry , as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [150] The Empire Strikes Back was selected in 2010, while Return of the Jedi was selected in 2021. [151] [152] [153] 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, [154] [155] but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, Star Wars had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment. [156]
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure was one of four films to be juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards . [157] The film was additionally nominated for Outstanding Children's Program but lost in this category to an episode of American Playhouse . [158]
At the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards , Ewoks: The Battle for Endor and the CBS documentary Dinosaur! were both juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects. [159] The film additionally received two nominations for Outstanding Children's Program and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Special. [160] [161]
In the 2000s Zack Snyder pitched an adult-oriented film to Lucasfilm, but conversations ceased by the time Disney acquired the company in 2012. The project was redeveloped as Rebel Moon (2023). [162]
In early 2013, Bob Iger announced the development of a spin-off film written by Simon Kinberg , [163] reported by Entertainment Weekly to focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett during the original trilogy. [164] In mid-2014, Josh Trank was officially announced as the director of an undisclosed spin-off film, [165] but had left the project a year later due to creative differences, [166] causing a teaser for the film to be scrapped from Star Wars Celebration. [167] By October 2018, the Fett film [e] was reportedly no longer in production, with the studio instead focusing on The Mandalorian , which utilizes a similar character. [169]
Rogue One and Solo actors Felicity Jones, Alden Ehrenreich and Emilia Clarke all stated that their contracts also included future installments. [170] [171] [172] Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. [173] Kennedy and Glover also said that a film focusing on Lando could happen, but was not a priority. [174] (A Lando series was later announced.) [175] Although critics noted that Solo left room open for sequels, [45] in 2022, Howard confirmed that the studio had no plans to make one. [176]
In August 2017, it was rumored that films focused on Jabba the Hutt , and Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda were being considered or were in development. [177] Stephen Daldry was reportedly in early negotiations to co-write and direct the Obi-Wan movie. [178] At D23 Expo in August 2019, a TV series about the character was announced to be produced instead, which was released in 2022. [179]
Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were to write and produce a trilogy of Star Wars films scheduled to be released in December 2022, 2024, and 2026, [180] which were first announced to be in development in February 2018. [181] The duo stepped away from the project in October 2019, citing their commitment to a Netflix deal, although Kennedy stated her openness to their returning when their schedules allow. [182] [180]
In April 2019, Kathleen Kennedy was asked by MTV News about a potential Knights of the Old Republic adaption and stated, "Yes, we are developing something to look at. Right now, I have no idea where things might fall." [183] The following month, BuzzFeed News reported that Laeta Kalogridis had been hired in the spring of 2018 to write a film based on the 2003 video game , and that she was close to completing the first script of a potential trilogy. [184]
In September 2019, Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige reportedly began developing a Star Wars film with Kennedy; [185] Michael Waldron was later announced to write the screenplay. [186] [f] In May 2022, Waldron confirmed the project was moving forward and that it would more or less stand alone, [188] however in a separate interview the same month Kennedy denied that the film was in active development. [62] By March 2023, it was reportedly confirmed to no longer be in development. [68] Contrary to earlier comments, Kennedy clarified the following month that the project was more something conflated through the media, that "nothing ever got developed. We never discussed an idea... If [Feige] did come up with something, I would be all ears. But, that's never really happened, so it's not an abandoned project. It just never really happened." [189]
J. D. Dillard and Luke Cage writer Matt Owens were reportedly involved in the early stages of developing a film in February 2020, [190] which may have taken place on the Sith planet Exegol . [191] In November 2022, Dillard announced that he was no longer involved in the project. [192]
On December 10, 2020, during Disney Investor Day, Wonder Woman (2017) director Patty Jenkins was announced as the director of a film titled Rogue Squadron , initially set to be released on December 22, 2023. [193] [c] [g] According to the official Star Wars website, the film would "introduce a new generation of starfighter pilots as they earn their wings and risk their lives in a boundary-pushing, high-speed thrill-ride, and move the saga into the future era of the galaxy." [175] According to Jenkins, the film would be an original story "with great influence from the games and the books ". [194] A script was being worked on as of December 2020, [195] at which time, Wonder Woman 3 's story was still being worked on. [196] Matthew Robinson was hired to write Rogue Squadron in May 2021; [197] [198] late the next month, Jenkins revealed that the script was almost finished. [199] On November 8, the film's production was delayed from 2022 due to Jenkins' busy schedule. [200] A month later, Jenkins had left her planned Cleopatra film as director in order to focus on Rogue Squadron and Wonder Woman 3 . [201] Disney announced in April 2022 that the film was still set to be released in December 2023. [202] Kathleen Kennedy stated in May that the film has been "pushed off to the side for the moment", with the script still being worked on and Waititi's film expected to be released first. [48] On September 15, 2022, the film was confirmed to be taken off from Disney's release schedule, [47] although in December Jenkins said she was actively working on it amid the apparent cancellation of Wonder Woman 3 . [203] By March 2023, fans reported it as no longer in development. [68] The following month, Kennedy stated the project could still happen either as a film or a television series. [204]
Documentary films about Star Wars released by Lucasfilm include:
- ^ Retitled Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure for its theatrical and later releases
- ^ Reported to have also featured the other bounty hunters from The Empire Strikes Back [168]
- ^ When asked if his film would be a "solo" outing, Feige specified that his film would neither be about nor include the character Han Solo. [187]
- ^ The film would be the first in the franchise to be directed by a woman. [193]
Citations
- ^ Leadbeater, Alex (January 24, 2017). "A Brief History of Star Wars Titles" . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on February 6, 2019.
- ^ "Star Wars: Episode IX Cast Announced" . StarWars.com . July 27, 2018. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_films | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | List of Star Wars films | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Star Wars films|
|Directed by||George Lucas|
|Story by||George Lucas|
|Based on|| Characters created |
by George Lucas
|Produced by|| Gary Kurtz |
Rick McCallum
Kathleen Kennedy
Production
companies
|Distributed by|
Release date
|1977–present|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget|| Total (11 films): |
$1.75–$1.815 billion
|Box office|| Total (11 films): |
$10.341 billion
The Star Wars franchise involves multiple live-action and animated films. The film series started with a trilogy set in medias res that was later expanded to a trilogy of trilogies, known as the " Skywalker Saga ".
The 1977 self-titled film , later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope , was followed by the sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), respectively subtitled onscreen as Episode V and Episode VI ; these films form the original trilogy . Sixteen years later, the prequel trilogy was released, consisting of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). After creator George Lucas sold the Star Wars franchise to Disney in 2012, a sequel trilogy consisting of Episodes VII through IX was released, consisting of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), The Last Jedi (2017), and The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The first three spin-off films produced were the made-for-television Star Wars Holiday Special (1978), The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985). Following Disney's 2012 acquisition of the franchise, these earlier films were dropped from the official canon , but the theatrical animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and its television series continuation retain their canonical status. Two standalone films were produced and released between the sequel trilogy films: Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), both set between the original and prequel trilogies. Untitled movies from Taika Waititi , James Mangold , Dave Filoni , and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy have been officially announced as being written, while other unspecified films are reportedly in early stages of development. [a]
The combined box office revenue of the films amounts to over ten billion dollars, and it is currently the second-highest-grossing film franchise . The major live-action releases (including all the films within the Skywalker Saga) were nominated for Academy Awards . The original film was nominated for most of the major categories, including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness (who played Obi-Wan Kenobi ), while all theatrical live-action films have been nominated for particular categories. Several official Star Wars television series have also been released, all now on Disney+ .
The main Star Wars film series is a trilogy of trilogies; as it neared completion, Disney began to refer to it as the "Skywalker Saga". [1] [2] It was released beginning with the original trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI , 1977–1983), followed by the prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III , 1999–2005) and the sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII and IX , 2015–2019). [b] The first film released, Star Wars (1977), is the fourth film chronologically and was later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope . The saga begins chronologically with Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) and concludes with Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The story follows each generation of the Force -sensitive Skywalker family and their struggle against the evil Sith Lord Darth Sidious (Palpatine) . The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker , his training as a Jedi , and his eventual fall to the dark side as Darth Vader due to Palpatine's machinations and his fear of losing his wife Padmé Amidala . The original trilogy follows their children, Luke and Leia , as they join the Rebel Alliance and battle Vader, Palpatine, and his Galactic Empire . The sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)—the son of Leia and Han Solo , nephew and former Jedi apprentice of Luke, and grandson of Padmé and Anakin—who fell to the dark side and seeks to rule the galaxy with Rey , the granddaughter of Palpatine and the last Jedi apprentice of Luke and Leia.
Each episodic film begins with an opening crawl , accompanied by the main Star Wars theme by John Williams , who composes the scores for each film. All nine films—most notably the original trilogy—have had retroactive changes made after their initial theatrical releases.
|Film||U.S. release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Prequel trilogy|
|Episode I – The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||George Lucas||Rick McCallum||[3]|
|Episode II – Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||George Lucas||George Lucas and Jonathan Hales||George Lucas||[4] [5]|
|Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||George Lucas||[6] [7]|
|Original trilogy|
|Episode IV – A New Hope||May 25, 1977||George Lucas||Gary Kurtz||[8] [9]|
|Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||Irvin Kershner||Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan||George Lucas||[10] [11]|
|Episode VI – Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||Richard Marquand||Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas||Howard Kazanjian||[12] [13]|
|Sequel trilogy|
|Episode VII – The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||J. J. Abrams||J. J. Abrams & Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt||Kathleen Kennedy , J. J. Abrams and Bryan Burk||[12] [14]|
|Episode VIII – The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||Rian Johnson||Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman||[15] [16]|
|Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||J. J. Abrams||Chris Terrio & J. J. Abrams||Derek Connolly & Colin Trevorrow and J. J. Abrams & Chris Terrio||Kathleen Kennedy, J. J. Abrams and Michelle Rejwan||[17] [18]|
As Lucas was outlining a trilogy of trilogies, he also imagined making additional movies unrelated to the Skywalker Saga. [19] The first theatrical films set outside the main episodic series were the Ewok spin-off films Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), the first of which was screened internationally after being produced for television . [20]
After the conclusion of his then-six-episode saga in 2005, Lucas returned to spin-offs in the form of television series . An animated film, The Clone Wars (2008), was released as a pilot to a TV series of the same name . An anthology series set between the main episodes entered development in parallel to the production of the sequel trilogy, [21] described by Disney chief financial officer (CFO) Jay Rasulo as origin stories . [22] The first entry, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016), tells the story of the rebels who steal the Death Star plans directly before Episode IV . [23] [24] Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018) focuses on Han's backstory, also featuring Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian .
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||Dave Filoni||Henry Gilroy , Steven Melching, and Scott Murphy||George Lucas, Dave Filoni, and Henry Gilroy||Catherine Winder||[25]|
Preceding the airing of the animated TV series in late 2008, the theatrical feature Star Wars: The Clone Wars was compiled from episodes "almost [as] an afterthought." [26] [27] It reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ; the series explains Padawan Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the latter film. The film and series exist in the same level of canon as the episodic and anthology films. [28]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||Gareth Edwards||Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy||John Knoll and Gary Whitta||Kathleen Kennedy, Allison Shearmur , and Simon Emanuel||[29]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||Ron Howard||Jonathan Kasdan & Lawrence Kasdan||[30]|
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and original trilogy co-screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a standalone film about a young Han Solo. [21] In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of a Kasdan film [31] and Entertainment Weekly reported that it would focus on Han Solo. [32] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories . [22] Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that there was "no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes." [33] The standalone films are subtitled "A Star Wars Story" . [23] [34]
Main article: Rogue One
Rogue One is set directly before Episode IV: A New Hope and focuses on the eponymous group of rebels who obtain the plans to the Death Star. [35] Its laser was developed by scientist Galen Erso (played by Mads Mikkelsen ) after the Empire forcibly abducted him, separating him from his daughter Jyn . Galen secretly sends a defecting Imperial pilot, Bodhi Rook , to deliver a message warning of the weapon's existence and revealing its weakness to his rebel friend Saw Gerrera . Under the false promise of her father's liberation, Jyn agrees to help Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor and his droid K-2SO retrieve the message from Saw, now the paranoid leader of an extremist cell of rebels.
The idea for the movie came from John Knoll , the chief creative officer of Industrial Light & Magic . [36] In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of an anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. [37] The film's title was revealed to be Rogue One , with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and Felicity Jones in the starring role. [38] Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also play new characters, [39] with James Earl Jones returning to voice Darth Vader . [40] Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy." [41] The film was the first to feature characters introduced in animated Star Wars TV series, namely The Clone Wars ' Saw Gerrera, portrayed by Forest Whitaker in the film. The movie received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US$500 million worldwide within a week of its release. [42]
Solo , the second anthology film, focuses on Han Solo about 10 years before A New Hope . [35] After an escape attempt from his Imperial-occupied home planet of Corellia goes wrong, a young Han vows to return to rescue his girlfriend Qi'ra . Han "Solo" joins the Imperial Academy; however, he is expelled for his reckless behavior. Han and his newfound Wookiee friend Chewbacca resort to a criminal life, mentored by veteran smuggler Tobias Beckett . After angering gangster Dryden Vos, Han and his company's lives depend on pulling a heist for him. Without a ship to travel, they hire Lando Calrissian , the captain and owner of the Millennium Falcon .
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas had hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran Lawrence Kasdan to write a film about a young Han Solo. [21] The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi ), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra, and Woody Harrelson as Beckett. Lucasfilm originally hired Phil Lord and Christopher Miller to direct, but they were fired during principal photography , and replaced by Ron Howard . A twist ending acknowledges one of the major story arcs of The Clone Wars and Rebels animated series, while leaving the story open ended for sequels. [43]
In mid-2018, Lucasfilm confirmed that multiple anthology films were in development, [44] with their release following a hiatus after 2019's The Rise of Skywalker . [45] Two films are scheduled for December 2025 and 2027. [46] [c]
Kathleen Kennedy stated in May 2022 that "There's a couple of [filmmakers] that we've been in conversation with over quite a long period of time that I'm hoping will come in" to oversee future films in the same way that Jon Favreau and Dave Filoni have done for multiple Star Wars television series. [48] Kennedy stated that "We need to create a whole new saga" [49] and that the sequel trilogy era was likely to be expanded from. [50]
Three separate new live-action films were officially announced at April 2023's Star Wars Celebration : a film about the dawn of the Jedi (set 25,000 years before A New Hope ) by James Mangold , a Dave Filoni-helmed film concluding the story set up by The Mandalorian and its spin-offs, and a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy -helmed film set 15 years after The Rise of Skywalker , with Daisy Ridley reprising her role as Rey. [51] [52] Upcoming films were announced to include the trademark opening crawl. [52]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Status||Ref.|
|Untitled Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy film||TBA||Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy||Steven Knight||TBA||Kathleen Kennedy||In development||[51]|
|Untitled Dave Filoni film||Dave Filoni||TBA||[51]|
|Untitled James Mangold film||James Mangold||[51]|
|Untitled Taika Waititi film||Taika Waititi||[53]|
In October 2022, The Hollywood Reporter reported that after a two-week writers' room in July (which included Patrick Somerville , Rayna McClendon, Andy Greenwald , and maybe Dave Filoni), Damon Lindelof and Justin Britt-Gibson were co-writing a Star Wars film, with Ms. Marvel director Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy attached as director. THR reported that according to its sources, "the project is intended as a stand-alone but in success could lead to more movies", taking place after the sequel trilogy and possibly featuring some of its characters. [54] [55] [56] In March 2023, it was reported that Lindelof and Britt-Gibson had left the project in mid-February and that Steven Knight was hired to replace them as screenwriter. Filming was reportedly set to begin in February 2024. [57] [58]
At April 2023's Star Wars Celebration, Kennedy officially announced a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy-directed movie, with Daisy Ridley returning as Rey as she constructs a new Jedi Order 15 years after the events of The Rise of Skywalker . [51] She reportedly may be a supporting character in the vein of Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Luke Skywalker in the original and sequel trilogies, respectively. [59] Lucasfilm reportedly hoped to release the film on the next scheduled date planned for a Star Wars film: December 19, 2025. [60]
On May 4 , 2020, Taika Waititi (who directed the first-season finale of The Mandalorian and voiced IG-11 ) was officially announced to direct a Star Wars film from a screenplay he was co-writing with Krysty Wilson-Cairns . [61] As of May 2022, his film was expected to be released before Rogue Squadron [62] (originally scheduled for December 2023 prior to its delay), [48] [47] with Kathleen Kennedy asserting that Waititi's film may be released in late 2023. [63] In June 2022, Waititi agreed with Kennedy's view that the films should move into new territory in favor of origin stories, [64] and stated he would continue writing the project through the end of 2022 while filming other projects. [65] In early July, The Hollywood Reporter indicated that "an early 2023 start" was being considered. [66] The movie will reportedly be shot in Los Angeles. [67] By March 2023, Waititi was also likely to appear in the film. [68] By April 2023, Kennedy stated that Waititi was now writing the film alone. [69] At the beginning of May 2023, Deadline Hollywood stated that filming for his film would begin in 2024. [70]
Rian Johnson , the writer/director of The Last Jedi (2017), is confirmed to write and direct the first film of a new trilogy he was outlining as of early 2019 with Ram Bergman producing alongside Kennedy. [71] [72] [73] It was said to differ from the Skywalker-focused films in favor of focusing on new characters and possibly a different era than the main film franchise. [74] The project was considered to have been "back-burnered" by May 2022 due to Johnson's involvement with other projects, including the Knives Out franchise. [62] In October, Johnson indicated that he would make at least one more film in that series before returning to Star Wars . [75] By April 2023, Kennedy agreed with Johnson that he would return to Star Wars after at least one more Knives Out film. [76]
In November 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Shawn Levy was in talks to direct a Star Wars film, following his work on Deadpool 3 (2024) and the fifth and final season of Stranger Things . [77]
The first spin-off film (also the first sequel to be released) was a holiday TV special aired in 1978. Two live-action TV films created in the mid-1980s feature the Ewoks.
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Network|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||November 17, 1978||Steve Binder||Pat Proft , Leonard Ripps, Bruce Vilanch , Rod Warren and Mitzie Welch||CBS|
Produced for CBS in 1978, the Star Wars Holiday Special was a two-hour television special, in the format of a variety show . Stars of the original film and archive footage from the original Star Wars film appeared alongside celebrity guest stars in plot-related skits, musical numbers, and an animated segment, all loosely tied together by the premise of Chewbacca 's family waiting for his arrival for the "Life Day" celebration on his home planet, Kashyyyk . The special is notorious for its extremely negative reception and was aired only once. [78] Only the 11-minute animated sequence, which features the debut of bounty hunter Boba Fett , was positively received. [79]
The Ewoks from Return of the Jedi were featured in two spin-off television films, The Ewok Adventure and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor . Both aired on ABC on the Thanksgiving weekends of 1984 and 1985, respectively, [80] with at least the first also being given a limited international theatrical release. [20] Warwick Davis reprised his debut role as the main Ewok, Wicket , in both. [81] [82] They are set between the events of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . [83] Both films were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and on a double-feature DVD. Although based on stories written by George Lucas, they do not bear Star Wars in their titles, and were considered to exist in a lower level of canon than the episodic films. Following Disney's acquisition of the franchise, they were excluded from the canon. [84] [20] The Battle for Endor would be the last live-action Star Wars television project produced by Lucasfilm until 2019's The Mandalorian .
|Film||Release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Network|
|The Ewok Adventure [d]||November 25, 1984||John Korty||Bob Carrau||George Lucas||ABC|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||November 24, 1985||Jim Wheat and Ken Wheat|
In a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, the Towani family spaceship shipwrecks on the forest moon of Endor . While trying to repair their ship, the castaway family is split, when a giant creature known as the Gorax kidnaps the parents. Taking pity on the kids, a group of native Ewoks led by Wicket decides to help little Cindel Towani and her older brother Mace, rescue their parents. [81] [82] Among other stylistic choices making the film unique from the Star Wars episodes is the inclusion of a narrator. [85]
The sequel focuses on the Ewoks protecting their village from marauders led by the evil Lord Terak, who killed all the members of the Towani family except for Cindel, in search of a power battery. [81] It was followed by the TV series Ewoks (1985–1987).
In December 2020, A Droid Story , an animated adventure film for Disney+ was announced. According to the official Star Wars Twitter , the "epic journey will introduce us to a new hero guided by R2-D2 and C-3PO ." [86]
The Star Wars films are the second-highest-grossing film franchise of all time worldwide, behind the Marvel Cinematic Universe , having grossed over $10 billion at the global box office. [87] [88] [89]
Each film is linked to the "Box office" section of its article.
|Film||US release date||Box office gross||All-time ranking||Budget||Ref.|
|US and Canada||Other territories||Worldwide||US and Canada||Worldwide|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||May 25, 1977||$460,998,507||$195,751,992||$775,398,007||19||98||$11 million||[90]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||$292,753,960||$190,685,234||$538,375,067||98||182||$18 million||[91]|
|Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||$309,306,177||$122,009,457||$475,106,177||82||231||$32.5 million||[92]|
|The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||$474,544,677||$552,538,030||$1,027,082,707||18||42||$115 million||[93]|
|Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||$310,676,740||$343,103,230||$653,779,970||80||140||$115 million||[94]|
|Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||$380,270,577||$488,119,983||$868,390,560||44||78||$113 million||[95]|
|The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||$936,662,225||$1,134,647,993||$2,071,310,218||1||4||$446 million||[96]|
|The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||$620,181,382||$714,226,324||$1,334,407,706||9||12||$317 million||[97]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||$515,202,542||$561,819,830||$1,077,022,372||14||32||$416 million||[98]|
|Spin-off films|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||$35,161,554||$33,121,290||$68,282,844||2,447||2,211||$8.5 million||[99]|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||$533,539,991||$525,142,151||$1,058,682,142||12||36||$200–265 million||[100] [101]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||$213,767,512||$179,157,295||$392,924,807||189||311||$300 million||[102] [103]|
|Total||$ 5,083,065,844||$ 5,040,322,809||$ 10,340,762,577||2||2||$ 2.092 -$ 2.157 billion||[104] [87]|
Each film is linked to the "Critical response" section of its article.
|Film||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic||CinemaScore [105]|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||93% (136 reviews) [106]||90 (24 reviews) [107]||—|
|The Empire Strikes Back||94% (109 reviews) [108]||82 (25 reviews) [109]||—|
|Return of the Jedi||83% (99 reviews) [110]||58 (24 reviews) [111]||—|
|Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace||51% (235 reviews) [112]||51 (36 reviews) [113]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones||66% (253 reviews) [114]||54 (39 reviews) [115]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||79% (302 reviews) [116]||68 (40 reviews) [117]||A−|
|Star Wars: The Force Awakens||93% (448 reviews) [118]||80 (55 reviews) [119]||A|
|Star Wars: The Last Jedi||91% (485 reviews) [120]||84 (56 reviews) [121]||A|
|Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker||52% (518 reviews) [122]||53 (61 reviews) [123]||B+|
|Spin-off films|
|Star Wars: The Clone Wars||18% (171 reviews) [124]||35 (30 reviews) [125]||B−|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||84% (461 reviews) [126]||65 (51 reviews) [127]||A|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||69% (483 reviews) [128]||62 (54 reviews) [129]||A−|
|Television films|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||27% (15 reviews) [130]||—||—|
|The Ewok Adventure||21% (14 reviews) [131]||—||—|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||33% (3 reviews) [132]||—||—|
The eleven live-action films together have been nominated for 37 Academy Awards , of which they have won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards . The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi received Special Achievement Awards for their visual effects, [133] [134] and Star Wars received a Special Achievement Award for its alien, creature and robot voices. [135] [136]
|Film||Best Picture||Best Director||Best Supporting Actor||Best Original Screenplay||Best Costume Design||Best Film Editing||Best Makeup||Best Original Score||Best Production Design||Best Sound Editing||Best Sound Mixing||Best Visual Effects||Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Nominated [i]||Nominated||Won||category not yet introduced||Won||Won||Won||[135]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||ineligible||Nominated||Special Achievement||[133]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[134]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[137]|
|Attack of the Clones||[138]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||[139]|
|The Force Awakens||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[140]|
|Rogue One||[141]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||Nominated||[142]|
|Solo||Nominated||[143]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[144]|
The franchise has received a total of fifteen Grammy Award nominations, winning six. [145]
|Film||Album of the Year|| Best Pop Instrumental |
Performance
| Best Score Soundtrack |
for Visual Media
| Best Instrumental |
Composition
|Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Won||Won||Won [ii]||[146]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||Nominated [iii]||Won||Won [iv]||[146]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[146]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[146]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||Nominated [v]||[146]|
|The Force Awakens||Won||[146]|
|Solo||Nominated||[147]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||[148]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||[149]|
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry , as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [150] The Empire Strikes Back was selected in 2010, while Return of the Jedi was selected in 2021. [151] [152] [153] 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, [154] [155] but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, Star Wars had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment. [156]
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure was one of four films to be juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards . [157] The film was additionally nominated for Outstanding Children's Program but lost in this category to an episode of American Playhouse . [158]
At the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards , Ewoks: The Battle for Endor and the CBS documentary Dinosaur! were both juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects. [159] The film additionally received two nominations for Outstanding Children's Program and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Special. [160] [161]
In the 2000s Zack Snyder pitched an adult-oriented film to Lucasfilm, but conversations ceased by the time Disney acquired the company in 2012. The project was redeveloped as Rebel Moon (2023). [162]
In early 2013, Bob Iger announced the development of a spin-off film written by Simon Kinberg , [163] reported by Entertainment Weekly to focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett during the original trilogy. [164] In mid-2014, Josh Trank was officially announced as the director of an undisclosed spin-off film, [165] but had left the project a year later due to creative differences, [166] causing a teaser for the film to be scrapped from Star Wars Celebration. [167] By October 2018, the Fett film [e] was reportedly no longer in production, with the studio instead focusing on The Mandalorian , which utilizes a similar character. [169]
Rogue One and Solo actors Felicity Jones, Alden Ehrenreich and Emilia Clarke all stated that their contracts also included future installments. [170] [171] [172] Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. [173] Kennedy and Glover also said that a film focusing on Lando could happen, but was not a priority. [174] (A Lando series was later announced.) [175] Although critics noted that Solo left room open for sequels, [45] in 2022, Howard confirmed that the studio had no plans to make one. [176]
In August 2017, it was rumored that films focused on Jabba the Hutt , and Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda were being considered or were in development. [177] Stephen Daldry was reportedly in early negotiations to co-write and direct the Obi-Wan movie. [178] At D23 Expo in August 2019, a TV series about the character was announced to be produced instead, which was released in 2022. [179]
Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were to write and produce a trilogy of Star Wars films scheduled to be released in December 2022, 2024, and 2026, [180] which were first announced to be in development in February 2018. [181] The duo stepped away from the project in October 2019, citing their commitment to a Netflix deal, although Kennedy stated her openness to their returning when their schedules allow. [182] [180]
In April 2019, Kathleen Kennedy was asked by MTV News about a potential Knights of the Old Republic adaption and stated, "Yes, we are developing something to look at. Right now, I have no idea where things might fall." [183] The following month, BuzzFeed News reported that Laeta Kalogridis had been hired in the spring of 2018 to write a film based on the 2003 video game , and that she was close to completing the first script of a potential trilogy. [184]
In September 2019, Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige reportedly began developing a Star Wars film with Kennedy; [185] Michael Waldron was later announced to write the screenplay. [186] [f] In May 2022, Waldron confirmed the project was moving forward and that it would more or less stand alone, [188] however in a separate interview the same month Kennedy denied that the film was in active development. [62] By March 2023, it was reportedly confirmed to no longer be in development. [68] Contrary to earlier comments, Kennedy clarified the following month that the project was more something conflated through the media, that "nothing ever got developed. We never discussed an idea... If [Feige] did come up with something, I would be all ears. But, that's never really happened, so it's not an abandoned project. It just never really happened." [189]
J. D. Dillard and Luke Cage writer Matt Owens were reportedly involved in the early stages of developing a film in February 2020, [190] which may have taken place on the Sith planet Exegol . [191] In November 2022, Dillard announced that he was no longer involved in the project. [192]
On December 10, 2020, during Disney Investor Day, Wonder Woman (2017) director Patty Jenkins was announced as the director of a film titled Rogue Squadron , initially set to be released on December 22, 2023. [193] [c] [g] According to the official Star Wars website, the film would "introduce a new generation of starfighter pilots as they earn their wings and risk their lives in a boundary-pushing, high-speed thrill-ride, and move the saga into the future era of the galaxy." [175] According to Jenkins, the film would be an original story "with great influence from the games and the books ". [194] A script was being worked on as of December 2020, [195] at which time, Wonder Woman 3 's story was still being worked on. [196] Matthew Robinson was hired to write Rogue Squadron in May 2021; [197] [198] late the next month, Jenkins revealed that the script was almost finished. [199] On November 8, the film's production was delayed from 2022 due to Jenkins' busy schedule. [200] A month later, Jenkins had left her planned Cleopatra film as director in order to focus on Rogue Squadron and Wonder Woman 3 . [201] Disney announced in April 2022 that the film was still set to be released in December 2023. [202] Kathleen Kennedy stated in May that the film has been "pushed off to the side for the moment", with the script still being worked on and Waititi's film expected to be released first. [48] On September 15, 2022, the film was confirmed to be taken off from Disney's release schedule, [47] although in December Jenkins said she was actively working on it amid the apparent cancellation of Wonder Woman 3 . [203] By March 2023, fans reported it as no longer in development. [68] The following month, Kennedy stated the project could still happen either as a film or a television series. [204]
Documentary films about Star Wars released by Lucasfilm include:
- ^ Retitled Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure for its theatrical and later releases
- ^ Reported to have also featured the other bounty hunters from The Empire Strikes Back [168]
- ^ When asked if his film would be a "solo" outing, Feige specified that his film would neither be about nor include the character Han Solo. [187]
- ^ The film would be the first in the franchise to be directed by a woman. [193]
Citations
- ^ Leadbeater, Alex (January 24, 2017). "A Brief History of Star Wars Titles" . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on February 6, 2019.
- ^ "Star Wars: Episode IX Cast Announced" . StarWars.com . July 27, 2018. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_films | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | Here’s How to Watch the Star Wars Movies in Order (Chronologically and by Release Date) | By
Plus, see where 'The Mandalorian,' 'Rebels,' and 'The Clone Wars' fit in.
Lucasfilm has been making Star Wars movies since 1977, but when The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, it arrived sporting an “Episode V" subtitle (with the original film being redubbed Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope ). Ever since then, the film series has zipped backward and forward in time as it chronicles the history of the Skywalker family and fills in various narrative holes from a galaxy far, far away.
What this means is there are two different and distinct ways to tackle all the films: In the order they were released in theaters, or in order of chronological events. Both have their pluses and minuses but are equally legitimate ways to experience the saga as a whole.
RELATED:
Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace
Released to theaters in 1999 as the first installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy, The Phantom Menace is the earliest set film in the timeline and kicks off the story of Anakin Skywalker, a precocious child who seems preternaturally gifted in the ways of the Force, a mystical, magical power wielded by heroes and villains alike in the Star Wars universe. You’ll meet the Jedi, an order of knights who use the Force for good, and the Sith, acolytes of the dark side of the Force who are usually trying to take control of the galaxy. It takes place about 32 years before the Death Star is destroyed.
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones
In the prequel trilogy’s second film, set about 10 years after the events of The Phantom Menace , Anakin Skywalker ( Hayden Christensen ) has grown into a surly teenager and is continuing his Jedi training under Obi-Wan Kenobi (played by prequel trilogy MVP Ewan McGregor ). He also falls in love with Galactic Republic Senator Padmé Amidala ( Natalie Portman ) and starts to let his rising anger get the better of him.
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
It’s Anakin vs. Obi-Wan in the prequel finale, as Anakin falls to the dark side and eventually becomes the villainous Darth Vader. While he’s off battling his mentor, Padmé gives birth to twins, whom she names Luke and Leia. Meanwhile, the Republic is dismantled and the nefarious Empire takes its place. The film takes place about three years after the events of Attack of the Clones .
Solo: A Star Wars Story
An origin story for everybody’s favorite galactic smuggler, Han Solo, which takes place about 10 years before the events of A New Hope . Here Alden Ehrenreich plays young Solo, as he sets off to make his fortune and meets future Star Wars mainstays Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian along the way.
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story
Set immediately before the original Star Wars trilogy, Rogue One is a stand-alone film that tells the story of a group of Rebel spies who try to steal the plans for the Empire’s new secret weapon – the Death Star. Rogue One will offer up your first real glimpse of the Rebel Alliance, which has formed to fight back against the Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IV—A New Hope
Here it is, the original Star Wars film, and it features the defining versions of many of the franchise’s most popular characters, including eager farm boy Luke Skywalker ( Mark Hamill ), fearless Princess Leia Organa ( Carrie Fisher ), and cocksure smuggler Han Solo ( Harrison Ford ). Luke goes on a journey of self-discovery, and everyone joins forces in an attempt to take down the Death Star.
Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back
Largely considered the best of the Star Wars films (and for good reason), The Empire Strikes Back takes place about three years after the events of A New Hope and finds our heroes on the run from ruthless Imperial forces. A wise puppet named Yoda shows up to train Luke in the ways of the Force, and Darth Vader reveals the truth to Luke that … 40-year-old spoiler alert … he is Luke’s father! (One of the demerits of watching the films in chronological order is that this classic twist gets ruined many films in advance.)
Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi
The last installment of the original trilogy takes place about a year after the events of Empire Strikes Back and features the final confrontation between Luke, Vader, and Vader’s master – Emperor Palpatine ( Ian McDiarmid ), a Sith Lord who has been skirting around the fringes of the franchise since the beginning. Also included: A second Death Star, a bunch of ferocious (but cute) teddy-bear-like creatures called Ewoks, and a conclusion to the Skywalker saga that stood until …
Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens
32 years after the original cast wrapped up their battle against the Empire (and three years after Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his company, Lucasfilm, to Disney), Hamill, Fisher and Ford returned to the fold for director J.J. Abrams ’ continuation of the saga. The focus, however, turned to a new generation of heroes and villains, including Rey ( Daisy Ridley ), a poor junk-trader with a strong connection to the Force, and Kylo Ren ( Adam Driver ), a masked menace whose bloodline is deeply rooted in Star Wars lore. The film takes place about 30 years after the events of Return of the Jedi .
Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi
Set directly after the events of The Force Awakens , Rey continues her Jedi training under a reluctant Luke and forms an unlikely bond with a conflicted Kylo Ren, while the rest of the Resistance – a Rebel Alliance-esque offshoot commanded by Leia – fights back against the First Order, the evil regime that rose up to replace the fallen Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker
Emperor Palpatine has returned. (Seriously!) And it’s up to Rey and her sequel-trilogy friends Poe ( Oscar Isaac ) and Finn ( John Boyega ) to save the galaxy once and for all. Appearances are made by pretty much every living saga character (and even some of the dead ones), and the story wraps up the Skywalker saga in epic fashion. For now, anyway.
Watching the Star Wars films in the order of their release also has its benefits. You get some of the franchise’s strongest films right up front, and several of its big surprises are preserved for their proper reveal. The release order is:
1. Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977)
2. Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
3. Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (1983)
4. Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999)
5. Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002)
6. Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)
7. Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens (2015)
8. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016)
9. Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi (2017)
10. Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018)
11. Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019)
Some fans also suggest a third way to watch the films, sometimes called “the machete order,” which involves starting with A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , then going back to watch the prequel trilogy, before returning to the natural release order with Return of the Jedi and continuing on to The Force Awakens from there. The primary benefit to this order is it preserves the Luke/Vader surprise but still allows you to experience Anakin’s entire back-story before learning his ultimate fate.
These days, if you want to keep up with everything going on in the Star Wars universe, you can't just limit yourself to the films. Though Lucasfilm has always dabbled with TV spinoffs, the last few years have seen an explosion of Star Wars content on Disney+. Here is a complete list of shows Lucasfilm considers canon and that you would need to watch if you want to be fully caught up on the entire saga.
Star Wars: The Clone Wars
Produced (for the most part) when Lucas himself was still running the company, this animated series takes place between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith and follows Anakin and Obi-Wan on their adventures throughout the galaxy. It also introduces Ahsoka Tano, a young female Jedi-in-training and fan favorite. It begins with a feature-length movie and wraps up with a delayed seventh season that was finally released in 2020. Make sure you catch this one if you’re a big fan of the prequel trilogy.
The Bad Batch
An animated spinoff of The Clone Wars , The Bad Batch follows a group of genetically-mutated clone troopers who turn against the newly-formed Empire and become mercenaries. If you decide to binge all the animated series in chronological order, this should be the second one you watch, following The Clone Wars . (Though be aware a second season is expected to premiere sometime later this year.)
Star Wars: Rebels
Another animated series featuring a mostly brand-new group of characters who run missions for the Rebel Alliance against the Empire. Rebels follows both of the previous two animated shows, and if you're tackling all things Star Wars in chronological order, watch this one after Solo but before Rogue One .
Obi-Wan Kenobi
The most recent Star Wars release on Disney+, Obi-Wan Kenobi reunites McGregor's Jedi master and Christensen's Anakin Skywalker (who's now gone full Darth Vader) and shows what they've been up to following the events of Revenge of the Sith . Like The Bad Batch and Rebels , this live-action series is set in the time between the prequel trilogy and the original trilogy.
The Mandalorian
Disney+’s first live-action Star Wars series follows a masked bounty hunter, a member of the order of Mandalorian warriors, whose entire world is upended when he becomes the caretaker of a Force-sensitive infant who’s of the same species as Yoda. (Hence, “Baby Yoda.” Perhaps you’ve seen the memes?) The Mandalorian is set after the fall of the Empire but before the rise of the First Order, so chronologically it comes right after Return of the Jedi . Two seasons have aired, and a third is on its way.
The Book of Boba Fett
The Book of Boba Fett continues the adventures of several of the characters we first met on The Mandalorian and does a deep dive on Fett, Star Wars ' most notorious bounty hunter. The first season of this show picks up immediately after season two of The Mandalorian .
Star Wars Resistance
While the other three animated Star Wars series are all closely connected, Star Wars Resistance is largely a stand-alone affair that follows a young pilot who decides to fight back against The First Order. It takes place just prior to The Force Awakens .
So that would get you all caught up for now, but plenty more Star War s movies and shows are on the way. We mentioned that new seasons of The Bad Batch and The Mandalorian are in production. Also in the pipeline for Disney+ are Andor , a Rogue One spinoff that serves as a prequel to that film ; The Acolyte , a mysterious new series set 100 years before The Phantom Menace ; Ahsoka , a series that catches up with Ahsoka Tano ( Rosario Dawson ) following her live-action debut in The Mandalorian ; and Star Wars: Skeleton Crew , a newly announced kid-based adventure that will star Jude Law and be set after Return of the Jedi . Meanwhile, several new big-screen Star Wars adventures are currently in the works, including a space-pilot-focused Rogue Squadron movie from Patty Jenkins and a mysterious new Star Wars film being shepherded by Thor: Ragnarok director Taika Waititi . | https://collider.com/how-to-watch-star-wars-movies-in-order/ | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | List of Star Wars films | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Star Wars films|
|Directed by||George Lucas|
|Story by||George Lucas|
|Based on|| Characters created |
by George Lucas
|Produced by|| Gary Kurtz |
Rick McCallum
Kathleen Kennedy
Production
companies
|Distributed by|
Release date
|1977–present|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget|| Total (11 films): |
$1.75–$1.815 billion
|Box office|| Total (11 films): |
$10.341 billion
The Star Wars franchise involves multiple live-action and animated films. The film series started with a trilogy set in medias res that was later expanded to a trilogy of trilogies, known as the " Skywalker Saga ".
The 1977 self-titled film , later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope , was followed by the sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983), respectively subtitled onscreen as Episode V and Episode VI ; these films form the original trilogy . Sixteen years later, the prequel trilogy was released, consisting of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999), Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). After creator George Lucas sold the Star Wars franchise to Disney in 2012, a sequel trilogy consisting of Episodes VII through IX was released, consisting of Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), The Last Jedi (2017), and The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The first three spin-off films produced were the made-for-television Star Wars Holiday Special (1978), The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985). Following Disney's 2012 acquisition of the franchise, these earlier films were dropped from the official canon , but the theatrical animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and its television series continuation retain their canonical status. Two standalone films were produced and released between the sequel trilogy films: Rogue One (2016) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018), both set between the original and prequel trilogies. Untitled movies from Taika Waititi , James Mangold , Dave Filoni , and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy have been officially announced as being written, while other unspecified films are reportedly in early stages of development. [a]
The combined box office revenue of the films amounts to over ten billion dollars, and it is currently the second-highest-grossing film franchise . The major live-action releases (including all the films within the Skywalker Saga) were nominated for Academy Awards . The original film was nominated for most of the major categories, including Best Picture , Best Director , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Supporting Actor for Alec Guinness (who played Obi-Wan Kenobi ), while all theatrical live-action films have been nominated for particular categories. Several official Star Wars television series have also been released, all now on Disney+ .
The main Star Wars film series is a trilogy of trilogies; as it neared completion, Disney began to refer to it as the "Skywalker Saga". [1] [2] It was released beginning with the original trilogy (Episodes IV, V and VI , 1977–1983), followed by the prequel trilogy (Episodes I, II and III , 1999–2005) and the sequel trilogy (Episodes VII, VIII and IX , 2015–2019). [b] The first film released, Star Wars (1977), is the fourth film chronologically and was later subtitled Episode IV – A New Hope . The saga begins chronologically with Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999) and concludes with Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019).
The story follows each generation of the Force -sensitive Skywalker family and their struggle against the evil Sith Lord Darth Sidious (Palpatine) . The prequel trilogy focuses on Anakin Skywalker , his training as a Jedi , and his eventual fall to the dark side as Darth Vader due to Palpatine's machinations and his fear of losing his wife Padmé Amidala . The original trilogy follows their children, Luke and Leia , as they join the Rebel Alliance and battle Vader, Palpatine, and his Galactic Empire . The sequel trilogy features Kylo Ren (Ben Solo)—the son of Leia and Han Solo , nephew and former Jedi apprentice of Luke, and grandson of Padmé and Anakin—who fell to the dark side and seeks to rule the galaxy with Rey , the granddaughter of Palpatine and the last Jedi apprentice of Luke and Leia.
Each episodic film begins with an opening crawl , accompanied by the main Star Wars theme by John Williams , who composes the scores for each film. All nine films—most notably the original trilogy—have had retroactive changes made after their initial theatrical releases.
|Film||U.S. release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Prequel trilogy|
|Episode I – The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||George Lucas||Rick McCallum||[3]|
|Episode II – Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||George Lucas||George Lucas and Jonathan Hales||George Lucas||[4] [5]|
|Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||George Lucas||[6] [7]|
|Original trilogy|
|Episode IV – A New Hope||May 25, 1977||George Lucas||Gary Kurtz||[8] [9]|
|Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||Irvin Kershner||Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan||George Lucas||[10] [11]|
|Episode VI – Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||Richard Marquand||Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas||Howard Kazanjian||[12] [13]|
|Sequel trilogy|
|Episode VII – The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||J. J. Abrams||J. J. Abrams & Lawrence Kasdan and Michael Arndt||Kathleen Kennedy , J. J. Abrams and Bryan Burk||[12] [14]|
|Episode VIII – The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||Rian Johnson||Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman||[15] [16]|
|Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||J. J. Abrams||Chris Terrio & J. J. Abrams||Derek Connolly & Colin Trevorrow and J. J. Abrams & Chris Terrio||Kathleen Kennedy, J. J. Abrams and Michelle Rejwan||[17] [18]|
As Lucas was outlining a trilogy of trilogies, he also imagined making additional movies unrelated to the Skywalker Saga. [19] The first theatrical films set outside the main episodic series were the Ewok spin-off films Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), the first of which was screened internationally after being produced for television . [20]
After the conclusion of his then-six-episode saga in 2005, Lucas returned to spin-offs in the form of television series . An animated film, The Clone Wars (2008), was released as a pilot to a TV series of the same name . An anthology series set between the main episodes entered development in parallel to the production of the sequel trilogy, [21] described by Disney chief financial officer (CFO) Jay Rasulo as origin stories . [22] The first entry, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016), tells the story of the rebels who steal the Death Star plans directly before Episode IV . [23] [24] Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018) focuses on Han's backstory, also featuring Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian .
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||Dave Filoni||Henry Gilroy , Steven Melching, and Scott Murphy||George Lucas, Dave Filoni, and Henry Gilroy||Catherine Winder||[25]|
Preceding the airing of the animated TV series in late 2008, the theatrical feature Star Wars: The Clone Wars was compiled from episodes "almost [as] an afterthought." [26] [27] It reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ; the series explains Padawan Ahsoka Tano 's absence from the latter film. The film and series exist in the same level of canon as the episodic and anthology films. [28]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Refs|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||Gareth Edwards||Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy||John Knoll and Gary Whitta||Kathleen Kennedy, Allison Shearmur , and Simon Emanuel||[29]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||Ron Howard||Jonathan Kasdan & Lawrence Kasdan||[30]|
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, and parallel to his development of a sequel trilogy, George Lucas and original trilogy co-screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan started development on a standalone film about a young Han Solo. [21] In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger made public the development of a Kasdan film [31] and Entertainment Weekly reported that it would focus on Han Solo. [32] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories . [22] Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that there was "no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes." [33] The standalone films are subtitled "A Star Wars Story" . [23] [34]
Main article: Rogue One
Rogue One is set directly before Episode IV: A New Hope and focuses on the eponymous group of rebels who obtain the plans to the Death Star. [35] Its laser was developed by scientist Galen Erso (played by Mads Mikkelsen ) after the Empire forcibly abducted him, separating him from his daughter Jyn . Galen secretly sends a defecting Imperial pilot, Bodhi Rook , to deliver a message warning of the weapon's existence and revealing its weakness to his rebel friend Saw Gerrera . Under the false promise of her father's liberation, Jyn agrees to help Rebel Alliance intelligence officer Cassian Andor and his droid K-2SO retrieve the message from Saw, now the paranoid leader of an extremist cell of rebels.
The idea for the movie came from John Knoll , the chief creative officer of Industrial Light & Magic . [36] In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of an anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft for a release on December 16, 2016. [37] The film's title was revealed to be Rogue One , with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and Felicity Jones in the starring role. [38] Ben Mendelsohn and Diego Luna also play new characters, [39] with James Earl Jones returning to voice Darth Vader . [40] Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who don't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy." [41] The film was the first to feature characters introduced in animated Star Wars TV series, namely The Clone Wars ' Saw Gerrera, portrayed by Forest Whitaker in the film. The movie received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US$500 million worldwide within a week of its release. [42]
Solo , the second anthology film, focuses on Han Solo about 10 years before A New Hope . [35] After an escape attempt from his Imperial-occupied home planet of Corellia goes wrong, a young Han vows to return to rescue his girlfriend Qi'ra . Han "Solo" joins the Imperial Academy; however, he is expelled for his reckless behavior. Han and his newfound Wookiee friend Chewbacca resort to a criminal life, mentored by veteran smuggler Tobias Beckett . After angering gangster Dryden Vos, Han and his company's lives depend on pulling a heist for him. Without a ship to travel, they hire Lando Calrissian , the captain and owner of the Millennium Falcon .
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas had hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran Lawrence Kasdan to write a film about a young Han Solo. [21] The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi ), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra, and Woody Harrelson as Beckett. Lucasfilm originally hired Phil Lord and Christopher Miller to direct, but they were fired during principal photography , and replaced by Ron Howard . A twist ending acknowledges one of the major story arcs of The Clone Wars and Rebels animated series, while leaving the story open ended for sequels. [43]
In mid-2018, Lucasfilm confirmed that multiple anthology films were in development, [44] with their release following a hiatus after 2019's The Rise of Skywalker . [45] Two films are scheduled for December 2025 and 2027. [46] [c]
Kathleen Kennedy stated in May 2022 that "There's a couple of [filmmakers] that we've been in conversation with over quite a long period of time that I'm hoping will come in" to oversee future films in the same way that Jon Favreau and Dave Filoni have done for multiple Star Wars television series. [48] Kennedy stated that "We need to create a whole new saga" [49] and that the sequel trilogy era was likely to be expanded from. [50]
Three separate new live-action films were officially announced at April 2023's Star Wars Celebration : a film about the dawn of the Jedi (set 25,000 years before A New Hope ) by James Mangold , a Dave Filoni-helmed film concluding the story set up by The Mandalorian and its spin-offs, and a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy -helmed film set 15 years after The Rise of Skywalker , with Daisy Ridley reprising her role as Rey. [51] [52] Upcoming films were announced to include the trademark opening crawl. [52]
|Film||U.S. release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Producer(s)||Status||Ref.|
|Untitled Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy film||TBA||Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy||Steven Knight||TBA||Kathleen Kennedy||In development||[51]|
|Untitled Dave Filoni film||Dave Filoni||TBA||[51]|
|Untitled James Mangold film||James Mangold||[51]|
|Untitled Taika Waititi film||Taika Waititi||[53]|
In October 2022, The Hollywood Reporter reported that after a two-week writers' room in July (which included Patrick Somerville , Rayna McClendon, Andy Greenwald , and maybe Dave Filoni), Damon Lindelof and Justin Britt-Gibson were co-writing a Star Wars film, with Ms. Marvel director Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy attached as director. THR reported that according to its sources, "the project is intended as a stand-alone but in success could lead to more movies", taking place after the sequel trilogy and possibly featuring some of its characters. [54] [55] [56] In March 2023, it was reported that Lindelof and Britt-Gibson had left the project in mid-February and that Steven Knight was hired to replace them as screenwriter. Filming was reportedly set to begin in February 2024. [57] [58]
At April 2023's Star Wars Celebration, Kennedy officially announced a Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy-directed movie, with Daisy Ridley returning as Rey as she constructs a new Jedi Order 15 years after the events of The Rise of Skywalker . [51] She reportedly may be a supporting character in the vein of Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Luke Skywalker in the original and sequel trilogies, respectively. [59] Lucasfilm reportedly hoped to release the film on the next scheduled date planned for a Star Wars film: December 19, 2025. [60]
On May 4 , 2020, Taika Waititi (who directed the first-season finale of The Mandalorian and voiced IG-11 ) was officially announced to direct a Star Wars film from a screenplay he was co-writing with Krysty Wilson-Cairns . [61] As of May 2022, his film was expected to be released before Rogue Squadron [62] (originally scheduled for December 2023 prior to its delay), [48] [47] with Kathleen Kennedy asserting that Waititi's film may be released in late 2023. [63] In June 2022, Waititi agreed with Kennedy's view that the films should move into new territory in favor of origin stories, [64] and stated he would continue writing the project through the end of 2022 while filming other projects. [65] In early July, The Hollywood Reporter indicated that "an early 2023 start" was being considered. [66] The movie will reportedly be shot in Los Angeles. [67] By March 2023, Waititi was also likely to appear in the film. [68] By April 2023, Kennedy stated that Waititi was now writing the film alone. [69] At the beginning of May 2023, Deadline Hollywood stated that filming for his film would begin in 2024. [70]
Rian Johnson , the writer/director of The Last Jedi (2017), is confirmed to write and direct the first film of a new trilogy he was outlining as of early 2019 with Ram Bergman producing alongside Kennedy. [71] [72] [73] It was said to differ from the Skywalker-focused films in favor of focusing on new characters and possibly a different era than the main film franchise. [74] The project was considered to have been "back-burnered" by May 2022 due to Johnson's involvement with other projects, including the Knives Out franchise. [62] In October, Johnson indicated that he would make at least one more film in that series before returning to Star Wars . [75] By April 2023, Kennedy agreed with Johnson that he would return to Star Wars after at least one more Knives Out film. [76]
In November 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Shawn Levy was in talks to direct a Star Wars film, following his work on Deadpool 3 (2024) and the fifth and final season of Stranger Things . [77]
The first spin-off film (also the first sequel to be released) was a holiday TV special aired in 1978. Two live-action TV films created in the mid-1980s feature the Ewoks.
|Film||Release date||Director||Screenwriter(s)||Network|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||November 17, 1978||Steve Binder||Pat Proft , Leonard Ripps, Bruce Vilanch , Rod Warren and Mitzie Welch||CBS|
Produced for CBS in 1978, the Star Wars Holiday Special was a two-hour television special, in the format of a variety show . Stars of the original film and archive footage from the original Star Wars film appeared alongside celebrity guest stars in plot-related skits, musical numbers, and an animated segment, all loosely tied together by the premise of Chewbacca 's family waiting for his arrival for the "Life Day" celebration on his home planet, Kashyyyk . The special is notorious for its extremely negative reception and was aired only once. [78] Only the 11-minute animated sequence, which features the debut of bounty hunter Boba Fett , was positively received. [79]
The Ewoks from Return of the Jedi were featured in two spin-off television films, The Ewok Adventure and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor . Both aired on ABC on the Thanksgiving weekends of 1984 and 1985, respectively, [80] with at least the first also being given a limited international theatrical release. [20] Warwick Davis reprised his debut role as the main Ewok, Wicket , in both. [81] [82] They are set between the events of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . [83] Both films were released on VHS, LaserDisc, and on a double-feature DVD. Although based on stories written by George Lucas, they do not bear Star Wars in their titles, and were considered to exist in a lower level of canon than the episodic films. Following Disney's acquisition of the franchise, they were excluded from the canon. [84] [20] The Battle for Endor would be the last live-action Star Wars television project produced by Lucasfilm until 2019's The Mandalorian .
|Film||Release date||Director(s)||Screenwriter(s)||Story by||Network|
|The Ewok Adventure [d]||November 25, 1984||John Korty||Bob Carrau||George Lucas||ABC|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||November 24, 1985||Jim Wheat and Ken Wheat|
In a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, the Towani family spaceship shipwrecks on the forest moon of Endor . While trying to repair their ship, the castaway family is split, when a giant creature known as the Gorax kidnaps the parents. Taking pity on the kids, a group of native Ewoks led by Wicket decides to help little Cindel Towani and her older brother Mace, rescue their parents. [81] [82] Among other stylistic choices making the film unique from the Star Wars episodes is the inclusion of a narrator. [85]
The sequel focuses on the Ewoks protecting their village from marauders led by the evil Lord Terak, who killed all the members of the Towani family except for Cindel, in search of a power battery. [81] It was followed by the TV series Ewoks (1985–1987).
In December 2020, A Droid Story , an animated adventure film for Disney+ was announced. According to the official Star Wars Twitter , the "epic journey will introduce us to a new hero guided by R2-D2 and C-3PO ." [86]
The Star Wars films are the second-highest-grossing film franchise of all time worldwide, behind the Marvel Cinematic Universe , having grossed over $10 billion at the global box office. [87] [88] [89]
Each film is linked to the "Box office" section of its article.
|Film||US release date||Box office gross||All-time ranking||Budget||Ref.|
|US and Canada||Other territories||Worldwide||US and Canada||Worldwide|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||May 25, 1977||$460,998,507||$195,751,992||$775,398,007||19||98||$11 million||[90]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||May 21, 1980||$292,753,960||$190,685,234||$538,375,067||98||182||$18 million||[91]|
|Return of the Jedi||May 25, 1983||$309,306,177||$122,009,457||$475,106,177||82||231||$32.5 million||[92]|
|The Phantom Menace||May 19, 1999||$474,544,677||$552,538,030||$1,027,082,707||18||42||$115 million||[93]|
|Attack of the Clones||May 16, 2002||$310,676,740||$343,103,230||$653,779,970||80||140||$115 million||[94]|
|Revenge of the Sith||May 19, 2005||$380,270,577||$488,119,983||$868,390,560||44||78||$113 million||[95]|
|The Force Awakens||December 18, 2015||$936,662,225||$1,134,647,993||$2,071,310,218||1||4||$446 million||[96]|
|The Last Jedi||December 15, 2017||$620,181,382||$714,226,324||$1,334,407,706||9||12||$317 million||[97]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||December 20, 2019||$515,202,542||$561,819,830||$1,077,022,372||14||32||$416 million||[98]|
|Spin-off films|
|The Clone Wars||August 15, 2008||$35,161,554||$33,121,290||$68,282,844||2,447||2,211||$8.5 million||[99]|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||December 16, 2016||$533,539,991||$525,142,151||$1,058,682,142||12||36||$200–265 million||[100] [101]|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||May 25, 2018||$213,767,512||$179,157,295||$392,924,807||189||311||$300 million||[102] [103]|
|Total||$ 5,083,065,844||$ 5,040,322,809||$ 10,340,762,577||2||2||$ 2.092 -$ 2.157 billion||[104] [87]|
Each film is linked to the "Critical response" section of its article.
|Film||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic||CinemaScore [105]|
|Skywalker Saga|
|A New Hope||93% (136 reviews) [106]||90 (24 reviews) [107]||—|
|The Empire Strikes Back||94% (109 reviews) [108]||82 (25 reviews) [109]||—|
|Return of the Jedi||83% (99 reviews) [110]||58 (24 reviews) [111]||—|
|Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace||51% (235 reviews) [112]||51 (36 reviews) [113]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones||66% (253 reviews) [114]||54 (39 reviews) [115]||A−|
|Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith||79% (302 reviews) [116]||68 (40 reviews) [117]||A−|
|Star Wars: The Force Awakens||93% (448 reviews) [118]||80 (55 reviews) [119]||A|
|Star Wars: The Last Jedi||91% (485 reviews) [120]||84 (56 reviews) [121]||A|
|Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker||52% (518 reviews) [122]||53 (61 reviews) [123]||B+|
|Spin-off films|
|Star Wars: The Clone Wars||18% (171 reviews) [124]||35 (30 reviews) [125]||B−|
|Rogue One: A Star Wars Story||84% (461 reviews) [126]||65 (51 reviews) [127]||A|
|Solo: A Star Wars Story||69% (483 reviews) [128]||62 (54 reviews) [129]||A−|
|Television films|
|Star Wars Holiday Special||27% (15 reviews) [130]||—||—|
|The Ewok Adventure||21% (14 reviews) [131]||—||—|
|Ewoks: The Battle for Endor||33% (3 reviews) [132]||—||—|
The eleven live-action films together have been nominated for 37 Academy Awards , of which they have won seven. The films were also awarded a total of three Special Achievement Awards . The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi received Special Achievement Awards for their visual effects, [133] [134] and Star Wars received a Special Achievement Award for its alien, creature and robot voices. [135] [136]
|Film||Best Picture||Best Director||Best Supporting Actor||Best Original Screenplay||Best Costume Design||Best Film Editing||Best Makeup||Best Original Score||Best Production Design||Best Sound Editing||Best Sound Mixing||Best Visual Effects||Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Nominated [i]||Nominated||Won||category not yet introduced||Won||Won||Won||[135]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||ineligible||Nominated||Special Achievement||[133]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[134]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[137]|
|Attack of the Clones||[138]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||[139]|
|The Force Awakens||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[140]|
|Rogue One||[141]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||Nominated||[142]|
|Solo||Nominated||[143]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||Nominated||Nominated||[144]|
The franchise has received a total of fifteen Grammy Award nominations, winning six. [145]
|Film||Album of the Year|| Best Pop Instrumental |
Performance
| Best Score Soundtrack |
for Visual Media
| Best Instrumental |
Composition
|Ref.|
|Star Wars||Nominated||Won||Won||Won [ii]||[146]|
|The Empire Strikes Back||Nominated [iii]||Won||Won [iv]||[146]|
|Return of the Jedi||Nominated||[146]|
|The Phantom Menace||Nominated||[146]|
|Revenge of the Sith||Nominated||Nominated [v]||[146]|
|The Force Awakens||Won||[146]|
|Solo||Nominated||[147]|
|The Last Jedi||Nominated||[148]|
|The Rise of Skywalker||Nominated||[149]|
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry , as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [150] The Empire Strikes Back was selected in 2010, while Return of the Jedi was selected in 2021. [151] [152] [153] 35mm reels of the 1997 Special Editions were the versions initially presented for preservation because of the difficulty of transferring from the original prints, [154] [155] but it was later revealed that the Library possessed a copyright deposit print of the original theatrical releases. By 2015, Star Wars had been transferred to a 2K scan which can be viewed by appointment. [156]
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure was one of four films to be juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards . [157] The film was additionally nominated for Outstanding Children's Program but lost in this category to an episode of American Playhouse . [158]
At the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards , Ewoks: The Battle for Endor and the CBS documentary Dinosaur! were both juried-awarded Emmys for Outstanding Special Visual Effects. [159] The film additionally received two nominations for Outstanding Children's Program and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Special. [160] [161]
In the 2000s Zack Snyder pitched an adult-oriented film to Lucasfilm, but conversations ceased by the time Disney acquired the company in 2012. The project was redeveloped as Rebel Moon (2023). [162]
In early 2013, Bob Iger announced the development of a spin-off film written by Simon Kinberg , [163] reported by Entertainment Weekly to focus on bounty hunter Boba Fett during the original trilogy. [164] In mid-2014, Josh Trank was officially announced as the director of an undisclosed spin-off film, [165] but had left the project a year later due to creative differences, [166] causing a teaser for the film to be scrapped from Star Wars Celebration. [167] By October 2018, the Fett film [e] was reportedly no longer in production, with the studio instead focusing on The Mandalorian , which utilizes a similar character. [169]
Rogue One and Solo actors Felicity Jones, Alden Ehrenreich and Emilia Clarke all stated that their contracts also included future installments. [170] [171] [172] Solo director Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide. [173] Kennedy and Glover also said that a film focusing on Lando could happen, but was not a priority. [174] (A Lando series was later announced.) [175] Although critics noted that Solo left room open for sequels, [45] in 2022, Howard confirmed that the studio had no plans to make one. [176]
In August 2017, it was rumored that films focused on Jabba the Hutt , and Jedi Masters Obi-Wan Kenobi and Yoda were being considered or were in development. [177] Stephen Daldry was reportedly in early negotiations to co-write and direct the Obi-Wan movie. [178] At D23 Expo in August 2019, a TV series about the character was announced to be produced instead, which was released in 2022. [179]
Game of Thrones creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were to write and produce a trilogy of Star Wars films scheduled to be released in December 2022, 2024, and 2026, [180] which were first announced to be in development in February 2018. [181] The duo stepped away from the project in October 2019, citing their commitment to a Netflix deal, although Kennedy stated her openness to their returning when their schedules allow. [182] [180]
In April 2019, Kathleen Kennedy was asked by MTV News about a potential Knights of the Old Republic adaption and stated, "Yes, we are developing something to look at. Right now, I have no idea where things might fall." [183] The following month, BuzzFeed News reported that Laeta Kalogridis had been hired in the spring of 2018 to write a film based on the 2003 video game , and that she was close to completing the first script of a potential trilogy. [184]
In September 2019, Marvel Cinematic Universe producer Kevin Feige reportedly began developing a Star Wars film with Kennedy; [185] Michael Waldron was later announced to write the screenplay. [186] [f] In May 2022, Waldron confirmed the project was moving forward and that it would more or less stand alone, [188] however in a separate interview the same month Kennedy denied that the film was in active development. [62] By March 2023, it was reportedly confirmed to no longer be in development. [68] Contrary to earlier comments, Kennedy clarified the following month that the project was more something conflated through the media, that "nothing ever got developed. We never discussed an idea... If [Feige] did come up with something, I would be all ears. But, that's never really happened, so it's not an abandoned project. It just never really happened." [189]
J. D. Dillard and Luke Cage writer Matt Owens were reportedly involved in the early stages of developing a film in February 2020, [190] which may have taken place on the Sith planet Exegol . [191] In November 2022, Dillard announced that he was no longer involved in the project. [192]
On December 10, 2020, during Disney Investor Day, Wonder Woman (2017) director Patty Jenkins was announced as the director of a film titled Rogue Squadron , initially set to be released on December 22, 2023. [193] [c] [g] According to the official Star Wars website, the film would "introduce a new generation of starfighter pilots as they earn their wings and risk their lives in a boundary-pushing, high-speed thrill-ride, and move the saga into the future era of the galaxy." [175] According to Jenkins, the film would be an original story "with great influence from the games and the books ". [194] A script was being worked on as of December 2020, [195] at which time, Wonder Woman 3 's story was still being worked on. [196] Matthew Robinson was hired to write Rogue Squadron in May 2021; [197] [198] late the next month, Jenkins revealed that the script was almost finished. [199] On November 8, the film's production was delayed from 2022 due to Jenkins' busy schedule. [200] A month later, Jenkins had left her planned Cleopatra film as director in order to focus on Rogue Squadron and Wonder Woman 3 . [201] Disney announced in April 2022 that the film was still set to be released in December 2023. [202] Kathleen Kennedy stated in May that the film has been "pushed off to the side for the moment", with the script still being worked on and Waititi's film expected to be released first. [48] On September 15, 2022, the film was confirmed to be taken off from Disney's release schedule, [47] although in December Jenkins said she was actively working on it amid the apparent cancellation of Wonder Woman 3 . [203] By March 2023, fans reported it as no longer in development. [68] The following month, Kennedy stated the project could still happen either as a film or a television series. [204]
Documentary films about Star Wars released by Lucasfilm include:
- ^ Retitled Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure for its theatrical and later releases
- ^ Reported to have also featured the other bounty hunters from The Empire Strikes Back [168]
- ^ When asked if his film would be a "solo" outing, Feige specified that his film would neither be about nor include the character Han Solo. [187]
- ^ The film would be the first in the franchise to be directed by a woman. [193]
Citations
- ^ Leadbeater, Alex (January 24, 2017). "A Brief History of Star Wars Titles" . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on February 6, 2019.
- ^ "Star Wars: Episode IX Cast Announced" . StarWars.com . July 27, 2018. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019 . Retrieved August 15, 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_films | 105 |
what is the first star wars movie in the series | Here’s How to Watch the Star Wars Movies in Order (Chronologically and by Release Date) | By
Plus, see where 'The Mandalorian,' 'Rebels,' and 'The Clone Wars' fit in.
Lucasfilm has been making Star Wars movies since 1977, but when The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, it arrived sporting an “Episode V" subtitle (with the original film being redubbed Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope ). Ever since then, the film series has zipped backward and forward in time as it chronicles the history of the Skywalker family and fills in various narrative holes from a galaxy far, far away.
What this means is there are two different and distinct ways to tackle all the films: In the order they were released in theaters, or in order of chronological events. Both have their pluses and minuses but are equally legitimate ways to experience the saga as a whole.
RELATED:
Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace
Released to theaters in 1999 as the first installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy, The Phantom Menace is the earliest set film in the timeline and kicks off the story of Anakin Skywalker, a precocious child who seems preternaturally gifted in the ways of the Force, a mystical, magical power wielded by heroes and villains alike in the Star Wars universe. You’ll meet the Jedi, an order of knights who use the Force for good, and the Sith, acolytes of the dark side of the Force who are usually trying to take control of the galaxy. It takes place about 32 years before the Death Star is destroyed.
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones
In the prequel trilogy’s second film, set about 10 years after the events of The Phantom Menace , Anakin Skywalker ( Hayden Christensen ) has grown into a surly teenager and is continuing his Jedi training under Obi-Wan Kenobi (played by prequel trilogy MVP Ewan McGregor ). He also falls in love with Galactic Republic Senator Padmé Amidala ( Natalie Portman ) and starts to let his rising anger get the better of him.
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
It’s Anakin vs. Obi-Wan in the prequel finale, as Anakin falls to the dark side and eventually becomes the villainous Darth Vader. While he’s off battling his mentor, Padmé gives birth to twins, whom she names Luke and Leia. Meanwhile, the Republic is dismantled and the nefarious Empire takes its place. The film takes place about three years after the events of Attack of the Clones .
Solo: A Star Wars Story
An origin story for everybody’s favorite galactic smuggler, Han Solo, which takes place about 10 years before the events of A New Hope . Here Alden Ehrenreich plays young Solo, as he sets off to make his fortune and meets future Star Wars mainstays Chewbacca and Lando Calrissian along the way.
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story
Set immediately before the original Star Wars trilogy, Rogue One is a stand-alone film that tells the story of a group of Rebel spies who try to steal the plans for the Empire’s new secret weapon – the Death Star. Rogue One will offer up your first real glimpse of the Rebel Alliance, which has formed to fight back against the Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IV—A New Hope
Here it is, the original Star Wars film, and it features the defining versions of many of the franchise’s most popular characters, including eager farm boy Luke Skywalker ( Mark Hamill ), fearless Princess Leia Organa ( Carrie Fisher ), and cocksure smuggler Han Solo ( Harrison Ford ). Luke goes on a journey of self-discovery, and everyone joins forces in an attempt to take down the Death Star.
Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back
Largely considered the best of the Star Wars films (and for good reason), The Empire Strikes Back takes place about three years after the events of A New Hope and finds our heroes on the run from ruthless Imperial forces. A wise puppet named Yoda shows up to train Luke in the ways of the Force, and Darth Vader reveals the truth to Luke that … 40-year-old spoiler alert … he is Luke’s father! (One of the demerits of watching the films in chronological order is that this classic twist gets ruined many films in advance.)
Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi
The last installment of the original trilogy takes place about a year after the events of Empire Strikes Back and features the final confrontation between Luke, Vader, and Vader’s master – Emperor Palpatine ( Ian McDiarmid ), a Sith Lord who has been skirting around the fringes of the franchise since the beginning. Also included: A second Death Star, a bunch of ferocious (but cute) teddy-bear-like creatures called Ewoks, and a conclusion to the Skywalker saga that stood until …
Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens
32 years after the original cast wrapped up their battle against the Empire (and three years after Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his company, Lucasfilm, to Disney), Hamill, Fisher and Ford returned to the fold for director J.J. Abrams ’ continuation of the saga. The focus, however, turned to a new generation of heroes and villains, including Rey ( Daisy Ridley ), a poor junk-trader with a strong connection to the Force, and Kylo Ren ( Adam Driver ), a masked menace whose bloodline is deeply rooted in Star Wars lore. The film takes place about 30 years after the events of Return of the Jedi .
Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi
Set directly after the events of The Force Awakens , Rey continues her Jedi training under a reluctant Luke and forms an unlikely bond with a conflicted Kylo Ren, while the rest of the Resistance – a Rebel Alliance-esque offshoot commanded by Leia – fights back against the First Order, the evil regime that rose up to replace the fallen Empire.
Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker
Emperor Palpatine has returned. (Seriously!) And it’s up to Rey and her sequel-trilogy friends Poe ( Oscar Isaac ) and Finn ( John Boyega ) to save the galaxy once and for all. Appearances are made by pretty much every living saga character (and even some of the dead ones), and the story wraps up the Skywalker saga in epic fashion. For now, anyway.
Watching the Star Wars films in the order of their release also has its benefits. You get some of the franchise’s strongest films right up front, and several of its big surprises are preserved for their proper reveal. The release order is:
1. Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977)
2. Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
3. Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi (1983)
4. Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999)
5. Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002)
6. Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)
7. Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens (2015)
8. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story (2016)
9. Star Wars: Episode VIII – The Last Jedi (2017)
10. Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018)
11. Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker (2019)
Some fans also suggest a third way to watch the films, sometimes called “the machete order,” which involves starting with A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , then going back to watch the prequel trilogy, before returning to the natural release order with Return of the Jedi and continuing on to The Force Awakens from there. The primary benefit to this order is it preserves the Luke/Vader surprise but still allows you to experience Anakin’s entire back-story before learning his ultimate fate.
These days, if you want to keep up with everything going on in the Star Wars universe, you can't just limit yourself to the films. Though Lucasfilm has always dabbled with TV spinoffs, the last few years have seen an explosion of Star Wars content on Disney+. Here is a complete list of shows Lucasfilm considers canon and that you would need to watch if you want to be fully caught up on the entire saga.
Star Wars: The Clone Wars
Produced (for the most part) when Lucas himself was still running the company, this animated series takes place between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith and follows Anakin and Obi-Wan on their adventures throughout the galaxy. It also introduces Ahsoka Tano, a young female Jedi-in-training and fan favorite. It begins with a feature-length movie and wraps up with a delayed seventh season that was finally released in 2020. Make sure you catch this one if you’re a big fan of the prequel trilogy.
The Bad Batch
An animated spinoff of The Clone Wars , The Bad Batch follows a group of genetically-mutated clone troopers who turn against the newly-formed Empire and become mercenaries. If you decide to binge all the animated series in chronological order, this should be the second one you watch, following The Clone Wars . (Though be aware a second season is expected to premiere sometime later this year.)
Star Wars: Rebels
Another animated series featuring a mostly brand-new group of characters who run missions for the Rebel Alliance against the Empire. Rebels follows both of the previous two animated shows, and if you're tackling all things Star Wars in chronological order, watch this one after Solo but before Rogue One .
Obi-Wan Kenobi
The most recent Star Wars release on Disney+, Obi-Wan Kenobi reunites McGregor's Jedi master and Christensen's Anakin Skywalker (who's now gone full Darth Vader) and shows what they've been up to following the events of Revenge of the Sith . Like The Bad Batch and Rebels , this live-action series is set in the time between the prequel trilogy and the original trilogy.
The Mandalorian
Disney+’s first live-action Star Wars series follows a masked bounty hunter, a member of the order of Mandalorian warriors, whose entire world is upended when he becomes the caretaker of a Force-sensitive infant who’s of the same species as Yoda. (Hence, “Baby Yoda.” Perhaps you’ve seen the memes?) The Mandalorian is set after the fall of the Empire but before the rise of the First Order, so chronologically it comes right after Return of the Jedi . Two seasons have aired, and a third is on its way.
The Book of Boba Fett
The Book of Boba Fett continues the adventures of several of the characters we first met on The Mandalorian and does a deep dive on Fett, Star Wars ' most notorious bounty hunter. The first season of this show picks up immediately after season two of The Mandalorian .
Star Wars Resistance
While the other three animated Star Wars series are all closely connected, Star Wars Resistance is largely a stand-alone affair that follows a young pilot who decides to fight back against The First Order. It takes place just prior to The Force Awakens .
So that would get you all caught up for now, but plenty more Star War s movies and shows are on the way. We mentioned that new seasons of The Bad Batch and The Mandalorian are in production. Also in the pipeline for Disney+ are Andor , a Rogue One spinoff that serves as a prequel to that film ; The Acolyte , a mysterious new series set 100 years before The Phantom Menace ; Ahsoka , a series that catches up with Ahsoka Tano ( Rosario Dawson ) following her live-action debut in The Mandalorian ; and Star Wars: Skeleton Crew , a newly announced kid-based adventure that will star Jude Law and be set after Return of the Jedi . Meanwhile, several new big-screen Star Wars adventures are currently in the works, including a space-pilot-focused Rogue Squadron movie from Patty Jenkins and a mysterious new Star Wars film being shepherded by Thor: Ragnarok director Taika Waititi . | https://collider.com/how-to-watch-star-wars-movies-in-order/ | 105 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | Grey's Anatomy (season 14) - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Grey's Anatomy|
|Season 14|
|Starring|
|Country of origin||United States|
|No. of episodes||24|
|Release|
|Original network||ABC|
|Original release|| September 28, 2017 – |
May 17, 2018
|Season chronology|
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special 2-hour premiere. [1] The season consists of 24 episodes, [2] [3] with the season's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios , in association with Shondaland Production Company and Entertainment One Television.
Krista Vernoff who helped co-lead the show with Shonda Rhimes in its early years, marked her return as co-showrunner this season with William Harper, having previously left at the end of the seventh season . Rhimes left ABC to produce television for Netflix , and now has a hands-off approach to the show. Despite not being showrunner since its eighth season to run Scandal , Rhimes still signed off each episode's storyline, but this season marked a departure from this. Rhimes explained she only trusted Vernoff to pursue uncharted territory without her. [4] As such, drastic creative changes occurred in the season, with Vernoff retiring Martin Henderson , Jessica Capshaw , and Sarah Drew 's characters. [5] [6] Jason George also departs as Ben Warren to appear in the second spin-off, Station 19 .
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record-tying fifteenth season. [7]
The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. Each episode of this season, with the exception of episode nine, is named after a song. [8]
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
season
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| U.S. viewers |
(millions)
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||September 28, 2017||8.07 [9]|
|In a whirlwind of reunions and a Grey Sloan "major uplift", Meredith finds herself in a complicated love triangle between Nathan and Megan, Owen's sister who was recently revealed to still be alive after a ten year absence in a hostage camp overseas. With Megan's reappearance, Teddy Altman comes back to Seattle to support Owen and his mom, which leads to awkward interactions with Amelia. With Stephanie now in Texas at a burn unit, Jo eagerly tries to make Ben her new person. After being "ghosted" by Eliza, Arizona hits it off with an Italian girl in a bar whom she takes home with her. When Andrew comes home, he finds his sister half-naked on his couch with Arizona.|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"||Kevin McKidd||Krista Vernoff||September 28, 2017||8.07 [9]|
|Carina, Andrew's sister, asks to be introduced to Bailey in order to get approval to study the controversial topic of female masturbation and orgasms at her hospital; Bailey obliges due to society's double standard. Meredith works to get everyone to agree that an abdominal wall transplant is the best tactic to treat Megan's wounds; she even gets Teddy to scrub in to erase any doubts of Meredith's intentions of being Megan's surgeon. Jo tries to mend her relationship with Alex. Later, it is revealed that Jo slept with one of the new sub-interns. Owen gets called out on his marital status with Amelia, who seems to be avoiding him and his family. Even without the support of Jackson, Amelia fights to remove a patient's mastoid tumor. She later takes part in Carina's study which leads to her finding a huge tumor in her own brain.|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||Chandra Wilson||Meg Marinis||October 5, 2017||8.06 [10]|
|Amelia brings in one of her former professors and current head of Neurology at Johns Hopkins , Dr. Tom Koracick to help her come up with a treatment plan for her tumor. Much to her chagrin, Dr Koracick brings to light how impaired her judgment has been over the last ten years; Richard makes sure to let Amelia know that her judgment has not been all that bad and encourages her to come clean to those with whom she is closest. Bailey is confronted by Dr. Harper from the Harper Avery Foundation about all the changes that have been made to the hospital and Harper threatens to withdraw all funding from the foundation; when Bailey stands up to him, Harper fires her. In the end of the episode Harper passes away with a sudden cardiac arrest and then Jackson and Catherine Avery reinstate Bailey back as the chief. Ben and Arizona resort to advice delivered by Carina when one of their patients gets stuck in labor. Meredith turns to her former psychiatrist, who winds up as a patient, to sort out her mood towards everyone instigated by the love triangle involving Nathan and Megan. Jo asks Alex to move back home.|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||Geary McLeod||Marlana Hope||October 12, 2017||8.08 [11]|
|Amelia has her brain tumor removed, but in the days following, she experiences some complications, such as speaking only French, and memory loss. Richard unexpectedly brings Maggie to attend a family dinner hosted by Catherine, which turns awkward when Catherine discloses to Jackson his inheritance from Harper's passing, a quarter billion dollars. Bailey and Richard host interviews with prospective new interns but fail to find a decent candidate. Using her research to justify his entry into the country, Meredith and Nathan team up to bring Megan's adopted son to America. Amelia and Owen face their fear that their marriage is based on a version of Amelia created by her tumor. Arizona learns that Sofia wants to move home. Jo confesses that she hates how much control her ex-husband has over her.|
|298||5||" Danger Zone "||Cecilie Mosli||Jalysa Conway||October 26, 2017||7.67 [12]|
|As Owen helps Megan make the trip to California where she will start her new life with Nathan and her son, Farouk, they reminisce on their time spent in Fallujah, Iraq . During their time overseas, Nathan proposed to Megan by recycling a necklace that was not initially intended for her. Teddy quickly recognized the necklace and the fact that Nathan cheated and pushed him to come clean. Despite the good news of the engagement, Megan dealt with heartbreak of not making strat, which is later revealed to her as Owen's own doing. Distraught over her brother's betrayal, she gets on a helicopter with one of the shooters who attacked their troops, leading to her disappearance. While Nathan awaits the arrival of Megan and Owen, he bonds with Farouk, who is having trouble acclimating to the free world. He also officially ends his relationship with Meredith, as does Owen with Amelia when he comes to terms with the notion that neither of them are truly happy.|
|299||6||"Come on Down to My Boat, Baby"||Lisa Leone||Kiley Donovan||November 2, 2017||7.38 [13]|
|As the new surgeon on the cover page of the medical journal, JSA, Meredith performs a rare surgical procedure to try and save a judge from his progressive cancer diagnosis. The men of Grey Sloan take a "sick day" and hang out on a Jackson's newly purchased boat, whereas the women swipe for dates on Tinder . Arizona has broken up with Carina in preparation of Sofia moving back home. Amelia heads back to surgery but struggles with her confidence, recruiting the help of Dr. Koracick and seeking the encouragement of Richard. While Arizona and April repair a woman's injuries caused by an accidental firing of a gun that was hidden inside her vagina, Bailey and Maggie take care of a hypochondriac who was a victim of the accidental shooting. At the surgeon-intern mixer, Meredith learns that she has been nominated for the annual Harper Avery award; however, the news is overshadowed by the loss of her patient. Jackson gives half of his inheritance to Bailey to fund a research competition. Jo learns she is in the running for chief resident and decides to file for divorce from Paul after confiding her situation to the judge. Andrew recognizes one of the new interns from his past, while Owen and Carina are caught kissing.|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||November 9, 2017||8.13 [14]|
|When a roller coaster car derails off its tracks, Meredith's plans to attend the Harper Avery award ceremony are put on hold. Three patients visiting the ER look like former doctors of the hospital: Drs. Cristina Yang, George O'Malley, and Izzie Stevens. Amelia and Owen learn to co-exist in the OR, after Amelia orders a surprise CT which shows a large hematoma that she is able to repair. As Arizona performs surgery on Liza, Izzie's look-a-like, she reflects on her relationship with Callie and Mark in preparation for Sofia's return to Seattle. Jo probes Alex to call Izzie and see how she is, to which Alex says he knows how she is: a happily married surgeon with three children. Though Jo quickly infers this is how Alex imagines her to be, and wants it to stay that way, rather than wonder how she really is. As they wait on Meredith to leave for Boston, Maggie bonds with Zola as they rehearse medical knowledge and talk about Derek. Bailey and Ben fight over his announcement to join the fire department, due to Bailey's fear that he has commitment issues. Unable to fly out to Boston, in an OR—in front of her friends and colleagues—Meredith is announced the winner of the 2017 Harper Avery award.|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||Kevin McKidd||William Harper||November 16, 2017||7.52 [15]|
|As the interns struggle to find their stride as surgeons, Jo begins her reign as chief resident. Things take a turn for the worse when the computer system gets hacked at Grey Sloan Memorial, as all of the patients' records get held hostage for $20 million. Unable to understand why the ransom is so large and unprecedented, Bailey realizes it is due to the recently announced competition funded by Jackson's inheritance. Without the use of the technological advancements to which the doctors have become accustomed, they must rely on their instincts to treat their patients; Richard teaches his younger colleagues about how they worked in the "Stone Age". One patient is transported to another hospital by a helicopter which encounters bad turbulence, causing a line to loosen and squirt blood everywhere. Jo gets the scariest surprise of her life when she runs into her abusive husband, Paul, on her way to stop Alex from inadvertently killing their patient.|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||Bill D'Elia||Andy Reaser||January 18, 2018||8.27 [16]|
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer-savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man". After Paul's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit-and-run.
This episode was followed by a PSA of Camilla Luddington reminding viewers that psychological abuse is a form of domestic violence and providing the number of the National Domestic Violence Hotline : 1-800-799-7233, the episode's title.
|303||10||" Personal Jesus "||Kevin Sullivan||Zoanne Clack||January 25, 2018||8.62 [17]|
|With Paul recovering from surgery, Meredith questions Alex and Jo's alibi. Believing that it is his fiancée, Jenny, who ran him over, Jo feels the need to consult her. April's patient turns out to be the pregnant wife of her ex-fiancé, Matthew, proving to be more than an awkward situation, as she helps deliver their baby, and then watches him deal with his wife's unexpected death. Jackson, Bailey, and April are confronted with racial profiling when police show up with a handcuffed 12-year-old boy whom they shot when he was seen trying to enter his own home through a window. Police officers continue to treat him like a criminal in the ER, prompting Bailey and Ben to give Tucker "the talk". When Jo and Jenny go to Paul's room to announce they are taking him to court, he gets in a bout of rage, falls out of his bed, and knocks himself out becoming brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to take him off life support and have his organs donated. April ends up in the shower with Vikram, an intern, after she finds herself questioning her faith.|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) the Reaper"||Nicole Rubio||Elisabeth R. Finch||February 1, 2018||8.93 [18]|
|With her intuition and the more subtle signs of a heart attack, Bailey winds up in the ER at Seattle Presbyterian; however, after her doctors treat her condescendingly, assuming she is imagining the heart attack and really just suffering from her OCD, she calls on Maggie to come save her. When Maggie arrives, she runs into Richard who found his way there based on Bailey's record of attendance. With her life flashing before her eyes, Bailey reflects on her upbringing and her past as a surgeon with all the stressful fights and struggles she has gone through to get to this point in her life. Right before she goes under for emergency surgery to save her life, Bailey asks Maggie to call Ben who is able to get there before she wakes up. Ben announces that he has quit being a firefighter, but Bailey demands that he go back and never do anything other than what he truly loves.|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||Jeannot Szwarc||Kiley Donovan||February 8, 2018||7.32 [19]|
|As the contest draws near, a competitive edge and tension arise between the doctors and their selected interns vying for millions of dollars. In preparation to surprise Catherine on her birthday, Richard takes salsa dancing lessons with Maggie, who is struggling with the one year anniversary of her mother's death. Amelia and Alex tag team a pediatric case, in order to save their patient's ability to sing, as well as retain all mental capabilities. Meredith gets a visit from an old splenectomy patient, who is back with multiple miniature spleens, which guides Meredith to her idea for the competition, and Jackson gets pulled into his mother's gender confirmation proposal, despite his wishes.|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||Nzingha Stewart||Stacy McKee||March 1, 2018||7.52 [20]|
|A house fire brings two young boys, who were rescued by the Seattle Grace fire department—Station 19, to the ER. Meredith meets Andy Herrera, a firefighter, who has her hand inside the patient, clamping his abdominal aorta. While Andy gets a front row seat to view the action inside the OR, Ben struggles with the idea of not being a surgeon anymore. Dr. Tom Koracick, Amelia's former professor, shows up to help her with her research project, but quickly shoots down her ideas. However, when they confront each other about their difference in opinion, they come up with an idea to save her patient. Richard watches Bailey very closely, as it is her first day back after recovering from her heart attack. Jackson begins to worry about April and the fact that the interns have nicknamed her "the Party".|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||Chandra Wilson||Jason Ganzel & Julie Wong||March 8, 2018||7.07 [21]|
|As Maggie's budding romance with Clive gets more serious, Amelia suggests hosting a game night so they can secretly judge him. Meredith prepares to meet the owner of the patent she is pursuing; however, she is surprised to find out that it is an old "friend" of Ellis'. When Marie turns down the opportunity to hand over the patent, Meredith resorts to showing her the device has already been implemented and works. The legal team is brought in after April forgets to file a report when she accidentally severs a patient's ear, which falls to the floor and causes DeLuca to slip and fall, resulting in a concussion. Alex requests permission to use medicinal marijuana on his underage patient, but when her grandma learns of his treatment plan, she temporarily fires him. The game night takes a turn when April has an inebriated breakdown and an unexpected guest shows up—Clive's wife. Calling off the relationship, Jackson sees his opportunity and makes his move on Maggie. Richard reveals to Meredith that Marie and Ellis had a falling out, which leads Meredith to the conclusion that she has been played.|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||Ellen Pompeo||Tameson Duffy||March 15, 2018||7.18 [22]|
|Alex, Jo, and Maggie reflect on their first loves as they prepare their teenage patient for heart surgery; however, when a heart transplant becomes available, he denies it until his boyfriend breaks up with him. Marie tells Meredith that her friendship with Ellis ended when Ellis left her name off her Harper Avery award winning research. Marie gives Meredith the ultimatum that for her to get the patent, she must make a statement that the Grey Method is now the Grey-Cerone Method. After a night spent together, April confesses to Tom that her deviant behavior is a result of her failing faith and hatred of God. Maggie and Jackson learn to move past their quirks and baggage. Alex fears that Jo's fellowship applications indicate that she is willing to leave him behind in Seattle; however, in a twist of events, Jo asks Alex to marry her and he quickly accepts.|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||Nicole Rubio||Jalysa Conway||March 22, 2018||7.61 [23]|
|Bailey's patient turns out to be one of her childhood heroes, a female astronaut who is in the process of building a time machine. Meredith throws in the towel on her research, since she is no longer receiving the patent. Richard and Catherine learn of Jackson and Maggie's relationship, which causes some awkward tension as Jackson, Catherine, and Richard work together on the vaginoplasty case. April hijacks the trauma certification drill, and leaves the interns in tears and doubt. After Bailey loses her patient, she finds the inspiration needed to name her research project "The Trailblazer", and Jo reignites Meredith’s will to continue on with her project. Amelia and Owen continue to pursue their "friends with benefits" relationship until she finds out how close Owen and Teddy are, and Arizona helps Sofia get accustomed to her new life away from New York.|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||Kevin McKidd||Elisabeth R. Finch||March 29, 2018||7.15 [24]|
|April crosses Bailey when she disagrees on Bailey's treatment plan for a rabbi who came in three times for diverticulitis and only gave him antibiotics, and who is now suffering from toxic epidermal necrolysis as a side effect. As April treats the rabbi, he gives her a lesson on faith which allows her to reflect on her recent struggles. Meredith buddies up with a new transplant surgeon from the Mayo Clinic, Dr Nick Marsh, who is recovering from a recent kidney transplant of his own. After his lab results come back, Meredith rushes him to surgery to remove a blood clot and successfully saves his kidney. After calling it quits with Amelia, Owen reconnects with Teddy, who now lives in Germany. However, after the short, happy reunion, Teddy learns that just a short while ago he was still sleeping with Amelia and refuses to be his second choice.|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||Geary McLeod||Alex Manugian||April 5, 2018||6.84 [25]|
|Richard is surprised to see his AA sponsor, Ollie, arrive at Grey Sloan in an ambulance. After she denies him the ability to save her life once more, he enlists the help of Maggie and Meredith. Now that Owen is back in the States, he has to face the disdain of Arizona and Amelia's failure to fix things with Teddy. In between the personal conversations, Arizona and Owen look further into a fraudulent oncologist. In their pursuit, they coincidentally learn that Arizona has breast cancer—at least until it was proven that the image produced was a fake. Alex, Amelia, and Tom resect Noah’s brain tumor, despite never performing the procedure before. Though successful, Amelia and Tom decide that it is too risky to do the same for Kimmy, which infuriates Alex. April strives to make amends with her colleagues, and Jackson, claiming that she has found Jesus again. Meredith and Jo learn that their research can be successful without the polymer, and that they can help patients grow livers and save lives.|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||Jeannot Szwarc||Meg Marinis||April 12, 2018||6.97 [26]|
|Bailey gets caught off guard when an agent from ICE ( Immigration and Customs Enforcement ) shows up looking for one of her surgical interns, Sam Bello. Unaware of the situation, Sam explains that she is a "dreamer" protected by DACA . While Meredith and Andrew scheme up ideas to keep Sam from being deported back to El Salvador, Bailey distracts Agent Fields with concerns about his own health. As Arizona and Carina move forward in their research by learning from their previous patient's death, April is surprised to see Matthew back at Grey Sloan with his baby who is failing to thrive. When Alex refuses to give up on Kimmy, Jo realizes Kimmy's dream and signs off on discharge papers. Catherine comes back to support Richard who has stayed with Ollie right through her final breath. Meredith sends Sam to Zurich to study under Cristina; Owen signs up to become a foster parent, and Jackson confronts Maggie about her tendency to resist their relationship. Jackson directs the Harper Avery Foundation to release a researcher from an agreement so she can collaborate with Amelia; Catherine tells Richard that the hospital is now doomed.|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||Sydney Freeland||Julie Wong||April 19, 2018||6.93 [27]|
|As the next stage of the research contest begins, the Top 25 proposals are presented by their respective owners who have gathered to present in front of a panel and audience. Arizona shares cookies, provided by a grateful patient, with her colleagues. However, she later learns they were laced with cannabis . Due to the mishap, the presentations are postponed, and the interns are summoned to replace the stoned attendings. Meredith walks Jo through surgery after Bailey is forced to scrub out and accidentally injures Meredith's hand. Jo makes effective use of Richard's project. Catherine tells Jackson of the 13 sexual harassment cases filed against his grandfather and the major settlements used to cover them up. April overhears and then shares the secret with Bailey, who has a secret of her own—she is partnering with a sex toy company to make her "Trailblazer" device. Owen gets a call about his first foster child, which makes him nervous until Amelia saves him. Meredith learns about the dark past of Harper Avery and, in addition, Marie Cerone was one of the 13 women. Richard fires intern, Dr Vikram Roy, who was found practicing under the influence.|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||Kevin McKidd||Mark Driscoll||April 26, 2018||6.54 [28]|
|With word spreading about Harper Avery, Meredith decides to return her and Ellis' awards to the foundation. Catherine hires a crisis management specialist, who brings in a patient for Jackson and Meredith to heal as PR stunt. Bailey shuts down the innovation contest for fear of word getting out that an Avery funded it, so April volunteers her time to plan Alex and Jo’s wedding. Alex and Jo get awkward when, Olivia, the former “Syph nurse,” returns to the hospital with her son—who swallowed a whistle—and begins planting seeds of doubt. Owen takes Leo in for his check up with his birth mom in tow, who ends up talking to Amelia. Thinking she can sponsor her with her drug addiction, Amelia takes her in as a foster child of her own. Meredith and Jackson think up a way to save the foundation by changing its name to the Catherine Fox Foundation dedicated to all the women victimized by the previous regime. Alex learns that his bank account balance is awfully high due to his mom not cashing the checks he has been sending her, and Vikram plans to sue the hospital for wrongful termination.|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||Jesse Williams||Andy Reaser||May 3, 2018||6.66 [29]|
|Alex and Jo drive to Iowa to locate his mom, only to find that she no longer exhibits schizophrenic behavior and she has even returned to her old job. Richard and Bailey battle to keep the hospital from being sued by Vikram. Although Bailey stands by the initial firing, Richard empathizes as he reflects on the times he operated while inebriated. As Amelia helps Betty detox, Arizona struggles to accept that Sofia stole money. Meredith kills time before her presentation throwing darts with a guy she eventually learns is a surgeon who is there to see her. Their conversation leads Meredith to decide that the “Grey Method” should be renamed the “Grey-Cerone Method.” After Alex works things out with his mom, Jo extends a declined invitation to their wedding. Bailey allows Vikram to return under strict probationary rules. Amelia visits an AA group after Betty makes an escape, and Arizona calls Callie to say that she thinks it is time for her and Sofia to move to New York.|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||Bill D'Elia||William Harper||May 10, 2018||7.35 [30]|
|After Arizona tells Bailey of her upcoming departure, she and Amelia consult with a familiar patient, Dr Nicole Herman. Her arrival presents an opportunity that changes Arizona’s future plans-the chance to partner with her and create the Robbins-Herman Center for Women’s Health. When Matthew winds up in the ER after rolling his car and mentions being with April, the doctors fear the worst. Frantically trying to locate April, Owen finds her unconscious in a nearby ravine. Unknowing of the latest events, Alex and Jo work to finalize the details of their impending wedding. Maggie thinks she detects a subtle rhythm on April’s monitor, but she has to repeatedly shock her to strengthen it. While waiting for her to wake up, Arizona breaks the news that Matthew and April have been seeing each other for months and that they were in love. Thinking that the end has come, Jackson finally prays to God and begs Him to save her in exchange for his belief. However, April awakens fully functional despite the disbelief of all her coworkers.|
|317||24||" All of Me "||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||May 17, 2018||7.60 [31]|
|Alex and Jo’s wedding day has arrived. Though most details have come together, April (who quit the hospital and is now doing medical work with the homeless) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she has been accepted into Mass Gen ’s fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex. Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. As guests arrive, Alex and Jo accidentally lock themselves in a shed after engaging in one last fling before tying the knot. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there will be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride’s mother, Teddy reveals she is pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.|
- Greg Germann as Dr. Tom Koracick
- Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery / Catherine Fox
- Abigail Spencer as Dr. Megan Hunt
- Matthew Morrison as Dr. Paul Stadler
- Stefania Spampinato as Dr. Carina DeLuca
- Jeanine Mason as Dr. Sam Bello
- Alex Blue Davis as Dr. Casey Parker
- Rushi Kota as Dr. Vikram Roy
- Jaicy Elliot as Dr. Taryn Helm
- Sophia Ali as Dr. Dahlia Qadri
- Lesley Boone as Judy Kemp
- Blake Hood as Clive Johnson
- Justin Bruening as Matthew Taylor
- Nayah Damasen as Kimmie Park
- Peyton Kennedy as Betty Nelson
- Candis Cayne as Dr. Michelle Velez
- Rachel Ticotin as Dr. Marie Cerone
- Scott Speedman as Dr. Nick Marsh [32]
- Debra Mooney as Evelyn Hunt
- Bill Smitrovich as Dr. Walter Carr
- Chelcie Ross as Dr. Harper Avery
- Kate Burton as Dr. Ellis Grey
- Mark Moses as Dr. Larry Maxwell
- Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andrea 'Andy' Herrera
- Mary Kay Place as Olive Warner
- Josh Plasse as Chris Cleaver
- Frankie Faison as William Bailey
- Bianca Taylor as Elena Bailey
- Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole
- Julie Gonzalo as Theresa
- Sarah Utterback as Nurse Olivia Harper
- Lindsay Wagner as Helen Karev
- Geena Davis as Dr. Nicole Herman
- Caleb Pierce as Charlie Peterson
- Alan Chow as Henry
Grey's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. [3] It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a 2-hour premiere. [1] Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. [33] On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. [34] On January 11, 2018, ABC released a 6-episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series-regular Sarah Drew . [35]
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the ninth season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now . [36] [37] Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast , but ABC passed on the project. [38] Renewing her contract for another 3 seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the fourteenth season. [39] On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest-arc. [40] In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. [41] After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. [42] On September 13, 2017, another guest-star was announced in Greg Germann ( Ally McBeal ), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia's neurosurgery mentor. [43]
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ain't That A Kick In The Head" was announced to include Jeanine Mason ( So You Think You Can Dance ) as Sam Bello, Alex Blue Davis as Casey Parker, Rushi Kota as Vik Roy, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn Helm, Sophia Ali as Dahlia Qadri, and Jake Borelli as Levi Schmitt. [44] On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled " Danger Zone " would be his last. [45]
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground-breaking surgery. [46] On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season. [6]
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. [47] On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice" as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona. [48]
| No. in |
series
| No. in |
season
|Episode||Air date||Time slot (EST)||Rating/Share (18–49)||Viewers (M)||18–49 Rank||Viewership rank||Drama rank|
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||September 28, 2017|| Thursday |
8:00 p.m.
|2.3/8 [9]||8.07 [9]||12 [49]||24 [49]||3 [49]|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"|| Thursday |
9:00 p.m.
|2.3/8 [9]||8.07 [9]||12 [49]||24 [49]||3 [49]|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||October 5, 2017|| Thursdays |
8:00 p.m.
|2.1/8 [10]||8.06 [10]||11 [50]||21 [50]||3 [50]|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||October 12, 2017||2.1/8 [11]||8.08 [11]||10 [51]||17 [51]||2 [51]|
|298||5||"Danger Zone"||October 26, 2017||1.8/7 [12]||7.67 [12]||14 [52]||22 [52]||3 [52]|
|299||6||"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby"||November 2, 2017||1.8/7 [13]||7.38 [13]||13 [53]||21 [53]||3 [53]|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||November 9, 2017||1.9/7 [14]||8.13 [14]||11 [54]||19 [53]||2 [53]|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||November 16, 2017||1.8/7 [15]||7.52 [15]||13 [55]||21 [55]||4 [55]|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||January 18, 2018||2.3/9 [16]||8.27 [16]||7 [56]||14 [56]||3 [56]|
|303||10||"Personal Jesus"||January 25, 2018||2.3/9 [17]||8.62 [17]||3 [57]||7 [57]||2 [57]|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) the Reaper"||February 1, 2018||2.3/9 [18]||8.93 [18]||5 [58]||8 [58]||2 [58]|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||February 8, 2018||2.0/8 [19]||7.32 [19]||6 [59]||13 [59]||2 [59]|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||March 1, 2018||2.0/8 [20]||7.52 [20]||9 [60]||17 [60]||2 [60]|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||March 8, 2018||1.7/7 [21]||7.07 [21]||9 [61]||19 [61]||2 [61]|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||March 15, 2018||1.8/7 [22]||7.18 [22]||5 [62]||15 [62]||3 [62]|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||March 22, 2018||1.9/8 [23]||7.61 [23]||7 [63]||12 [63]||1 [63]|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||March 29, 2018||1.8/7 [24]||7.15 [24]||8 [64]||19 [64]||2 [64]|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||April 5, 2018||1.7/7 [25]||6.84 [25]||8 [65]||20 [65]||2 [65]|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||April 12, 2018||1.7/7 [26]||6.97 [26]||8 [66]||16 [66]||2 [66]|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||April 19, 2018||1.7/7 [27]||6.93 [27]||6 [67]||18 [67]||2 [67]|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||April 26, 2018||1.5/6 [28]||6.54 [28]||7 [68]||16 [68]||2 [68]|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||May 3, 2018||1.6/7 [29]||6.66 [29]||8 [69]||18 [69]||2 [69]|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||May 10, 2018||1.9/8 [30]||7.35 [30]||4 [70]||16 [70]||1 [70]|
|317||24||"All of Me"||May 17, 2018||1.9/8 [31]||7.60 [31]||3 [71]||10 [71]||1 [71]|
| No. in |
series
| No. in |
season
|Episode||Air date||Time slot (EST)||18–49 increase|| Viewers |
(millions) increase
|Total 18-49|| Total viewers |
(millions)
|Ref|
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||September 28, 2017|| Thursday |
8:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.91||3.9||11.99||[72]|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"|| Thursday |
9:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.91||3.9||11.99||[72]|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||October 5, 2017|| Thursdays |
8:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.83||3.7||11.89||[73]|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||October 12, 2017||1.4||3.51||3.5||11.59||[74]|
|298||5||"Danger Zone"||October 26, 2017||1.5||3.54||3.3||11.22||[75]|
|299||6||"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby"||November 2, 2017||1.5||3.45||3.2||10.84||[76]|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||November 9, 2017||1.5||3.53||3.4||11.67||[77]|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||November 16, 2017||1.5||3.54||3.3||11.07||[78]|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||January 18, 2018||1.3||3.30||3.6||11.58||[79]|
|303||10||"Personal Jesus"||January 25, 2018||1.3||3.35||3.6||11.98||[80]|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) The Reaper"||February 1, 2018||1.4||3.41||3.7||12.35||[81]|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||February 8, 2018||1.5||3.72||3.5||11.05||[82]|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||March 1, 2018||1.6||3.90||3.6||11.43||[83]|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||March 8, 2018||1.5||3.57||3.2||10.65||[84]|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||March 15, 2018||1.5||3.64||3.3||10.82||[85]|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||March 22, 2018||1.4||3.25||3.3||10.87||[86]|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||March 29, 2018||1.4||3.50||3.2||10.66||[87]|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||April 5, 2018||1.4||3.58||3.1||10.43||[88]|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||April 12, 2018||1.4||3.44||3.1||10.42||[89]|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||April 19, 2018||1.3||3.40||3.0||10.35||[90]|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||April 26, 2018||1.3||3.31||2.8||9.93||[91]|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||May 3, 2018||1.4||3.44||3.0||10.10||[92]|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||May 10, 2018||1.4||3.38||3.3||10.71||[93]|
|317||24||"All of Me"||May 17, 2018||1.3||3.09||3.3||11.01||[94]|
|Grey's Anatomy: The Complete Fourteenth Season|
|Set Details||Special Features|
|Release Dates|
|Region 1||Region 2||Region 4|
|N/A||October 22, 2018||October 22, 2018 [95]|
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- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_14) | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | 'Grey's Anatomy': Here Are the Major Cast Changes in Season 14 | Grey’s Anatomy will be undergoing some big changes in season 14.
Don’t worry, characters like Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) aren’t going anywhere, but a few familiar faces will be exiting or returning this year. EW has gathered the latest intel to help you keep track of the comings and goings at Grey Sloan this season:
Jerrika Hinton , who played Stephanie Edwards since season 9, exited as a series regular at the close of season 13. Tessa Ferrer , whose Dr. Leah Murphy was also part of the season 9 cast, had previously exited in season 10, but returned last year in a recurring status. However, she’s not expected to be back in season 14. Marika Domińczyk , who joined the cast as Eliza Minnick, a recurring love interest for Arizona (Jessica Capshaw), will not return after her character was fired in the season 13 finale. Bridget Regan , who originally played Owen’s (Kevin McKidd) presumed-dead sister, has been recast with Abigail Spencer , who will recur in season 14.
Besides the addition of Spencer to the cast, Italian actress Stefania Spampinato joins in the recurring role of Andrew DeLuca’s (Giacomo Gianniotti) sister Carina, who boards the Grey Sloan crew as a controversial new doc . EW has also confirmed that Ally McBeal alum Greg Germann will guest star, though details on his role are being kept under wraps.
Credit: Richard Cartwright/ABC
Kim Raver , who exited the series in season 8, will reprise her role as Teddy Altman, while Matthew Morrison is expected to return as Jo’s abusive husband , Paul Stadler. For the record, here are all the regular characters returning: Meredith Grey, Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), Owen Hunt, Arizona Robbins, April Kepner (Sarah Drew), Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone), Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), Ben Warren (Jason George), Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), Andrew DeLuca, and Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen).
Grey’s Anatomy returns with a two-hour premiere on Thursday, Sept. 28, at 8 p.m. ET on ABC. | https://ew.com/tv/2017/09/03/greys-anatomy-season-14-exits-returns/ | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | Matthew Morrison Will Return to Grey’s Anatomy for Season 14 | The Tony nominee will return as Jo’s husband.
By Betsy Kaplan
August 07, 2017
Glee and Broadway favorite Matthew Morrison will return to the long-running ABC series Grey’s Anatomy, according to TVLine . The Tony nominee made his Grey’s debut in the 13th season as Dr. Paul Stadler, husband to Jo Wilson (played by Camilla Luddington). | https://playbill.com/article/matthew-morrison-will-return-to-greys-anatomy-for-season-14 | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | ‘Grey’s Anatomy’: Kim Raver To Make A Return In Season 14 | EXCLUSIVE : An old Grey’s Anatomy favorite is coming back for a visit. Kim Raver , who was a series regular on the ABC medical drama in Seasons 6-8, is set to return to the show for a guest arc on the upcoming 14th season. She will reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman, the former head of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital.
The last time we saw Teddy, she was dramatically fired from Seattle Grace by old friend and one-time crush Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) in the Season 8 finale, written by Grey’s Anatomy creator/executive producer Shonda Rhimes, so she would take her dream chief job at MEDCOM.
Ir’s a busy time for 24 alumna Raver who also just signed on for a recurring role on the upcoming fifth season of Showtime’s Ray Donovan where she also will be playing a surgeon.
Raver is repped by Gersh and Atlas Artists. | https://deadline.com/2017/06/greys-anatomy-kim-raver-return-season-14-1202116524/ | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | 'Grey's Anatomy': Here Are the Major Cast Changes in Season 14 | Grey’s Anatomy will be undergoing some big changes in season 14.
Don’t worry, characters like Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) aren’t going anywhere, but a few familiar faces will be exiting or returning this year. EW has gathered the latest intel to help you keep track of the comings and goings at Grey Sloan this season:
Jerrika Hinton , who played Stephanie Edwards since season 9, exited as a series regular at the close of season 13. Tessa Ferrer , whose Dr. Leah Murphy was also part of the season 9 cast, had previously exited in season 10, but returned last year in a recurring status. However, she’s not expected to be back in season 14. Marika Domińczyk , who joined the cast as Eliza Minnick, a recurring love interest for Arizona (Jessica Capshaw), will not return after her character was fired in the season 13 finale. Bridget Regan , who originally played Owen’s (Kevin McKidd) presumed-dead sister, has been recast with Abigail Spencer , who will recur in season 14.
Besides the addition of Spencer to the cast, Italian actress Stefania Spampinato joins in the recurring role of Andrew DeLuca’s (Giacomo Gianniotti) sister Carina, who boards the Grey Sloan crew as a controversial new doc . EW has also confirmed that Ally McBeal alum Greg Germann will guest star, though details on his role are being kept under wraps.
Credit: Richard Cartwright/ABC
Kim Raver , who exited the series in season 8, will reprise her role as Teddy Altman, while Matthew Morrison is expected to return as Jo’s abusive husband , Paul Stadler. For the record, here are all the regular characters returning: Meredith Grey, Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson), Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), Owen Hunt, Arizona Robbins, April Kepner (Sarah Drew), Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone), Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary), Ben Warren (Jason George), Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), Andrew DeLuca, and Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen).
Grey’s Anatomy returns with a two-hour premiere on Thursday, Sept. 28, at 8 p.m. ET on ABC. | https://ew.com/tv/2017/09/03/greys-anatomy-season-14-exits-returns/ | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | ‘Grey’s Anatomy’ Season 14: Megan’s Return and New Love Triangles Shake Up Grey Sloan Memorial | Plus Icon
After just seeing a fire and the departure of Dr. Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton) in the 13th season finale of “ Grey’s Anatomy ,” Grey Sloan Memorial is about to see even more changes when the 14th season of ABC’s benchmark medical drama premieres.
Not only will a character previously presumed dead return, but there are also multiple love triangles further complicating the work environment of Seattle’s favorite doctors.
It’s bound to be a roller coaster ride of a season, so to prepare for the two-hour, back-to-back episodes “Break Down the House” and “Get Off on the Pain” that make up ABC’s premiere event, Variety broke down several key things to know about Season 14 of “Grey’s Anatomy.”
Megan’s return shakes everything up:
Megan Hunt ( now played by Abigail Spencer ) returning after a decade of being missing and presumed dead will affect all of the major players. Riggs (Martin Henderson) won’t know how to act, Owen (Kevin McKidd) is wracked with guilt about not continuing to look for his sister and Meredith (Ellen Pompeo) is dead-set on being the hero for Megan, despite their shared connection to Riggs.
Love triangle No. 1:
Riggs doesn’t want to tell Megan about Meredith, but both Teddy (Kim Raver) and Maggie (Kelly McCreary) will talk some sense into him about having enough respect for Megan to be honest with her, which sets up a solid love triangle for our beloved Meredith Grey. Of course, nothing is ever that simple on “ Grey’s” – and this time it’s all complicated by the fact that Megan has some serious medical issues to deal with.
Love triangle No. 2:
Much like the end of last season, things are still very strained between Amelia (Caterina Scorsone) and Owen. She, of course, wants to be there for him in the wake of his sister being found alive, but that event doesn’t erase the problems in their “sham of a marriage.” Plus, Teddy is back and she and Owen have just as much chemistry as they ever did. Amelia and Teddy will meet in the season premiere, and though it’s not long, it’s awkward.
Love triangle No. 3:
Jackson (Jesse Williams) and April (Sarah Drew) will have to deal with the fallout from their hook-up in Montana. And as if that doesn’t come with its own awkwardness, what April said in the Season 13 finale about Maggie and Jackson having feelings for each other still looms. A confrontation is coming, which could cause further complications – or the beginning of a beautiful new relationship.
It’s not all drama all the time:
Since the tradition of “Grey’s” is to mix business with pleasure, of course there will be a couple of hook-ups in the premiere, including one for Arizona (Jessica Capshaw). While these characters never seem to learn that it would help to keep their personal and professional lives separate, or at least outside of the hospital’s walls, they provide some fodder for lighter moments that could keep the comedy infused all season.
A search for Jo’s new BFF:
In the wake of Stephanie’s departure from the hospital, Jo (Camilla Luddington) needs a new BFF. Interestingly, she is going to enlist Ben (Jason George) in that role. Ben will do his best to help her with her feelings for Alex (Justin Chambers) for now, but she may need another new candidate soon, as he will be leaving “Grey’s” for its firefighter-centric spinoff.
“Grey’s Anatomy” Season 14 premieres at 8 p.m. on Sept. 28 on ABC. | https://variety.com/2017/tv/news/greys-anatomy-season-14-premiere-spoilers-preview-1202573898/ | 106 |
who is returning to season 14 of grey's anatomy | Grey's Anatomy (season 14) - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Grey's Anatomy|
|Season 14|
|Starring|
|Country of origin||United States|
|No. of episodes||24|
|Release|
|Original network||ABC|
|Original release|| September 28, 2017 – |
May 17, 2018
|Season chronology|
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special 2-hour premiere. [1] The season consists of 24 episodes, [2] [3] with the season's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios , in association with Shondaland Production Company and Entertainment One Television.
Krista Vernoff who helped co-lead the show with Shonda Rhimes in its early years, marked her return as co-showrunner this season with William Harper, having previously left at the end of the seventh season . Rhimes left ABC to produce television for Netflix , and now has a hands-off approach to the show. Despite not being showrunner since its eighth season to run Scandal , Rhimes still signed off each episode's storyline, but this season marked a departure from this. Rhimes explained she only trusted Vernoff to pursue uncharted territory without her. [4] As such, drastic creative changes occurred in the season, with Vernoff retiring Martin Henderson , Jessica Capshaw , and Sarah Drew 's characters. [5] [6] Jason George also departs as Ben Warren to appear in the second spin-off, Station 19 .
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record-tying fifteenth season. [7]
The number in the "No. overall" column refers to the episode's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season" column refers to the episode's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions" refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. Each episode of this season, with the exception of episode nine, is named after a song. [8]
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
season
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| U.S. viewers |
(millions)
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||September 28, 2017||8.07 [9]|
|In a whirlwind of reunions and a Grey Sloan "major uplift", Meredith finds herself in a complicated love triangle between Nathan and Megan, Owen's sister who was recently revealed to still be alive after a ten year absence in a hostage camp overseas. With Megan's reappearance, Teddy Altman comes back to Seattle to support Owen and his mom, which leads to awkward interactions with Amelia. With Stephanie now in Texas at a burn unit, Jo eagerly tries to make Ben her new person. After being "ghosted" by Eliza, Arizona hits it off with an Italian girl in a bar whom she takes home with her. When Andrew comes home, he finds his sister half-naked on his couch with Arizona.|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"||Kevin McKidd||Krista Vernoff||September 28, 2017||8.07 [9]|
|Carina, Andrew's sister, asks to be introduced to Bailey in order to get approval to study the controversial topic of female masturbation and orgasms at her hospital; Bailey obliges due to society's double standard. Meredith works to get everyone to agree that an abdominal wall transplant is the best tactic to treat Megan's wounds; she even gets Teddy to scrub in to erase any doubts of Meredith's intentions of being Megan's surgeon. Jo tries to mend her relationship with Alex. Later, it is revealed that Jo slept with one of the new sub-interns. Owen gets called out on his marital status with Amelia, who seems to be avoiding him and his family. Even without the support of Jackson, Amelia fights to remove a patient's mastoid tumor. She later takes part in Carina's study which leads to her finding a huge tumor in her own brain.|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||Chandra Wilson||Meg Marinis||October 5, 2017||8.06 [10]|
|Amelia brings in one of her former professors and current head of Neurology at Johns Hopkins , Dr. Tom Koracick to help her come up with a treatment plan for her tumor. Much to her chagrin, Dr Koracick brings to light how impaired her judgment has been over the last ten years; Richard makes sure to let Amelia know that her judgment has not been all that bad and encourages her to come clean to those with whom she is closest. Bailey is confronted by Dr. Harper from the Harper Avery Foundation about all the changes that have been made to the hospital and Harper threatens to withdraw all funding from the foundation; when Bailey stands up to him, Harper fires her. In the end of the episode Harper passes away with a sudden cardiac arrest and then Jackson and Catherine Avery reinstate Bailey back as the chief. Ben and Arizona resort to advice delivered by Carina when one of their patients gets stuck in labor. Meredith turns to her former psychiatrist, who winds up as a patient, to sort out her mood towards everyone instigated by the love triangle involving Nathan and Megan. Jo asks Alex to move back home.|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||Geary McLeod||Marlana Hope||October 12, 2017||8.08 [11]|
|Amelia has her brain tumor removed, but in the days following, she experiences some complications, such as speaking only French, and memory loss. Richard unexpectedly brings Maggie to attend a family dinner hosted by Catherine, which turns awkward when Catherine discloses to Jackson his inheritance from Harper's passing, a quarter billion dollars. Bailey and Richard host interviews with prospective new interns but fail to find a decent candidate. Using her research to justify his entry into the country, Meredith and Nathan team up to bring Megan's adopted son to America. Amelia and Owen face their fear that their marriage is based on a version of Amelia created by her tumor. Arizona learns that Sofia wants to move home. Jo confesses that she hates how much control her ex-husband has over her.|
|298||5||" Danger Zone "||Cecilie Mosli||Jalysa Conway||October 26, 2017||7.67 [12]|
|As Owen helps Megan make the trip to California where she will start her new life with Nathan and her son, Farouk, they reminisce on their time spent in Fallujah, Iraq . During their time overseas, Nathan proposed to Megan by recycling a necklace that was not initially intended for her. Teddy quickly recognized the necklace and the fact that Nathan cheated and pushed him to come clean. Despite the good news of the engagement, Megan dealt with heartbreak of not making strat, which is later revealed to her as Owen's own doing. Distraught over her brother's betrayal, she gets on a helicopter with one of the shooters who attacked their troops, leading to her disappearance. While Nathan awaits the arrival of Megan and Owen, he bonds with Farouk, who is having trouble acclimating to the free world. He also officially ends his relationship with Meredith, as does Owen with Amelia when he comes to terms with the notion that neither of them are truly happy.|
|299||6||"Come on Down to My Boat, Baby"||Lisa Leone||Kiley Donovan||November 2, 2017||7.38 [13]|
|As the new surgeon on the cover page of the medical journal, JSA, Meredith performs a rare surgical procedure to try and save a judge from his progressive cancer diagnosis. The men of Grey Sloan take a "sick day" and hang out on a Jackson's newly purchased boat, whereas the women swipe for dates on Tinder . Arizona has broken up with Carina in preparation of Sofia moving back home. Amelia heads back to surgery but struggles with her confidence, recruiting the help of Dr. Koracick and seeking the encouragement of Richard. While Arizona and April repair a woman's injuries caused by an accidental firing of a gun that was hidden inside her vagina, Bailey and Maggie take care of a hypochondriac who was a victim of the accidental shooting. At the surgeon-intern mixer, Meredith learns that she has been nominated for the annual Harper Avery award; however, the news is overshadowed by the loss of her patient. Jackson gives half of his inheritance to Bailey to fund a research competition. Jo learns she is in the running for chief resident and decides to file for divorce from Paul after confiding her situation to the judge. Andrew recognizes one of the new interns from his past, while Owen and Carina are caught kissing.|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||November 9, 2017||8.13 [14]|
|When a roller coaster car derails off its tracks, Meredith's plans to attend the Harper Avery award ceremony are put on hold. Three patients visiting the ER look like former doctors of the hospital: Drs. Cristina Yang, George O'Malley, and Izzie Stevens. Amelia and Owen learn to co-exist in the OR, after Amelia orders a surprise CT which shows a large hematoma that she is able to repair. As Arizona performs surgery on Liza, Izzie's look-a-like, she reflects on her relationship with Callie and Mark in preparation for Sofia's return to Seattle. Jo probes Alex to call Izzie and see how she is, to which Alex says he knows how she is: a happily married surgeon with three children. Though Jo quickly infers this is how Alex imagines her to be, and wants it to stay that way, rather than wonder how she really is. As they wait on Meredith to leave for Boston, Maggie bonds with Zola as they rehearse medical knowledge and talk about Derek. Bailey and Ben fight over his announcement to join the fire department, due to Bailey's fear that he has commitment issues. Unable to fly out to Boston, in an OR—in front of her friends and colleagues—Meredith is announced the winner of the 2017 Harper Avery award.|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||Kevin McKidd||William Harper||November 16, 2017||7.52 [15]|
|As the interns struggle to find their stride as surgeons, Jo begins her reign as chief resident. Things take a turn for the worse when the computer system gets hacked at Grey Sloan Memorial, as all of the patients' records get held hostage for $20 million. Unable to understand why the ransom is so large and unprecedented, Bailey realizes it is due to the recently announced competition funded by Jackson's inheritance. Without the use of the technological advancements to which the doctors have become accustomed, they must rely on their instincts to treat their patients; Richard teaches his younger colleagues about how they worked in the "Stone Age". One patient is transported to another hospital by a helicopter which encounters bad turbulence, causing a line to loosen and squirt blood everywhere. Jo gets the scariest surprise of her life when she runs into her abusive husband, Paul, on her way to stop Alex from inadvertently killing their patient.|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||Bill D'Elia||Andy Reaser||January 18, 2018||8.27 [16]|
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer-savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man". After Paul's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit-and-run.
This episode was followed by a PSA of Camilla Luddington reminding viewers that psychological abuse is a form of domestic violence and providing the number of the National Domestic Violence Hotline : 1-800-799-7233, the episode's title.
|303||10||" Personal Jesus "||Kevin Sullivan||Zoanne Clack||January 25, 2018||8.62 [17]|
|With Paul recovering from surgery, Meredith questions Alex and Jo's alibi. Believing that it is his fiancée, Jenny, who ran him over, Jo feels the need to consult her. April's patient turns out to be the pregnant wife of her ex-fiancé, Matthew, proving to be more than an awkward situation, as she helps deliver their baby, and then watches him deal with his wife's unexpected death. Jackson, Bailey, and April are confronted with racial profiling when police show up with a handcuffed 12-year-old boy whom they shot when he was seen trying to enter his own home through a window. Police officers continue to treat him like a criminal in the ER, prompting Bailey and Ben to give Tucker "the talk". When Jo and Jenny go to Paul's room to announce they are taking him to court, he gets in a bout of rage, falls out of his bed, and knocks himself out becoming brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to take him off life support and have his organs donated. April ends up in the shower with Vikram, an intern, after she finds herself questioning her faith.|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) the Reaper"||Nicole Rubio||Elisabeth R. Finch||February 1, 2018||8.93 [18]|
|With her intuition and the more subtle signs of a heart attack, Bailey winds up in the ER at Seattle Presbyterian; however, after her doctors treat her condescendingly, assuming she is imagining the heart attack and really just suffering from her OCD, she calls on Maggie to come save her. When Maggie arrives, she runs into Richard who found his way there based on Bailey's record of attendance. With her life flashing before her eyes, Bailey reflects on her upbringing and her past as a surgeon with all the stressful fights and struggles she has gone through to get to this point in her life. Right before she goes under for emergency surgery to save her life, Bailey asks Maggie to call Ben who is able to get there before she wakes up. Ben announces that he has quit being a firefighter, but Bailey demands that he go back and never do anything other than what he truly loves.|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||Jeannot Szwarc||Kiley Donovan||February 8, 2018||7.32 [19]|
|As the contest draws near, a competitive edge and tension arise between the doctors and their selected interns vying for millions of dollars. In preparation to surprise Catherine on her birthday, Richard takes salsa dancing lessons with Maggie, who is struggling with the one year anniversary of her mother's death. Amelia and Alex tag team a pediatric case, in order to save their patient's ability to sing, as well as retain all mental capabilities. Meredith gets a visit from an old splenectomy patient, who is back with multiple miniature spleens, which guides Meredith to her idea for the competition, and Jackson gets pulled into his mother's gender confirmation proposal, despite his wishes.|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||Nzingha Stewart||Stacy McKee||March 1, 2018||7.52 [20]|
|A house fire brings two young boys, who were rescued by the Seattle Grace fire department—Station 19, to the ER. Meredith meets Andy Herrera, a firefighter, who has her hand inside the patient, clamping his abdominal aorta. While Andy gets a front row seat to view the action inside the OR, Ben struggles with the idea of not being a surgeon anymore. Dr. Tom Koracick, Amelia's former professor, shows up to help her with her research project, but quickly shoots down her ideas. However, when they confront each other about their difference in opinion, they come up with an idea to save her patient. Richard watches Bailey very closely, as it is her first day back after recovering from her heart attack. Jackson begins to worry about April and the fact that the interns have nicknamed her "the Party".|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||Chandra Wilson||Jason Ganzel & Julie Wong||March 8, 2018||7.07 [21]|
|As Maggie's budding romance with Clive gets more serious, Amelia suggests hosting a game night so they can secretly judge him. Meredith prepares to meet the owner of the patent she is pursuing; however, she is surprised to find out that it is an old "friend" of Ellis'. When Marie turns down the opportunity to hand over the patent, Meredith resorts to showing her the device has already been implemented and works. The legal team is brought in after April forgets to file a report when she accidentally severs a patient's ear, which falls to the floor and causes DeLuca to slip and fall, resulting in a concussion. Alex requests permission to use medicinal marijuana on his underage patient, but when her grandma learns of his treatment plan, she temporarily fires him. The game night takes a turn when April has an inebriated breakdown and an unexpected guest shows up—Clive's wife. Calling off the relationship, Jackson sees his opportunity and makes his move on Maggie. Richard reveals to Meredith that Marie and Ellis had a falling out, which leads Meredith to the conclusion that she has been played.|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||Ellen Pompeo||Tameson Duffy||March 15, 2018||7.18 [22]|
|Alex, Jo, and Maggie reflect on their first loves as they prepare their teenage patient for heart surgery; however, when a heart transplant becomes available, he denies it until his boyfriend breaks up with him. Marie tells Meredith that her friendship with Ellis ended when Ellis left her name off her Harper Avery award winning research. Marie gives Meredith the ultimatum that for her to get the patent, she must make a statement that the Grey Method is now the Grey-Cerone Method. After a night spent together, April confesses to Tom that her deviant behavior is a result of her failing faith and hatred of God. Maggie and Jackson learn to move past their quirks and baggage. Alex fears that Jo's fellowship applications indicate that she is willing to leave him behind in Seattle; however, in a twist of events, Jo asks Alex to marry her and he quickly accepts.|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||Nicole Rubio||Jalysa Conway||March 22, 2018||7.61 [23]|
|Bailey's patient turns out to be one of her childhood heroes, a female astronaut who is in the process of building a time machine. Meredith throws in the towel on her research, since she is no longer receiving the patent. Richard and Catherine learn of Jackson and Maggie's relationship, which causes some awkward tension as Jackson, Catherine, and Richard work together on the vaginoplasty case. April hijacks the trauma certification drill, and leaves the interns in tears and doubt. After Bailey loses her patient, she finds the inspiration needed to name her research project "The Trailblazer", and Jo reignites Meredith’s will to continue on with her project. Amelia and Owen continue to pursue their "friends with benefits" relationship until she finds out how close Owen and Teddy are, and Arizona helps Sofia get accustomed to her new life away from New York.|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||Kevin McKidd||Elisabeth R. Finch||March 29, 2018||7.15 [24]|
|April crosses Bailey when she disagrees on Bailey's treatment plan for a rabbi who came in three times for diverticulitis and only gave him antibiotics, and who is now suffering from toxic epidermal necrolysis as a side effect. As April treats the rabbi, he gives her a lesson on faith which allows her to reflect on her recent struggles. Meredith buddies up with a new transplant surgeon from the Mayo Clinic, Dr Nick Marsh, who is recovering from a recent kidney transplant of his own. After his lab results come back, Meredith rushes him to surgery to remove a blood clot and successfully saves his kidney. After calling it quits with Amelia, Owen reconnects with Teddy, who now lives in Germany. However, after the short, happy reunion, Teddy learns that just a short while ago he was still sleeping with Amelia and refuses to be his second choice.|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||Geary McLeod||Alex Manugian||April 5, 2018||6.84 [25]|
|Richard is surprised to see his AA sponsor, Ollie, arrive at Grey Sloan in an ambulance. After she denies him the ability to save her life once more, he enlists the help of Maggie and Meredith. Now that Owen is back in the States, he has to face the disdain of Arizona and Amelia's failure to fix things with Teddy. In between the personal conversations, Arizona and Owen look further into a fraudulent oncologist. In their pursuit, they coincidentally learn that Arizona has breast cancer—at least until it was proven that the image produced was a fake. Alex, Amelia, and Tom resect Noah’s brain tumor, despite never performing the procedure before. Though successful, Amelia and Tom decide that it is too risky to do the same for Kimmy, which infuriates Alex. April strives to make amends with her colleagues, and Jackson, claiming that she has found Jesus again. Meredith and Jo learn that their research can be successful without the polymer, and that they can help patients grow livers and save lives.|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||Jeannot Szwarc||Meg Marinis||April 12, 2018||6.97 [26]|
|Bailey gets caught off guard when an agent from ICE ( Immigration and Customs Enforcement ) shows up looking for one of her surgical interns, Sam Bello. Unaware of the situation, Sam explains that she is a "dreamer" protected by DACA . While Meredith and Andrew scheme up ideas to keep Sam from being deported back to El Salvador, Bailey distracts Agent Fields with concerns about his own health. As Arizona and Carina move forward in their research by learning from their previous patient's death, April is surprised to see Matthew back at Grey Sloan with his baby who is failing to thrive. When Alex refuses to give up on Kimmy, Jo realizes Kimmy's dream and signs off on discharge papers. Catherine comes back to support Richard who has stayed with Ollie right through her final breath. Meredith sends Sam to Zurich to study under Cristina; Owen signs up to become a foster parent, and Jackson confronts Maggie about her tendency to resist their relationship. Jackson directs the Harper Avery Foundation to release a researcher from an agreement so she can collaborate with Amelia; Catherine tells Richard that the hospital is now doomed.|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||Sydney Freeland||Julie Wong||April 19, 2018||6.93 [27]|
|As the next stage of the research contest begins, the Top 25 proposals are presented by their respective owners who have gathered to present in front of a panel and audience. Arizona shares cookies, provided by a grateful patient, with her colleagues. However, she later learns they were laced with cannabis . Due to the mishap, the presentations are postponed, and the interns are summoned to replace the stoned attendings. Meredith walks Jo through surgery after Bailey is forced to scrub out and accidentally injures Meredith's hand. Jo makes effective use of Richard's project. Catherine tells Jackson of the 13 sexual harassment cases filed against his grandfather and the major settlements used to cover them up. April overhears and then shares the secret with Bailey, who has a secret of her own—she is partnering with a sex toy company to make her "Trailblazer" device. Owen gets a call about his first foster child, which makes him nervous until Amelia saves him. Meredith learns about the dark past of Harper Avery and, in addition, Marie Cerone was one of the 13 women. Richard fires intern, Dr Vikram Roy, who was found practicing under the influence.|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||Kevin McKidd||Mark Driscoll||April 26, 2018||6.54 [28]|
|With word spreading about Harper Avery, Meredith decides to return her and Ellis' awards to the foundation. Catherine hires a crisis management specialist, who brings in a patient for Jackson and Meredith to heal as PR stunt. Bailey shuts down the innovation contest for fear of word getting out that an Avery funded it, so April volunteers her time to plan Alex and Jo’s wedding. Alex and Jo get awkward when, Olivia, the former “Syph nurse,” returns to the hospital with her son—who swallowed a whistle—and begins planting seeds of doubt. Owen takes Leo in for his check up with his birth mom in tow, who ends up talking to Amelia. Thinking she can sponsor her with her drug addiction, Amelia takes her in as a foster child of her own. Meredith and Jackson think up a way to save the foundation by changing its name to the Catherine Fox Foundation dedicated to all the women victimized by the previous regime. Alex learns that his bank account balance is awfully high due to his mom not cashing the checks he has been sending her, and Vikram plans to sue the hospital for wrongful termination.|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||Jesse Williams||Andy Reaser||May 3, 2018||6.66 [29]|
|Alex and Jo drive to Iowa to locate his mom, only to find that she no longer exhibits schizophrenic behavior and she has even returned to her old job. Richard and Bailey battle to keep the hospital from being sued by Vikram. Although Bailey stands by the initial firing, Richard empathizes as he reflects on the times he operated while inebriated. As Amelia helps Betty detox, Arizona struggles to accept that Sofia stole money. Meredith kills time before her presentation throwing darts with a guy she eventually learns is a surgeon who is there to see her. Their conversation leads Meredith to decide that the “Grey Method” should be renamed the “Grey-Cerone Method.” After Alex works things out with his mom, Jo extends a declined invitation to their wedding. Bailey allows Vikram to return under strict probationary rules. Amelia visits an AA group after Betty makes an escape, and Arizona calls Callie to say that she thinks it is time for her and Sofia to move to New York.|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||Bill D'Elia||William Harper||May 10, 2018||7.35 [30]|
|After Arizona tells Bailey of her upcoming departure, she and Amelia consult with a familiar patient, Dr Nicole Herman. Her arrival presents an opportunity that changes Arizona’s future plans-the chance to partner with her and create the Robbins-Herman Center for Women’s Health. When Matthew winds up in the ER after rolling his car and mentions being with April, the doctors fear the worst. Frantically trying to locate April, Owen finds her unconscious in a nearby ravine. Unknowing of the latest events, Alex and Jo work to finalize the details of their impending wedding. Maggie thinks she detects a subtle rhythm on April’s monitor, but she has to repeatedly shock her to strengthen it. While waiting for her to wake up, Arizona breaks the news that Matthew and April have been seeing each other for months and that they were in love. Thinking that the end has come, Jackson finally prays to God and begs Him to save her in exchange for his belief. However, April awakens fully functional despite the disbelief of all her coworkers.|
|317||24||" All of Me "||Debbie Allen||Krista Vernoff||May 17, 2018||7.60 [31]|
|Alex and Jo’s wedding day has arrived. Though most details have come together, April (who quit the hospital and is now doing medical work with the homeless) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she has been accepted into Mass Gen ’s fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex. Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. As guests arrive, Alex and Jo accidentally lock themselves in a shed after engaging in one last fling before tying the knot. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there will be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride’s mother, Teddy reveals she is pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.|
- Greg Germann as Dr. Tom Koracick
- Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery / Catherine Fox
- Abigail Spencer as Dr. Megan Hunt
- Matthew Morrison as Dr. Paul Stadler
- Stefania Spampinato as Dr. Carina DeLuca
- Jeanine Mason as Dr. Sam Bello
- Alex Blue Davis as Dr. Casey Parker
- Rushi Kota as Dr. Vikram Roy
- Jaicy Elliot as Dr. Taryn Helm
- Sophia Ali as Dr. Dahlia Qadri
- Lesley Boone as Judy Kemp
- Blake Hood as Clive Johnson
- Justin Bruening as Matthew Taylor
- Nayah Damasen as Kimmie Park
- Peyton Kennedy as Betty Nelson
- Candis Cayne as Dr. Michelle Velez
- Rachel Ticotin as Dr. Marie Cerone
- Scott Speedman as Dr. Nick Marsh [32]
- Debra Mooney as Evelyn Hunt
- Bill Smitrovich as Dr. Walter Carr
- Chelcie Ross as Dr. Harper Avery
- Kate Burton as Dr. Ellis Grey
- Mark Moses as Dr. Larry Maxwell
- Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andrea 'Andy' Herrera
- Mary Kay Place as Olive Warner
- Josh Plasse as Chris Cleaver
- Frankie Faison as William Bailey
- Bianca Taylor as Elena Bailey
- Nicole Cummins as Paramedic Nicole
- Julie Gonzalo as Theresa
- Sarah Utterback as Nurse Olivia Harper
- Lindsay Wagner as Helen Karev
- Geena Davis as Dr. Nicole Herman
- Caleb Pierce as Charlie Peterson
- Alan Chow as Henry
Grey's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. [3] It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a 2-hour premiere. [1] Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. [33] On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. [34] On January 11, 2018, ABC released a 6-episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series-regular Sarah Drew . [35]
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the ninth season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now . [36] [37] Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast , but ABC passed on the project. [38] Renewing her contract for another 3 seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the fourteenth season. [39] On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest-arc. [40] In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. [41] After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. [42] On September 13, 2017, another guest-star was announced in Greg Germann ( Ally McBeal ), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia's neurosurgery mentor. [43]
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ain't That A Kick In The Head" was announced to include Jeanine Mason ( So You Think You Can Dance ) as Sam Bello, Alex Blue Davis as Casey Parker, Rushi Kota as Vik Roy, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn Helm, Sophia Ali as Dahlia Qadri, and Jake Borelli as Levi Schmitt. [44] On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled " Danger Zone " would be his last. [45]
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground-breaking surgery. [46] On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season. [6]
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. [47] On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice" as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona. [48]
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|Episode||Air date||Time slot (EST)||Rating/Share (18–49)||Viewers (M)||18–49 Rank||Viewership rank||Drama rank|
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||September 28, 2017|| Thursday |
8:00 p.m.
|2.3/8 [9]||8.07 [9]||12 [49]||24 [49]||3 [49]|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"|| Thursday |
9:00 p.m.
|2.3/8 [9]||8.07 [9]||12 [49]||24 [49]||3 [49]|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||October 5, 2017|| Thursdays |
8:00 p.m.
|2.1/8 [10]||8.06 [10]||11 [50]||21 [50]||3 [50]|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||October 12, 2017||2.1/8 [11]||8.08 [11]||10 [51]||17 [51]||2 [51]|
|298||5||"Danger Zone"||October 26, 2017||1.8/7 [12]||7.67 [12]||14 [52]||22 [52]||3 [52]|
|299||6||"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby"||November 2, 2017||1.8/7 [13]||7.38 [13]||13 [53]||21 [53]||3 [53]|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||November 9, 2017||1.9/7 [14]||8.13 [14]||11 [54]||19 [53]||2 [53]|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||November 16, 2017||1.8/7 [15]||7.52 [15]||13 [55]||21 [55]||4 [55]|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||January 18, 2018||2.3/9 [16]||8.27 [16]||7 [56]||14 [56]||3 [56]|
|303||10||"Personal Jesus"||January 25, 2018||2.3/9 [17]||8.62 [17]||3 [57]||7 [57]||2 [57]|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) the Reaper"||February 1, 2018||2.3/9 [18]||8.93 [18]||5 [58]||8 [58]||2 [58]|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||February 8, 2018||2.0/8 [19]||7.32 [19]||6 [59]||13 [59]||2 [59]|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||March 1, 2018||2.0/8 [20]||7.52 [20]||9 [60]||17 [60]||2 [60]|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||March 8, 2018||1.7/7 [21]||7.07 [21]||9 [61]||19 [61]||2 [61]|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||March 15, 2018||1.8/7 [22]||7.18 [22]||5 [62]||15 [62]||3 [62]|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||March 22, 2018||1.9/8 [23]||7.61 [23]||7 [63]||12 [63]||1 [63]|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||March 29, 2018||1.8/7 [24]||7.15 [24]||8 [64]||19 [64]||2 [64]|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||April 5, 2018||1.7/7 [25]||6.84 [25]||8 [65]||20 [65]||2 [65]|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||April 12, 2018||1.7/7 [26]||6.97 [26]||8 [66]||16 [66]||2 [66]|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||April 19, 2018||1.7/7 [27]||6.93 [27]||6 [67]||18 [67]||2 [67]|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||April 26, 2018||1.5/6 [28]||6.54 [28]||7 [68]||16 [68]||2 [68]|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||May 3, 2018||1.6/7 [29]||6.66 [29]||8 [69]||18 [69]||2 [69]|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||May 10, 2018||1.9/8 [30]||7.35 [30]||4 [70]||16 [70]||1 [70]|
|317||24||"All of Me"||May 17, 2018||1.9/8 [31]||7.60 [31]||3 [71]||10 [71]||1 [71]|
| No. in |
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| No. in |
season
|Episode||Air date||Time slot (EST)||18–49 increase|| Viewers |
(millions) increase
|Total 18-49|| Total viewers |
(millions)
|Ref|
|294||1||"Break Down the House"||September 28, 2017|| Thursday |
8:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.91||3.9||11.99||[72]|
|295||2||"Get Off on the Pain"|| Thursday |
9:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.91||3.9||11.99||[72]|
|296||3||"Go Big or Go Home"||October 5, 2017|| Thursdays |
8:00 p.m.
|1.6||3.83||3.7||11.89||[73]|
|297||4||"Ain't That a Kick in the Head?"||October 12, 2017||1.4||3.51||3.5||11.59||[74]|
|298||5||"Danger Zone"||October 26, 2017||1.5||3.54||3.3||11.22||[75]|
|299||6||"Come On Down to My Boat, Baby"||November 2, 2017||1.5||3.45||3.2||10.84||[76]|
|300||7||"Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"||November 9, 2017||1.5||3.53||3.4||11.67||[77]|
|301||8||"Out of Nowhere"||November 16, 2017||1.5||3.54||3.3||11.07||[78]|
|302||9||"1-800-799-7233"||January 18, 2018||1.3||3.30||3.6||11.58||[79]|
|303||10||"Personal Jesus"||January 25, 2018||1.3||3.35||3.6||11.98||[80]|
|304||11||"(Don't Fear) The Reaper"||February 1, 2018||1.4||3.41||3.7||12.35||[81]|
|305||12||"Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger"||February 8, 2018||1.5||3.72||3.5||11.05||[82]|
|306||13||"You Really Got a Hold on Me"||March 1, 2018||1.6||3.90||3.6||11.43||[83]|
|307||14||"Games People Play"||March 8, 2018||1.5||3.57||3.2||10.65||[84]|
|308||15||"Old Scars, Future Hearts"||March 15, 2018||1.5||3.64||3.3||10.82||[85]|
|309||16||"Caught Somewhere in Time"||March 22, 2018||1.4||3.25||3.3||10.87||[86]|
|310||17||"One Day Like This"||March 29, 2018||1.4||3.50||3.2||10.66||[87]|
|311||18||"Hold Back the River"||April 5, 2018||1.4||3.58||3.1||10.43||[88]|
|312||19||"Beautiful Dreamer"||April 12, 2018||1.4||3.44||3.1||10.42||[89]|
|313||20||"Judgment Day"||April 19, 2018||1.3||3.40||3.0||10.35||[90]|
|314||21||"Bad Reputation"||April 26, 2018||1.3||3.31||2.8||9.93||[91]|
|315||22||"Fight for Your Mind"||May 3, 2018||1.4||3.44||3.0||10.10||[92]|
|316||23||"Cold as Ice"||May 10, 2018||1.4||3.38||3.3||10.71||[93]|
|317||24||"All of Me"||May 17, 2018||1.3||3.09||3.3||11.01||[94]|
|Grey's Anatomy: The Complete Fourteenth Season|
|Set Details||Special Features|
|Release Dates|
|Region 1||Region 2||Region 4|
|N/A||October 22, 2018||October 22, 2018 [95]|
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- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_14) | 106 |
where is the huang he river on a world map | Yellow River | Location, Map, & Facts | Written by Charles E. Greer , Igor Vladimirovich Popov See All
Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Top Questions
Why is it called the Yellow River?
How long is the Yellow River?
Where does the Yellow River originate?
What cities does the Yellow River flow through?
Yellow River , Chinese (Pinyin) Huang He or (Wade-Giles romanization) Huang Ho , also spelled Hwang Ho , English Yellow River , principal river of northern China , east-central and eastern Asia . The Yellow River is often called the cradle of Chinese civilization. With a length of 3,395 miles (5,464 km), it is the country’s second longest river—surpassed only by the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)—and its drainage basin is the third largest in China, with an area of some 290,000 square miles (750,000 square km).
The river rises in southern Qinghai province on the Plateau of Tibet and crosses six other provinces and two autonomous regions in its course to the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli), an embayment of the Yellow Sea of the North Pacific Ocean . In its lower reaches it is a shifting, turbulent, silt-laden stream that often overflows its banks and sends floodwaters across the North China Plain . For that reason, it has been given such names as “China’s Sorrow” and “The Ungovernable.” The Mandarin Chinese word huang (“yellow”) is a reference to the fine loess sediments that the river carries to the sea. The Yellow River basin has an enormous population—exceeded by only a small number of countries—and the river and its tributaries flow past some of China’s oldest cities, including Lanzhou , Baotou , Xi’an (Sian), Taiyuan , Luoyang , Zhengzhou , Kaifeng , and Jinan .
The Yellow River is divided into three distinct parts: the mountainous upper course, the middle course across a plateau, and the lower course across a low plain.
The Yellow River originates at an elevation above 15,000 feet (4,600 metres) in the Bayan Har Mountains , in the eastern Plateau of Tibet. In its upper reaches the river crosses two large bodies of water, Lakes Ngoring and Gyaring. Those shallow lakes, each covering an area of about 400 square miles (1,000 square km), are rich in fish and freeze over in winter. The Yellow River in that region flows generally from west to east. The broad highlands of the upper course rise 1,000 to 1,700 feet (300 to 500 metres) above the river and its tributaries. The highlands consist of crystalline rocks that are sometimes visible as eroded outcroppings on the surface. The river enters a region of deep gorges , winding its way first southeast, then northwest around the A’nyêmaqên (Amne Machin) Mountains, where its fall exceeds 10 feet per mile (2 metres per km), and then east again between the Xiqing and Laji mountains.
Past the gorges, near the city of Lanzhou in southeastern Gansu province, it leaves the Plateau of Tibet. That transition marks the end of the upper Yellow River, which is some 725 miles (1,165 km) from its source. The upper course drains a basin covering about 48,000 square miles (124,000 square km), consisting chiefly of inaccessible, highly mountainous, sparsely populated terrain with a cold climate.
The middle course of the Yellow River, extending more than 1,800 miles (2,900 km), consists of a great loop and drains an area of about 23,000 square miles (60,000 square km). The river at first flows northeast for about 550 miles (880 km) through the sandy soils of the northern Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia and of the western Ordos Plateau . It has many rapids there, and in a number of places it narrows. The river then turns eastward and flows for another 500 miles (800 km) through alluvial plains in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, in places branching into numerous distributary channels. In that stretch its fall is less than half a foot per mile (9 cm per km), and many of the channels have been developed over the millennia for irrigated agriculture.
The Yellow River then turns sharply to the south and flows for about 445 miles (715 km), forming the border between Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces. The river’s width usually does not exceed 150 to 200 feet (45 to 60 metres) in that section, as it cuts through narrow gorges with steep slopes several hundred feet (above 100 metres) in height. The river then gradually widens, notably after receiving the waters of its two longest tributaries—first the Fen River of Shanxi province and then the Wei River of Shaanxi. At the confluence with the Wei, the Yellow River turns sharply to the east for another 300 miles (480 km) as it flows through inaccessible gorges between the Zhongtiao and eastern Qin (Tsinling) mountains. The average fall in that stretch is slightly more than 1 foot per mile (20 cm per km) and becomes increasingly rapid in the last 100 miles (160 km) before the river reaches the North China Plain at the city of Zhengzhou in Henan province.
Most of the middle course is cut through the Loess Plateau , which extends eastward from the Plateau of Tibet to the North China Plain at elevations ranging between 3,000 and 7,000 feet (900 and 2,100 metres). The plateau contains terraced slopes as well as alluvial plains and a scattering of peaks sometimes rising more than 1,500 feet (450 metres) above the plateau. The river has cut at least six terraces across the plateau, which rise to more than 1,600 feet (500 metres) above the present river level. The terraces, formed over the past 2.5 million years, provide an important record of landscape evolution and ancient environmental change in the region. The underlying rock systems are covered with thick layers of loose soils, consisting mainly of wind-deposited sand and loess . The loess strata reach thicknesses of 160 to 200 feet (50 to 60 metres) and in some places as much as 500 feet (150 metres). Through those loose deposits the river has cut deep valleys, carrying away with it huge quantities of surface material, making that region one of the most highly eroded landscapes in the world. The easily eroded loess soil accounts for the instability of the riverbed both in the middle basin, where the erosion is considerable, and on the plain, where deposition builds up the channel bed.
Downstream from Zhengzhou the Yellow River broadens out to flow through Henan and Shandong provinces across the North China Plain . The plain is a great, nearly featureless alluvial fan broken only by the low hills of central Shandong; it was formed over some 25 million years as the Yellow River and other rivers deposited enormous quantities of silt , sand , and gravel into the shallow sea that once covered the region. The plain has been densely inhabited for millennia and long has been one of China’s principal agricultural regions. The river has changed its course across the plain several times, and the region’s inhabitants have built extensive systems of levees and irrigation works in an attempt to control the river’s flow. The area illustrates perhaps better than any other place on Earth how human activity has combined with natural forces to shape the landscape.
The lower Yellow River is about 435 miles (700 km) long with an average fall of about 3 inches per mile (5 cm per km). Along the river are found occasional areas of sand dunes 15 to 30 feet (5 to 9 metres) high. In general, however, the plain is an area of great floods because the riverbed, built up gradually by sediment deposits, lies above the surrounding land in many places. In the section north of the city of Kaifeng in northern Henan, the low-water level is some 15 feet (5 metres) above the surrounding countryside, the mid-water level between 19 and 23 feet (6 and 7 metres), and the high-water level sometimes as much as 30 to 35 feet (9 to 11 metres) above the land. From Kaifeng to the Grand Canal (Da Yunhe), the levees are lower than farther upstream, rarely exceeding 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 metres) in height. Marshes are common. Below the Grand Canal the height of the levees increases to between 13 and 16 feet (4 and 5 metres) and in some places to 25 feet (8 metres).
The delta of the Yellow River begins approximately 50 miles (80 km) from its mouth and spreads out over an area of about 2,100 square miles (5,400 square km). The delta land is marshy, composed of mud and silt, and is covered with reeds. A sandbar at the river’s mouth impedes navigation at low tide by boats drawing more than 4 feet (1.2 metres) of water; at high tide the depth on the bar is 8 or 9 feet (2.4 or 2.7 metres).
Until the late 20th century the Yellow River delta was one of the most actively growing deltas in the world, as the North China Plain continued to extend farther into the Bo Hai (the remnant of the ancient sea now covered by the plain). In the century from 1870 to 1970 the delta grew an average of more than 12 miles (19 km). Some outlying parts expanded even more rapidly: one area grew 6 miles (10 km) during the period 1949–51, and another grew more than 15 miles (24 km) in 1949–52. However, beginning in the 1950s, dam construction upstream—notably the Sanmen Gorge installation in Henan province—began to reduce the silt load that the river could carry to its mouth. By the 1990s the delta was continuing to expand seaward, but it was also eroding. The Chinese government subsequently took measures to divert the final part of the main stream, so that deposits built up on the north side of the delta. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-River | 107 |
where is the huang he river on a world map | Yellow River - Wikipedia | Ȟatan Gol
Шар мөрөн
Šar Mörön
The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: 黄河 , Mandarin : Huáng hé [xwǎŋ xɤ̌] (
listen ) ) is the second-longest river in China , [2] after the Yangtze River , and the sixth-longest river system in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 km (3,395 mi). [3] Originating at an elevation above 15,000 feet (4,600 metres) [4] in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai province of Western China , it flows through nine provinces, and it empties into the Bohai Sea near the city of Dongying in Shandong province. The Yellow River basin has an east–west extent of about 1,900 kilometers (1,180 mi) and a north–south extent of about 1,100 km (680 mi). Its total drainage area is about 795,000 square kilometers (307,000 sq mi).
The Yellow River's basin was the birthplace of ancient Chinese , and, by extension, East Asian civilization, [5] and it was the most prosperous region in early Chinese history . There are frequent devastating floods and course changes produced by the continual elevation of the river bed , sometimes above the level of its surrounding farm fields.
Early Chinese literature including the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu dating to the Warring States period (475–221 BC) refers to the Yellow River as simply 河 ( Old Chinese : *C.gˤaj , [6] Modern Beijing Mandarin : / xɤ̌ / or in pinyin Hé ), a character that has come to mean "river" in modern usage. An early attestation of the name 黃河 ( Eastern Han Chinese : *ɣuaŋ-gɑi ; [7] Middle Chinese : Huang Ha [6] ) in the Eastern Han treatise Kongcongzi 孔叢子 "The Many Kong Family Master's Anthology", [8] attributed to Confucius ' descendant Kong Fu 孔鮒 (c. 264-208 BCE). [9] The adjective "yellow" describes the perennial color of the muddy water in the lower course of the river, which arises from soil ( loess ) being carried downstream. [10] Its yellow colour and central position in China are associated in traditional cardinal directions .
One of its older Mongolian names was the "Black River", [11] because the river runs clear before it enters the Loess Plateau , but the current name of the river among Inner Mongolians is Ȟatan Gol ( Хатан гол , "Queen River"). [12] In Mongolia itself, it is simply called the Šar Mörön ( Шар мөрөн , "Yellow River"). [13] The river is mentioned in the Kul Tigin stele as the "Green River" ( Old Turkic : yašïl ügüz , 𐰖𐱁𐰞𐰽𐰺𐰍). [14]
The Yellow River first formed between 56 million and 34 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, [10] while the familiar shape appeared around 7 thousand years ago. [10]
The river has long been critical to the development of northern China, and is regarded by scholars as one cradle of civilization . Flooding of the river has also caused much destruction, including multiple floods that have resulted in the deaths of over one million people. Among the deadliest were the 1332–33 flood during the Yuan dynasty , the 1887 flood during the Qing dynasty which killed anywhere from 900,000 to 2 million people, and a Republic of China era 1931 flood (part of a massive number of floods that year ) that killed 1–4 million people. [15]
The cause of the floods is the large amount of fine-grained loess carried by the river from the Loess Plateau , which is continuously deposited along the bottom of its channel. The sedimentation causes natural dams to slowly accumulate. These subaqueous dams are unpredictable and generally undetectable. Eventually, the enormous amount of water needs to find a new way to the sea, forcing it to take the path of least resistance . When this happens, it bursts out across the flat North China Plain , sometimes taking a new channel and inundating most farmland, cities or towns in its path.
The traditional Chinese response of building higher and higher levees along the banks sometimes also contributed to the severity of the floods: When flood water did break through the levees, it could no longer drain back into the river bed as it would after a normal flood, as the river bed was sometimes now higher than the surrounding countryside. These changes could cause the river's mouth to shift as much as 480 km (300 mi), sometimes reaching the ocean to the north of Shandong Peninsula and sometimes to the south. [16]
Another historical source of devastating floods is the collapse of upstream ice dams in Inner Mongolia with an accompanying sudden release of vast quantities of impounded water. There have been 11 such major floods in the past century, each causing tremendous loss of life and property. Nowadays, explosives dropped from aircraft are used to break the ice dams before they become dangerous. [17]
Before modern dams appeared in China, the Yellow River used to be extremely prone to flooding. In the 2,540 years from 595 BC to 1946 AD, the Yellow River has been reckoned to have flooded 1,593 times, shifting its course 26 times noticeably and nine times severely. [18] These floods include some of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded. Before modern disaster management, when floods occurred, some of the population might initially die from drowning and many more would suffer later from the ensuing famine and spread of diseases. [19]
In Chinese mythology , the giant Kua Fu drained the Yellow River and the Wei River to quench his burning thirst as he pursued the Sun. [20] Historical documents from the Spring and Autumn period [21] and Qin dynasty [22] indicate that the Yellow River at that time flowed considerably north of its present course. These accounts show that after the river passed Luoyang , it flowed along the border between Shanxi and Henan Provinces, then continued along the border between Hebei and Shandong before emptying into Bohai Bay near present-day Tianjin . Another outlet followed essentially the present course. [18]
The river left these paths in 602 BC and shifted several hundred kilometers to the east. [21] [23] Sabotage of dikes, canals, and reservoirs and deliberate flooding of rival states became a standard military tactic during the Warring States period . [24] As the Yellow River valley was the major entryway to the Guanzhong area and the state of Qin from the North China Plain , Qin heavily fortified the Hangu Pass ; it saw numerous battles and was also an important chokepoint protecting the Han capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang . Major flooding in AD 11 is credited with the downfall of the short-lived Xin dynasty , and another flood in AD 70 returned the river north of Shandong on essentially its present course. [18]
From around the beginning of the 3rd century, the importance of the Hangu Pass was reduced, with the major fortifications and military bases moved upriver to Tongguan . In AD 923, the desperate Later Liang general Duan Ning again broke the dikes, flooding 1,000 square miles (2,600 km 2 ) in a failed attempt to protect his realm's capital from the Later Tang . A similar proposal from the Song engineer Li Chun concerning flooding the lower reaches of the river to protect the central plains from the Khitai was overruled in 1020: the Chanyuan Treaty between the two states had expressly forbidden the Song from establishing new moats or changing river courses. [25]
Breaches occurred regardless: one at Henglong in 1034 divided the course in three and repeatedly flooded the northern regions of Dezhou and Bozhou . [25] The Song worked for five years futilely attempting to restore the previous course – using over 35,000 employees, 100,000 conscripts, and 220,000 tons of wood and bamboo in a single year [25] – before abandoning the project in 1041. The more sluggish river then occasioned a breach at Shanghu that sent the main outlet north towards Tianjin in 1048 [18]
In 1128, Song troops under the Kaifeng governor Du Chong ( 杜 充 , Dù Chōng , d. 1141) breached the southern dikes of the Yellow River in an effort to stop the advancing Jin army. The resulting major river avulsion allowed the Yellow to capture the Si and other tributaries of the Huai River . [26] For the first time in recorded history, the Yellow River shifted completely south of Shandong Peninsula and flowed into the Yellow Sea . By 1194, the mouth of the Huai had been blocked. [27] The buildup of silt deposits was such that even after the Yellow River later shifted its course, the Huai could no longer flow along its historic course, but instead, its water pools into Hongze Lake and then runs southward toward the Yangtze River . [28]
A flood in 1344 returned the Yellow River south of Shandong. The Yuan dynasty was waning, and the emperor forced enormous teams to build new embankments for the river. The terrible conditions helped to fuel rebellions that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty . [16] The course changed again in 1391 when the river flooded from Kaifeng to Fengyang in Anhui. It was finally stabilized by the eunuch Li Xing during the public works projects following the 1494 flood . [29] The river flooded many times in the 16th century, including in 1526, 1534, 1558, and 1587. Each flood affected the river's lower course. [29]
The 1642 flood was man-made, caused by the attempt of the Ming governor of Kaifeng to use the river to destroy the peasant rebels under Li Zicheng who had been besieging the city for the past six months. [30] He directed his men to break the dikes in an attempt to flood the rebels, but destroyed his own city instead: the flood and the ensuing famine and plague are estimated to have killed 300,000 of the city's previous population of 378,000. [31] The once-prosperous city was nearly abandoned until its rebuilding under the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty .
The question of how aggressively flooding should be controlled, and whether it should be steered back to its original channels when it migrated, was a topic of controversy in the imperial court. Rival cliques made arguments based on budgetary, technical and strategic criteria. Geographer Charles Greer identifies two competing schools of thought on how to control the Yellow River. One, which he identifies as Confucian, advocated containing the river between higher levees, thus maximizing the amount of river basin land that could be cultivated. The other, which he associates with Taoism, favored lower levees separated by as much as 5-10 kilometers. [32] In one particular long-running debate during the 11th century reigns of the Renzong and Shenzong emperors, when the river repeatedly broke its levees and migrated north and west, officials battled over whether expensive measures should be taken to return the river to its former channels. The Shenzong emperor ultimately decreed that the river be allowed to remain in its new course. [33]
Traditional flood control techniques made use of levees , revetments to absorb the energy of the water, overflow basins, drainage canals and polders . [34] Treatises on traditional flood control techniques were written by officials such as Pan Jixun , [35] who argued that joining branches of the river increased the water's power and this in turn increased its ability to flush sediment. [36] The difficult situation around the confluence of the Yellow River, the Huai, and the Grand Canal, however, still led to a major flood of the regional center Sizhou and Pan's dismissal from court. Subsequently, the river's 1680 flood entirely submerged Sizhou and the nearby Ming Zuling tombs beneath Hongze Lake for centuries until modern irrigation and flood control lowered the water level enough to permit their excavation and the tombs' restoration.
Between 1851 and 1855 , [18] [27] [29] the Yellow River returned to the north amid the floods that provoked the Nien and Taiping Rebellions . The 1887 flood has been estimated to have killed between 900,000 and 2 million people, [37] and is the second-worst natural disaster in history (excluding famines and epidemics). The Yellow River more or less adopted its present course during the 1897 flood . [27] [38]
The 1931 flood killed an estimated 1,000,000 to 4,000,000, [37] and is the worst natural disaster recorded (excluding famines and epidemics).
On 9 June 1938, during the Second Sino-Japanese War , Nationalist troops under Chiang Kai-shek broke the levees holding back the river near the village of Huayuankou in Henan, causing what has been called by Canadian historian, Diana Lary, a "war-induced natural disaster". The goal of the operation was to stop the advancing Japanese troops by following a strategy of "using water as a substitute for soldiers" ( yishui daibing ). The 1938 flood of an area covering 54,000 km 2 (20,800 sq mi) took some 500,000 to 900,000 Chinese lives, along with an unknown number of Japanese soldiers. The flood prevented the Japanese Army from taking Zhengzhou , on the southern bank of the Yellow River, but did not stop them from reaching their goal of capturing Wuhan , which was the temporary seat of the Chinese government and straddles the Yangtze River . [39]
According to the China Exploration and Research Society, [40] the source of the Yellow River is at
34°29′31″N 96°20′25″E in the Bayan Har Mountains near the eastern edge of the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture . The source tributaries drain into Gyaring Lake and Ngoring Lake on the western edge of Golog Prefecture high in the Bayan Har Mountains of Qinghai . In the Zoige Basin along the boundary with Gansu , the Yellow River loops northwest and then northeast before turning south, creating the " Ordos Loop ", and then flows generally eastward across the North China Plain to the Gulf of Bohai , draining a basin of 752,443 square kilometers (290,520 sq mi) which nourishes 140 million people with drinking water and irrigation. [41]
The Yellow River passes through seven present-day provinces and two autonomous regions , namely (from west to east) Qinghai , Sichuan , Gansu , Ningxia , Inner Mongolia , Shaanxi , Shanxi , Henan , and Shandong . Major cities along the present course of the Yellow River include (from west to east) Lanzhou , Yinchuan , Wuhai , Baotou , Luoyang , Zhengzhou , Kaifeng , and Jinan . The current mouth of the Yellow River is located at Kenli County , Shandong.
The river is commonly divided into three stages. These are roughly the northeast of the mountainous Tibetan Plateau , the Ordos Loop and Loess Plateau , and the North China Plain . [42] However, different scholars have different opinions on how the three stages are divided. [ citation needed ] This article mainly adopts the division used by the Yellow River Conservancy Commission . [43]
The Yellow River derived sediments have been transported out of the Bohai Sea, all way to the North Yellow Sea and South Yellow Sea, and formed a Distal Depocenter around the Shandong Peninsula. [44]
The upper reaches of the Yellow River constitute a segment starting from its source in the Bayan Har Mountains and ending at Hekou Town ( Togtoh County ), Inner Mongolia just before it turns sharply to the south. This segment has a total length of 3,472 kilometers (2,157 mi) and total basin area of 386,000 square kilometers (149,000 sq mi), 51.4% of the total basin area. Along this length, the elevation of the Yellow River drops 3,496 meters (11,470 ft), with an average grade of 0.10%.
The source section flows mainly through pastures, swamps, and knolls between the Bayan Har Mountains , and the Anemaqen ( Amne Machin ) Mountains in Qinghai . The river water is clear and flows steadily. Crystal clear lakes are characteristic of this section. The two main lakes along this section are Lake Gyaring (Zhaling) and Lake Ngoring (Eling), with capacities of 4.7 billion and 10.8 billion m 3 (166 and 381 billion ft 3 ), respectively. At elevations over 4,290 m (14,070 ft)) above sea level they are the two largest plateau freshwater lakes nationwide. A significant amount of land in the Yellow River's source area has been designated as the Sanjiangyuan ("'Three Rivers' Sources") National Nature Reserve , to protect the source region of the Yellow River, the Yangtze , and the Mekong .
Flowing east at the eastern edge of the Amne Machin Mountains, the Yellow River enters Maqu County in Gansu . Here, the river skirts through the high-altitude peat bog known as the Zoigê Wetlands and makes a sharp turn towards the northwest forming the border between Maqu and Zoigê County in Sichuan . Flowing now along the northern edge of Amne Machin, the river reenters Qinghai and gradually curves north towards the Longyang Gorge at Xinghai .
The valley section stretches from Longyang Gorge in Qinghai to Qingtong Gorge in Gansu. Steep cliffs line both sides of the river. The water bed is narrow and the average drop is large, so the flow in this section is extremely turbulent and fast. There are 20 gorges in this section, the most famous of these being the Longyang , Jishi, Liujia , Bapan, and Qingtong gorges. The flow conditions in this section makes it the best location for hydroelectric plants. The Yellow River exits Qinghai for the second and final time in these gorges and enters Gansu for the second time just before Liujia Gorge. Downstream from the Yanguo Gorge, the provincial capital of Lanzhou is built upon the Yellow River's banks. The Yellow River flows northeasterly out of Gansu and into Ningxia before the Qingtong Gorge.
After emerging from the Qingtong Gorge, the river comes into a section of vast alluvial plains , the Yinchuan Plain and Hetao Plain . In this section, the regions along the river are mostly deserts and grasslands , with very few tributaries. The flow is slow. The Hetao Plain has a length of 900 km (560 mi) and width of 30 to 50 km (19 to 31 mi). It is historically the most important irrigation plain along the Yellow River.
The Ordos Loop formed by an enormous twist of the Yellow River, beginning at Zhongning County in Ningxia and ending with a drastic eastward turn at its confluence with the Wei at Tongguan in Shaanxi . However, the official division for the middle reaches of the river run from Hekou in Togtoh County , Inner Mongolia , to Zhengzhou , Henan . The middle reaches are 1,206 km (749 mi) long, with a basin area of 344,000 square kilometers (133,000 sq mi), 45.7% of the total, with a total elevation drop of 890 m (2,920 ft), an average drop of 0.074%. There are 30 large tributaries along the middle reaches, and the water flow is increased by 43.5% on this stage. The middle reaches contribute 92% of the river's silts.
The middle stream of the Yellow River passes through the Loess Plateau , where substantial erosion takes place. The large amount of mud and sand discharged into the river makes the Yellow River the most sediment -laden river in the world. The highest recorded annual level of silts discharged into the Yellow River is 3.91 billion tons in 1933. The highest silt concentration level was recorded in 1977 at 920 kg/m 3 (57.4 lb/ft 3 ). These sediments later deposit in the slower lower reaches of the river, elevating the river bed and creating the famous "river above ground". From Hekou to Yumenkou, the river passes through the longest series of continuous valleys on its main course, collectively called the Jinshan Valley. The abundant hydrodynamic resources stored in this section make it the second most suitable area to build hydroelectric power plants. The famous Hukou Waterfall is in the lower part of this valley on the border of Shanxi and Shaanxi .
In the lower reaches, from Zhengzhou , Henan to its mouth, a distance of 786 km (488 mi), the river is confined to a levee -lined course as it flows to the northeast across the North China Plain before emptying into the Bohai Sea . The basin area in this stage is only 23,000 square kilometers (8,900 sq mi), a mere 3% of the total, because few tributaries add to the flow in this stage; nearly all rivers to the south drain into the Huai River , whereas those to the north drain into the Hai River . The Huai River Basin, for example, is separated from the Yellow River Basin by the south dike of the Yellow River. [45] The total drop in elevation of the lower reaches is 93.6 m (307 ft), with an average grade of 0.012%.
The silts received from the middle reaches form sediments here, elevating the river bed. Excessive sediment deposits have raised the riverbed several meters above the surrounding ground. At Kaifeng , Henan, the Yellow River is 10 meters (33 ft) above the ground level. [46]
The Yellow River is notable for the large amount of silt it carries—1.6 billion tons annually at the point where it descends from the Loess Plateau . If it is running to the sea with sufficient volume, 1.4 billion tons are carried to the sea per year. [ citation needed ] One estimate gives 34 kilograms of silt per cubic meter as opposed to 10 for the Colorado and 1 for the Nile . [18]
Its average discharge is said to be 2,110 cubic meters per second (32,000 for the Yangtze), with a maximum of 25,000 and minimum of 245. However, since 1972, it often runs dry before it reaches the sea. The low volume is due to increased agricultural irrigation , increased by a factor of five since 1950. Water diverted from the river as of 1999 served 140 million people and irrigated 74,000 km 2 (48,572 mi 2 ) of land. [41] The Yellow River delta totals 8,000 square kilometers (3,090 mi 2 ). However, with the decrease in silt reaching the sea, it has been reported to be shrinking slightly each year since 1996 through erosion. [47]
The highest volume occurs during the rainy season from July to October, when 60% of the annual volume of the river flows. Maximum demand for irrigation is needed between March and June. In order to capture excess water for use when needed and for flood control and electricity generation, several dams have been built, but their expected life is limited due to the high silt load. A proposed South–North Water Transfer Project involves several schemes to divert water from the Yangtze River : one in the western headwaters of the rivers where they are closest to one another, another from the upper reaches of the Han River , and a third using the route of the old Grand Canal . [ citation needed ]
Due to its heavy load of silt the Yellow River is a depositing stream – that is, it deposits part of its carried burden of soil in its bed in stretches where it is flowing slowly. These deposits elevate the riverbed which flows between natural levees in its lower reaches. Should a flood occur, the river may break out of the levees into the surrounding lower flood plain and take a new channel. Historically this has occurred about once every hundred years. In modern times, considerable effort has been made to strengthen levees and control floods. [ citation needed ]
The Yellow River basin is rich in fish, being the home of more than 160 native species in 92 genera and 28 families , including 19 species found nowhere else in the world ( endemic ). [49] [42] However, due to habitat loss, pollution, introduced species and overfishing many of the natives have declined or disappeared entirely; several are recognized as threatened on China's Red List. [49] [50] Dams and their reservoirs have increased the habitat for species of slow-moving and static waters, while it excluded species of flowing waters and prevented the up- and down-stream breeding migration of others. [49] [50] In the 2000s, only 80 native fish in 63 genera and 18 families were recorded in the Yellow River basin. [49] In contrast, introduced fish have risen in both abundance and number of species; only one introduced fish species was recorded in the 1960s when ichthyologist Li Sizhong published his original survey of fish fauna of the region, but by the 2000s there were 26. [49]
As typical of Asian rivers, Cyprinidae is by far the most diverse family in the Yellow River basin. More than 85 cyprinids have been recorded in this basin, including species that still are present and species that no longer are present. Other highly diverse families are the stone loaches (more than 20 species), gobies ( c. 15 species), true loaches ( c. 10 species) and bagrid catfish ( c. 10 species). [49] Although there are species found throughout much of the river, several have a more restricted range. For example, the uppermost, highest parts on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau has relatively few native species, notably snowtrout and allies ( Gymnocypris , Gymnodiptychus , Platypharodon and Schizopygopsis ), and Triplophysa loaches. [51] Of the 18 endemics in the Yellow River basin, 12 are (or were) found in the upper part. [49] These in particular have become threatened and the fish fauna in many headwaters are now dominated by introduced salmonids . [49] [51] In contrast, the lowermost part of the river and its delta are home to many brackish water or euryhaline species, like gobies (although there are also true freshwater gobies in the Yellow River), Asian seabasses , flatfish and Takifugu pufferfish. [49]
Fishing remains an important activity, but catches have declined. In 2007, it was noted that 40% fewer fish were caught in the Yellow River compared to earlier catches. [50] Large cyprinids ( Asian carp , predatory carp , Wuchang bream and Mongolian redfin ) and large catfish ( Amur and Lanzhou catfish ) are still present, but the largest species, the Chinese paddlefish , kaluga sturgeon and Yangtze sturgeon , have not been reported from the Yellow River basin in about 50 years. [49] [42] [52] Other species that support important fisheries include white Amur bream , ayu , mandarin fish , Protosalanx icefish, northern snakehead , Asian swamp eel and others. [49]
Annual fishing ban has been implemented since 2018, covering the entire Yellow River basin from 1 April to 30 June each year. [53] A total ban of fishing of natural fishes is being implemented in the upper reaches of the Yellow River starting 1 April 2022, covering Qinghai , Sichuan and Gansu provinces, until the end of 2025. For the rest of the basin, the annual ban is extended to a period from 1 April to 31 July. [54]
The Yellow River is generally less suitable for aquaculture than the rivers of central and southern China , such as the Yangtze or the Pearl River , but aquaculture is also practiced in some areas along the Yellow River. An important aquaculture area is the riverside plain in Xingyang City, upstream from Zhengzhou . Since the development of fish ponds started in Xingyang's riverside Wangcun Town in 1986, the pond systems in Wangcun have grown to the total size of 15,000 mu (10 km 2 ), making the town the largest aquaculture center in North China . [55]
Two turtle species are native to the Yellow River basin: the Chinese pond turtle and Chinese softshell turtle . [56] Both species—but especially the softshell—are widely farmed for food. [57] A variety of the Chinese softshell turtle popular in Chinese gourmets is called the Yellow River turtle ( 黄河鳖 ). Nowadays most of the Yellow River turtles eaten in China's restaurants comes from turtle farms , which may or may not be near the Yellow River. In 2007, construction started in Wangcun , Henan on a large farm for raising this turtle variety. With the capacity for raising 5 million turtles a year, the facility was expected to become Henan's largest farm of this kind. [58]
The huge, entirely aquatic Chinese giant salamander , a species that has declined drastically due primarily to persecution for food and traditional medicine , is native to the Yellow River and other Chinese rivers. It is farmed in large numbers in several parts of China and genetic studies have revealed that the captive stock mostly is of Yellow River origin. As these often are released back into the wild, the Yellow River type of the Chinese giant salamander has spread to other parts of China, which represents a problem to the other types. [59]
On 25 November 2008, Tania Branigan of The Guardian filed a report "China's Mother River: the Yellow River", claiming that severe pollution has made one-third of China's Yellow River unusable even for agricultural or industrial use, due to factory discharges and sewage from fast-expanding cities. [60] The Yellow River Conservancy Commission had surveyed more than 8,384 mi (13,493 km) of the river in 2007 and said 33.8% of the river system registered worse than "level five" according to the criteria used by the UN Environment Program . [ dubious – discuss ] Level five is unfit for drinking, aquaculture, industrial use, or even agriculture. The report said waste and sewage discharged into the system last year totaled 4.29b tons. Industry and manufacturing made up 70% of the discharge into the river with households accounting for 23% and just over 6% coming from other sources. [ which? ]
In ancient times, it was believed that the Yellow River flowed from Heaven as a continuation of the Milky Way . In a Chinese legend, Zhang Qian is said to have been commissioned to find the source of the Yellow River. After sailing up-river for many days, he saw a girl spinning and a cow herd. Upon asking the girl where he was, she presented him with her shuttle with instructions to show it to the astrologer Yan Junping (嚴君平). When he returned, the astrologer recognized it as the shuttle of the Weaving Girl ( Vega ), and, moreover, said that at the time Zhang received the shuttle, he had seen a wandering star interpose itself between the Weaving Girl and the cow herd ( Altair ). [61]
The provinces of Hebei and Henan derive their names from the Yellow River. Their names mean, respectively, "North of the River" and "South of the River", although the border between them historically has never been stable, and currently the border between Hebei and Henan is not the Yellow River, but the Zhang River instead.
Traditionally, it is believed that the Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River basin. The Chinese refer to the river as "the Mother River" and "the cradle of the Chinese civilization". During the long history of China , the Yellow River has been considered a blessing as well as a curse and has been nicknamed both "China's Pride" and "China's Sorrow". [62]
Despite Yellow River having a central role in the development of Chinese civilization on North China Plain, flooding and constant rerouting of the river have also caused many great disaster to population along the river for long, hence it is also known as a River of disaster ( Chinese : 灾难河 ), with the disaster brought by the River said as history of disaster in the development of Chinese civilization, and the management of Yellow River have been a great political trouble to various Chinese dynasties throughout the history since ancient time. [63] [64]
Sometimes the Yellow River is poetically called the "Muddy Flow" ( 濁 流 ; 浊 流 ; Zhuó Liú ). The Chinese idiom "when the Yellow River flows clear" is used to refer to an event that will never happen and is similar to the English expression "when pigs fly". [ citation needed ]
"The Yellow River running clear" was reported as a good omen during the reign of the Yongle Emperor , along with the appearance of such auspicious legendary beasts as qilin (an African giraffe brought to China by a Bengal embassy aboard Zheng He 's ships in 1414) and zouyu (not positively identified) and other strange natural phenomena. [65] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River | 107 |
where is the huang he river on a world map | Yellow River | Location, Map, & Facts | Written by Charles E. Greer , Igor Vladimirovich Popov See All
Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Top Questions
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Yellow River , Chinese (Pinyin) Huang He or (Wade-Giles romanization) Huang Ho , also spelled Hwang Ho , English Yellow River , principal river of northern China , east-central and eastern Asia . The Yellow River is often called the cradle of Chinese civilization. With a length of 3,395 miles (5,464 km), it is the country’s second longest river—surpassed only by the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang)—and its drainage basin is the third largest in China, with an area of some 290,000 square miles (750,000 square km).
The river rises in southern Qinghai province on the Plateau of Tibet and crosses six other provinces and two autonomous regions in its course to the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli), an embayment of the Yellow Sea of the North Pacific Ocean . In its lower reaches it is a shifting, turbulent, silt-laden stream that often overflows its banks and sends floodwaters across the North China Plain . For that reason, it has been given such names as “China’s Sorrow” and “The Ungovernable.” The Mandarin Chinese word huang (“yellow”) is a reference to the fine loess sediments that the river carries to the sea. The Yellow River basin has an enormous population—exceeded by only a small number of countries—and the river and its tributaries flow past some of China’s oldest cities, including Lanzhou , Baotou , Xi’an (Sian), Taiyuan , Luoyang , Zhengzhou , Kaifeng , and Jinan .
The Yellow River is divided into three distinct parts: the mountainous upper course, the middle course across a plateau, and the lower course across a low plain.
The Yellow River originates at an elevation above 15,000 feet (4,600 metres) in the Bayan Har Mountains , in the eastern Plateau of Tibet. In its upper reaches the river crosses two large bodies of water, Lakes Ngoring and Gyaring. Those shallow lakes, each covering an area of about 400 square miles (1,000 square km), are rich in fish and freeze over in winter. The Yellow River in that region flows generally from west to east. The broad highlands of the upper course rise 1,000 to 1,700 feet (300 to 500 metres) above the river and its tributaries. The highlands consist of crystalline rocks that are sometimes visible as eroded outcroppings on the surface. The river enters a region of deep gorges , winding its way first southeast, then northwest around the A’nyêmaqên (Amne Machin) Mountains, where its fall exceeds 10 feet per mile (2 metres per km), and then east again between the Xiqing and Laji mountains.
Past the gorges, near the city of Lanzhou in southeastern Gansu province, it leaves the Plateau of Tibet. That transition marks the end of the upper Yellow River, which is some 725 miles (1,165 km) from its source. The upper course drains a basin covering about 48,000 square miles (124,000 square km), consisting chiefly of inaccessible, highly mountainous, sparsely populated terrain with a cold climate.
The middle course of the Yellow River, extending more than 1,800 miles (2,900 km), consists of a great loop and drains an area of about 23,000 square miles (60,000 square km). The river at first flows northeast for about 550 miles (880 km) through the sandy soils of the northern Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia and of the western Ordos Plateau . It has many rapids there, and in a number of places it narrows. The river then turns eastward and flows for another 500 miles (800 km) through alluvial plains in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, in places branching into numerous distributary channels. In that stretch its fall is less than half a foot per mile (9 cm per km), and many of the channels have been developed over the millennia for irrigated agriculture.
The Yellow River then turns sharply to the south and flows for about 445 miles (715 km), forming the border between Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces. The river’s width usually does not exceed 150 to 200 feet (45 to 60 metres) in that section, as it cuts through narrow gorges with steep slopes several hundred feet (above 100 metres) in height. The river then gradually widens, notably after receiving the waters of its two longest tributaries—first the Fen River of Shanxi province and then the Wei River of Shaanxi. At the confluence with the Wei, the Yellow River turns sharply to the east for another 300 miles (480 km) as it flows through inaccessible gorges between the Zhongtiao and eastern Qin (Tsinling) mountains. The average fall in that stretch is slightly more than 1 foot per mile (20 cm per km) and becomes increasingly rapid in the last 100 miles (160 km) before the river reaches the North China Plain at the city of Zhengzhou in Henan province.
Most of the middle course is cut through the Loess Plateau , which extends eastward from the Plateau of Tibet to the North China Plain at elevations ranging between 3,000 and 7,000 feet (900 and 2,100 metres). The plateau contains terraced slopes as well as alluvial plains and a scattering of peaks sometimes rising more than 1,500 feet (450 metres) above the plateau. The river has cut at least six terraces across the plateau, which rise to more than 1,600 feet (500 metres) above the present river level. The terraces, formed over the past 2.5 million years, provide an important record of landscape evolution and ancient environmental change in the region. The underlying rock systems are covered with thick layers of loose soils, consisting mainly of wind-deposited sand and loess . The loess strata reach thicknesses of 160 to 200 feet (50 to 60 metres) and in some places as much as 500 feet (150 metres). Through those loose deposits the river has cut deep valleys, carrying away with it huge quantities of surface material, making that region one of the most highly eroded landscapes in the world. The easily eroded loess soil accounts for the instability of the riverbed both in the middle basin, where the erosion is considerable, and on the plain, where deposition builds up the channel bed.
Downstream from Zhengzhou the Yellow River broadens out to flow through Henan and Shandong provinces across the North China Plain . The plain is a great, nearly featureless alluvial fan broken only by the low hills of central Shandong; it was formed over some 25 million years as the Yellow River and other rivers deposited enormous quantities of silt , sand , and gravel into the shallow sea that once covered the region. The plain has been densely inhabited for millennia and long has been one of China’s principal agricultural regions. The river has changed its course across the plain several times, and the region’s inhabitants have built extensive systems of levees and irrigation works in an attempt to control the river’s flow. The area illustrates perhaps better than any other place on Earth how human activity has combined with natural forces to shape the landscape.
The lower Yellow River is about 435 miles (700 km) long with an average fall of about 3 inches per mile (5 cm per km). Along the river are found occasional areas of sand dunes 15 to 30 feet (5 to 9 metres) high. In general, however, the plain is an area of great floods because the riverbed, built up gradually by sediment deposits, lies above the surrounding land in many places. In the section north of the city of Kaifeng in northern Henan, the low-water level is some 15 feet (5 metres) above the surrounding countryside, the mid-water level between 19 and 23 feet (6 and 7 metres), and the high-water level sometimes as much as 30 to 35 feet (9 to 11 metres) above the land. From Kaifeng to the Grand Canal (Da Yunhe), the levees are lower than farther upstream, rarely exceeding 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 metres) in height. Marshes are common. Below the Grand Canal the height of the levees increases to between 13 and 16 feet (4 and 5 metres) and in some places to 25 feet (8 metres).
The delta of the Yellow River begins approximately 50 miles (80 km) from its mouth and spreads out over an area of about 2,100 square miles (5,400 square km). The delta land is marshy, composed of mud and silt, and is covered with reeds. A sandbar at the river’s mouth impedes navigation at low tide by boats drawing more than 4 feet (1.2 metres) of water; at high tide the depth on the bar is 8 or 9 feet (2.4 or 2.7 metres).
Until the late 20th century the Yellow River delta was one of the most actively growing deltas in the world, as the North China Plain continued to extend farther into the Bo Hai (the remnant of the ancient sea now covered by the plain). In the century from 1870 to 1970 the delta grew an average of more than 12 miles (19 km). Some outlying parts expanded even more rapidly: one area grew 6 miles (10 km) during the period 1949–51, and another grew more than 15 miles (24 km) in 1949–52. However, beginning in the 1950s, dam construction upstream—notably the Sanmen Gorge installation in Henan province—began to reduce the silt load that the river could carry to its mouth. By the 1990s the delta was continuing to expand seaward, but it was also eroding. The Chinese government subsequently took measures to divert the final part of the main stream, so that deposits built up on the north side of the delta. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-River | 107 |
where is the huang he river on a world map | Yellow River Location & Facts | Where is the Yellow River? - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com | - Instructor Danielle Reid View bio
Where is the Yellow River? How did the Yellow River get its name? See Yellow River facts, learn the length of the Yellow River, and read about its history. Updated: 07/01/2021
The Yellow River has been dangerous in the past due to severe flooding along the river. The river was settled so that farming could sustain life, but flooding has also destroyed entire communities. Today, drought is the largest concern because farming requires water, especially in the dry regions of northern China.
The Yellow River begins in the mountains of the Qinghai province of China and flows through 6 other provinces, a span of 3,398 miles, before emptying into the Bo Hai Sea.
The Yellow River gets its name from the yellow sediments that are carried on it. It is the second-largest river in China, the seventh-largest river in the world, and has been the main source of water in northern China for many centuries. The river has been known to flood in the past, though since 1972 the river has dried up annually.
The Yellow River gets its name from the yellow sediments that flow from the middle courses down to the lower courses of the river. These come from the loess rock formations along the canyon regions of the middle courses.
The Yellow River , also known as the Huang He River or "Mother River" in China, is a waterway that spans 3,398 miles throughout China's northern territory. The river runs from west to east and flows through seven modern provinces. The Yellow River originates on the Tibet-Qinghai plateau and continues through the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong. Its path ends at the Bo Hai Gulf in the Yellow Sea. It is one of two main rivers in China, the other being the Yangtze River to the south. It is the seventh-longest river in the world and the second-longest river in China.
The Yellow River has been given many names since the development of early Chinese civilization, specifically names related to the growth of Chinese culture and ownership of the surrounding territory. The name "Yellow River" comes from the yellow silt and sediment found within the river, sometimes thought to be the most sedimentary river in the world. The river runs very slowly and appears very muddy as a result. Most sediment is obtained from the Loess Plateau in the lower regions of the river. "Huang He" directly translates to Yellow River from simplified Chinese.
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The Yellow River is perhaps the most important river in northern Chinese culture. The climate of the region is normally very dry, so having a reliable source of water is critical to inhabiting the area. The Huang He River has supplied water to millions of people since settlement began along the river around 2100 B.C. The river has allowed for the settlement of many modern communities across the entire nation of China as it flows from the mountains to the sea.
The length of the Yellow River is 3,398 miles in total. Examining the river from north to south in a direct line, the waterway is roughly 683 miles long. From east to west, the river runs 1,180 miles. At its widest point, the Yellow River is between 3 and 12 miles wide, and the narrowest part is a mere inch. Over the course of its history, the Yellow River has been recorded to have a major course change at least five times and has lengthened overall during these shifts. In recent years, the river has shrunk slightly due to erosion. Many smaller waterways connect to the main river. The river begins in the upper mountainous regions of the Tibetan Plateau and flows to the Bo Sea in eastern China.
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where is the huang he river on a world map | Kids History: Geography of Ancient China | Ancient China
Geography
History for Kids >> Ancient China
The geography of Ancient China shaped the way the civilization and culture developed. The large land was isolated from much of the rest of the world by dry deserts to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the east, and impassable mountains to the south. This enabled the Chinese to develop independently from other world civilizations.
The geography of Ancient China shaped the way the civilization and culture developed. The large land was isolated from much of the rest of the world by dry deserts to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the east, and impassable mountains to the south. This enabled the Chinese to develop independently from other world civilizations.
Map showing the geography of China from cia.gov
(click map to see larger picture)
Rivers
Perhaps the two most important geographical features of Ancient China were the two major rivers that flowed through central China: the Yellow River to the north and the Yangtze River to the south. These major rivers were a great source of fresh water, food, fertile soil, and transportation. They also were the subjects of Chinese poetry, art, literature, and folklore.
Yellow River
The Yellow River is often called the "cradle of Chinese civilization". It was along the banks of the Yellow river where the Chinese civilization first formed. The Yellow River is 3,395 miles long making it the sixth longest river in the world. It is also called the Huang He River.
Early Chinese farmers built small villages along the Yellow River. The rich yellow colored soil was good for growing a grain called millet. The farmers of this area also raised sheep and cattle.
Yangtze River
The Yangtze River is south of the Yellow River and flows in the same direction (west to east). It is 3,988 miles long and is the third longest river in the world. Just like the Yellow River, the Yangtze played an important role in the development of the culture and civilization of Ancient China.
Farmers that lived along the Yangtze River took advantage of the warm climate and rainy weather to grow rice. Eventually the land along the Yangtze became some of the most important and wealthy land in all of Ancient China.
The Yangtze also served as a boundary between northern and southern China. It is very wide and difficult to cross. The famous Battle of Red Cliffs took place along the river.
Mountains
To the south and southeast of China are the Himalaya Mountains. These are the highest mountains in the world. They provided a nearly impassable border for Ancient China, keeping the area isolated from many other civilizations. They were also important to Chinese religion and were considered sacred.
Deserts
To the north and west of Ancient China were two of the world's largest deserts: the Gobi Desert and the Taklamakan Desert. These deserts also provided borders that kept the Chinese isolated from the rest of the world. The Mongols, however, lived in the Gobi Desert and were constantly raiding cities of northern China. This is why the Great Wall of China was built to protect the Chinese from these northern invaders.
Interesting Facts about the Geography of Ancient China
- Today the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River serves as the world's largest hydro-electric power source.
- The Yellow River also has the name "China's Sorrow" because of the terrible floods that have occurred throughout history when its banks overflowed.
- The Taklamakan Desert has the nickname of the "Sea of Death" because of its temperature extremes and poisonous snakes.
- Much of the Silk Road traveled along the deserts to the north and west of China.
- The religion of Buddhism is closely associated with the Himalaya Mountains.
Activities
- Take a ten question quiz about this page.
- Listen to a recorded reading of this page:
For more information on the civilization of Ancient China: | https://www.ducksters.com/history/china/geography_of_ancient_china.php | 107 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | AB&R (American Barcode and RFID) | Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), is a technology that is similar in theory to barcode identification. It is a wireless non-contact use of radio frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purpose of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects.
The tags contain electronically stored information. Some tags are powered and read at short ranges by magnetic fields. Others are powered by a local power source such as a battery, or in some cases they don’t have a battery but collect energy from the interrogating EM field, and then act as a passive transponder to emit microwaves or UHF radio waves.
RFID tags are used in several different industries. They can be attached to an automobile during production and can be used to track its progress through the assembly line. Additional RFID applications include, pharmaceuticals which can be tracked through warehouses, during deliveries and when they have reached their destination. Livestock and pets may have tags injected, allowing positive identification of the animal. RFID tags can also be used to save lives when they are used on offshore oil and gas platforms. The tags are worn by personnel as a safety measure, allowing them to be located 24 hours a day and to be quickly found in emergencies.
The RFID chip’s information is stored electronically in a non-volatile memory. The tag includes a small RF transmitter and receiver. An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. The tag receives the message and responds with its identification information, which may only be a unique serial number or it may even be product related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other product specific information.
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader they require. A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags. The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1-2,000 feet, allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags. An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags that is initiated with an interrogator signal from an active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag’s return reporting signal.
Readers that are fixed in place can be setup to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly targeted reading area for when the tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. | https://www.abr.com/rfid/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Active RFID vs. Passive RFID: Which Tags to Choose and When to Use Them | For decades, asset-heavy businesses have used radio-frequency identification (RFID) in the form of tags and labels to monitor and track their assets, yet the indecisiveness of choosing either an active RFID tag or a passive RFID tag has remained.
With a global market share estimated to be worth $36.3 billion , businesses are recognising the importance of digitising their asset tracking processes. This has lead to a surge in the implementation of tracking technology and systems, such as an RFID tracking system.
As automated cloud-based tools like Asset Tracking Software become more accessible and affordable, asset-heavy organisations are reaping the benefits associated with tracking all forms of physical assets. Benefits such as building accurate asset registers, reducing replacements costs, and improving inventory management.
Among popular tracking technologies like GPS , NFC , Barcode, and QR Code , RFID is a system that can be traced back to the Second World War where it was used to identify and track enemy aircraft. Over the next 80 years, RFID technology evolved and became a main feature in the way businesses track, monitor, and manage their assets by using passive RFID and active RFID tags.
Today, RFID systems are used in multiple industries and processes including logistics, education, supply chain management, and manufacturing. One industry that has thrived using RFID tracking tools is retail . American retailer Walmart spent $500 million implementing an RFID system in 2004. While UK clothes retailer River Island increased their stock accuracy from 70% to 98% by deploying active and passive tags across stores and warehouses.
One advantage that RFID has over other tracking systems is the use of different types of tags. Each tag, whether passive RFID or active RFID, has various attributes that make either one ideal for different scenarios.
Compare the best RFID asset tracking systems. For FREE .
Although each RFID system can differ depending on the use of a passive or active tag, the required equipment remains the same; a tag, an antenna, a scanner/reader, and a digital database. Once in place, the process of tracking assets with RFID is broken down into four stages:
- Data is stored on a tag and attached to an asset
- An antenna identifies the signal of a nearby tag (passive or active)
- A reader connects to the antenna and receives the data stored on a tag
- The reader transmits the data to a database
A key variable that is interchangeable in this process is the tag. The two main types of tags to choose from are passive RFID tags and active RFID tags. Each tag offers its own unique capabilities when it comes to storing data and interacting with readers.
A passive RFID tag is a batteryless tag typically used in smaller-scale operations and tracking systems. Because a passive tag has no internal power source, it is instead powered by the energy transmitted from an RFID scanner. When compared side-by-side with their counterparts, passive RFID tags are generally a more utilised tag for businesses that have a large inventory of physical assets. This is due to their inexpensive cost and potential for a longer operational life.
Key points to remember regarding passive RFID tags include:
- They have no internal power source and are powered by a reader
- They have a lower signal range than active RFID tags
- Each one has a longer life expectancy than active RFID tags
- They are an inexpensive option starting at an average price of $0.08 per tag
Whereas a passive tag has no internal power source, an active RFID tag comes equipped with its own battery and internal transmitter in the form of a beacon or transponder. This means that an active tag is able to continuously transmit signals to an RFID reader up to 150 metres away, depending on frequency levels. This makes the use of an active RFID tag popular among businesses wanting to track assets in real-time and build an accurate real-time location system (RTLS).
Key points to remember regarding active RFID tags include:
- They’re battery-powered tags that continuously transmit signals
- They are commonly used to transmit data in real-time
- Each one has a signal range of up to 150 meters
- They’re more expensive than passive RFID tags
When implementing an active RFID system to track assets, businesses require a reader, an active tag, and an antenna. Unlike a passive tag, which has no internal power source, an active RFID tag will feature a long-lasting battery. This allows it to continuously send signals and transmit data stored on a tag.
Active tags are more than likely to operate with an ultra-high frequency between 433MHz and 960MHz. This allows them to transmit data at a greater range and provide users with the ability to read data stored on a tag from up to 150 metres away. This makes an active RFID system a perfect choice for processes such as:
- Vehicle tolling
- Real-time location tracking
- Inventory management
- Asset management
As with most equipment, there are variations of active tags that are suited for multiple business tasks. An active tag can be either a transponder or a beacon, the latter sending data continuously every 3-5 seconds and the former taking a more efficient approach by sending data only when a reader is in range to conserve battery life.
As well as this, active RFID systems also operate on various frequency levels. Lower frequencies providing more penetrating signals that are best used with materials such as water and metals.
- Long data read ranges of up to 150 metres
- Significant data memory and storage capacity
- Advanced data capabilities
- Rugged and weather-proof active labels
- More expensive than passive RFID tags
- Tags will need replacing when battery life ends
A passive RFID system consists of a reader, an antenna, and a passive tag. As the tag has no battery or power source, it consists of two components: an antenna and a microchip or integrated circuit (IC).
Instead of continuously sending data like an active RFID tag, passive tags will sit idle and wait until they receive a signal from a reader. With no power source, a passive tag’s energy is drawn from the radio-frequency waves that originate from a reader. These waves wake the tag’s IC and generate a signal back to the RFID system. This is also known as backscatter.
Similar to active tags, there are multiple variations of a passive RFID tag. Two of the most common types are called inlays and hard tags. Inlays provide the cheapest option for an RFID system and are typically attached to assets with adhesive. Whereas hard passive tags are rugged and made from materials such as plastic and metal. This makes hard tags essential for businesses with assets that operate in:
- High temperatures
- Adverse weather conditions
- Outdoor environments
As with active tags, passive RFID tags also work at various frequencies, too. Each frequency offers different read ranges, attachment options, and capabilities.
- More affordable than active tags
- Have a long life expectancy
- Offer a vast range of tag options
- Small and lightweight
- Have a low signal range of up to 5 metres
- Require a reader to power the tag’s microchip/IC
Sitting directly between active and passive tags are semi-passive RFID tags. A semi-passive tag behaves exactly as a middle option should, by offering a mix of features taken from the capabilities of both active and passive tags. Semi-passive RFID tags feature:
- An internal battery as well as an antenna and microchip/IC
- A low signal range when compared to an active RFID tag
- Cheaper pricing than active tags
- Real-time tracking and sensor capabilities
- Shorter read ranges than active tags but longer read ranges than passive tags
Like an active RFID tag, a semi-passive tag has an internal power source in the shape of a battery. Typically small and eco-friendly, a semi-passive tag’s battery is used to improve data transmission and read ranges. Making them an ideal and cheap solution for using RFID tracking systems for environment and condition monitoring such as temperature-controlled transit.
Looking for Asset Tracking Software ? Compare Now | https://comparesoft.com/assets-tracking-software/rfid-asset-tracking/active-rfid-vs-passive-rfid-tags/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Active RFID vs. Passive RFID: What’s the Difference? | Posted by Suzanne Smiley on 10th Dec 2019
Updated on December 10, 2019 - New Active vs. Passive Infographic
There are two kinds of RFID systems that exist- passive and active. If you're new to RFID, you might be wondering what the difference is between these types, and which one is best for your application. Below, we provide a short answer to these questions and more along with a more complex, long-form answer.
Passive RFID systems use tags with no internal power source and instead are powered by the electromagnetic energy transmitted from an RFID reader. Passive RFID tags are used for applications such as access control, file tracking , race timing , supply chain management, smart labels , and more. The lower price point per tag makes employing passive RFID systems economical for many industries.
Active RFID systems use battery-powered RFID tags that continuously broadcast their own signal. Active RFID tags are commonly used as “beacons” to accurately track the real-time location of assets or in high-speed environments such as tolling. Active tags provide a much longer read range than passive tags, but they are also much more expensive.
Generally speaking, three main parts make up in a passive RFID system – an RFID reader or interrogator, an RFID antenna , and RFID tags . Unlike active RFID tags, passive RFID tags only have two main components – the tag's antenna and the microchip or integrated circuit (IC).
As the name implies, passive tags wait for a signal from an RFID reader. The reader sends energy to an antenna which converts that energy into an RF wave that is sent into the read zone. Once the tag is read within the read zone, the RFID tag’s internal antenna draws in energy from the RF waves. The energy moves from the tag’s antenna to the IC and powers the chip which generates a signal back to the RF system. This is called backscatter. The backscatter, or change in the electromagnetic or RF wave, is detected by the reader (via the antenna), which interprets the information.
As mentioned above, passive RFID tags have no internal power source, and a standard passive RFID tag consists only of an IC and internal antenna; this basic structure is commonly referred to as an RFID inlay . Countless other types of passive RFID tags exist on the market, but all tags generally fall into two categories – inlays or hard tags. Hard RFID tags are durable and made of plastic, metal, ceramic and even rubber. They come in all shapes and sizes and are typically designed for a unique function, material, or application.
A few different groups work to further divide passive hard tags; however, some tags will exist within two or more groups.
High Temperature – Certain industries, like healthcare, track the number of cycles that instruments undergo in punishing autoclaves. Specific passive RFID tags are designed to withstand extreme temperatures and accommodate for those types of applications, among others.
Rugged – Applications in outdoor environments or tough warehouses need a tag that can withstand snow and ice, dust and debris, or even the crushing forces felt under a tractor wheel. For these applications, a highly rugged passive tag is needed to make the application successful.
Size – Some applications have specific size constraints when tracking small or large items. Size is one of the more important questions to answer when choosing an RFID tag because there are many different sizes available.
Materials – If an application requires tracking metal assets, UHF metal-mount tags may be the only option. These tags are specifically designed to mitigate the problems UHF RFID faces around metal.
Embeddable – If tagging an item becomes a problem for specific applications due to significant wear and tear, embeddable tags can fit in small crevices and be covered in epoxy so the RFID tag is out of harm’s way.
Inlays are usually the cheapest RFID tags costing as low as $0.12 per tag in high volumes, but the price does not affect the performance. These inlays are grouped into three main types:
Dry Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material or substrate called a web. These inlays look like they have been laminated and come standard with no adhesive.
Wet Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material, usually PET or PVT, with an adhesive backing. Most of the time these inlays are clear and can be peeled off their roll and immediately stuck on an item.
Paper Face Tags – These are essentially wet inlays with a white paper or poly face. These are ideal for applications that need printed numbers or logos on the front for identification.
Passive RFID tags do not all operate at the same frequency. There are three main frequencies within which passive RFID tags operate. The frequency range, along with other factors, strongly determines the read range, attachment materials, and application options.
- 125 - 134 KHz – Low Frequency (LF) – An extremely long wavelength with usually a short read range of about 1 - 10 centimeters. This frequency is typically used with animal tracking because it is not affected much by water or metal.
- 13.56 MHz – High Frequency (HF) & Near-Field Communication (NFC) – A medium wavelength with a typical read range of about 1 centimeter up to 1 meter. This frequency is used with data transmissions, access control applications, DVD kiosks, and passport security – applications that do not require a long read range.
- 865 - 960 MHz – Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – A short, high-energy wavelength of about a one meter which translates to long read range. Passive UHF tags can be read from an average distance of about 5 - 6 meters, but larger UHF tags can achieve up to 30+ meters of read range in ideal conditions. This frequency is typically used with race timing, IT asset tracking, file tracking, and laundry management as all these applications typically need more than a meter of read range.
As a general rule, higher frequencies will have shorter, higher-energy wavelengths and, in turn, longer read ranges. Moreover, the higher the frequency, generally speaking, the more issues an RFID system will have around non-RFID-friendly materials like water and metal.
Pros of Passive RFID:
- Smaller tags
- Much cheaper tags
- Thinner/more flexible tags
- Higher range of tag options
- Tags can last a lifetime without a battery (depending on the wear and tear)
To read more about Passive RFID, checkout our article - What is Passive RFID?
There are two main frequencies used by active systems – 433 MHz and 2.45 GHz. User preference, tag selection, or environmental considerations usually dictate which frequency to use for most applications. Companies generally favor RFID systems that operate on the 433 MHz because it has a longer wavelength enabling it to work a little better with non-RF friendly materials like metal and water.
Active RFID systems have three essential parts – a reader or interrogator, antenna, and a tag. Active RFID tags possess their own power source – an internal battery that enables them to have extremely long read ranges as well as large memory banks.
Typically, active RFID tags are powered by a battery that will last between 3 - 5 years, but when the battery fails, the active tag will need to be replaced. As the active tag market matures, replaceable batteries will be a cost saving option. The system’s functionality depends entirely on the type of tag chosen for the application.
Essentially, two different types of active RFID tags are available – transponders and beacons.
Transponders – In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the reader (like passive systems) will send a signal first, and then the active transponder will send a signal back with the relevant information. Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life when the tag is out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are commonly used in secure access control and in toll booth payment systems.
Beacons – In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait to hear the reader’s signal. Instead, true to its name, the tag will ‘beacon’, or send out its specific information every 3 - 5 seconds. Beacon tags are very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo tracking applications. Active tag’s beacons can be read hundreds of meters away, but, in order to conserve battery life, they may be set to a lower transmit power in order to reach around 100 meters read range.
Tasked with weathering harsh environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures and moisture, most active RFID tags are encased in a rugged shell. Because of the size of the enclosed battery, circuitry, and bulk of a durable exterior, active RFID tags are usually much larger than passive tags. Also, some active tags may have on-board sensors that track environmental parameters. These sensors can track moisture levels, temperature, and other key identifiers that a company can use for their application.
All these additional features translate to increased costs for the customer, but the return on investment of a system may far outweigh the initial costs. The prices of active RFID tags range anywhere from $20 to $100+ depending on the tag’s ability to withstand harsh conditions and other key functional features of the tag. Given the required investment of an active RFID system , active tags are usually reserved for tracking high worth assets or for items where accurate location tracking is necessary to the success of the system. A few examples of these type of assets are pipes, cargo containers, and machinery.
While new applications for active RFID systems appear daily, these systems are usually used in the oil and gas industry, shipping and logistics, construction, mining, and high-value manufacturing.
Pros of Active RFID Tags:
- Extremely Long Read Range
- Increased tag abilities with partnered technologies (GPS, sensors, etc.)
- Extremely Rugged tag options
While both active and passive RFID technologies use radio frequencies to communicate information, each is very different, and likewise, possess different qualities well suited for varying applications.
If you have any questions about active or passive RFID, please leave a comment below or contact us .
To learn more about all things RFID, check out our website or our YouTube Channel .
To read more about RFID basics, check out the links below! | https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-insider/active-rfid-vs-passive-rfid | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Active RFID vs. Passive RFID: Which Tags to Choose and When to Use Them | For decades, asset-heavy businesses have used radio-frequency identification (RFID) in the form of tags and labels to monitor and track their assets, yet the indecisiveness of choosing either an active RFID tag or a passive RFID tag has remained.
With a global market share estimated to be worth $36.3 billion , businesses are recognising the importance of digitising their asset tracking processes. This has lead to a surge in the implementation of tracking technology and systems, such as an RFID tracking system.
As automated cloud-based tools like Asset Tracking Software become more accessible and affordable, asset-heavy organisations are reaping the benefits associated with tracking all forms of physical assets. Benefits such as building accurate asset registers, reducing replacements costs, and improving inventory management.
Among popular tracking technologies like GPS , NFC , Barcode, and QR Code , RFID is a system that can be traced back to the Second World War where it was used to identify and track enemy aircraft. Over the next 80 years, RFID technology evolved and became a main feature in the way businesses track, monitor, and manage their assets by using passive RFID and active RFID tags.
Today, RFID systems are used in multiple industries and processes including logistics, education, supply chain management, and manufacturing. One industry that has thrived using RFID tracking tools is retail . American retailer Walmart spent $500 million implementing an RFID system in 2004. While UK clothes retailer River Island increased their stock accuracy from 70% to 98% by deploying active and passive tags across stores and warehouses.
One advantage that RFID has over other tracking systems is the use of different types of tags. Each tag, whether passive RFID or active RFID, has various attributes that make either one ideal for different scenarios.
Compare the best RFID asset tracking systems. For FREE .
Although each RFID system can differ depending on the use of a passive or active tag, the required equipment remains the same; a tag, an antenna, a scanner/reader, and a digital database. Once in place, the process of tracking assets with RFID is broken down into four stages:
- Data is stored on a tag and attached to an asset
- An antenna identifies the signal of a nearby tag (passive or active)
- A reader connects to the antenna and receives the data stored on a tag
- The reader transmits the data to a database
A key variable that is interchangeable in this process is the tag. The two main types of tags to choose from are passive RFID tags and active RFID tags. Each tag offers its own unique capabilities when it comes to storing data and interacting with readers.
A passive RFID tag is a batteryless tag typically used in smaller-scale operations and tracking systems. Because a passive tag has no internal power source, it is instead powered by the energy transmitted from an RFID scanner. When compared side-by-side with their counterparts, passive RFID tags are generally a more utilised tag for businesses that have a large inventory of physical assets. This is due to their inexpensive cost and potential for a longer operational life.
Key points to remember regarding passive RFID tags include:
- They have no internal power source and are powered by a reader
- They have a lower signal range than active RFID tags
- Each one has a longer life expectancy than active RFID tags
- They are an inexpensive option starting at an average price of $0.08 per tag
Whereas a passive tag has no internal power source, an active RFID tag comes equipped with its own battery and internal transmitter in the form of a beacon or transponder. This means that an active tag is able to continuously transmit signals to an RFID reader up to 150 metres away, depending on frequency levels. This makes the use of an active RFID tag popular among businesses wanting to track assets in real-time and build an accurate real-time location system (RTLS).
Key points to remember regarding active RFID tags include:
- They’re battery-powered tags that continuously transmit signals
- They are commonly used to transmit data in real-time
- Each one has a signal range of up to 150 meters
- They’re more expensive than passive RFID tags
When implementing an active RFID system to track assets, businesses require a reader, an active tag, and an antenna. Unlike a passive tag, which has no internal power source, an active RFID tag will feature a long-lasting battery. This allows it to continuously send signals and transmit data stored on a tag.
Active tags are more than likely to operate with an ultra-high frequency between 433MHz and 960MHz. This allows them to transmit data at a greater range and provide users with the ability to read data stored on a tag from up to 150 metres away. This makes an active RFID system a perfect choice for processes such as:
- Vehicle tolling
- Real-time location tracking
- Inventory management
- Asset management
As with most equipment, there are variations of active tags that are suited for multiple business tasks. An active tag can be either a transponder or a beacon, the latter sending data continuously every 3-5 seconds and the former taking a more efficient approach by sending data only when a reader is in range to conserve battery life.
As well as this, active RFID systems also operate on various frequency levels. Lower frequencies providing more penetrating signals that are best used with materials such as water and metals.
- Long data read ranges of up to 150 metres
- Significant data memory and storage capacity
- Advanced data capabilities
- Rugged and weather-proof active labels
- More expensive than passive RFID tags
- Tags will need replacing when battery life ends
A passive RFID system consists of a reader, an antenna, and a passive tag. As the tag has no battery or power source, it consists of two components: an antenna and a microchip or integrated circuit (IC).
Instead of continuously sending data like an active RFID tag, passive tags will sit idle and wait until they receive a signal from a reader. With no power source, a passive tag’s energy is drawn from the radio-frequency waves that originate from a reader. These waves wake the tag’s IC and generate a signal back to the RFID system. This is also known as backscatter.
Similar to active tags, there are multiple variations of a passive RFID tag. Two of the most common types are called inlays and hard tags. Inlays provide the cheapest option for an RFID system and are typically attached to assets with adhesive. Whereas hard passive tags are rugged and made from materials such as plastic and metal. This makes hard tags essential for businesses with assets that operate in:
- High temperatures
- Adverse weather conditions
- Outdoor environments
As with active tags, passive RFID tags also work at various frequencies, too. Each frequency offers different read ranges, attachment options, and capabilities.
- More affordable than active tags
- Have a long life expectancy
- Offer a vast range of tag options
- Small and lightweight
- Have a low signal range of up to 5 metres
- Require a reader to power the tag’s microchip/IC
Sitting directly between active and passive tags are semi-passive RFID tags. A semi-passive tag behaves exactly as a middle option should, by offering a mix of features taken from the capabilities of both active and passive tags. Semi-passive RFID tags feature:
- An internal battery as well as an antenna and microchip/IC
- A low signal range when compared to an active RFID tag
- Cheaper pricing than active tags
- Real-time tracking and sensor capabilities
- Shorter read ranges than active tags but longer read ranges than passive tags
Like an active RFID tag, a semi-passive tag has an internal power source in the shape of a battery. Typically small and eco-friendly, a semi-passive tag’s battery is used to improve data transmission and read ranges. Making them an ideal and cheap solution for using RFID tracking systems for environment and condition monitoring such as temperature-controlled transit.
Looking for Asset Tracking Software ? Compare Now | https://comparesoft.com/assets-tracking-software/rfid-asset-tracking/active-rfid-vs-passive-rfid-tags/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Active RFID vs. Passive RFID: What’s the Difference? | Posted by Suzanne Smiley on 10th Dec 2019
Updated on December 10, 2019 - New Active vs. Passive Infographic
There are two kinds of RFID systems that exist- passive and active. If you're new to RFID, you might be wondering what the difference is between these types, and which one is best for your application. Below, we provide a short answer to these questions and more along with a more complex, long-form answer.
Passive RFID systems use tags with no internal power source and instead are powered by the electromagnetic energy transmitted from an RFID reader. Passive RFID tags are used for applications such as access control, file tracking , race timing , supply chain management, smart labels , and more. The lower price point per tag makes employing passive RFID systems economical for many industries.
Active RFID systems use battery-powered RFID tags that continuously broadcast their own signal. Active RFID tags are commonly used as “beacons” to accurately track the real-time location of assets or in high-speed environments such as tolling. Active tags provide a much longer read range than passive tags, but they are also much more expensive.
Generally speaking, three main parts make up in a passive RFID system – an RFID reader or interrogator, an RFID antenna , and RFID tags . Unlike active RFID tags, passive RFID tags only have two main components – the tag's antenna and the microchip or integrated circuit (IC).
As the name implies, passive tags wait for a signal from an RFID reader. The reader sends energy to an antenna which converts that energy into an RF wave that is sent into the read zone. Once the tag is read within the read zone, the RFID tag’s internal antenna draws in energy from the RF waves. The energy moves from the tag’s antenna to the IC and powers the chip which generates a signal back to the RF system. This is called backscatter. The backscatter, or change in the electromagnetic or RF wave, is detected by the reader (via the antenna), which interprets the information.
As mentioned above, passive RFID tags have no internal power source, and a standard passive RFID tag consists only of an IC and internal antenna; this basic structure is commonly referred to as an RFID inlay . Countless other types of passive RFID tags exist on the market, but all tags generally fall into two categories – inlays or hard tags. Hard RFID tags are durable and made of plastic, metal, ceramic and even rubber. They come in all shapes and sizes and are typically designed for a unique function, material, or application.
A few different groups work to further divide passive hard tags; however, some tags will exist within two or more groups.
High Temperature – Certain industries, like healthcare, track the number of cycles that instruments undergo in punishing autoclaves. Specific passive RFID tags are designed to withstand extreme temperatures and accommodate for those types of applications, among others.
Rugged – Applications in outdoor environments or tough warehouses need a tag that can withstand snow and ice, dust and debris, or even the crushing forces felt under a tractor wheel. For these applications, a highly rugged passive tag is needed to make the application successful.
Size – Some applications have specific size constraints when tracking small or large items. Size is one of the more important questions to answer when choosing an RFID tag because there are many different sizes available.
Materials – If an application requires tracking metal assets, UHF metal-mount tags may be the only option. These tags are specifically designed to mitigate the problems UHF RFID faces around metal.
Embeddable – If tagging an item becomes a problem for specific applications due to significant wear and tear, embeddable tags can fit in small crevices and be covered in epoxy so the RFID tag is out of harm’s way.
Inlays are usually the cheapest RFID tags costing as low as $0.12 per tag in high volumes, but the price does not affect the performance. These inlays are grouped into three main types:
Dry Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material or substrate called a web. These inlays look like they have been laminated and come standard with no adhesive.
Wet Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material, usually PET or PVT, with an adhesive backing. Most of the time these inlays are clear and can be peeled off their roll and immediately stuck on an item.
Paper Face Tags – These are essentially wet inlays with a white paper or poly face. These are ideal for applications that need printed numbers or logos on the front for identification.
Passive RFID tags do not all operate at the same frequency. There are three main frequencies within which passive RFID tags operate. The frequency range, along with other factors, strongly determines the read range, attachment materials, and application options.
- 125 - 134 KHz – Low Frequency (LF) – An extremely long wavelength with usually a short read range of about 1 - 10 centimeters. This frequency is typically used with animal tracking because it is not affected much by water or metal.
- 13.56 MHz – High Frequency (HF) & Near-Field Communication (NFC) – A medium wavelength with a typical read range of about 1 centimeter up to 1 meter. This frequency is used with data transmissions, access control applications, DVD kiosks, and passport security – applications that do not require a long read range.
- 865 - 960 MHz – Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – A short, high-energy wavelength of about a one meter which translates to long read range. Passive UHF tags can be read from an average distance of about 5 - 6 meters, but larger UHF tags can achieve up to 30+ meters of read range in ideal conditions. This frequency is typically used with race timing, IT asset tracking, file tracking, and laundry management as all these applications typically need more than a meter of read range.
As a general rule, higher frequencies will have shorter, higher-energy wavelengths and, in turn, longer read ranges. Moreover, the higher the frequency, generally speaking, the more issues an RFID system will have around non-RFID-friendly materials like water and metal.
Pros of Passive RFID:
- Smaller tags
- Much cheaper tags
- Thinner/more flexible tags
- Higher range of tag options
- Tags can last a lifetime without a battery (depending on the wear and tear)
To read more about Passive RFID, checkout our article - What is Passive RFID?
There are two main frequencies used by active systems – 433 MHz and 2.45 GHz. User preference, tag selection, or environmental considerations usually dictate which frequency to use for most applications. Companies generally favor RFID systems that operate on the 433 MHz because it has a longer wavelength enabling it to work a little better with non-RF friendly materials like metal and water.
Active RFID systems have three essential parts – a reader or interrogator, antenna, and a tag. Active RFID tags possess their own power source – an internal battery that enables them to have extremely long read ranges as well as large memory banks.
Typically, active RFID tags are powered by a battery that will last between 3 - 5 years, but when the battery fails, the active tag will need to be replaced. As the active tag market matures, replaceable batteries will be a cost saving option. The system’s functionality depends entirely on the type of tag chosen for the application.
Essentially, two different types of active RFID tags are available – transponders and beacons.
Transponders – In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the reader (like passive systems) will send a signal first, and then the active transponder will send a signal back with the relevant information. Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life when the tag is out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are commonly used in secure access control and in toll booth payment systems.
Beacons – In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait to hear the reader’s signal. Instead, true to its name, the tag will ‘beacon’, or send out its specific information every 3 - 5 seconds. Beacon tags are very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo tracking applications. Active tag’s beacons can be read hundreds of meters away, but, in order to conserve battery life, they may be set to a lower transmit power in order to reach around 100 meters read range.
Tasked with weathering harsh environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures and moisture, most active RFID tags are encased in a rugged shell. Because of the size of the enclosed battery, circuitry, and bulk of a durable exterior, active RFID tags are usually much larger than passive tags. Also, some active tags may have on-board sensors that track environmental parameters. These sensors can track moisture levels, temperature, and other key identifiers that a company can use for their application.
All these additional features translate to increased costs for the customer, but the return on investment of a system may far outweigh the initial costs. The prices of active RFID tags range anywhere from $20 to $100+ depending on the tag’s ability to withstand harsh conditions and other key functional features of the tag. Given the required investment of an active RFID system , active tags are usually reserved for tracking high worth assets or for items where accurate location tracking is necessary to the success of the system. A few examples of these type of assets are pipes, cargo containers, and machinery.
While new applications for active RFID systems appear daily, these systems are usually used in the oil and gas industry, shipping and logistics, construction, mining, and high-value manufacturing.
Pros of Active RFID Tags:
- Extremely Long Read Range
- Increased tag abilities with partnered technologies (GPS, sensors, etc.)
- Extremely Rugged tag options
While both active and passive RFID technologies use radio frequencies to communicate information, each is very different, and likewise, possess different qualities well suited for varying applications.
If you have any questions about active or passive RFID, please leave a comment below or contact us .
To learn more about all things RFID, check out our website or our YouTube Channel .
To read more about RFID basics, check out the links below! | https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-insider/active-rfid-vs-passive-rfid | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Introduction to RFID Gen 2 | Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects. RFID tags contain electronically stored information, some of these tags are powered by and read at short distances by magnetic fields. Others are powered by battery, or collect energy from the interrogating EM field, and then act as a passive transponder to emit microwaves or UHF radio waves. Battery powered tags are able to operate from hundreds of meters away. Unlike a barcodes, the RFID tag doesn’t need to be within the line of sight of a reader, which allows them to be embedded in the object to be tracked.
RFID tags can be used in many different industries. A tag can be attached to an automobile during it’s production, it can then track the vehicle’s progress through the assembly line. Pharmaceuticals can be tracked during shipment. Livestock and pets can have RFID tags injected into them, allowing positive identification of the animal and it’s location. RFID tags are used on offshore oil and gas platforms to track personnel as a safety measure. When worn in clothing the personnel can be located 24 hours a day and be quickly found in emergencies.
The modern RFID tag can be traced back to 1973, when Mario Caudullo patented a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was powered by an interrogating signal and was demonstrated for use in automatic vehicle identification for unmanned toll systems, electronic license plates, electronic manifests, vehicle routing and vehicle performance monitoring. Other proposed uses were in the field of banking, to be used for electronic checkbooks and credit cards. Also for use in security, including personal identification, automatic gates and surveillance, among other uses.
An RFID system uses tags or labels attached to an object. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read it’s response. RFID tags can either be passive, active or battery assisted passive. An active tag has a battery, and occasionally transmits its ID signal. A battery assisted passive (BAP) has a small battery located in the device and is activated when scanned by a RFID reader. A passive tag is less expensive and smaller since there isn’t a battery in the tag.
RFID tags can either be read-only, which have a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into the database, or they can be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple. Blank tags can be written with an electronic product code by the user.
A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from battery operated, transmit only tags. An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system uses active tags that have been activated by an interrogator signal from the active reader. A variation of this system can also use a Battery Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag’s return reporting signal. Fixed readers are used to create a specific interrogation zone which can be controlled. This makes it possible for a targeted reading when the tags travel through the interrogation zone. Mobile readers can easily be handheld or mounted on a traveling cart.
When RFID tags are combined with mobile computing and Web technologies they provide a means for companies to identify and manage their assets. Mobile computers, with integrated RFID readers, now have the capabilities to deliver a complete set of tools that eliminate the need for extensive paperwork, while giving proof of identification and attendance. This system also eliminates the need for manual data entry.
An automatic identification control system that is based on RFID technology has a significant value to inventory control. The system can provide accurate information of a company’s current inventory. An example of this was proved in a study that was held by Wal-Mart. The use of RFID technology reduced Out-of-Stock instances by 30 percent for products that sold between 0.1 and 15 units a day. RFID tags can also help a company ensure the security of their inventory. With the use of just in time tracking of inventory using RFID, the computer data can show whether the inventory stored in the warehouse is correct with current readings. Other major benefits to using RFID include the reduction of labor costs, the simplification of business processes and the reduction of inventory mistakes.
The tracking of products, using RFID, can begin with the production of the item, then proceed through the whole process of shipping and receipt by the customer. In 2005, the Wynn Casino in Las Vegas, began placing individual RFID tags on their high value chips. These tags allowed the casinos to detect counterfeit chips, track betting habits of individual players, speed up chip tallies and determine counting mistakes made by dealers. In 2010, the Bellagio casino was robbed of $1.5 million in chips. The RFID tags in these chips were immediately invalidated, which made the cash value of the chips nothing.
Logistics and transportation are areas that greatly benefit from the use of RFID technology. Yard management, shipping and distribution centers use RFID tracking technology extensively. In the railroad industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the owner, identification number and type of equipment including its characteristics.
EPCglobal has worked on international standards for the use of mostly passive RFID and the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in the identification of many items in the supply chain for companies worldwide.
One of the missions was to simplify the Babel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s. In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of problems that had been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was approved in December 2004. This was approved after a contention from Intermec that that standard may infringe a number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that the standard itself does not infringe their patents, making the standard royalty free. The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with minor modifications as ISO 18000-6C in 2006.
We have only scratched the surface on discovering the possibilities that RFID provides for companies of all sizes as well as many aspects of life in general. The possibilities are seemingly endless and the benefits are incomparable.
For more info on asset tracking systems, Click Here .
Image cc Flickr via loca luna | https://www.abr.com/introduction-to-rfid-gen-2/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Active RFID vs. Passive RFID: What’s the Difference? | Posted by Suzanne Smiley on 10th Dec 2019
Updated on December 10, 2019 - New Active vs. Passive Infographic
There are two kinds of RFID systems that exist- passive and active. If you're new to RFID, you might be wondering what the difference is between these types, and which one is best for your application. Below, we provide a short answer to these questions and more along with a more complex, long-form answer.
Passive RFID systems use tags with no internal power source and instead are powered by the electromagnetic energy transmitted from an RFID reader. Passive RFID tags are used for applications such as access control, file tracking , race timing , supply chain management, smart labels , and more. The lower price point per tag makes employing passive RFID systems economical for many industries.
Active RFID systems use battery-powered RFID tags that continuously broadcast their own signal. Active RFID tags are commonly used as “beacons” to accurately track the real-time location of assets or in high-speed environments such as tolling. Active tags provide a much longer read range than passive tags, but they are also much more expensive.
Generally speaking, three main parts make up in a passive RFID system – an RFID reader or interrogator, an RFID antenna , and RFID tags . Unlike active RFID tags, passive RFID tags only have two main components – the tag's antenna and the microchip or integrated circuit (IC).
As the name implies, passive tags wait for a signal from an RFID reader. The reader sends energy to an antenna which converts that energy into an RF wave that is sent into the read zone. Once the tag is read within the read zone, the RFID tag’s internal antenna draws in energy from the RF waves. The energy moves from the tag’s antenna to the IC and powers the chip which generates a signal back to the RF system. This is called backscatter. The backscatter, or change in the electromagnetic or RF wave, is detected by the reader (via the antenna), which interprets the information.
As mentioned above, passive RFID tags have no internal power source, and a standard passive RFID tag consists only of an IC and internal antenna; this basic structure is commonly referred to as an RFID inlay . Countless other types of passive RFID tags exist on the market, but all tags generally fall into two categories – inlays or hard tags. Hard RFID tags are durable and made of plastic, metal, ceramic and even rubber. They come in all shapes and sizes and are typically designed for a unique function, material, or application.
A few different groups work to further divide passive hard tags; however, some tags will exist within two or more groups.
High Temperature – Certain industries, like healthcare, track the number of cycles that instruments undergo in punishing autoclaves. Specific passive RFID tags are designed to withstand extreme temperatures and accommodate for those types of applications, among others.
Rugged – Applications in outdoor environments or tough warehouses need a tag that can withstand snow and ice, dust and debris, or even the crushing forces felt under a tractor wheel. For these applications, a highly rugged passive tag is needed to make the application successful.
Size – Some applications have specific size constraints when tracking small or large items. Size is one of the more important questions to answer when choosing an RFID tag because there are many different sizes available.
Materials – If an application requires tracking metal assets, UHF metal-mount tags may be the only option. These tags are specifically designed to mitigate the problems UHF RFID faces around metal.
Embeddable – If tagging an item becomes a problem for specific applications due to significant wear and tear, embeddable tags can fit in small crevices and be covered in epoxy so the RFID tag is out of harm’s way.
Inlays are usually the cheapest RFID tags costing as low as $0.12 per tag in high volumes, but the price does not affect the performance. These inlays are grouped into three main types:
Dry Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material or substrate called a web. These inlays look like they have been laminated and come standard with no adhesive.
Wet Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material, usually PET or PVT, with an adhesive backing. Most of the time these inlays are clear and can be peeled off their roll and immediately stuck on an item.
Paper Face Tags – These are essentially wet inlays with a white paper or poly face. These are ideal for applications that need printed numbers or logos on the front for identification.
Passive RFID tags do not all operate at the same frequency. There are three main frequencies within which passive RFID tags operate. The frequency range, along with other factors, strongly determines the read range, attachment materials, and application options.
- 125 - 134 KHz – Low Frequency (LF) – An extremely long wavelength with usually a short read range of about 1 - 10 centimeters. This frequency is typically used with animal tracking because it is not affected much by water or metal.
- 13.56 MHz – High Frequency (HF) & Near-Field Communication (NFC) – A medium wavelength with a typical read range of about 1 centimeter up to 1 meter. This frequency is used with data transmissions, access control applications, DVD kiosks, and passport security – applications that do not require a long read range.
- 865 - 960 MHz – Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – A short, high-energy wavelength of about a one meter which translates to long read range. Passive UHF tags can be read from an average distance of about 5 - 6 meters, but larger UHF tags can achieve up to 30+ meters of read range in ideal conditions. This frequency is typically used with race timing, IT asset tracking, file tracking, and laundry management as all these applications typically need more than a meter of read range.
As a general rule, higher frequencies will have shorter, higher-energy wavelengths and, in turn, longer read ranges. Moreover, the higher the frequency, generally speaking, the more issues an RFID system will have around non-RFID-friendly materials like water and metal.
Pros of Passive RFID:
- Smaller tags
- Much cheaper tags
- Thinner/more flexible tags
- Higher range of tag options
- Tags can last a lifetime without a battery (depending on the wear and tear)
To read more about Passive RFID, checkout our article - What is Passive RFID?
There are two main frequencies used by active systems – 433 MHz and 2.45 GHz. User preference, tag selection, or environmental considerations usually dictate which frequency to use for most applications. Companies generally favor RFID systems that operate on the 433 MHz because it has a longer wavelength enabling it to work a little better with non-RF friendly materials like metal and water.
Active RFID systems have three essential parts – a reader or interrogator, antenna, and a tag. Active RFID tags possess their own power source – an internal battery that enables them to have extremely long read ranges as well as large memory banks.
Typically, active RFID tags are powered by a battery that will last between 3 - 5 years, but when the battery fails, the active tag will need to be replaced. As the active tag market matures, replaceable batteries will be a cost saving option. The system’s functionality depends entirely on the type of tag chosen for the application.
Essentially, two different types of active RFID tags are available – transponders and beacons.
Transponders – In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the reader (like passive systems) will send a signal first, and then the active transponder will send a signal back with the relevant information. Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life when the tag is out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are commonly used in secure access control and in toll booth payment systems.
Beacons – In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait to hear the reader’s signal. Instead, true to its name, the tag will ‘beacon’, or send out its specific information every 3 - 5 seconds. Beacon tags are very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo tracking applications. Active tag’s beacons can be read hundreds of meters away, but, in order to conserve battery life, they may be set to a lower transmit power in order to reach around 100 meters read range.
Tasked with weathering harsh environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures and moisture, most active RFID tags are encased in a rugged shell. Because of the size of the enclosed battery, circuitry, and bulk of a durable exterior, active RFID tags are usually much larger than passive tags. Also, some active tags may have on-board sensors that track environmental parameters. These sensors can track moisture levels, temperature, and other key identifiers that a company can use for their application.
All these additional features translate to increased costs for the customer, but the return on investment of a system may far outweigh the initial costs. The prices of active RFID tags range anywhere from $20 to $100+ depending on the tag’s ability to withstand harsh conditions and other key functional features of the tag. Given the required investment of an active RFID system , active tags are usually reserved for tracking high worth assets or for items where accurate location tracking is necessary to the success of the system. A few examples of these type of assets are pipes, cargo containers, and machinery.
While new applications for active RFID systems appear daily, these systems are usually used in the oil and gas industry, shipping and logistics, construction, mining, and high-value manufacturing.
Pros of Active RFID Tags:
- Extremely Long Read Range
- Increased tag abilities with partnered technologies (GPS, sensors, etc.)
- Extremely Rugged tag options
While both active and passive RFID technologies use radio frequencies to communicate information, each is very different, and likewise, possess different qualities well suited for varying applications.
If you have any questions about active or passive RFID, please leave a comment below or contact us .
To learn more about all things RFID, check out our website or our YouTube Channel .
To read more about RFID basics, check out the links below! | https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-insider/active-rfid-vs-passive-rfid | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Different Types of RFID Systems | RFID systems can be broken down by the frequency band within which they operate. There are also two broad categories of systems—passive and active RFID.
RFID systems can be broken down by the frequency band within which they operate: low frequency, high frequency, and ultra-high frequency. There are also two broad categories of systems—passive and active RFID. In the sections below we will explore the frequencies and types of RFID systems.
RFID systems are often categorized by their operating frequency band. Frequency refers to the size of the radio waves used to communicate between system components. RFID systems throughout the world operate in low frequency (LF) , high frequency (HF), and ultra-high frequency (UHF) bands . Radio waves behave differently at each of these frequencies and there are advantages and disadvantages associated with using each frequency band.
For example, if an RFID system operates at a lower frequency, it has a slower data read rate, but increased capabilities for reading near or on metal or liquid surfaces. If a system operates at a higher frequency, it generally has faster data transfer rates and longer read ranges, but more sensitivity to radio wave interference caused by liquids and metals in the environment. However technology innovations in recent years have made it possible to use ultra-high frequency RFID systems around liquids and metals.
The LF band covers frequencies from 30 KHz to 300 KHz. Typically LF RFID systems operate at 125 KHz, although there are some that operate at 134 KHz. This frequency band provides a short read range of 10 cm, and has slower read speed than the higher frequencies, but is not very sensitive to radio wave interference.
LF RFID applications include access control and livestock tracking.
Standards for LF animal-tracking systems are defined in ISO 14223, and ISO/IEC 18000-2. The LF spectrum is not considered a truly global application because of slight differences in frequency and power levels throughout the world.
The HF band ranges from 3 to 30 MHz. Most HF RFID systems operate at 13.56 MHz with read ranges between 10 cm and 1 m. HF systems experience moderate sensitivity to interference.
HF RFID is commonly used for ticketing, payment, and data transfer applications.
There are several HF RFID standards in place, such as the ISO 15693 standard for tracking items, and the ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092 standards for Near Field Communication (NFC), a short range technology that is commonly used for data exchange between devices. Other HF standards include the ISO/IEC 14443 A and ISO/IEC 14443 standards for MIFARE technology, which used in smart cards and proximity cards, and the JIS X 6319-4 for FeliCa, which is a smart card system commonly used in electronic money cards.
The UHF frequency band covers the range from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. RAIN RFID systems comply with the UHF Gen2 standard and use the 860 to 960 MHz band. While there is some variance in frequency from region to region, RAIN RFID systems in most countries operate between 900 and 915 MHz.
The read range of passive UHF systems can be as long as 12 m, and UHF RFID has a faster data transfer rate than LF or HF. UHF RFID is the most sensitive to interference, but many UHF product manufacturers have found ways of designing tags, antennas, and readers to keep performance high even in difficult environments. Passive UHF tags are easier and cheaper to manufacture than LF and HF tags.
RAIN RFID is used in a wide variety of applications , ranging from retail inventory management, to pharmaceutical anti-counterfeiting, to wireless device configuration. The majority of new RFID projects are using UHF (RAIN) as opposed to LF or HF, making RAIN the fastest growing segment of the RFID market.
The UHF frequency band is regulated by a single global standard called the EPCGlobal Gen2 (ISO 18000-63) UHF standard. Impinj spearheaded development of the Gen2 standard, lobbied governments to allocate frequency spectrum and co-founded the RAIN RFID Alliance along with Google, Intel, and Smartrac in order to promote the universal adoption of RAIN technology solutions across many different vertical markets.
RAIN RFID uses the UHF Gen2 standard and is the fastest growing segment of the RFID market
In active RFID systems, tags have their own transmitter and power source. Usually, the power source is a battery. Active tags broadcast their own signal to transmit the information stored on their microchips.
Active RFID systems typically operate in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) band and offer a range of up to 100 m. In general, active tags are used on large objects, such as rail cars, big reusable containers, and other assets that need to be tracked over long distances.
There are two main types of active tags: transponders and beacons. Transponders are “woken up” when they receive a radio signal from a reader, and then power on and respond by transmitting a signal back. Because transponders do not actively radiate radio waves until they receive a reader signal, they conserve battery life.
Beacons are often used in real-time locating systems (RTLS) , in order to track the precise location of an asset continuously. Unlike transponders, beacons are not powered on by the reader’s signal. Instead, they emit signals at pre-set intervals. Depending on the level of locating accuracy required, beacons can be set to emit signals every few seconds, or once a day. Each beacon’s signal is received by reader antennas that are positioned around the perimeter of the area being monitored, and communicates the tag’s ID information and position.
The wireless ecosystem for customers is very large and growing daily, there are use cases where Active RFID and Passive RFID are deployed simultaneously for an additive approach to asset or sensor management.
In passive RFID systems the reader and reader antenna send a radio signal to the tag. The RFID tag then uses the transmitted signal to power on, and reflect energy back to the reader.
Passive RFID systems can operate in the low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF) or ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio bands. As passive system ranges are limited by the power of the tag’s backscatter (the radio signal reflected from the tag back to the reader), they are typically less than 10 m. Because passive tags do not require a power source or transmitter, and only require a tag chip and antenna, they are cheaper, smaller, and easier to manufacture than active tags.
Passive tags can be packaged in many different ways, depending on the specific RFID application requirements. For instance, they may be mounted on a substrate, or sandwiched between an adhesive layer and a paper label to create smart RFID labels. Passive tags may also be embedded in a variety of devices or packages to make the tag resistant to extreme temperatures or harsh chemicals.
RAIN is a passive RFID solution which is useful for many applications , and is commonly deployed to track goods in the supply chain, to inventory products in the retail industry, to authenticate products such as pharmaceuticals, and to embed RFID capability in a variety of devices.
A Battery-Assisted Passive RFID tag is a type of passive tag which incorporates a crucial active tag feature. While most passive RFID tags use the energy from the RFID reader’s signal to power on the tag’s chip and backscatter to the reader, BAP tags use an integrated power source (usually a battery) to power on the chip, so all of the captured energy from the reader can be used for backscatter. Unlike transponders, BAP tags do not have their own transmitters.
Unlock IoT for everything with RAIN RFID. | https://www.impinj.com/products/technology/how-can-rfid-systems-be-categorized | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | AB&R (American Barcode and RFID) | Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), is a technology that is similar in theory to barcode identification. It is a wireless non-contact use of radio frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purpose of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects.
The tags contain electronically stored information. Some tags are powered and read at short ranges by magnetic fields. Others are powered by a local power source such as a battery, or in some cases they don’t have a battery but collect energy from the interrogating EM field, and then act as a passive transponder to emit microwaves or UHF radio waves.
RFID tags are used in several different industries. They can be attached to an automobile during production and can be used to track its progress through the assembly line. Additional RFID applications include, pharmaceuticals which can be tracked through warehouses, during deliveries and when they have reached their destination. Livestock and pets may have tags injected, allowing positive identification of the animal. RFID tags can also be used to save lives when they are used on offshore oil and gas platforms. The tags are worn by personnel as a safety measure, allowing them to be located 24 hours a day and to be quickly found in emergencies.
The RFID chip’s information is stored electronically in a non-volatile memory. The tag includes a small RF transmitter and receiver. An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. The tag receives the message and responds with its identification information, which may only be a unique serial number or it may even be product related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other product specific information.
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader they require. A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags. The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1-2,000 feet, allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags. An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags that is initiated with an interrogator signal from an active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag’s return reporting signal.
Readers that are fixed in place can be setup to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly targeted reading area for when the tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. | https://www.abr.com/rfid/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | RFID Asset Tracking - | In today’s world of instant gratification, businesses must perfect the art of distribution. Unfortunately, tracing critical resources both cheaply and efficiently during shipment or production is incredibly challenging. Using an automated RFID asset tracking management system built on this small but powerful technology ensures that your company can access real-time reporting without increasing labor or other overhead costs.
Unlike the common barcode, RFID tags do not need to be in sight of a scanner to be read and can actually be embedded into the object being tracked. Instead, their tags are connected to a centralized system or application that relays information from the package, equipment, or animal to a PRAT (passive reader active tag), ARPT (active reader passive tag), or ARAT (active reader active tag). Each system creates a specific interrogation zone which can be altered to fit the needs of a particular job or industry. Combined with mobile computing and access to a network, the real-time nature of RFID reduces costs while increasing productivity during transportation and manufacturing. RFID tags and labels can streamline your shipping process by identifying, managing, and tracking your assets.
But what if your business can’t afford to invest in a specialized printer? Paragon Data Systems, Inc. offers companies of all sizes instant RFID compliance by printing smart labels, eliminating the upfront costs of training, testing and hardware purchases and upgrades. Now, anyone can conveniently meet all compliance mandates for retail (EPC) or DoD barcodes. No need to worry about changing regulations — we make sure all current RFID requirements are met. Pricing is based on volume, not on membership fees, so you only pay for the labels you need. By printing on demand, our system eliminates costly wasted labels, saving your company money. High-volume customers can even negotiate a flat rate for future labeling purchases.
Let us shoulder the costs of equipment updates and industry standards — grow your business instantly with Paragon RFID. For more information, please reach out to us at [email protected] .
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Christopher J. Kent Elgin Polymer Compounding Group | https://paragondsi.com/service/rfid-asset-tracking/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | AB&R (American Barcode and RFID) | Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), is a technology that is similar in theory to barcode identification. It is a wireless non-contact use of radio frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purpose of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects.
The tags contain electronically stored information. Some tags are powered and read at short ranges by magnetic fields. Others are powered by a local power source such as a battery, or in some cases they don’t have a battery but collect energy from the interrogating EM field, and then act as a passive transponder to emit microwaves or UHF radio waves.
RFID tags are used in several different industries. They can be attached to an automobile during production and can be used to track its progress through the assembly line. Additional RFID applications include, pharmaceuticals which can be tracked through warehouses, during deliveries and when they have reached their destination. Livestock and pets may have tags injected, allowing positive identification of the animal. RFID tags can also be used to save lives when they are used on offshore oil and gas platforms. The tags are worn by personnel as a safety measure, allowing them to be located 24 hours a day and to be quickly found in emergencies.
The RFID chip’s information is stored electronically in a non-volatile memory. The tag includes a small RF transmitter and receiver. An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. The tag receives the message and responds with its identification information, which may only be a unique serial number or it may even be product related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other product specific information.
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader they require. A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags. The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1-2,000 feet, allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
An Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags. An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags that is initiated with an interrogator signal from an active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag’s return reporting signal.
Readers that are fixed in place can be setup to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly targeted reading area for when the tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. | https://www.abr.com/rfid/ | 108 |
when using rfid what is an arpt (active reader passive tag) | Radio-frequency identification - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Radio-frequency identification ( RFID ) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. An RFID system consists of a tiny radio transponder , a radio receiver and transmitter . When triggered by an electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag transmits digital data, usually an identifying inventory number , back to the reader. This number can be used to track inventory goods. [1]
Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating radio waves . Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater range from the RFID reader, up to hundreds of meters.
Unlike a barcode , the tag does not need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic identification and data capture (AIDC). [2]
RFID tags are used in many industries. For example, an RFID tag attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line , RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses, and implanting RFID microchips in livestock and pets enables positive identification of animals. [3] [4] Tags can also be used in shops to expedite checkout, and to prevent theft by customers and employees. [5]
Since RFID tags can be attached to physical money, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in animals and people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without consent has raised serious privacy concerns. [6] These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues.
In 2014, the world RFID market was worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, and all other form factors. The market value is expected to rise from US$12.08 billion in 2020 to US$16.23 billion by 2029. [7]
In 1945, Léon Theremin invented the "Thing", a listening device for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the added audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator , which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a covert listening device , rather than an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID because it was passive, being energised and activated by waves from an outside source. [8]
Similar technology, such as the Identification friend or foe transponder , was routinely used by the Allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friendly or hostile. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft. [9] An early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, [10] who predicted that "Considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."
Mario Cardullo 's device, patented on January 23, 1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, [11] as it was a passive radio transponder with memory. [12] The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users. It consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device . The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of radio frequency (RF), sound and light as transmission carriers. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate , electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic chequebook, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history). [11]
In 1973, an early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory . [13] The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags. [14]
In 1983, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted ––––to Charles Walton . [15]
In 1996, the first patent for a batteryless RFID passive tag with limited interference was granted to David Everett, John Frech, Theodore Wright, and Kelly Rodriguez. [16]
A radio-frequency identification system uses tags , or labels attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. [17]
RFID tags are made out of three pieces:
- a micro chip (an integrated circuit which stores and processes information and modulates and demodulates radio-frequency (RF) signals)
- an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal
- a substrate [18]
The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory. [18] The RFID tag includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the transmission and sensor data, respectively. [ citation needed ]
RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. [18] A battery-assisted passive tag has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than an active tag for signal transmission. [19] This makes a difference in interference and in exposure to radiation. [ citation needed ]
Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may be written with an electronic product code by the user. [20]
The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with its identification and other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tags that might be within the range of the RFID reader and read them simultaneously. [ citation needed ]
RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. There are 3 types: [21]
- A Passive Reader Active Tag ( PRAT ) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1–2,000 feet (0–600 m), allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.
- An Active Reader Passive Tag ( ARPT ) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags.
- An Active Reader Active Tag ( ARAT ) system uses active tags activated with an interrogator signal from the active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag's return reporting signal.
Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be handheld or mounted on carts or vehicles.
|Band||Regulations||Range||Data speed|| ISO/IEC 18000 |
section
|Remarks|| Approximate tag |
cost in volume
(2006)
|LF: 120–150 kHz||Unregulated||10 cm (4 in)||Low||Part 2||Animal identification, factory data collection||US$1|
|HF: 13.56 MHz||ISM band worldwide||0.1–1 m (4 in – 3 ft 3 in)||Low to moderate||Part 3|| Smart cards ( ISO/IEC 15693 , ISO/IEC 14443 A, B), |
ISO-non-compliant memory cards ( Mifare Classic, iCLASS, Legic, FeliCa ...),
ISO-compatible microprocessor cards (Desfire EV1, Seos)
|US$0.05 to US$5|
|UHF: 433 MHz||Short range devices||1–100 m (3–300 ft)||Moderate||Part 7||Defense applications, Underground Miner Tracking with active tags||US$5|
| UHF: 865–868 MHz (Europe) |
902–928 MHz (North America)
|ISM band||1–12 m (3–40 ft)||Moderate to high||Part 6||EAN, various standards; used by railroads [24]|| US$0.04 to US$1.00 |
(passive tags)
|microwave : 2450–5800 MHz||ISM band||1–2 m (3–7 ft)||High||Part 4||802.11 WLAN, Bluetooth standards||US$25 (active tags)|
|microwave: 3.1–10 GHz||Ultra wide band||up to 200 m (700 ft)||High||Not defined||Requires semi-active or active tags||US$5 projected|
|mm-wave: 24.125 GHz [25] [26] [27]||ISM band worldwide||10–200 m (30–700 ft)||High||Not defined||Requires semi-passive tags. Uses retrodirective backscatter approaches to achieve extended ranges||US$10 projected|
Signaling between the reader and the tag is done in several different incompatible ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to the reader antenna because they are only a small percentage of a wavelength away. In this near field region, the tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in the reader. The tag can modulate the field produced by the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag represents. By switching between lower and higher relative loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a different approach. The tag can backscatter a signal. Active tags may contain functionally separated transmitters and receivers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency related to the reader's interrogation signal. [28]
An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one common type of data stored in a tag. When written into the tag by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The first eight bits are a header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the organization that manages the data for this tag; the organization number is assigned by the EPCGlobal consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of product. The last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particular tag. These last two fields are set by the organization that issued the tag. Rather like a URL , the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify a particular product. [29]
Often more than one tag will respond to a tag reader, for example, many individual products with tags may be shipped in a common box or on a common pallet. Collision detection is important to allow reading of data. Two different types of protocols are used to "singulate" a particular tag, allowing its data to be read in the midst of many similar tags. In a slotted Aloha system, the reader broadcasts an initialization command and a parameter that the tags individually use to pseudo-randomly delay their responses. When using an "adaptive binary tree" protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and then transmits one bit of ID data at a time; only tags with matching bits respond, and eventually only one tag matches the complete ID string. [30]
Both methods have drawbacks when used with many tags or with multiple overlapping readers. [ citation needed ]
"Bulk reading" is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacks sufficient precision for inventory control. A group of objects, all of them RFID tagged, are read completely from one single reader position at one time. However, as tags respond strictly sequentially, the time needed for bulk reading grows linearly with the number of labels to be read. This means it takes at least twice as long to read twice as many labels. Due to collision effects, the time required is greater. [31]
A group of tags has to be illuminated by the interrogating signal just like a single tag. This is not a challenge concerning energy, but with respect to visibility; if any of the tags are shielded by other tags, they might not be sufficiently illuminated to return a sufficient response. The response conditions for inductively coupled HF RFID tags and coil antennas in magnetic fields appear better than for UHF or SHF dipole fields, but then distance limits apply and may prevent success. [ citation needed ] [32]
Under operational conditions, bulk reading is not reliable. Bulk reading can be a rough guide for logistics decisions, but due to a high proportion of reading failures, it is not (yet) [ when? ] suitable for inventory management. However, when a single RFID tag might be seen as not guaranteeing a proper read, multiple RFID tags, where at least one will respond, may be a safer approach for detecting a known grouping of objects. In this respect, bulk reading is a fuzzy method for process support. From the perspective of cost and effect, bulk reading is not reported as an economical approach to secure process control in logistics. [33]
RFID tags are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol University successfully glued RFID micro-transponders to live ants in order to study their behavior. [34] This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFIDs is likely to continue as technology advances.
Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05 mm × 0.05 mm. This is 1/64th the size of the previous record holder, the mu-chip. [35] Manufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM). [36] A major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range to only millimeters.
In early 2020, MIT researchers demonstrated a terahertz frequency identification (TFID) tag that is barely 1 square millimeter in size. The devices are essentially a piece of silicon that are inexpensive, small, and function like larger RFID tags. Because of the small size, manufacturers could tag any product and track logistics information for minimal cost. [37] [38]
An RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track tools, equipment, inventory, assets, people, or other objects.
RFID offers advantages over manual systems or use of barcodes . The tag can be read if passed near a reader, even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds at a time; barcodes can only be read one at a time using current devices. Some RFID tags, such as battery-assisted passive tags, are also able to monitor temperature and humidity. [39]
In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$0.09 each; special tags, meant to be mounted on metal or withstand gamma sterilization, could cost up to US$5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers started at US$50 and could be over US$100 each. [40] Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags were in the US$3–10 range. [ citation needed ]
RFID can be used in a variety of applications, [41] [42] such as:
- Access management
- Tracking of goods
- Tracking of persons and animals [43]
- Toll collection and contactless payment
- Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
- Locating lost airport baggage [44]
- Tracking and billing processes
- Monitoring the physical state of perishable goods [45]
In 2010, three factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9%, and a stable international standard around HF and UHF passive RFID. The adoption of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US , which were responsible for driving global adoption of the barcode in the 1970s and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by the Auto-ID Center . [46]
RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, tools and equipment ( asset tracking ), etc. without manual data entry. Manufactured products such as automobiles or garments can be tracked through the factory and through shipping to the customer. Automatic identification with RFID can be used for inventory systems. Many organisations require that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management . [ citation needed ] Warehouse Management System incorporate this technology to speed up the receiving and delivery of the products and reduce the cost of labor needed in their warehouses. [47]
RFID is used for item level tagging in retail stores. In addition to inventory control, this provides both protection against theft by customers (shoplifting) and employees ("shrinkage") by using electronic article surveillance (EAS), and a self checkout process for customers. Tags of different types can be physically removed with a special tool or deactivated electronically once items have been paid for. [48] On leaving the shop, customers have to pass near an RFID detector; if they have items with active RFID tags, an alarm sounds, both indicating an unpaid-for item, and identifying what it is.
Casinos can use RFID to authenticate poker chips , and can selectively invalidate any chips known to be stolen. [49]
RFID tags are widely used in identification badges , replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need only be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and present a card or enter an access code. [ citation needed ]
In 2010 Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags in ski passes. [50]
Facebook is using RFID cards at most of their live events to allow guests to automatically capture and post photos. [ citation needed ] [ when? ]
Automotive brands have adopted RFID for social media product placement more quickly than other industries. Mercedes was an early adopter in 2011 at the PGA Golf Championships , [51] and by the 2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were using RFID for social media marketing. [52] [ further explanation needed ]
To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices. [53] [ when? ]
Yard management, shipping and freight and distribution centers use RFID tracking. In the railroad industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the owner, identification number and type of equipment and its characteristics. This can be used with a database to identify the type, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried. [54]
In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support maintenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at several airports and airlines. [55] [56]
Some countries are using RFID for vehicle registration and enforcement. [57] RFID can help detect and retrieve stolen cars. [58] [59]
RFID is used in intelligent transportation systems . In New York City , RFID readers are deployed at intersections to track E-ZPass tags as a means for monitoring the traffic flow. The data is fed through the broadband wireless infrastructure to the traffic management center to be used in adaptive traffic control of the traffic lights. [60]
Where ship, rail, or highway tanks are being loaded, a fixed RFID antenna contained in a transfer hose can read an RFID tag affixed to the tank, positively identifying it. [61]
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas pipelines , sewer lines , electrical cables, communication cables, etc. [62]
See also: Biometric passport
The first RFID passports (" E-passport ") were issued by Malaysia in 1998. In addition to information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and place) of entry into and exit out of the country. [ citation needed ]
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include Norway (2005), [63] Japan (March 1, 2006), most EU countries (around 2006), Australia, Hong Kong, the United States (2007), the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (2006), India (June 2008), Serbia (July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), Argentina (2012), Canada (2013), Uruguay (2015) [64] and Israel (2017).
Standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as "contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.
Since 2006, RFID tags included in new United States passports store the same information that is printed within the passport, and include a digital picture of the owner. [65] The United States Department of State initially stated the chips could only be read from a distance of 10 centimetres (3.9 in), but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read the test passports from 10 metres (33 ft) away, [66] the passports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to skim information when the passport is closed. The department will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a personal identification number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator. [67]
In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay for mass transit fares on bus, trains, or subways, or to collect tolls on highways.
Some bike lockers are operated with RFID cards assigned to individual users. A prepaid card is required to open or enter a facility or locker and is used to track and charge based on how long the bike is parked. [ citation needed ]
The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID cards for locking and unlocking cars and for member identification. [68]
In Singapore, RFID replaces paper Season Parking Ticket (SPT). [69]
RFID tags for animals represent one of the oldest uses of RFID. Originally meant for large ranches and rough terrain, since the outbreak of mad-cow disease , RFID has become crucial in animal identification management. An implantable RFID tag or transponder can also be used for animal identification. The transponders are better known as PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags, passive RFID, or " chips " on animals. [70] The Canadian Cattle Identification Agency began using RFID tags as a replacement for barcode tags. Currently CCIA tags are used in Wisconsin and by United States farmers on a voluntary basis. The USDA is currently developing its own program.
RFID tags are required for all cattle sold in Australia and in some states, sheep and goats as well. [71]
Biocompatible microchip implants that use RFID technology are being routinely implanted in humans. The first-ever human to receive an RFID microchip implant was American artist Eduardo Kac in 1997. [72] [73] Kac implanted the microchip live on television (and also live on the Internet) in the context of his artwork Time Capsule . [74] A year later, British professor of cybernetics Kevin Warwick had an RFID chip implanted in his arm by his general practitioner , George Boulos. [75] [76] In 2004 the ' Baja Beach Clubs ' operated by Conrad Chase in Barcelona [77] and Rotterdam offered implanted chips to identify their VIP customers, who could in turn use it to pay for service. In 2009 British scientist Mark Gasson had an advanced glass capsule RFID device surgically implanted into his left hand and subsequently demonstrated how a computer virus could wirelessly infect his implant and then be transmitted on to other systems. [78]
The Food and Drug Administration in the United States approved the use of RFID chips in humans in 2004. [79]
There is controversy regarding human applications of implantable RFID technology including concerns that individuals could potentially be tracked by carrying an identifier unique to them. Privacy advocates have protested against implantable RFID chips, warning of potential abuse. Some are concerned this could lead to abuse by an authoritarian government, to removal of freedoms, [80] and to the emergence of an "ultimate panopticon ", a society where all citizens behave in a socially accepted manner because others might be watching. [81]
On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a conference in New York City demonstrated that they could clone the RFID signal from a human implanted RFID chip, indicating that the device was not as secure as was previously claimed. [82]
Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and very effective. [83] Hospitals are among the first users to combine both active and passive RFID. [84] Active tags track high-value, or frequently moved items, and passive tags track smaller, lower cost items that only need room-level identification. [85] Medical facility rooms can collect data from transmissions of RFID badges worn by patients and employees, as well as from tags assigned to items such as mobile medical devices. [86] The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across America to improve care and reduce costs. [87]
Since 2004 a number of U.S. hospitals have begun implanting patients with RFID tags and using RFID systems, usually for workflow and inventory management. [88] [89] [90] The use of RFID to prevent mix-ups between sperm and ova in IVF clinics is also being considered. [91]
In October 2004, the FDA approved the USA's first RFID chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp. can incorporate personal medical information and could save lives and limit injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to the company. Anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre discovered an FDA Warning Letter that spelled out health risks. [92] According to the FDA, these include "adverse tissue reaction", "migration of the implanted transponder", "failure of implanted transponder", "electrical hazards" and "magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] incompatibility."
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on library items. The tag can contain identifying information or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system may replace or supplement bar codes and may offer another method of inventory management and self-service checkout by patrons. It can also act as a security device, taking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic security strip . [93]
It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags, including some in the Vatican Library in Rome . [94]
Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a conveyor belt , which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for library staff assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds. [95] However, as of 2008 this technology remained too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID taking a large burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will be needed, resulting in some of them getting laid off, [94] but that has so far not happened in North America where recent surveys have not returned a single library that cut staff because of adding RFID. [ citation needed ] [96] In fact, library budgets are being reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation to compensate for the reduced staff size. [ citation needed ] [96] Also, the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the primary tasks of librarians. [ citation needed ] [96] A finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that staff are now more available for answering questions. [ citation needed ] [96]
Privacy concerns have been raised [ by whom? ] surrounding library use of RFID. [97] [98] Because some RFID tags can be read up to 100 metres (330 ft) away, there is some concern over whether sensitive information could be collected from an unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not contain any patron information, [99] and the tags used in the majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from approximately 10 feet (3.0 m). [93] Another concern is that a non-library agency could potentially record the RFID tags of every person leaving the library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent. One simple option is to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in conjunction with the library's database. Another possible enhancement would be to give each book a new code every time it is returned. In future, should readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal could be made difficult if the tags are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by the publisher. [ citation needed ]
RFID technologies are now [ when? ] also implemented in end-user applications in museums. [100] An example was the custom-designed temporary research application, "eXspot", at the Exploratorium , a science museum in San Francisco, California . A visitor entering the museum received an RF tag that could be carried as a card. The eXspot system enabled the visitor to receive information about specific exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information, the visitor could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It was also intended to allow the visitor to take data for later analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at home from a "personalized" website keyed to the RFID tag. [101]
In 2004, school authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka made a decision to start chipping children's clothing, backpacks, and student IDs in a primary school. [102] Later, in 2007, a school in Doncaster , England, piloted a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms. [103] [ when? ] St Charles Sixth Form College in west London , England, starting in 2008, uses an RFID card system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track attendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly, Whitcliffe Mount School in Cleckheaton , England, uses RFID to track pupils and staff in and out of the building via a specially designed card. In the Philippines, during 2012, some schools already [ when? ] use RFID in IDs for borrowing books. [104] Gates in those particular schools also have RFID scanners for buying items at school shops and canteens. RFID is also used in school libraries, and to sign in and out for student and teacher attendance. [96]
RFID for timing races began in the early 1990s with pigeon racing, introduced by the company Deister Electronics in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end timings for individuals in large races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant. [ citation needed ]
In races using RFID, racers wear tags that are read by antennas placed alongside the track or on mats across the track. UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush error, [ clarification needed ] lap count errors and accidents at race start are avoided, as anyone can start and finish at any time without being in a batch mode. [ clarification needed ]
The design of the chip and of the antenna controls the range from which it can be read. Short range compact chips are twist tied to the shoe, or strapped to the ankle with hook-and-loop fasteners . The chips must be about 400 mm from the mat, therefore giving very good temporal resolution. Alternatively, a chip plus a very large (125mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the bib number worn on the athlete's chest at a height of about 1.25 m (4.10 ft). [ citation needed ]
Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as Orienteering , Enduro and Hare and Hounds racing. Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a computer and log their lap time. [ citation needed ]
RFID is being [ when? ] adapted by many recruitment agencies which have a PET (physical endurance test) as their qualifying procedure, especially in cases where the candidate volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway recruitment cells, police and power sector).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free access to ski lifts . Skiers do not have to take their passes out of their pockets. Ski jackets have a left pocket into which the chip+card fits. This nearly contacts the sensor unit on the left of the turnstile as the skier pushes through to the lift. These systems were based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. The bulk of ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix, use these systems. [105] [106] [107]
The NFL in the United States equips players with RFID chips that measures speed, distance and direction traveled by each player in real-time. Currently cameras stay focused on the quarterback ; however, numerous plays are happening simultaneously on the field. The RFID chip will provide new insight into these simultaneous plays. [108] The chip triangulates the player's position within six inches and will be used to digitally broadcast replays. The RFID chip will make individual player information accessible to the public. The data will be available via the NFL 2015 app. [109] The RFID chips are manufactured by Zebra Technologies . Zebra Technologies tested the RFID chip in 18 stadiums last year [ when? ] to track vector data. [110]
RFID tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, for Universal Product Code (UPC) or European Article Number (EAN) barcodes. They may never completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the advantage of multiple data sources on the same object. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and distributed electronically by e-mail or mobile phone, for printing or display by the recipient. An example is airline boarding passes . The new EPC , along with several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable cost.
The storage of data associated with tracking items will require many terabytes . Filtering and categorizing RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package level with UPC or EAN from unique barcodes.
The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a unique code, while current barcodes are limited to a single type code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may be tracked as it moves from location to location while being delivered to a person. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of products is an important feature that is well supported with RFID tags containing a unique identity of the tag and the serial number of the object. This may help companies cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes to concern about tracking and profiling of persons after the sale.
Since around 2007 there been increasing development in the use of RFID [ when? ] in the waste management industry. RFID tags are installed on waste collection carts, linking carts to the owner's account for easy billing and service verification. [111] The tag is embedded into a garbage and recycle container, and the RFID reader is affixed to the garbage and recycle trucks. [112] RFID also measures a customer's set-out rate and provides insight as to the number of carts serviced by each waste collection vehicle. This RFID process replaces traditional " pay as you throw " (PAYT) municipal solid waste usage-pricing models.
Active RFID tags have the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that broadcast telemetry back to a base station. Applications of tagometry data could include sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons , weather reports, and noise level monitoring. [113]
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, the Wireless Identification and Sensing Platform is a passive tag that reports temperature, acceleration and capacitance to commercial Gen2 RFID readers.
It is possible that active or battery-assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver to determine whether the RFID tag – and by extension, the product it is attached to – is in the store. [ citation needed ]
To avoid injuries to humans and animals, RF transmission needs to be controlled. [114] A number of organizations have set standards for RFID, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ASTM International , the DASH7 Alliance and EPCglobal . [115]
Several specific industries have also set guidelines, including the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Computer Technology Industry Association CompTIA for certifying RFID engineers, and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) for luggage in airports. [ citation needed ]
Every country can set its own rules for frequency allocation for RFID tags, and not all radio bands are available in all countries. These frequencies are known as the ISM bands (Industrial Scientific and Medical bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause interference for other radio users. [ citation needed ]
- Low-frequency (LF: 125–134.2 kHz and 140–148.5 kHz) (LowFID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) (HighFID) tags can be used globally without a license.
- Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 865–928 MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be used globally as there is no single global standard, and regulations differ from country to country.
In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902–928 MHz (±13 MHz from the 915 MHz center frequency), but restrictions exist for transmission power. [ citation needed ] In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are regulated by ETSI recommendations EN 300 220 and EN 302 208 , and ERO recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with somewhat complex band restrictions from 865–868 MHz. [ citation needed ] Readers are required to monitor a channel before transmitting ("Listen Before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current [ when? ] research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands. [ citation needed ] On July 25, 2012, Japan changed its UHF band to 920 MHz, more closely matching the United States' 915 MHz band, establishing an international standard environment for RFID. [ citation needed ]
In some countries, a site license is needed, which needs to be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked. [ citation needed ]
As of 31 October 2014, regulations are in place in 78 countries representing approximately 96.5% of the world's GDP, and work on regulations was in progress in three countries representing approximately 1% of the world's GDP. [116]
Standards that have been made regarding RFID include:
- ISO 11784/11785 – Animal identification. Uses 134.2 kHz.
- ISO 14223 – Radiofrequency identification of animals – Advanced transponders
- ISO/IEC 14443 : This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. The Near Field Communication standard that lets mobile devices act as RFID readers/transponders is also based on ISO/IEC 14443.
- ISO/IEC 15693 : This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.
- ISO/IEC 18000 : Information technology—Radio frequency identification for item management:
- ISO/IEC 18092 Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication—Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
- ISO 18185 : This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
- ISO/IEC 21481 Information technology—Telecommunications and information exchange between systems—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol −2 (NFCIP-2)
- ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized Loads
- ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
- ASTM D7580, Standard Test Method for Rotary Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining the Readability of Passive RFID Transponders on Homogenous Palletized or Unitized Loads
- ISO 28560-2— specifies encoding standards and data model to be used within libraries. [117]
In order to ensure global interoperability of products, several organizations have set up additional standards for RFID testing . These standards include conformance, performance and interoperability tests. [ citation needed ]
EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation 2 .
EPCglobal , a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, is working on international standards for the use of mostly passive RFID and the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in the identification of many items in the supply chain for companies worldwide.
One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the Babel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s. Two tag air interfaces (the protocol for exchanging information between a tag and a reader) were defined (but not ratified) by EPCglobal prior to 2003. These protocols, commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw significant commercial implementation in 2002–2005. [118]
In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of problems that had been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was approved in December 2004. This was approved after a contention from Intermec that the standard may infringe a number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that the standard itself does not infringe their patents, making the standard royalty free. [119] The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with minor modifications as ISO 18000-6C in 2006. [120]
In 2007, the lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay was offered by the now-defunct company SmartCode, at a price of $0.05 apiece in volumes of 100 million or more. [121]
Not every successful reading of a tag (an observation) is useful for business purposes. A large amount of data may be generated that is not useful for managing inventory or other applications. For example, a customer moving a product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of articles that passes several readers while being moved in a warehouse, are events that do not produce data that are meaningful to an inventory control system. [122]
Event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts [ example needed ] have been designed, mainly offered as middleware performing the filtering from noisy and redundant raw data to significant processed data. [ citation needed ]
The frequencies used for UHF RFID in the USA are as of 2007 incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode . [123] To address international trade concerns, it is necessary to use a tag that is operational within all of the international frequency domains.
A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense 's recent [ when? ] adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management . [124] More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in general-use products. This is mostly as a result of the fact that RFID tags can be read, and legitimate transactions with readers can be eavesdropped on, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access control, [125] payment and eID (e-passport) systems operate at a shorter range than EPC RFID systems but are also vulnerable to skimming and eavesdropping, albeit at shorter distances. [126]
A second method of prevention is by using cryptography. Rolling codes and challenge–response authentication (CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of the messages between the tag and reader, as any messages that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful on repeat transmission. [ clarification needed ] Rolling codes rely upon the tag's ID being changed after each interrogation, while CRA uses software to ask for a cryptographically coded response from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can be symmetric , or may use public key cryptography . [127]
While a variety of secure protocols have been suggested for RFID tags, in order to support long read range at low cost, many RFID tags have barely enough power available to support very low-power and therefore simple security protocols such as cover-coding . [128]
Unauthorized reading of RFID tags presents a risk to privacy and to business secrecy. [129] Unauthorized readers can potentially use RFID information to identify or track packages, persons, carriers, or the contents of a package. [127] Several prototype systems are being developed to combat unauthorized reading, including RFID signal interruption, [130] as well as the possibility of legislation, and 700 scientific papers have been published on this matter since 2002. [131] There are also concerns that the database structure of Object Naming Service may be susceptible to infiltration, similar to denial-of-service attacks , after the EPCglobal Network ONS root servers were shown to be vulnerable. [132]
Microchip–induced tumours have been noted during animal trials. [133] [134]
In an effort to prevent the passive " skimming " of RFID-enabled cards or passports, the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) issued a set of test procedures for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves. [135] For shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201 guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published standard; compliant products are listed on the website of the U.S. CIO's FIPS-201 Evaluation Program. [136] The United States government requires that when new ID cards are issued, they must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve or holder. [137] Although many wallets and passport holders are advertised to protect personal information, there is little evidence that RFID skimming is a serious threat; data encryption and use of EMV chips rather than RFID makes this sort of theft rare. [138] [139]
There are contradictory opinions as to whether aluminum can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim that aluminum shielding, essentially creating a Faraday cage , does work. [140] Others claim that simply wrapping an RFID card in aluminum foil only makes transmission more difficult and is not completely effective at preventing it. [141]
Shielding effectiveness depends on the frequency being used. Low-frequency LowFID tags, like those used in implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant to shielding, although thick metal foil will prevent most reads. High frequency HighFID tags (13.56 MHz— smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shielding and are difficult to read when within a few centimetres of a metal surface. UHF Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and cartons) are difficult to read when placed within a few millimetres of a metal surface, although their read range is actually increased when they are spaced 2–4 cm from a metal surface due to positive reinforcement of the reflected wave and the incident wave at the tag. [142]
This article's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article's neutrality by separating out potentially negative information. Please integrate the section's contents into the article as a whole, or rewrite the material. ( June 2012 )
The use of RFID has engendered considerable controversy and some consumer privacy advocates have initiated product boycotts . Consumer privacy experts Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre are two prominent critics of the "spychip" technology. The two main privacy concerns regarding RFID are as follows: [ citation needed ]
- As the owner of an item may not necessarily be aware of the presence of an RFID tag and the tag can be read at a distance without the knowledge of the individual, sensitive data may be acquired without consent.
- If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction with use of a loyalty card , then it would be possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the purchaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item contained in the RFID tag. This is a possibility if the person watching also had access to the loyalty card and credit card data, and the person with the equipment knows where the purchaser is going to be.
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to products remain functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home and thus can be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to their supply chain inventory functions. [143]
The RFID Network responded to these fears in the first episode of their syndicated cable TV series, saying that they are unfounded, and let RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works. [144] They provided images of RF engineers driving an RFID-enabled van around a building and trying to take an inventory of items inside. They also discussed satellite tracking of a passive RFID tag.
The concerns raised may be addressed in part by use of the Clipped Tag . The Clipped Tag is an RFID tag designed to increase privacy for the purchaser of an item. The Clipped Tag has been suggested by IBM researchers Paul Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale, a person may tear off a portion of the tag. This allows the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity tag that still may be read, but only at short range – less than a few inches or centimeters. The modification of the tag may be confirmed visually. The tag may still be used later for returns, recalls, or recycling.
However, read range is a function of both the reader and the tag itself. Improvements in technology may increase read ranges for tags. Tags may be read at longer ranges than they are designed for by increasing reader power. The limit on read distance then becomes the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal reflected from the tag back to the reader. Researchers at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags normally read at ranges of up to 30 feet can be read at ranges of 50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment. [145] [146]
In January 2004 privacy advocates from CASPIAN and the German privacy group FoeBuD were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pilot project was implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO "Payback" customer loyalty cards contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of privacy advocates. This happened despite assurances by METRO that no customer identification data was tracked and all RFID usage was clearly disclosed. [147]
During the UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in November 2005, Richard Stallman , the founder of the free software movement , protested the use of RFID security cards by covering his card with aluminum foil. [148]
In 2004–2005 the Federal Trade Commission staff conducted a workshop and review of RFID privacy concerns and issued a report recommending best practices. [149]
RFID was one of the main topics of the 2006 Chaos Communication Congress (organized by the Chaos Computer Club in Berlin ) and triggered a large press debate. Topics included electronic passports, Mifare cryptography and the tickets for the FIFA World Cup 2006. Talks showed how the first real-world mass application of RFID at the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup worked. The group monochrom staged a "Hack RFID" song. [150]
Some individuals have grown to fear the loss of rights due to RFID human implantation.
By early 2007, Chris Paget of San Francisco, California, showed that RFID information could be pulled from a US passport card by using only $250 worth of equipment. This suggests that with the information captured, it would be possible to clone such cards. [151]
According to ZDNet, critics believe that RFID will lead to tracking individuals' every movement and will be an invasion of privacy. [152] In the book SpyChips: How Major Corporations and Government Plan to Track Your Every Move by Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre , one is encouraged to "imagine a world of no privacy. Where your every purchase is monitored and recorded in a database and your every belonging is numbered. Where someone many states away or perhaps in another country has a record of everything you have ever bought. What's more, they can be tracked and monitored remotely". [153]
According to an RSA laboratories FAQ, RFID tags can be destroyed by a standard microwave oven; [154] however, some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed to radiate using large metallic antennas (in particular RF tags and EPC tags), may catch fire if subjected to this process for too long (as would any metallic item inside a microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be used to deactivate RFID features in electronic devices, or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk of damage to the "host". However the time required is extremely short (a second or two of radiation) and the method works in many other non-electronic and inanimate items, long before heat or fire become of concern. [155]
Some RFID tags implement a "kill command" mechanism to permanently and irreversibly disable them. This mechanism can be applied if the chip itself is trusted or the mechanism is known by the person that wants to "kill" the tag.
UHF RFID tags that comply with the EPC2 Gen 2 Class 1 standard usually support this mechanism, while protecting the chip from being killed with a password. [156] Guessing or cracking this needed 32-bit password for killing a tag would not be difficult for a determined attacker. [157] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification | 108 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | 'The Lincoln Lawyer' Ending Explained: Who's the mystery man watching Haller? SHOCKING end teases Season 2 | By Aayush Sharma
Published on : 23:29 PST, May 12, 2022
Published on : 23:29 PST, May 12, 2022
So, the first season of ‘ The Lincoln Lawyer ’ has been released on Netflix and features 10 fast-paced episodes that will surely enthrall viewers. The show features Mickey Haller ( Manuel Garcia-Rulfo ), an attorney who hasn’t stepped inside a courtroom for more than a year because of an accident. After the death of one of his colleagues, he gets all of his practice, including the Trevor Elliott murder trial.
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Over the course of many weeks, Haller tries defending Trevor ( Christopher Gorham ) in order to win the case. In the ninth episode, we finally see Haller showing why he is one of the best and winning the case. However, things got even more intense after that because Haller gets to know that Trevor might have done it. He gets attacked by a mystery man before getting unconscious.
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So, who was the attacked? Was this attack ordered by Trevor? Let’s find out what happened in the last episode of ‘The Lincoln Lawyer’.
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Mickey got attacked after he got a phone call that his driver, Izzy, was taken into custody for DUI. Soon, it is revealed that he was attacked by McSweeney, the juror who was planted there by Jerry and Trevor during the trial. A fight takes place between them and they exchange multiple blows. However, Officer Griggs and some of the other police officers reach the scene and control the situation.
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But Haller kicks McSweeney to get away from him and he falls off the cliff.
Griggs asks Haller if McSweeney killed Jerry. To which, he replied by saying that he could be the killer, but he’s not sure.
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After being attacked, Haller meets Trevor and tells him to be a man and accept that he sent the attacker. Trevor says that Mickey is paranoid and should talk to somebody because he needs to do something really important. Trevor heads out and makes an announcement that he is ready to take Parallex Games to another level.
As soon as he says, Trevor is hit by multiple bullets in the chest by one of Jan Rilz’s lovers and he falls down to the floor. It is revealed that Trevor is dead.
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Haller still doesn’t understand who tried attacking him and gets really paranoid.
Over the course of the Trevor Elliott case, Haller is also working on another case. A case that took place a few years back and a man named Jesus Menendez was wrongly convicted. So, he wants to make everything right. He, along with the help of Lorna and Cisco, finds out about a woman named Glory Days, aka Gloria. He was a key witness in the case, but she suddenly left the day before she was going to testify.
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Gloria comes back to LA and Lorna talks to her about how she can take an innocent man out of jail. After thinking much, Gloria tells Mickey that a vice cop named Linda Perez came to her hotel room and said that she (Glory) needs to go out of the city. She doesn’t need to testify and if she does, Perez will press false charges on her and send her to jail. So, a trial takes place without the jury and the same judge is sitting. Glory tells the court everything and even though the prosecution felt that she is a prostitute and must have had some kind of deal with Haller, the judge listens to her.
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After that, Linda Perez comes into the courtroom and Haller asks if she was in the same hotel where Glory was residing. She said no, but Haller showed CCTV footage that revealed that Perez was indeed there. A person stands up from the back of the courtroom and says that he wants his client Perez to not say anything. The judge gets really annoyed and calls the lawyers close to his desk. He says that he wants the verdict today and if he gets to know that a man was wrongfully convicted a few years back, then justice needs to be done.
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A few moments later, it seems Haller has found the truth about who was behind this and goes to Maggie to tell her that she should reconsider the Angelo Soto case. Maggie says that she waited years for this one, so she can’t let that go.
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As soon as Mickey returns, he asks Linda if she was told by someone to do all this. She points the finger at Lee Lankford, a detective, who was working with Maggie in the Soto case.
After going through a lot, Haller meets Judge Mary Holder and accuses her of doing everything. He accused her of killing Jerry and even knew that the jury was rigged. Holder gets really annoyed after hearing this and said that she holds the power to cancel his practice. Haller doesn't back down and shows her the proof that shows that it happened due to Holder's husband because he knew Jerry and Trevor as well.
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Haller says that she and her husband need to find a good lawyer because he's all backed up. Officer Griggs arrests the judge.
Well, it seems like the absence of Lankford made Maggie’s case weak and she had an argument with Mickey. They both accuse each of abandoning the family for their work. Maggie says that she was ambitious and Haller says that he was always second to her.
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Nevertheless, Maggie leaves Mickey’s office after saying that their relationship might not be the same again.
They were supposed to have lunch with their daughter Hayley, but Maggie never showed up.
In the end, Haller found the new strength to go surf once again after getting injured due to an accident. Meanwhile, Maggie got a way to get Angelo to get behind bars even when the first case was dropped by Maggie.
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However, the last episode ended with a guy with blonde hair watching Haller surf and it was the same who threatened Gloria that he will kill her because he had the same tattoo. So, who is that man? Is Trevor back? Because from the back it surely looked like it was Trevor.
The ending makes us believe that there will be a Season 2 and it will also talk about Haller and Maggie’s relationship.
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READ NEXT | https://meaww.com/the-lincoln-lawyer-ending-explained-whos-the-my-570193#:~:text=%27The%20Lincoln%20Lawyer%27%20Ending%20Explained%3A%20Who%20orchestrated%20the,she%20holds%20the%20power%20to%20cancel%20his%20practice. | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | Netflix's 'The Lincoln Lawyer' Ending, Explained - Who killed Jerry Vincent? What Happened To Trevor Elliott? | DMT | Netflix’s crime thriller series, “The Lincoln Lawyer,” is based on the novels written by Michael Connelly and follows the life of an enigmatic defense attorney named Mickey Haller, who works his way around with his eccentric charm, wit, and knack for finding details that nobody else can. He likes working from his car, as he is able to think better when he is on the road, and that is what earned him the nickname, Lincoln Lawyer. So let’s look into this 10-episode series and see whether Mickey Haller can unravel the mystery behind the double murder, serve his client justice, or whether the system gets the better of him.
Mickey Haller was one of a kind. He was fondly referred to as “The Lincoln Lawyer” for a reason. Mickey didn’t like working from the office. He had made his car, Lincoln, a luxury SUV, his makeshift office. He could think better when he was on the go. He liked listening to jazz and being on the road, moving forward, speeding ahead, putting the missing pieces of the puzzle together. But the man, who was once considered to be a prodigy of sorts, was off the grid for quite sometime now. A surfing accident had made him addicted to painkillers. He had to go to rehabilitation, and in the process, he lost everything he had. He lost his family, his wife, Maggie McPherson, and his daughter, Hayley. Before the accident, Mickey had a flourishing legal practice. People knew that at the rate at which he was going to create his own empire, but the speeding Lincoln came to a halt, as Mickey was not deemed fit to drive his own car. But destiny had something else in store for him.
Mickey Haller, came to know the Presiding Judge Mary Holder, and wanted to see him. His assistant, Lorna, who was also his ex-wife, called him to inform about the same. Mickey goes to the court, after a hiatus, and that’s where Judge Holder makes a revelation that sweeps him off his feet.
Jerry Vincent, a prosecutor turned defense attorney, had been killed. He was shot in the parking lot in his own car. But ten days prior to him getting shot, he had moved a motion in court and transferred his entire practice to Mickey Haller. It was as shocking for “The Lincoln Lawyer” as it was for anybody else, as Jerry had never discussed this fact with him. He was barely acquainted with the man. It also meant that the high-profile case of Trevor Elliott, which was being handled by Jerry, was also transferred to Mickey Haller.
Mickey reached Jerry Vincent’s office to find out that Detective Raymond Griggs was already reviewing Jerry’s files to find any clue or piece of evidence that would lead them to understand the “mens rea” behind the killing. But Mickey takes over in between, not allowing them to go through the files, as they were now his clients, and according to the attorney client privilege he could keep their information confidential. Mickey was still trying to fathom what had happened throughout the day. He was perplexed, and there were a lot of questions that he needed answers to. Apart from the one big celebrity case, Jerry had a lot of minor cases on the side too, and it was a challenge for Mickey to catch up with the status quo quickly. In one such case, he met Izzy Letts, whom he got acquitted, and offered her to be his driver. Izzy accepted the offer and became a part of the internal group, which consisted of Lorna and Cisco, his investigator. First and foremost, Mickey had to ascertain whether Trevor Elliott would allow him to be his lawyer or would want to hire some other counsel, and whether Jerry’s murder and the crime for which Trevor was being charged, were in any way connected.
Trevor Elliott was being charged with the murder of his wife, Lara Elliott, and her lover, Jan Rilz, who was a yoga instructor. It was a straightforward case with a clear intention. A husband finds out that his wife is having an affair, and in the heat of the moment, he goes and shoots both of them point-blank. But Mickey reasons to himself that if it was so black and white, then why would Jerry have taken it in the first place, putting his reputation in jeopardy? Mickey knew that Jerry Vincent had reason to believe that Trevor Elliott didn’t commit the crime and that his wife and her lover were already dead when he arrived at the crime scene. The only problem was that when Jerry was shot in the parking lot, his laptop was stolen, which probably had all the findings and data about all his matters, and he didn’t have a backup for any of them.
On the other hand, Trevor not only wanted an acquittal but his lost respect too. He wanted people to know that he could never commit such a crime. He was being subjected to a lot of backlash from the media and the public. Trevor wanted to clean up the blot on his reputation and come out of the court of law with his dignity. Trevor had told Mickey that he wanted to take the case to the floor straight away as he had a multi-billion dollar deal to close, which wouldn’t happen if he was not free from the charge of murder. Till the end of the 2nd Episode of “The Lincoln Lawyer,” Mickey was of two minds. He knew that Jerry was going to ask for a continuance, so basically, he didn’t have any substantial evidence corroborating his case, but on the other hand, his assistant Wren Williams told him that Jerry had a magic bullet.
Bruce Carlin, who was the investigator for Jerry Vincent, had gone missing, and nobody knew the reason behind it. Cisco tried to dig some dirt on the man, but couldn’t find anything. Lara Elliott was not the only client with whom Jan Rilz was having an affair. One of his clients, Carol Dubois, had written him a check for twenty-five thousand dollars. Lorna went to her office to see if she had anything to do with the murder. She doesn’t get any significant breakthrough, which would get her a third-party culpability defense. But Carol Dubois was pretty interested in following the case, and she made it a point that she was present every single day of the hearing.
“The Lincoln Lawyer” was known for finding the minute details in a case that nobody else could see, but this time he had two theories in place, and neither was making complete sense. The first theory was that from the time Elliott entered the place, to the time the police handcuffed him, he had around 7 minutes. It was not humanly possible that Trevor Elliott would commit a crime, call the police, and dispose of the blood-stained clothes and the murder weapon in less than 7 minutes. The second theory was that a man named Eli Wyms, who was also a client of Jerry, had something to do with the case. Eli Wyms had fired 90 rounds of ammunition on the police officers that night, for no particular rhyme or reason. The incident took place at 2 a.m. in the morning in Topanga State Park. Later that day, Trevor was arrested for killing his wife and her lover. Mickey Haller believed that Eli Wyms had a role to play in the murder, and that there was a high probability that he himself was the convict. But the problem was that these theories were still at a speculative stage, and there was no concrete link that Mickey and his team could establish.
In Episode 6 of “The Lincoln Lawyer,” a few shocking revelations are made, and Mickey finds himself standing at a crossroads, not knowing which narrative to believe in. He meets Sonia Patel, who worked at Chaos Games, in Culver City. She had been quoted in a newspaper, where she had made a statement about the murder of Lara Elliott, who had called her a couple of days before the incident. Mickey wanted to know if she knew something that could help in solving the mystery that was becoming entangled with every passing day. Though she didn’t have any information, her clear bias against Trevor Elliott made Mickey realize that the prosecutor, Jeff Golantz, would use her to strengthen his case.
Mickey had prepared a case in which he was putting the culpability on a third party. He came to know that Jan Rilz had a client named Neema Shavar, who shared an intimate relationship with him. Her husband, Anton Shavar, had a private security firm and had links to the Israeli spy agency Mossad. Rilz had filed a restraining order against Anton. Rilz had told the authorities that Anton Shavar had threatened him, and all this was happening just two days before he was murdered. But the catch was that Jan Rilz never showed up on the day of the hearing, and so the restraining order was never granted.
Mickey came to know that there was a misappropriation of funds from Jerry Vincent’s account. He believed that a sum of 100,000 dollars had been used to bribe Judge James P. Stanton and asked Cisco and Lorna to do a background check on the judge himself. Mickey had reason to believe that the jury was being tampered with. He speculated that because Trevor was persistent about going to trial and was not ready to ask for a continuance, even when he knew that in a week’s time, even an ingenious mind like that of “The Lincoln Lawyer,” could not pull off such a complex case with so many loose ends. Trevor was sure that because he had a jury member on his side, he would be acquitted even if his case was weak.
Mickey goes to Trevor Elliott and confronts him about the same, who tells him an altogether different story that opens a totally separate line of investigation. Elliott tells him that back in college, he had a roommate named Pavel Kosevich, who was the son of a Russian billionaire, Sergei Kosevich. Elliott tells Mickey that the Russian oligarch was behind the murder of both Lara Elliott and Jerry Vincent. Lara wanted a divorce from Elliott and in the absence of a prenup, she was supposed to get 50 percent of the money, whereas Jerry Vincent was against bribing the jury. If Trevor Elliott got convicted, then Sergei wouldn’t have been able to go through with the acquisition of his company. It all made sense to Mickey Haller at that time. Juror no. 7, named Rodney Bankland, was the one who had been bought by Trevor and his investors. But, through an anonymous letter, Judge Stanton comes to know that he was an imposter and not Rodney Bankland. Juror number 7 didn’t turn up for the trial, after the letter was received and went missing.
In Episode 8 of “The Lincoln Lawyer,” Mickey finally gets a breakthrough. He solved the puzzle of the magic bullet and realized how Eli Wyms was connected to the case. When Eli Whyms fired 90 rounds of shots, it left a large amount of gunshot residue on the police vehicle. That same vehicle was used by the officials when they went to arrest Trevor Elliott. Mickey was able to prove that the gunshot residue found on his client was from the same vehicle and not because he fired the ammunition. Also, in his patent style, “The Lincoln Lawyer” was able to put reasonable doubt in the minds of the jurors about the impossibility of a person getting rid of the murder weapon and doing all the things that Trevor was being accused of in just less than 7 minutes. It was enough for the jurors to acquit Trevor Elliott of all charges.
Mickey was still restless, though. He had reason to believe that Trevor was not speaking the complete truth and that there was something that he was still hiding. The Russian billionaire had no involvement in the case and he was not the sole investor, as proposed by Trevor. Going through all the research data and the evidence once again, Mickey made a shocking discovery. Sonia Patel had told him that Lara was an excellent coder, but she still left Chaos Games and started working for Trevor. The case was never about Lara Elliott having an affair with Jan Rilz. Though Trevor had always taken credit for writing the lines of code and creating the character Nocturna, which created waves in the gaming industry, they were never written by him in reality. Lara had written it, but as she was working with Chaos Gaming, and her codes she wrote were their proprietary rights, she gave it all to Trevor, who formed his company and took all the credit. For years she saw him taking credit for all her hard work, and days before her murder, she was going to tell everything to Sonia Patel and go back to Chaos Gaming and claim what was rightfully hers. Trevor murdered her intentionally to prevent her from doing so.
The 7-minute theory, formalized by Mickey himself, was also contradicted as Trevor had used a drone to dispose of the murder weapon, and Eli Wyms was planted on purpose so as to provide a rebuttal to the gunshot residue argument that Jerry was sure would be raised by the prosecutors. Eli Wyms was just collateral damage to this whole fiasco. But now, Mickey also couldn’t do anything, and the fact that he was tricked by his client into buying his fraudulent narrative was still haunting him. Though the court of law had acquitted Trevor, fate had something else planned for him. While in a press conference, Trevor Elliott was shot dead by Carol Dubois, who was one of the clients of Jan Rilz and had an intimate relationship with him.
Angelo Soto was being accused of human trafficking by Maggie McPherson, but the problem was that the man had a dangerous reputation and didn’t hesitate from going to any extent to silence his opposition. Mr. Loresca, one of the employees of Mr. Soto, had dared to speak against him. He told the court that a bus was used to bring around 25 people to their facility. These people were made to work in extremely terrible conditions. They were not paid, and they survived by eating the scraps that were left on the used food plates.
But just like everyone who stood against the man, Mr. Loresca also met a similar end. Maggie was burdened with guilt as she had forced him to be a witness and, in turn, had put his life in grave danger. Maggie’s boyfriend, Detective Lee Lankford, was assisting her in her case, and he didn’t share a very good relationship with Mickey Haller. The prosecutors got Tanya Cruz, who was Mr. Soto’s girlfriend, on their side. She agreed to help them bring out the truth, as she herself was an immigrant, and she had chosen to be with Mr. Soto because she was scared that if she left him, he would get her killed. Tanya agrees to wear a microphone and make Mr. Soto confess that he killed the witnesses in the case while recording the same. She was able to do that, but some parts of the confession could not be recorded due to signal issues. Maggie had decided that Lankford’s testimony of the confession would be enough to put Soto behind bars. Soto gets to know that Tanya was wired and that the police were listening to everything that he was saying. He attacks Tanya, but the police forces intervene at the right moment and take him into custody. Maggie McPherson thought that she had got her man. She had been preparing this case for over six months, and it was going to be an important milestone in her career. But an untoward situation leads to destroying the credibility of Detective Lankford, who was being charged in another case for tampering with witnesses and falsely incriminating a guy named Jesus Menendez, even though he didn’t have any reason to believe that he was the culprit.
But Maggie was not ready to give up so easily. Though she was forced to let him go in this particular matter, she had already called her friend, Sarah Walker, who was the assistant United States attorney, who booked Mr. Soto for conspiracy and trafficking.
Juror no. 7’s real name was McSweeney, and he was the one who had killed Jerry Vincent. Trevor Elliott had bribed him, but still, the question was how did he make it into the juror list, as it was an independent selection process, and only a person who knew the system too well and was a part of it could have tampered with it. McSweeney tried to kill Mickey Haller too, but Det. Raymond Griggs came just in time and saved him. Mickey had his doubts about Judge James P. Stanton, but he was innocent. Judge Stanton responded to his superior, and “The Lincoln Lawyer” found a motive that he had been looking for quite some time. It was not the police that had bugged his car, and neither was it the Russian businessman, Sergio, as said by Trevor. It was Judge Mary Holder, who was the mastermind and the insider who was executing every scheme. She, together with her husband, Mitch Lester, who was also a defense attorney, had taken the bribe and had put juror no. 7 on the list of people who would serve as a probable jury. Because she had an insight into how the prosecutors and defendants selected the jury, she fabricated a background for him that wouldn’t be objected to by either of the parties. She also made McSweeney disappear as she came to know about the anonymous letter through Judge Stanton.
When she realized that Jerry Vincent would prevent her from doing so, she got him killed. She wanted to do the same with Mickey Haller, but Detective Raymond Griggs was keeping a close eye on him, and that saved him from meeting a similar end as Jerry. Mickey had found out that McSweeney was Mitch Lester’s client, and that gave him the authority to wiretap Judge Mary Holder. She was finally taken into custody by Detective Raymond Griggs.
Since the inception of the series, “The Lincoln Lawyer” Season 1, we were made to believe that Mickey Haller became an addict after the surfing accident. But it was not true. Mickey fought the Jesus Menendez case. The guy had been convicted by the court of law even though he had not committed any crime. That guilt for letting down a client, who was convicted and sent to prison even after being innocent, was the reason behind his guilt, which eventually made him addicted to drugs.
Martha Renteria was killed, and the prime suspect was Jesus Menendez. His case was being argued by Mickey Haller. Gloria Dayton, who had to testify in favor of Jesus, was stopped from doing so by the police itself. Linda Perez, a vice cop, was told by her superiors to threaten Gloria to leave the town and not give any testimony. Kyle Winters was the detective on the case, and he was being supervised by none other than Detective Lee Lankford, who had made up his mind that he wouldn’t let Mickey Haller have his way. The real killer, though, was still on the loose. He was a man with a tattoo on his left arm, and nobody knew who he was. Though Jesus Menendez was acquitted of all his charges and released from prison, peril loomed as the real killer was still on the hunt.
Season 1 leaves us on a cliffhanger when we see Mickey Haller once again going back to surfing while being overlooked by the same man, who has a tattoo on his hand. “The Lincoln Lawyer” Season 2 will tell if the tattooed killer has something to do with Mickey, or not. Until then, life seemed to be pretty much back on track for “The Lincoln Lawyer.” | https://dmtalkies.com/the-lincoln-lawyer-season-1-ending-explained-2022-netflix-series/ | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | The Lincoln Lawyer Ending, Explained | ‘The Lincoln Lawyer’ is a legal thriller that stars Matthew McConaughey in the role of Mick Haller, a criminal defense attorney. The story is centered around the brutal assault of a sex worker by a rich playboy who claims innocence. Haller discovers that there is more to the story, and as he delves deeper, he comes across some startling things about his client. The ending changes everything for him. If you haven’t seen the film yet, bookmark this article for later. SPOILERS AHEAD
Mick Haller works for money. If he is not paid, he will extend the case, no matter if his client has to rot in prison. He has all sorts of excuses to charge his clients and make much more money than his stated fees. He doesn’t care whether or not his clients are guilty; sometimes, he doesn’t even bother to ask that. This recklessness in his profession puts him in a dangerous position when he realizes that, for a lot of money, he has picked up a client who is the reason why he put an innocent man in prison.
One of the most important people in Haller’s life is Frank Levin. An ex-cop, he is Haller’s got-to investigator for every case. When Haller takes Roulet’s case, he warns him about having a bad feeling about the whole thing. He is also put in charge of looking into Roulet’s record, who claims that it is all about parking tickets. While Haller tries to find a way around the confidentiality agreement with his client, Frank tries to find some evidence that would prove Roulet’s guilt.
He finds something concrete, but before he can share it with Haller, he is killed. Mick instantly believes that Roulet did it. He also finds his Colt Woodsman missing, which was used to killed Frank. However, he can’t prove his theory because Roulet is wearing a tracker that does not place him at Frank’s house at the time of the murder.
In the end, it turns out that Roulet had not killed Frank, after all. It was his mother. The tracker did not bind her, and because she had remained out of the spotlight for most of the case, Haller didn’t stop to think that she probably knew about her son’s actions and was complicit in them.
This also leads one to wonder if her story about the rape and the knife was true. Did she and Louis make it up to gain the goodwill of the jury? Or that, if it was true, was this the incident that triggered Roulet’s psychopathic behavior? Was she a terrible mother, or was she simply trying to protect her son, no matter what?
When Mick Haller is hired by Louis Roulet, he wonders why a rich man like him decided not to go for more well-off lawyers with better influence over someone relatively unknown like him. At first, Val tells him that he was the one who suggested him to Roulet; but soon enough, he finds out that Roulet had sought him out personally. Everything becomes clear when Haller discovers Roulet’s connection to a previous case that he had handled.
It turns out that Reggie Campo was not the first woman that Roulet had assaulted. Some time ago, Haller had handled the case of Jesus Martinez. He was accused of assaulting, raping, and brutally killing Donna Renteria. At that time, Haller did not stop to question whether Jesus was guilty or not. Instead, he focused on getting a deal for him that would prevent him from getting executed. With no other option, Jesus was forced to plead guilty for the crime he did not commit.
When Haller looks at Reggie’s picture, he finds them very similar to Renteria’s. This leads him back to Jesus, who identifies, though not directly, Roulet as the person he had seen Renteria with that night. Now that he was sure of Roulet’s guilt, he had to find a way to make him pay for it. However, due to attorney-client privileges, he couldn’t take action against him without hurting himself. So, he wins the case against Campo but adds a twist to it.
In the trial, the DA calls Corliss on the stand. He was in the lock-up with Roulet, and he testifies that Roulet had confessed to him. Haller shatters his accountability, but not before Corliss tells the court that Roulet had also admitted to getting away with the murder of Renteria. This alerts the cops, and after Roulet is cleared of all charges against Campo and Haller is not his lawyer anymore, he is arrested for murdering Renteria. Due to the lack of evidence, he is let go, and Haller exacts his own form of justice on him by getting him beaten up by the biker gang that he often works for.
Finally, Roulet gets to pay for his crimes when substantial evidence in the form of a parking ticket is found against him. It places him right outside Renteria’s residence at the time of the murder. Martinez is let go, and the DA presses for the death penalty for Roulet. | https://thecinemaholic.com/the-lincoln-lawyer-ending-explained/ | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | How does The Lincoln Lawyer end? The finale explained | Emily Gulla
· 3 min read
The Lincoln Lawyer has fast become everyone's latest Netflix obsession and, if you're a fan of a good legal crime drama , this one's for you. The show quickly jumped to the top of Netflix's top 10 following its 13th May release, and fans are already calling for a season two .
The show follows the work of defence attorney Mickey Haller (Manuel Garcia-Rulfo), dealing with the case of a man accused of killing his wife and her boyfriend. And, as expected, intense legal cases = lots of plot to take in. So, if you need a recap, here's a full explainer on the ending of The Lincoln Lawyer season one. *Spoilers ahead*.
Much of season one focused on the case of Trevor Elliott (Christopher Gorham), a video game billionaire accused of killing his wife, Lara, and her boyfriend, Jan Rilz - after Trevor was the one who found their bodies.
Trevor maintained his innocence throughout the series, and he was ultimately found not guilty of murder - as the defence argued that he wouldn't have had time to hide his gun and blood-stained clothes in just seven minutes before police arrived.
Still, despite the court verdict, all was not as it seemed. It turns out Trevor did in fact kill Lara and Jan Rilz, and tricked both the jury and Mickey into believing he was innocent.
For some backstory, billionaire Trevor was boss of Parallax Games - with the company's success largely down to Lara and her coding skills. Lara had originally written the code while working for a rival company, but she handed it over to Trevor for Parallax to use, meaning Trevor took credit. 10 years later, Lara winds up unhappy in her marriage and wanting her credit back. She starts up her affair with Jan and makes plans to divorce Trevor, meaning she'd get 50% of his assets including Parallax.
Desperate to stop Lara's plan, Trevor shot and killed Lara and Jan. As for how he got away with covering it up, he had a drone come to take his bloodied clothes and gun away from the murder scene before police arrived. | https://news.yahoo.com/does-lincoln-lawyer-end-finale-115400644.html | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | 'The Lincoln Lawyer' Ending Explained: Who Killed Laura and Jan Rilz? | By
Who was behind Jerry's murder? What happened to Trevor? All The Finale Questions Answered.
There were a lot of cases to unpack in this season of The Lincoln Lawyer , and the show also made sure to keep some last-minute twists for the finale, keeping viewers on the edge of their seats.
The David E. Kelley series is a fairly traditional procedural courtroom drama, resting on the titular lawyer in question, Mickey Haller ( Manuel Garcia-Rulfo ) as he navigates a make-or-break case. Based on the novel The Brass Verdict by Michael Connelly , the debut season of the show revolves around Mickey being brought back from unemployment after a former acquaintance leaves his law practice to him, following the events of his mysterious death. This triggers a series of events that forces Mickey to be roped into a splashy high profile case involving a tech millionaire, as well as look into his friend’s death and his older cases.
The brunt of the series revolves around the case of Trevor Elliot ( Christopher Gorham ) the video game owner convicted of murdering his wife Laura ( Katy Erin ) and her lover at his own home. The case was being handled by Jerry, the lawyer who leaves Mickey his firm before his death, and who had his laptop stolen on the night he got murdered, leading Mickey to think that his death had something to do with this case. As the series continues, Mickey begins to think that Trevor’s college roommate, who is now head of a Russian mob and whom Trevor put as the initial investor in his business, is behind the killings of Trevor’s wife and her boyfriend, Jan Rilz.
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He also might be behind the murder of Jerry who was possibly involved in something shady with them. If Laura divorced Trevor, she would also take half his money, which would make the Russian acquisition of the project impossible. Trevor also seems fairly guilty given that he showed little emotion to the cops on the night of his wife’s death and was likely hurt by his wife’s affair. Furthermore, he had trace amounts of gunpowder residue on him, which gave the police enough evidence to charge him with the crime.
In Mickey's investigation, he learns of a ‘magic bullet’ that Jerry had that would help him win the case, and he ties it to a shooter that was caught on the same night named Eli Wymes ( Mikal Vega ). Initially, he has little idea of how the two cases are connected – Eli fired 90 rounds of ammunition that night at cops and Trevor was nowhere nearby. However, in the penultimate episode he is able to reveal to the jury that because Eli was transported in the same car as Trevor upon being arrested, the gunpowder residue likely clung to him from the back of the vehicle where Eli sat.
During the trial, Mickey is able to successfully prove that Trevor could not have murdered his wife and boyfriend, and disposed of his blood stained clothes in 7 minutes. His 'magic bullet' from Eli’s presence in the back of the cop car is why Trevor had so much gunpowder residue on him also proves to be a winning defense. With his reputation cleared, Trevor is deemed not guilty and is now a free man.
However, as the final episode of the series shows, all is not what it seemed when it comes to this case. Through the testimony of Sonia Patel ( Puja Mohindra ), a friend of Laura’s, and his own research, Mickey uncovers that it was Laura and not Trevor who was behind the success and brilliance of his game, and it was her line of codes that had made Trevor millions. A potential divorce would take away her talents to another competing firm as well as allow her to sue and claim the game’s intellectual property as hers, as she was the brains behind the video game’s life-like appearance.
With the motive, Trevor is revealed to actually be the one who killed his wife and her lover. He uses a drone to dispose of his clothes into the nearby sea and fabricates the Russian’s involvement. However, despite Trevor thinking he had gotten off scot-free, things don’t work out for the smug murderer when he is gunned down by another one of Jan’s lovers, Carol Dubois ( Heather Mazur ).
Trevor's case is not the only one the finale gives us some closure on. Mickey’s ex-wife Maggie ( Neve Campbell ) is successful in taking down Angel Soto ( Reggie Lee ) the head of a human trafficking ring. Although her initial investigation loses all ground when the detective in charge of that investigation is revealed to be corrupt, she is nonetheless able to take down Soto with the help of a state attorney. Her romance with Mickey is also back on the table as the finale leaves the two in a comfortable place, should they decide to pick things up in Season 2.
The finale also reveals that the person behind Jerry’s death was a man named Sweeney who was hired by Judge Mary Holder ( LisaGay Hamilton ) on a bribe by Trevor. When Jerry learned of this, Mary had him killed. Her plans to do the same with Mickey were thwarted by him being constantly supervised by police detective Griggs ( Ntare Guma Mbaho Mwine ). When Mickey confronts her, she admits to it on a wire and is arrested by Detective Griggs.
The ambitious last episode also gives us an update on another Mickey Haller case. Prior to his addiction, a case of Mickey’s had fallen apart after a material witness suddenly pulled through at the last second. It’s revealed that she did so at the behest of the police department, and her eventual testimony years later proves that the police falsely imprisoned the suspect Jesus ( Saul Huezo ), and the real killer, a man who has a tattoo on his arm, is still out there. The finale leaves us with the image of the same unknown man, watching Mickey as he surfs, suggesting more trouble is likely to come with this case should the series come back with a second season. | https://collider.com/the-lincoln-lawyer-netflix-ending-explained/ | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | How does The Lincoln Lawyer end? The finale explained | Emily Gulla
· 3 min read
The Lincoln Lawyer has fast become everyone's latest Netflix obsession and, if you're a fan of a good legal crime drama , this one's for you. The show quickly jumped to the top of Netflix's top 10 following its 13th May release, and fans are already calling for a season two .
The show follows the work of defence attorney Mickey Haller (Manuel Garcia-Rulfo), dealing with the case of a man accused of killing his wife and her boyfriend. And, as expected, intense legal cases = lots of plot to take in. So, if you need a recap, here's a full explainer on the ending of The Lincoln Lawyer season one. *Spoilers ahead*.
Much of season one focused on the case of Trevor Elliott (Christopher Gorham), a video game billionaire accused of killing his wife, Lara, and her boyfriend, Jan Rilz - after Trevor was the one who found their bodies.
Trevor maintained his innocence throughout the series, and he was ultimately found not guilty of murder - as the defence argued that he wouldn't have had time to hide his gun and blood-stained clothes in just seven minutes before police arrived.
Still, despite the court verdict, all was not as it seemed. It turns out Trevor did in fact kill Lara and Jan Rilz, and tricked both the jury and Mickey into believing he was innocent.
For some backstory, billionaire Trevor was boss of Parallax Games - with the company's success largely down to Lara and her coding skills. Lara had originally written the code while working for a rival company, but she handed it over to Trevor for Parallax to use, meaning Trevor took credit. 10 years later, Lara winds up unhappy in her marriage and wanting her credit back. She starts up her affair with Jan and makes plans to divorce Trevor, meaning she'd get 50% of his assets including Parallax.
Desperate to stop Lara's plan, Trevor shot and killed Lara and Jan. As for how he got away with covering it up, he had a drone come to take his bloodied clothes and gun away from the murder scene before police arrived. | https://ca.sports.yahoo.com/news/does-lincoln-lawyer-end-finale-115400644.html | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | So Who The Hell Killed Jerry in 'The Lincoln Lawyer'? | And what happened to Trevor? Let's unpack that twist-filled finale.By Ammal Hassan
This article contains spoilers for the finale of The Lincoln Lawyer .
It's official. We can't get enough of The Lincoln Lawyer . While we contemplate the date for a season two of the new hit show by Netflix, we should probably talk about the season's ending.
The legal-drama follows Mickey Haller (Manuel Garcia-Rulfo), a Los Angles lawyer who inherits the practice from his colleague Jerry Vincent after the latter's murder. The season follows the plot-line of "who killed Jerry?" along with a major case that Mickey inherits from Jerry involving a billionaire video game developer. The billionaire in question is Trevor Elliott (Christopher Gorham), who is accused of killing his wife Lara and her boyfriend Jan Rilz after Trevor finds their bodies.
Throughout the season, Trevor maintained his innocence. He admitted to Mickey that he knew his wife was having an affair and didn't fault her for it. Instead, he blamed himself for neglecting their marriage. Meanwhile, Mickey discovers that the jury had been tampered with and bribes had been distributed. Trevor tells Mickey that he believes a Russian billionaire, the father of his college roommate who is trying to acquire his company is behind both the murder of his wife and of Jerry Vincent. His reasoning is that if the couple ends up divorced, Trevor's reputation would take a hit and tank the company he has stakes into, so he killed Lara to prevent that from happening and bribed a juror.
Eventually, Trevor is found not guilty due to Mickey's defense arguing that he simply would not have had enough time to hide his blood stained clothes and the murder weapon in the minutes before the police arrived. Trevor was declared an innocent man. However, it turns out that Trevor did in fact commit the murder and used a drone to hide his clothes and the murder weapon.
He did this in order to keep his ex-wife Lara from divorcing him and ending up with half of the company and the intellectual property for the code he had claimed credit for, but she actually written. If Lara were to divorce Trevor, she would have ended up with everything that made his business worth something, so he killed her and the man she was having an affair with, Jan. Later though, Trevor himself is gunned down at a big company event by a woman tied to Jan.
Though all this, there is still the issue of who is behind the threat on Mickey's life. Earlier he had thought it may have been the Russian billionaire he'd thought to have close ties to this case. However, we learn that McSweeny, or juror number 7, was the one responsible for killing Jerry on the order of Judge Holder, who along with her husband had accepted a bribe from Trevor and rigged the juror list. After admitting this while being wire-tapped, she is taken into custody by Detective Griggs (Ntare Guma Mbaho Mwine), who on the case on Jerry Vincent's murder.
Why would the judge rig the list? Well, simply for the monetary gain she was getting. Her side business of accepting bribes and rigging juries was, in fact, quite lucrative. This was also her reason for being behind Jerry's death: he found out about the scheme and she needed to keep it from getting out. If it weren't for the close watch Detective Griggs had on Mickey, he may have been next.
Though many loose ends had been resolved this season, we are still left with questions that will potentially be answered in a second season, should Netflix announce one. | https://www.esquire.com/entertainment/tv/a40077815/the-lincoln-lawyer-explained/ | 109 |
what happens at the end of the lincoln lawyer | The Lincoln Lawyer Ending Explained: What Happens to Mickey Haller? | The Lincoln Lawyer season 1 wraps up neatly, but there are still a few threads to pull on for the show's potential second season. Like any good conspiracy, there are layers upon layers.
This The Lincoln Lawyer article contains spoilers.
In the first episode of The Lincoln Lawyer , it’s established that Mickey Haller is a mess. Fresh out of an 18-month stay in rehab, he’s got no money coming in, no clients, and a big gap in his resume. It’s only because of the murder of a legal acquaintance that he’s able to get enough clients to get back on his feet, and it’s only due to his skill as a lawyer that it seems as though he’s reestablished a practice and rehabilitated his professional life. His personal life? That’s another story.
Anyone with two ex-partners is going to run into complications, particularly when you share a child with one and share a business with another. When it comes to second wife Lorna, it seems as though both she and Mickey realize that their relationship, and their marriage, was a big mistake. There’s no real drama there; Lorna works for Mickey, she’s engaged to Cisco, and everyone seems happy with this arrangement. Of course, Lorna won’t be working for Mickey for long once she goes back to law school, but there seems to be no real reason for Mickey to stand in the way of her dreams and help her get past legal aid status.
As for first wife Maggie “McFierce” McPherson, things aren’t so cut and dry. Throughout the first season, it seems as though she and Mickey are angling towards a reunion. They were driven apart by his drug use and the general demands of his career, and with Mickey clean and sober, he seems to have eyes on getting his family back and being a full-time father to his daughter. Sparks do occasionally fly with Maggie, and the two get saved by the bell on more than one occasion until the end of the series. That’s when the sparks fizzle out thanks to the cold water of professional conflict.
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Throughout the first season, Mickey Haller has to come to grips with his biggest failure as a professional, the Jesus Menendez case. He told Menendez to plead guilty to a crime he didn’t commit because the only witness to the crime who could free him disappeared and Cisco can’t track her down, with good reason. She’s hiding from some very powerful people who have promised to make her life hell should she appear and testify to spring Jesus Menendez from jail. Doing the right thing is great and all, but not if it makes a mess of your existence in the process. Most people can’t handle that level of stress.
Even more than the pills and the accident and his divorces, the Menendez case is the one that keeps eating at Mickey. He digs out the case files and looks through them as a form of self-flagellation, even when he’s busy trying to defend Trevor Elliott from murder charges and rebuild his life as a highly-paid, non-celebrity lawyer. He can’t let it go, and his incessant picking and digging eventually yields results, as he’s able to track down the missing witness, Glory Days, and get her into court to testify on behalf of Jesus Menendez about the killing she saw, done by a mysterious man with a Chinese tattoo on his forearm.
Along the way, she tells the court, with Haller’s prodding, about the LAPD officer who came to her hotel room to scare her off of the case. On cross-examination, that lawyer names the culprit as Detective Lee Lankford. Lankford was working with Maggie on her high-profile human trafficking and murder case involving Aaron Soto. Due to malfunctioning equipment, Lankford and Maggie were the only people to hear Soto’s confession to his pregnant girlfriend about the murder he committed, and since Maggie can’t testify in her own trial, that meant Lankford was her star and corroborating witness. With his credibility destroyed by the accusations leveled at him in open court by a murder witness, his testimony is worthless.
Mickey successfully freed Jesus Menendez, but he didn’t happen to warn Maggie that her only real piece of evidence tying Soto to murder was going to get publicly disgraced and humiliated. Oops. By winning his big case, Haller destroyed his love interest’s big case in the process. A miscarriage of justice righted; a dangerous criminal freed. As Mickey said to Detective Griggs, better a thousand guilty men go free rather than one innocent end up in jail. While he’s able to sleep a little better at night having freed his vulnerable client from his most unforgettable case, he won’t be sleeping in Maggie’s bed.
In the beginning of the season, we see Mickey Haller at the beach, unable to hop on the surfboard and indulge in what was clearly a beloved hobby at one point. By the end of the season, with Jesus Menendez freed, Mickey Haller is free to hit the waves, hanging ten and doing whatever other things people who can surf do when they’re surfing. It’s a picture-perfect day in Los Angeles, and Mickey seems to be having the time of his life.
And watching from the beach is a man with a Chinese character tattooed on his forearm. An innocent man has been freed from jail, but the real killer is still out there, and he’s got his eye on Mickey Haller. That’s the problem with digging for evidence; sometimes you dig up something best left buried.
Ad – content continues below | https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/the-lincoln-lawyer-ending-explained/ | 109 |
how many times have chelsea won the european cup | Chelsea F.C. in international football | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Club||Chelsea|
|Seasons played||31|
|Most appearances||John Terry (124)|
|Top scorer||Didier Drogba (36)|
|First entry||1958–60 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup|
|Latest entry||2022–23 UEFA Champions League|
|Titles|
|Champions League||2 ( 2012 , 2021 )|
|Europa League||2 ( 2013 , 2019 )|
|Cup Winners' Cup||2 ( 1971 , 1998 )|
|Super Cup||2 ( 1998 , 2021 )|
|FIFA Club World Cup||1 ( 2021 )|
Chelsea Football Club is an English professional football club based in Fulham , London . The club's involvement in international competitions dates back to the 1950s. As champions of England, the club was invited to participate in the inaugural European Champions' Cup in 1955, but were denied entry by The Football Association . Three years later, Chelsea made their European debut against Copenhagen XI in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup , on 30 September 1958.
Chelsea won their first European title in 1971, defeating Real Madrid to win the European Cup Winners' Cup . In 1998, they won the same trophy again, followed by the UEFA Super Cup later that year. In 2012, Chelsea won the UEFA Champions League , becoming the fifth English team, and the first and only team from London to date, to win the competition. In 2013, Chelsea won the UEFA Europa League and became the fourth club to win all three main UEFA club competitions. [1] Due to a change in competition dates, with the final of the Champions League being played a week after the Europa League final, Chelsea held both the Champions and Europa League trophies simultaneously, the only side to ever do so. [2] Chelsea once again lifted the Europa League trophy in 2019. [3] In 2021, Chelsea won their second Champions League title, [4] giving them the distinction of being the only club to have won all three major European competitions twice. [5] They are presently England's second-most successful club in UEFA competitions, with eight trophies in total.
John Terry holds the club record for appearances in European competitions with 124, while striker Didier Drogba is the club's leading European goalscorer with 36 goals. [6] Chelsea's biggest European win is 13–0, which came against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1971. Their 21–0 aggregate win over the same opposition is a joint-record in European football. [7]
Chelsea were invited to take part in the inaugural European Cup , now UEFA Champions League, in 1955 after they claimed their first league title the previous season . However, Chelsea were pressured into withdrawing from the tournament by The Football Association . [8] They had thus missed the chance to become the first English club to participate in what is now the most prestigious club competition in European football. It was not until 44 years later that they would make their debut in the Champions League.
The 1999–2000 season saw the club progress through the group stage and the second group stage to reach the quarter-finals where they faced Barcelona of Spain. Chelsea won the first leg 3–1 at Stamford Bridge with Gianfranco Zola scoring the opener and Tore André Flo a brace. However, they were beaten 5–1 in Spain two weeks later and knocked out of the competition 6–4 on aggregate , thus ended their first Champions League journey. [9]
Chelsea qualified for the 2003–04 Champions League by finishing fourth in the 2002–03 FA Premier League . Their place in the Champions League was secured on the final day of the season, beating fifth-place Liverpool 2–1 at home. The game was dubbed 'the £20m match' as Chelsea were only ahead of Liverpool on goal difference before kickoff; a win for either side would see them qualify for the following season's Champions League at the expense of the other. [10] Jesper Grønkjær scored the winner in the 26th minute. The goal would later seem by many as the most important in the club's history and said to be worth £1 billion, as many believe had Liverpool won on that day the subsequent takeover by a Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich would never have happened. [11]
Chelsea reached the semi-finals after defeating derby rivals Arsenal 2–1 at Highbury . Having not beaten Arsenal since November 1998, they went into the second leg with a 1–1 home draw. José Antonio Reyes ' goal before the half time gave the Gunners the lead, however Chelsea managed to come back and won in the second half through Frank Lampard 's goal within six minutes of the restart and Wayne Bridge 's winning goal in the 87th minute. [12] The first leg of the semi-final however turned out to be a disaster for Chelsea as they were defeated 3–1 by ten-man Monaco at Stade Louis II stadium. Two weeks later at Stamford Bridge, they were leading 2–0 shortly before the halftime. Had they kept this score to the final whistle, they would go through on away goals . However, Monaco eventually came back in the second half and the game ended in a 2-2 draw. [13] As a consequence, Claudio Ranieri was sacked at the end of the season. [14] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C._in_international_football | 110 |
how many times have chelsea won the european cup | Chelsea F.C. - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the men's football club. For the women's football club, see Chelsea F.C. Women . For other uses, see Chelsea (disambiguation) .
Chelsea Football Club is an English professional football club based in Fulham , West London . Founded in 1905, they play their home games at Stamford Bridge . [4] The club competes in the Premier League , the top division of English football . They won their first major honour, the League championship , in 1955 . The club won the FA Cup for the first time in 1970 , their first European honour, the Cup Winners' Cup , in 1971 , and became the third English club to win the Club World Cup in 2022 .
Chelsea are one of five clubs to have won all three pre-1999 main European club competitions, and the only club to have won all three major European competitions twice. They are also the only London club to have won the Champions League and the Club World Cup. [5] Domestically, the club has won six league titles , eight FA Cups , five League Cups , and four FA Community Shields . Internationally, they have won the UEFA Champions League , the UEFA Europa League , the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup twice each, and the FIFA Club World Cup once since their inception. In terms of overall trophies won, Chelsea are the fourth-most successful club in English football .
The club has rivalries with neighbouring teams Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur , and a historic rivalry with Leeds United . In terms of club value, Chelsea is the seventh most valuable football club in the world (as of 2021), worth £2.39 billion ($3.2 billion), and is the eighth highest-earning football club in the world, with earnings of over €493.1 million (as of May 2022). [6] [7]
In 1904, Gus Mears acquired the Stamford Bridge athletics stadium in Fulham with the aim of turning it into a football ground. An offer to lease it to nearby Fulham F.C. was turned down, so Mears opted to found his own club to use the stadium. As there was already a team named Fulham in the borough, the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea was chosen for the new club; names like Kensington FC , Stamford Bridge FC and London FC were also considered. [8] Chelsea F.C. was founded on 10 March 1905 at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook), [1] [9] opposite the present-day main entrance to the ground on Fulham Road , and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards.
Chelsea won promotion to the First Division in their second season, and yo-yoed between the First and Second Divisions in their early years. They reached the 1915 FA Cup Final , where they lost to Sheffield United at Old Trafford, and finished third in the First Division in 1920, the club's best league campaign to that point. [10] Chelsea had a reputation for signing star players [11] and attracted large crowds. The club had the highest average attendance in English football in ten separate seasons [12] including 1907–08 , [13] 1909–10 , [14] 1911–12 , [15] 1912–13 , [16] 1913–14 [17] and 1919–20 . [18] [19] They were FA Cup semi-finalists in 1920 and 1932 and remained in the First Division throughout the 1930s, but success eluded the club in the inter-war years.
Former Arsenal and England centre-forward Ted Drake was appointed manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club. He removed the club's Chelsea pensioner crest, improved the youth set-up and training regime, rebuilt the side with shrewd signings from the lower divisions and amateur leagues, and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in 1954–55 . The following season saw UEFA create the European Champions' Cup , but after objections from The Football League , Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started. [20] [21] Chelsea failed to build on this success, and spent the remainder of the 1950s in mid-table. Drake was dismissed in 1961 and replaced by player-coach Tommy Docherty .
Docherty built a new team around the group of talented young players emerging from the club's youth set-up, and Chelsea challenged for honours throughout the 1960s, enduring several near-misses. They were on course for a treble of League, FA Cup and League Cup going into the final stages of the 1964–65 season, winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two. [22] In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi-finals and were FA Cup runners-up. Under Docherty's successor, Dave Sexton , Chelsea won the FA Cup in 1970 , beating Leeds United 2–1 in a final replay. The following year, Chelsea took their first European honour, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph, with another replayed win, this time over Real Madrid in Athens.
The late 1970s through to the '80s was a turbulent period for Chelsea. An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club, [23] star players were sold and the team were relegated. Further problems were caused by a notorious hooligan element among the support, which was to plague the club throughout the decade. [24] In 1982, Chelsea were, at the nadir of their fortunes, acquired by Ken Bates for the nominal sum of £1, from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears for £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996 [25] although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers, meaning the club faced losing their home. [26] On the pitch, the team had fared little better, coming close to relegation to the Third Division for the first time, but in 1983 manager John Neal put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay. Chelsea won the Second Division title in 1983–84 and established themselves in the top division with two top-six finishes, before being relegated again in 1988. The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in 1988–89.
After a long-running legal battle, Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers, who had been bankrupted by a market crash. [27] In the mid-1990s Chelsea fan and businessman Matthew Harding became a director and loaned the club £26 million to build the new North Stand and invest in new players. [28] Chelsea's form in the new Premier League was unconvincing, although they did reach the 1994 FA Cup Final . The appointment of Ruud Gullit as player-manager in 1996 began an upturn in the team's fortunes. He added several top international players to the side and led the club to their first major honour since 1971, the FA Cup . Gullit was replaced by Gianluca Vialli , whose reign saw Chelsea win the League Cup , the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup in 1998 , and the FA Cup in 2000 . They also mounted a strong title challenge in 1998–99, finishing four points behind champions Manchester United, and made their first appearance in the UEFA Champions League . Vialli was sacked in favour of Claudio Ranieri , who guided Chelsea to the 2002 FA Cup Final and Champions League qualification in 2002–03.
"I don't want to throw my money away but it's really about having fun and that means success and trophies."
—Roman Abramovich, in an interview with the BBC following the takeover. [29]
With the club facing an apparent financial crisis, [30] Bates unexpectedly sold Chelsea F.C. in June 2003 for £60 million. [31] In so doing, he reportedly recognised a personal profit of £17 million on the club he had bought for £1 in 1982 (his stake had been diluted to just below 30% over the years). The club's new owner was Russian oligarch and billionaire Roman Abramovich , who also took on responsibility for the club's £80 million of debt, quickly paying some of it. Sergei Pugachev alleged Chelsea was bought on Putin's orders, an allegation Abramovich has denied. [32] Bates mentioned that Abramovich was in talks to buy Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur before he bought Chelsea in a deal sealed in a day. [33]
Over £100 million was spent on new players, but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies, [34] and was replaced by José Mourinho . [35] Under Mourinho, Chelsea became the fifth English team to win back-to-back league championships since the Second World War ( 2004–05 and 2005–06 ), [36] in addition to winning an FA Cup ( 2007 ) and two League Cups ( 2005 and 2007 ). After a poor start to the 2007–2008 season, Mourinho was replaced by Avram Grant , [37] who led the club to their first UEFA Champions League final , which they lost on penalties to Manchester United . The club did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. [38]
I am a fan of special nature. I'm excited before every single game. The trophy at the end is less important than the process itself.
—Abramovich discussing two trophy-laden years at Chelsea (2006). [39]
In 2009, under caretaker manager Guus Hiddink , Chelsea won another FA Cup . [40] In 2009–10 , his successor Carlo Ancelotti led them to their first Premier League and FA Cup Double , also becoming the first English top-flight club to score 100 league goals in a season since 1963 . [41] In 2012, Roberto Di Matteo led Chelsea to their seventh FA Cup , [42] and their first UEFA Champions League title , beating Bayern Munich 4–3 on penalties, the first London club to win the trophy. [43] The following year the club won the UEFA Europa League , [44] making them the first club to hold two major European titles simultaneously and one of five clubs to have won the three main UEFA trophies. [45] Mourinho returned as manager in 2013 and led Chelsea to League Cup success in March 2015, [46] and the Premier League title two months later. [47] Mourinho was sacked after four months of the following season after a poor start. [48]
In November 2012, Chelsea announced a profit of £1.4 million for the year ending 30 June 2012, the first time the club had made a profit under Abramovich's ownership. [38] [49] This was followed by a loss in 2013 and then their highest ever profit of £18.4 million for the year to June 2014. [50] In 2018 Chelsea announced a record after-tax profit of £62 million. [51]
In 2017, under new coach Antonio Conte , Chelsea won their sixth English title and the following season won their eighth FA Cup. [52] In 2018 Conte was sacked after a fifth-place finish and replaced with Maurizio Sarri , [53] [54] under whom Chelsea reached the League Cup final , which they lost on penalties to Manchester City [55] and won the Europa League for a second time, beating Arsenal 4–1 in the final. Sarri then left the club to become manager of Juventus and was then replaced by former Chelsea player Frank Lampard . [56]
In Lampard's first season he guided Chelsea to foutth place in the Premier League and reached the FA Cup final , losing 2–1 to Arsenal. [57] Lampard was dismissed in January 2021 and replaced with Thomas Tuchel . [58] [59]
Under Tuchel, Chelsea reached the FA Cup final , losing 1–0 to Leicester City , and won their second UEFA Champions League title with a 1–0 win over Manchester City in Porto. [60] The club subsequently won the 2021 UEFA Super Cup for the second time by defeating Villarreal 6–5 in a penalty shootout, after it had ended 1–1 in Belfast after extra time, [61] and the 2021 FIFA Club World Cup (the first for the club) in Abu Dhabi after beating Brazilian Palmeiras 2–1. [62]
On 18 April 2021, Chelsea announced they would be joining a new European Super League , a league competition comprising the biggest European clubs. [63] After a backlash from supporters, the club announced their withdrawal days later. [64]
Former Chelsea player Tony Cascarino revealed that the club had been calling ex-players to check up on their health during the COVID-19 pandemic . [65] [66] The club opted against furloughing their non-matchday staff with the decision reportedly coming from Abramovich himself. Chelsea, one of the first clubs to help the National Health Service , lent the club-owned Millennium Hotel for the NHS staff. [66]
"[Chelsea] have been a success machine for the last 10–20 years. That doesn't just come with money, we've seen at Manchester United and Arsenal where they've put billions into the team and not had the success that Chelsea have had. Chelsea can feel comfortable that they'll have rich owners, but will they have football smart owners? Because that's what Abramovich has been.
Amidst financial sanctions leveled at Russian oligarchs by Western governments in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , Abramovich stated on 26 February that he would hand over the stewardship of Chelsea to the trustees of the Chelsea Foundation. [68] The trustees did not immediately agree, due to legal concerns regarding the rules of the Charity Commission for England and Wales . [69] A week later, Abramovich wrote-off the £1.5 billion the club owed him, and put the club up for sale, pledging to donate net proceeds from it to the victims of the war in Ukraine. [70] [71]
On 10 March 2022, the British government announced sanctions on Abramovich with Chelsea allowed to operate under a special license until 31 May. [72] [73] In the following weeks, reports emerged of Abramovich's involvement in brokering a peace deal between Ukraine and Russia and securing safe evacuation corridors in besieged Ukrainian cities. [74] [75] An American government official revealed that the Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelenskyy had requested the US government to not levy sanctions on Abramovich given his importance in war relief efforts. [76]
On 7 May 2022, Chelsea confirmed that terms have been agreed for a new ownership group, led by Todd Boehly , Clearlake Capital , Mark Walter and Hansjörg Wyss , to acquire the club. [77] On 25 May 2022, the government has approved the £4.25bn Boehly-led consortium takeover of Chelsea. [78] On 30 May 2022, the sale was completed, ending Abramovich's 19 year ownership of the club. [79]
We're all in – 100% – every minute of every match. Our vision as owners is clear: we want to make the fans proud.
—Todd Boehly, addressing the press after the takeover. [80]
The club then announced on 20 June that Bruce Buck, who served as chairman since 2003, will be stepping down from his role effective on 30 June although he would continue to support the club as a senior adviser. Boehly would assume the chairmanship. [81] This was followed by the club restructuring the board and announcing the departure of long serving club director and de facto sporting director Marina Granovskaia on 22 June. [82] Petr Čech left the role of technical and performance adviser five days later. [83]
L1 = Level 1 of the football league system; L2 = Level 2 of the football league system
Chelsea have only had one home ground, Stamford Bridge, where they have played since the team's foundation. The stadium was officially opened on 28 April 1877 and for the next 28 years it was used by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings. In 1904 the ground was acquired by businessman Gus Mears and his brother Joseph , who had also purchased nearby land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m 2 ) site. [84] Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by the noted football architect Archibald Leitch , who had also designed Ibrox , Craven Cottage and Hampden Park . [85] Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge.
Starting with an open bowl-like design and one grandstand with seating, Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100,000, making it the second biggest stadium in England after Crystal Palace . [84] The early 1930s saw the construction of a terrace on the southern part of the ground with a roof that covered around 20% of the stand. As the roof resembled that of a corrugated iron shed, the stand eventually became known as the "Shed End", although it is unknown who first coined this name. From the 1960s, it became known as the home of Chelsea's most loyal and vocal supporters. [84] In 1939, another small seated stand was added, the North Stand, which remained until its demolition in 1975. [84]
In the early 1970s, the club's owners announced a modernisation of Stamford Bridge with plans for a state-of-the-art 50,000 all-seater stadium. [84] Work began in 1972 but the project was beset with problems and ultimately only the East Stand was completed; the cost brought the club close to bankruptcy. The freehold was sold to property developers and the club were under threat of eviction from the stadium. [84] Following a long legal battle, it was not until the mid-1990s that Chelsea's future at Stamford Bridge was secured and renovation work resumed. [84] The north, west and southern parts of the ground were converted into all-seater stands and moved closer to the pitch, a process completed by 2001. The East Stand was retained from the 1970s development. In 1996, the north stand was renamed the Matthew Harding stand, after the club director and benefactor who was killed in a helicopter crash earlier that year. [86]
When Stamford Bridge was redeveloped in the Bates era many additional features were added to the complex including two Millennium & Copthorne hotels , apartments, bars, restaurants, the Chelsea Megastore, and an interactive visitor attraction called Chelsea World of Sport. The intention was that these facilities would provide extra revenue to support the football side of the business, but they were less successful than hoped and before the Abramovich takeover in 2003 the debt taken on to finance them was a major burden on the club. Soon after the takeover a decision was taken to drop the "Chelsea Village" brand and refocus on Chelsea as a football club. However, the stadium is sometimes still referred to as part of "Chelsea Village" or "The Village" .
The Stamford Bridge freehold , the pitch , the turnstiles and Chelsea's naming rights are now owned by Chelsea Pitch Owners , a non-profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders. The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers. As a condition for using the Chelsea FC name, the club has to play its first team matches at Stamford Bridge, which means that if the club moves to a new stadium, they may have to change their name. [87] Chelsea's training ground is located in Cobham, Surrey . Chelsea moved to Cobham in 2004. Their previous training ground in Harlington was taken over by QPR in 2005. [88] The new training facilities in Cobham were completed in 2007. [89]
Stamford Bridge hosted the FA Cup Final from 1920 to 1922, [90] has held 10 FA Cup Semi-finals (most recently in 1978 ), ten FA Charity Shield matches (the last in 1970 ), and three England international matches, the last in 1932; it was also the venue for an unofficial Victory International in 1946. [91] The 2013 UEFA Women's Champions League Final was played at Stamford Bridge as well. [92] The stadium has also been used for a variety of other sports. In October 1905 it hosted a rugby union match between the All Blacks and Middlesex, [93] and in 1914 hosted a baseball match between the touring New York Giants and the Chicago White Sox . [94] It was the venue for a boxing match between world flyweight champion Jimmy Wilde and Joe Conn in 1918. [95] The running track was used for dirt track racing between 1928 and 1932, [96] greyhound racing from 1933 to 1968, and Midget car racing in 1948. [97] In 1980, Stamford Bridge hosted the first international floodlit cricket match in the UK, between Essex and the West Indies . [98] It was also the home stadium of the London Monarchs American Football team for the 1997 season . [99]
The previous owner Abramovich and the club's then executive board determined that a larger stadium is necessary in order for Chelsea to stay competitive with rival clubs who have significantly larger stadia, such as Arsenal and Manchester United . [100] Owing to its location next to a main road and two railway lines, fans can only enter Stamford Bridge via the Fulham Road , which places constraints on expansion due to health and safety regulations. [101] The club have consistently affirmed their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home, [102] [103] but have nonetheless been linked with a move to various nearby sites, including the Earls Court Exhibition Centre , Battersea Power Station and the Chelsea Barracks . [104] In October 2011, a proposal from the club to buy back the freehold to the land on which Stamford Bridge sits was voted down by Chelsea Pitch Owners shareholders. [105] In May 2012, the club made a formal bid to purchase Battersea Power Station , with a view to developing the site into a new stadium, [106] but lost out to a Malaysian consortium. [107] The club subsequently announced plans to redevelop Stamford Bridge into a 60,000-seater stadium, [108] and in January 2017 these plans were approved by Hammersmith and Fulham council. [109] However, on 31 May 2018, the club released a statement saying that the new stadium project had been put on hold indefinitely, citing "the current unfavourable investment climate." [110]
In July 2022, it was reported that the club's new owner Todd Boehly had appointed American architect Janet Marie Smith to oversee the renovation of the stadium. [111]
Chelsea have had four main crests , which all underwent minor variations. The first, adopted when the club was founded, was the image of a Chelsea Pensioner , the army veterans who reside at the nearby Royal Hospital Chelsea . This contributed to the club's original "pensioner" nickname, and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. When Ted Drake became Chelsea manager in 1952, he began to modernise the club. Believing the Chelsea pensioner crest to be old-fashioned, he insisted that it be replaced. [112] A stop-gap badge which comprised the initials C.F.C. was adopted for a year. In 1953, the club crest was changed to an upright blue lion looking backwards and holding a staff . It was based on elements in the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea [113] with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president Viscount Chelsea and the staff from the Abbots of Westminster , former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. It also featured three red roses, to represent England, and two footballs. [112] This was the first Chelsea crest to appear on the shirts, in the early 1960s. In 1975, a heraldic badge was granted by the College of Arms to the English Football League for use by Chelsea. The badge took the form of the familiar lion and staff encircled by a blue ring but without lettering and without the red roses and red footballs ( blazoned as " A lion rampant reguardant azure supporting with the forepaws a crozier or all within an annulet azure "). [114]
In 1986, with Ken Bates owner of the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and because the old rampant lion badge could not be trademarked. [115] The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, in white and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. This lasted for the next 19 years, with some modifications such as the use of different colours, including red from 1987 to 1995, and yellow from 1995 until 1999, before the white returned. [116] With the new ownership of Roman Abramovich , and the club's centenary approaching, combined with demands from fans for the popular 1950s badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2005. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005–06 season and marked a return to the older design, used from 1953 to 1986, featuring a blue heraldic lion holding a staff. For the centenary season this was accompanied by the words '100 Years' and 'Centenary 2005–2006' on the top and bottom of the crest respectively. [117]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chelsea F.C. kits .
Chelsea have always worn blue shirts, although they originally used the paler eton blue , which was taken from the racing colours of then club president, Earl Cadogan , and was worn with white shorts and dark blue or black socks. [119] The light blue shirts were replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912. [120] In the 1960s Chelsea manager Tommy Docherty changed the kit again, switching to blue shorts (which have remained ever since) and white socks, believing it made the club's colours more modern and distinctive, since no other major side used that combination; this kit was first worn during the 1964–65 season. [121] Since then Chelsea have always worn white socks with their home kit apart from a short spell from 1985 to 1992, when blue socks were reintroduced.
Chelsea's away colours are usually all yellow or all white with blue trim. More recently, the club have had a number of black or dark blue away kits which alternate every year. [122] As with most teams, they have also had some more unusual ones. At Docherty's behest, in the 1966 FA Cup semi-final they wore blue and black stripes, based on Inter Milan 's kit. [123] In the mid-1970s, the away strip was a red, white and green kit inspired by the Hungarian national side of the 1950s. [124] Other away kits include an all jade strip worn from 1986 to 1989, red and white diamonds from 1990 to 1992, graphite and tangerine from 1994 to 1996, and luminous yellow from 2007 to 2008. [122] The graphite and tangerine strip has appeared in lists of the worst football kits ever. [125]
The song " Blue is the Colour " was released as a single in the build-up to the 1972 League Cup Final , with all members of Chelsea's first team squad singing; it reached number five in the UK Singles Chart . [126] The song has since been adopted by a number of other sports teams around the world, including the Vancouver Whitecaps (as "White is the Colour") [127] and the Saskatchewan Roughriders (as "Green is the Colour"). [128]
Chelsea released the song " No One Can Stop Us Now " in 1994 for reaching the 1994 FA Cup Final . It reached number 23 in the UK Singles Chart. [129] In the build-up to the 1997 FA Cup Final , the song " Blue Day ", performed by Suggs and members of the Chelsea squad, reached number 22 in the UK chart. [130] In 2000, Chelsea released the song " Blue Tomorrow ". It reached number 22 in the UK Singles Chart. [129]
At matches, Chelsea fans sing chants such as " Carefree " (to the tune of " Lord of the Dance ", whose lyrics were probably written by supporter Mick Greenaway), [131] [132] "Ten Men Went to Mow", "We All Follow the Chelsea" (to the tune of " Land of Hope and Glory "), "Zigga Zagga", and the celebratory "Celery". The latter is often accompanied by fans throwing celery at each other, although the vegetable was banned inside Stamford Bridge after an incident involving midfielder Cesc Fàbregas at the 2007 League Cup Final . [133] Popular fan chants include, "Super Chelsea", "Super Frank" (dedicated to all time leading goal scorer Frank Lampard ), "We love you Chelsea" and "Come on Chelsea". There also some situation specific or team specific cheats meant to rile up opposition teams, managers or players. [134]
Chelsea are among the most widely supported football clubs in the world. [135] [136] They have the sixth highest average attendance in the history of English football , [137] and regularly attract over 40,000 fans to Stamford Bridge; they were the seventh best-supported Premier League team in the 2013–14 season, with an average gate of 41,572. [138] Chelsea's traditional fanbase comes from all over the Greater London area including working-class parts such as Hammersmith and Battersea , wealthier areas like Chelsea and Kensington , and from the home counties . There are also numerous official supporters clubs in the United Kingdom and all over the world. [139] Between 2007 and 2012, Chelsea were ranked fourth worldwide in annual replica kit sales, with an average of 910,000. [140] As of 2018, Chelsea had 72.2 million followers on social media, the fourth highest among football clubs. [141]
During the 1970s and 1980s in particular, Chelsea supporters were associated with football hooliganism . The club's " football firm ", originally known as the Chelsea Shed Boys, and subsequently as the Chelsea Headhunters , were nationally notorious for football violence, alongside hooligan firms from other clubs such as West Ham United 's Inter City Firm and Millwall 's Bushwackers , before, during and after matches. [142] The increase of hooligan incidents in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose erecting an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch, a proposal that the Greater London Council rejected. [143]
Since the 1990s, there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches, as a result of stricter policing, CCTV in grounds and the advent of all-seater stadia . [144] In 2007, the club launched the Back to the Shed campaign to improve the atmosphere at home matches, with notable success. According to Home Office statistics, 126 Chelsea fans were arrested for football-related offences during the 2009–10 season, the third highest in the division, and 27 banning orders were issued, the fifth-highest in the division. [145]
Chelsea have long-standing rivalries with North London clubs Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur . [146] [147] A strong rivalry with Leeds United dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the 1970 FA Cup Final . [148] More recently a rivalry with Liverpool has grown following repeated clashes in cup competitions. [149] [150] Chelsea's fellow West London sides Brentford , Fulham and Queens Park Rangers are not considered major rivals, as matches have only taken place intermittently due to the clubs often being in separate divisions. [151]
A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with (in descending order): Arsenal , Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United . In the same survey, fans of Arsenal, Fulham, Leeds United, QPR, Tottenham, and West Ham United named Chelsea as one of their three main rivals. [152] In a 2008 poll conducted by the Football Fans Census , Chelsea fans named Liverpool, Arsenal and Manchester United as their most disliked clubs. In the same survey, "Chelsea" was the top answer to the question "Which other English club do you dislike the most?" [153] A 2012 survey, conducted among 1,200 supporters of the top four league divisions across the country, found that many clubs' main rivals had changed since 2003 and reported that Chelsea fans consider Tottenham to be their main rivals, above Arsenal and Manchester United. Additionally, fans of Arsenal, Brentford, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester United, QPR, Tottenham and West Ham identified Chelsea as one of their top three rivals. [154]
Chelsea's highest appearance-maker is ex-captain Ron Harris , who played in 795 competitive games for the club between 1961 and 1980. [155] Four other players made more than 500 appearances for the club: Peter Bonetti (729; 1959–79), John Terry (717; 1998–2017), Frank Lampard (648; 2001–2014) and John Hollins (592; 1963–1975 and 1983–1984). With 103 caps (101 while at the club) for England, Lampard is Chelsea's most capped international player. Every starting player in Chelsea's 57 games of the 2013–14 season was a full international – a new club record. [156]
Lampard is Chelsea's all-time top goalscorer, having scored 211 goals in 648 games (2001–2014); [155] he passed Bobby Tambling 's longstanding record of 202 in May 2013. [157] Eight other players have also scored over 100 goals for Chelsea: George Hilsdon (1906–1912), George Mills (1929–1939), Roy Bentley (1948–1956), Jimmy Greaves (1957–1961), Peter Osgood (1964–1974 and 1978–1979), Kerry Dixon (1983–1992), Didier Drogba (2004–2012 and 2014–2015), and Eden Hazard (2012–2019). Greaves holds the club record for the most goals scored in one season (43 in 1960–61). [158] While a Chelsea player, Greaves also became the youngest ever player to score 100 goals in the English top-flight, at 20 years and 290 days. [159]
Chelsea's biggest winning scoreline in a competitive match is 13–0, achieved against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1971. [160] The club's biggest top-flight win was an 8–0 victory against Wigan Athletic in 2010, which was matched in 2012 against Aston Villa . [161] Chelsea's biggest loss was an 8–1 reverse against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1953. [162] [163] The club's 21–0 aggregate victory over Jeunesse Hautcharage in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1971 is also a record in European competition. [164] Officially, Chelsea's highest home attendance is 82,905 for a First Division match against Arsenal on 12 October 1935. However, an estimated crowd of over 100,000 attended a friendly match against Soviet team Dynamo Moscow on 13 November 1945. [165] [166]
From 20 March 2004 to 26 October 2008, Chelsea went a record 86 consecutive league matches at home without defeat, beating the previous record of 63 matches unbeaten set by Liverpool between 1978 and 1980. [167] [168] Chelsea hold the English record for the fewest goals conceded during a league season (15), the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season (25) (both set during the 2004–05 season ), [169] and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season (6, set during the 2005–06 season ). [170] Chelsea's streak of eleven consecutive away league wins, set between 5 April 2008 and 6 December 2008, is a record for the English top flight. [171] Chelsea are the only Premier League side to win their opening nine league games of the season, doing so in 2005–06 . [172] [173] From 2009 to 2013, Chelsea were unbeaten in a record 29 consecutive FA Cup matches (excluding penalty shoot-outs). [174]
On 25 August 1928, Chelsea, along with Arsenal, became the first club to play with shirt numbers, in their match against Swansea Town . [175] They were the first English side to travel by aeroplane to a domestic away match, when they visited Newcastle United on 19 April 1957, [176] and the first First Division side to play a match on a Sunday, when they faced Stoke City on 27 January 1974. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up (no British or Irish players) in a Premier League match against Southampton . [177] In May 2007, Chelsea were the first team to win the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium , having also been the last to win it at the old Wembley. [178] They were the first English club to be ranked No. 1 under UEFA's five-year coefficient system in the 21st century. [179] They were the first Premier League team, and the first team in the English top flight since 1962–63, to score at least 100 goals in a single season, reaching the milestone during the 2009–10 season. [41] Chelsea are the only London club to win the UEFA Champions League . [180] [181] Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League , Chelsea became the first English club to win all four UEFA club trophies and the only club to hold the Champions League and the Europa League at the same time. [182]
Chelsea have twice broken the record for the highest transfer fee paid by a British club . Their £30.8 million purchase of Andriy Shevchenko from A.C. Milan in June 2006 was a British record until surpassed by the £32.5 million paid by Manchester City for Robinho in September 2008. [183] [184] The club's £50 million purchase of Fernando Torres from Liverpool in January 2011 [185] held the record until Ángel Di María signed for Manchester United in August 2014 for £59.7 million. [186] The club's £71 million purchase of Kepa Arrizabalaga in August 2018 remains a world record fee paid for a goalkeeper . [187]
On 12 February 2022, Chelsea became the first London club to win FIFA Club World Cup against Palmeiras with Kai Havertz scoring a late penalty. [188]
Chelsea Football Club was founded by Gus Mears in 1905. After his death in 1912, his descendants continued to own the club until 1982, when Ken Bates bought the club from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears for £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996. [25] In the mid-1990s Chelsea fan and businessman Matthew Harding became a director and loaned the club £26 million to build the new North Stand and invest in new players. [28]
In July 2003, Roman Abramovich purchased just over 50% of Chelsea Village plc's share capital, including Bates' 29.5% stake, for £30 million and over the following weeks bought out most of the remaining 12,000 shareholders at 35 pence per share, completing a £140 million takeover. Other shareholders at the time of the takeover included the Matthew Harding estate (21%), BSkyB (9.9%) and various anonymous offshore trusts. [189]
At the time of the Abramovich takeover, the club also had debts of around £100 million, which included a 10-year £75 million Eurobond taken out in 1997 by the Bates regime to buy the freehold of Stamford Bridge and finance the redevelopment of the stadium. The 9% interest on the loan cost the club around £7 million a year and according to Bruce Buck , Chelsea were struggling to pay an instalment due in July 2003. [190] Abramovich paid off some of that debt immediately, but the outstanding £36 million on the Eurobond was not fully repaid until 2008. [191] Since then, the club had no external debt. [192]
Abramovich changed the ownership name to Chelsea FC plc, whose ultimate parent company was Fordstam Limited, which was controlled by him. [193] Chelsea were additionally funded by Abramovich via interest free soft loans channelled through his holding company Fordstam Limited. The loans stood at £709 million in December 2009, when they were all converted to equity by Abramovich, leaving the club themselves debt free, [194] [195] although the debt remained with Fordstam. [196]
Chelsea did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. [38] In November 2012, Chelsea announced a profit of £1.4 million for the year ending 30 June 2012, the first time the club had made a profit under Abramovich's ownership. [38] [49] This was followed by a loss in 2013 and then their highest ever profit of £18.4 million for the year to June 2014. [50] In 2018 Chelsea announced a record after-tax profit of £62 million. [51]
Chelsea has been described as a global brand; a 2012 report by Brand Finance ranked Chelsea fifth among football brands and valued the club's brand value at US$398 million – an increase of 27% from the previous year, also valuing it at US$10 million more than the sixth best brand, London rivals Arsenal – and gave the brand a strength rating of AA (very strong). [197] [198] In 2016, Forbes magazine ranked Chelsea the seventh most valuable football club in the world, at £1.15 billion ($1.66 billion). [199] As of 2016, Chelsea was ranked eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League with an annual commercial revenue of £322.59 million. [200]
As of May 2022, Chelsea is ranked the eighth most valuable club in the world, according to Forbes . [201] , and eighth according to Deloitte , with an annual commercial revenue of €493.1 million. [202]
The club's recent accounting records highlight £26.6m they lost in compensation to former head coach Antonio Conte for sacking and to pay off his backroom staff and the legal costs that followed. [203]
On 26 February 2022, during the Russo-Ukrainian War , Abramovich handed over "stewardship and care" of Chelsea FC to the Chelsea Charitable Foundation. [204] Abramovich released an official statement on 2 March 2022 confirming that he was selling the club due to the ongoing situation in Ukraine. [205] Although the UK government froze Abramovich's assets in United Kingdom on 10 March due to his "close ties with Kremlin", it was made clear that the Chelsea club will be allowed to operate in terms of activities which are football related. [206] On 12 March, the Premier League disqualified Abramovich as a director of Chelsea Football Club. [207]
On 19 March 2022, there were five confirmed bids to acquire Chelsea FC: submitted to Raine Capital which was handling the sale of the club. Some of these were a consortium led by ex-Liverpool chairman Sir Martin Broughton , a group of investors led by the Ricketts family (among them Joe and Pete Ricketts ), Swiss and American businessmen Hansjörg Wyss and Todd Boehly , Aethel Partners headed by Portuguese Ricardo Santos Silva and British businessman Nick Candy , supported by former Chelsea striker Gianluca Vialli . [208]
On 7 May, the club finally confirmed that "terms have been agreed" for a new ownership group led by Todd Boehly and Clearlake Capital. [209] On 30 May, it was confirmed that the Boehly consortium had completed the purchase of the club. [210] The consortium also includes Wyss and Mark Walter . Walter and Boehly are also owners of the Los Angeles Dodgers , the Los Angeles Lakers , and the Los Angeles Sparks . The transaction had received all necessary approvals from the governments of the United Kingdom and Portugal, the Premier League, and other authorities. [211] [212]
Chelsea's kit has been manufactured by Nike since July 2017. Previously, the kit was manufactured by Adidas , which was originally contracted to supply the club's kit from 2006 to 2018. The partnership was extended in October 2010 in a deal worth £160 million over eight years. [213] This deal was again extended in June 2013 in a deal worth £300 million over another 10 years. [214] In May 2016, Adidas announced that by mutual agreement, the kit sponsorship would end six years early on 30 June 2017. [215] Chelsea had to pay £40m in compensation to Adidas. In October 2016, Nike was announced as the new kit sponsor, in a deal worth £900m over 15 years, until 2032. [216] Previously, the kit was manufactured by Umbro (1975–81), Le Coq Sportif (1981–86), The Chelsea Collection (1986–87), Umbro (1987–2006), and Adidas (2006–2017).
Chelsea's first shirt sponsor was Gulf Air , agreed during the 1983–84 season. The club was then sponsored by Grange Farms, Bai Lin Tea and Simod before a long-term deal was signed with Commodore International in 1989; Amiga , an offshoot of Commodore, also appeared on the shirts. Chelsea was subsequently sponsored by Coors beer (1994–97), Autoglass (1997–2001), Emirates (2001–05), Samsung Mobile (2005–08), Samsung (2008–15) [217] [218] and Yokohama Tyres (2015–20). From July 2020, Chelsea's sponsor was Three , [219] however it temporarily suspended its sponsorship in March 2022 in response to sanctions leveled by the UK government against Abramovich . [220] It restored its sponsorship after the change of ownership of the club. [221]
Following the introduction of sleeve sponsors in the Premier League, Chelsea had Alliance Tyres as its first sleeve sponsor in the 2017–18 season , [222] followed by Hyundai Motor Company in 2018-19 season . [223] Starting in 2022-23 season , Amber Group became the new sleeve sponsor, with the flagship digital asset platform WhaleFin appearing on the sleeves of both men's and women's teams. [224]
The club also has a variety of other sponsors and official partners, which include Cadbury , EA Sports , GO Markets, Hublot , Levy Restaurants , MSC Cruises , Parimatch , Singha , Trivago , and Zapp. [225]
|Period||Kit manufacturer||Shirt sponsor (chest)||Shirt sponsor (sleeve)|
|1975–1981||Umbro||—||—|
|1981–1983||Le Coq Sportif|
|1983–1984||Gulf Air|
|1984–1986||—|
|1986–1987||—||Bai Lin Tea / Simod|
|1987–1993||Umbro||Commodore|
|1993–1994||Amiga|
|1994–1997||Coors|
|1997–2001||Autoglass|
|2001–2005||Emirates|
|2005–2006||Samsung|
|2006–2015||Adidas|
|2015–2017||Yokohama Tyres|
|2017–2018||Nike||Alliance Tire Company|
|2018–2020||Hyundai|
|2020–2022||Three|
|2022–||WhaleFin|
In 1930, Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films, The Great Game . [226] One-time Chelsea centre forward, Jack Cock , who by then was playing for Millwall , was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at Stamford Bridge , including on the pitch, the boardroom, and the dressing rooms . It included guest appearances by then-Chelsea players Andrew Wilson , George Mills , and Sam Millington . [227] Owing to the notoriety of the Chelsea Headhunters , a football firm associated with the club, Chelsea have also featured in films about football hooliganism , including 2004's The Football Factory . [228] Chelsea also appear in the Hindi film Jhoom Barabar Jhoom . [229] In April 2011, Montenegrin comedy series Nijesmo mi od juče made an episode in which Chelsea play against FK Sutjeska Nikšić for qualification of the UEFA Champions League . [230]
Up until the 1950s, the club had a long-running association with the music halls ; their underachievement often provided material for comedians such as George Robey . [231] It culminated in comedian Norman Long's release of a comic song in 1933, ironically titled "On the Day That Chelsea Went and Won the Cup", the lyrics of which describe a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy. [11] In Alfred Hitchcock 's 1935 film The 39 Steps , Mr Memory claims that Chelsea last won the Cup in 63 BC, "in the presence of the Emperor Nero ." [232] Scenes in a 1980 episode of Minder were filmed during a real match at Stamford Bridge between Chelsea and Preston North End with Terry McCann ( Dennis Waterman ) standing on the terraces. [233]
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
|No.||Pos.||Nation||Player|
|1||GK||ESP||Kepa Arrizabalaga ( fifth captain )|
|4||DF||FRA||Benoît Badiashile|
|5||MF||ARG||Enzo Fernández|
|6||DF||BRA||Thiago Silva ( vice-captain )|
|7||MF||FRA||N'Golo Kanté ( third captain )|
|8||MF||CRO||Mateo Kovačić ( fourth captain )|
|9||FW||GAB||Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang|
|10||MF||USA||Christian Pulisic|
|11||FW||POR||João Félix (on loan from Atlético Madrid )|
|12||MF||ENG||Ruben Loftus-Cheek|
|13||GK||ENG||Marcus Bettinelli|
|14||DF||ENG||Trevoh Chalobah|
|15||FW||UKR||Mykhailo Mudryk|
|16||GK||SEN||Édouard Mendy|
|17||FW||ENG||Raheem Sterling|
|18||FW||ALB||Armando Broja|
|19||MF||ENG||Mason Mount|
|No.||Pos.||Nation||Player|
|20||MF||SUI||Denis Zakaria (on loan from Juventus )|
|21||DF||ENG||Ben Chilwell|
|22||MF||MAR||Hakim Ziyech|
|23||MF||ENG||Conor Gallagher|
|24||DF||ENG||Reece James|
|26||DF||SEN||Kalidou Koulibaly|
|27||FW||CIV||David Datro Fofana|
|28||DF||ESP||César Azpilicueta ( captain )|
|29||MF||GER||Kai Havertz|
|30||MF||ENG||Carney Chukwuemeka|
|31||FW||ENG||Noni Madueke|
|32||DF||ESP||Marc Cucurella|
|33||DF||FRA||Wesley Fofana|
|36||GK||USA||Gabriel Slonina|
|56||MF||JAM||Omari Hutchinson|
|67||MF||ENG||Lewis Hall|
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
|No.||Pos.||Nation||Player|
|—||GK||ENG||Nathan Baxter (at Hull City until 30 June 2023)|
|—||GK||WAL||Eddie Beach (at Chelmsford City until 30 June 2023)|
|—||GK||ENG||Jamie Cumming (at Milton Keynes Dons until 30 June 2023)|
|—||GK||ENG||Max Merrick (at Hanwell Town until 30 June 2023)|
|—||GK||ENG||Teddy Sharman-Lowe (at Havant & Waterlooville until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||WAL||Ethan Ampadu (at Spezia until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||ENG||Levi Colwill (at Brighton & Hove Albion until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||FRA||Malo Gusto (at Lyon until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||ENG||Bashir Humphreys (at SC Paderborn until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||ENG||Henry Lawrence (at Milton Keynes Dons until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||NED||Ian Maatsen (at Burnley until 30 June 2023)|
|No.||Pos.||Nation||Player|
|—||DF||NIR||Sam McClelland (at Barrow until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||GHA||Baba Rahman (at Reading until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||FRA||Malang Sarr (at Monaco until 30 June 2023)|
|—||DF||ENG||Dujon Sterling (at Stoke City until 30 June 2023)|
|—||MF||ENG||Tino Anjorin (at Huddersfield Town until 30 June 2023)|
|—||MF||FRA||Tiémoué Bakayoko (at AC Milan until 30 June 2023)|
|—||MF||ITA||Cesare Casadei (at Reading until 30 June 2023)|
|—||MF||ENG||Xavier Simons (at Hull City until 30 June 2023)|
|—||MF||BRA||Andrey Santos (at Vasco da Gama until 30 June 2023)|
|—||FW||ENG||Callum Hudson-Odoi (at Bayer Leverkusen until 30 June 2023)|
|—||FW||BEL||Romelu Lukaku (at Inter Milan until 30 June 2023)|
Chelsea also operate a women's football team, Chelsea Football Club Women , formerly known as Chelsea Ladies. They have been affiliated to the men's team since 2004 [237] and are part of the club's Community Development programme. They play their home games at Kingsmeadow , formerly the home ground of the EFL League Two club AFC Wimbledon . The club were promoted to the Premier Division for the first time in 2005 as Southern Division champions and won the Surrey County Cup nine times between 2003 and 2013. [238] In 2010 Chelsea Ladies were one of the eight founder members of the FA Women's Super League . [239] In 2015, Chelsea Ladies won the FA Women's Cup for the first time, beating Notts County Ladies at Wembley Stadium , [240] and a month later clinched their first FA WSL title to complete a league and cup double. [241] In 2018, they won a second league and FA Cup double. [242] Two years later, in 2020, they repeated their double success by winning the third league title and the FA Women's League Cup for the first time. [243] [244] In the 2020–21 season, Chelsea won a domestic treble by winning the league, FA Cup and League Cup. [245] They also reached the final of the UEFA Women's Champions League for the first time, losing to Barcelona 4–0. [246]
John Terry , former captain of the Chelsea men's team, is the president of Chelsea Women. [247]
- ^ "Club Partners" . chelseafc.com . Chelsea F.C. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020 . Retrieved 5 August 2020 .
- ^ "The Great Game" . Internet Movie Database . Archived from the original on 11 March 2005 . Retrieved 1 October 2007 .
- ^ Glanvill, Rick (2006). Chelsea FC: The Official Biography . pp. 120–121.
- ^ Hawkes, Steve (10 May 2004). "Football firms hit the film circuit" . BBC Sport . Archived from the original on 12 January 2016 . Retrieved 25 January 2007 .
- ^ "Chelsea teams up with Yash Raj Films" . DNA India . 25 September 2006. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 1 January 2007 .
- ^ "Nijesmo mi od Juce – Novosti – Epizode – Chelsea u "gledajte onlajn" sekciji" (in Montenegrin). nijesmomiodjuce.com. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013 . Retrieved 23 April 2014 .
- ^ Murray, Scott (30 September 2002). "Di Canio has last laugh at Chelsea comedy store" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 . Retrieved 14 July 2011 .
- ^ "The 39 Steps" . Internet Movie Database . Archived from the original on 4 June 2016 . Retrieved 5 May 2014 .
- ^ "All About Scoring, Innit?" . Minder.org. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 September 2015 .
- ^ "Men: Senior" . Chelsea F.C . Retrieved 1 January 2023 .
"Men: On Loan" . Chelsea F.C . Retrieved 2 September 2022 .
- ^ "Chelsea join illustrious trio" . UEFA. 15 May 2013. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017 . Retrieved 17 May 2013 .
- ^ "Club coefficients – UEFA Coefficients" . UEFA . Retrieved 23 February 2023 .
- ^ "Chelsea Moving on Up" . FemaleSoccer.net. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017 . Retrieved 20 February 2011 .
- ^ "Womens Cup Previous Winners" . surreyfa.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2014 . Retrieved 11 March 2014 .
- ^ "Eight teams successful in Women's Super League bid" . London: fcbusiness.co.uk. 24 March 2010. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011 . Retrieved 20 February 2011 .
- ^ "Chelsea lift FA Cup in front of record crowd" . shekicks.net. 2 August 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015 . Retrieved 2 August 2015 .
- ^ "Chelsea Ladies: How Women's Super League title was won" . UK: BBC. 5 October 2015. Archived from the original on 29 December 2015 . Retrieved 30 November 2015 .
- ^ "Chelsea Ladies win Super League title to complete double and give Katie Chapman perfect farewell" . The Daily Telegraph . UK. 15 May 2018. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019 . Retrieved 6 July 2019 .
- ^ "Chelsea named Women's Super League champions, Liverpool relegated" . BBC Sport . UK. 5 June 2020. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020 . Retrieved 23 August 2020 .
- ^ "Chelsea Women 2–1 Arsenal Women: Blues' Beth England scores injury-time winner in League Cup final" . BBC Sport . UK. 29 February 2020. Archived from the original on 29 February 2020 . Retrieved 23 August 2020 .
- ^ Gastelum, Andrew (5 December 2021). "Chelsea Wins Women's FA Cup to Complete Domestic Treble" . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved 20 May 2022 .
- ^ Law, James (16 May 2021). "Chelsea thrashed by Barcelona in final" . BBC Sport . Retrieved 20 May 2022 .
- ^ Leighton, Tony (18 October 2009). "John Terry digs deep to rescue Chelsea Ladies after funding cuts" . The Guardian . UK. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014 . Retrieved 20 February 2011 .
- Batty, Clive (2004). Kings of the King's Road: The Great Chelsea Team of the 60s and 70s . Vision Sports Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9546428-1-5 .
- Batty, Clive (2005). A Serious Case of the Blues: Chelsea in the 80s . Vision Sports Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-905326-02-0 .
- Glanvill, Rick (2006). Chelsea FC: The Official Biography – The Definitive Story of the First 100 Years . Headline Book Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7553-1466-9 .
- Hadgraft, Rob (2004). Chelsea: Champions of England 1954–55 . Desert Island Books Limited. ISBN 978-1-874287-77-3 .
- Harris, Harry (2005). Chelsea's Century . Blake Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84454-110-2 .
- Ingledew, John (2006). And Now Are You Going to Believe Us: Twenty-five Years Behind the Scenes at Chelsea FC . John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84454-247-5 .
- Matthews, Tony (2005). Who's Who of Chelsea . Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84596-010-0 .
- Mears, Brian (2004). Chelsea: A 100-year History . Mainstream Sport. ISBN 978-1-84018-823-3 .
- Mears, Brian (2002). Chelsea: Football Under the Blue Flag . Mainstream Sport. ISBN 978-1-84018-658-1 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. | 110 |
how many times have chelsea won the european cup | Chelsea F.C. in international football | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Club||Chelsea|
|Seasons played||31|
|Most appearances||John Terry (124)|
|Top scorer||Didier Drogba (36)|
|First entry||1958–60 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup|
|Latest entry||2022–23 UEFA Champions League|
|Titles|
|Champions League||2 ( 2012 , 2021 )|
|Europa League||2 ( 2013 , 2019 )|
|Cup Winners' Cup||2 ( 1971 , 1998 )|
|Super Cup||2 ( 1998 , 2021 )|
|FIFA Club World Cup||1 ( 2021 )|
Chelsea Football Club is an English professional football club based in Fulham , London . The club's involvement in international competitions dates back to the 1950s. As champions of England, the club was invited to participate in the inaugural European Champions' Cup in 1955, but were denied entry by The Football Association . Three years later, Chelsea made their European debut against Copenhagen XI in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup , on 30 September 1958.
Chelsea won their first European title in 1971, defeating Real Madrid to win the European Cup Winners' Cup . In 1998, they won the same trophy again, followed by the UEFA Super Cup later that year. In 2012, Chelsea won the UEFA Champions League , becoming the fifth English team, and the first and only team from London to date, to win the competition. In 2013, Chelsea won the UEFA Europa League and became the fourth club to win all three main UEFA club competitions. [1] Due to a change in competition dates, with the final of the Champions League being played a week after the Europa League final, Chelsea held both the Champions and Europa League trophies simultaneously, the only side to ever do so. [2] Chelsea once again lifted the Europa League trophy in 2019. [3] In 2021, Chelsea won their second Champions League title, [4] giving them the distinction of being the only club to have won all three major European competitions twice. [5] They are presently England's second-most successful club in UEFA competitions, with eight trophies in total.
John Terry holds the club record for appearances in European competitions with 124, while striker Didier Drogba is the club's leading European goalscorer with 36 goals. [6] Chelsea's biggest European win is 13–0, which came against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1971. Their 21–0 aggregate win over the same opposition is a joint-record in European football. [7]
Chelsea were invited to take part in the inaugural European Cup , now UEFA Champions League, in 1955 after they claimed their first league title the previous season . However, Chelsea were pressured into withdrawing from the tournament by The Football Association . [8] They had thus missed the chance to become the first English club to participate in what is now the most prestigious club competition in European football. It was not until 44 years later that they would make their debut in the Champions League.
The 1999–2000 season saw the club progress through the group stage and the second group stage to reach the quarter-finals where they faced Barcelona of Spain. Chelsea won the first leg 3–1 at Stamford Bridge with Gianfranco Zola scoring the opener and Tore André Flo a brace. However, they were beaten 5–1 in Spain two weeks later and knocked out of the competition 6–4 on aggregate , thus ended their first Champions League journey. [9]
Chelsea qualified for the 2003–04 Champions League by finishing fourth in the 2002–03 FA Premier League . Their place in the Champions League was secured on the final day of the season, beating fifth-place Liverpool 2–1 at home. The game was dubbed 'the £20m match' as Chelsea were only ahead of Liverpool on goal difference before kickoff; a win for either side would see them qualify for the following season's Champions League at the expense of the other. [10] Jesper Grønkjær scored the winner in the 26th minute. The goal would later seem by many as the most important in the club's history and said to be worth £1 billion, as many believe had Liverpool won on that day the subsequent takeover by a Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich would never have happened. [11]
Chelsea reached the semi-finals after defeating derby rivals Arsenal 2–1 at Highbury . Having not beaten Arsenal since November 1998, they went into the second leg with a 1–1 home draw. José Antonio Reyes ' goal before the half time gave the Gunners the lead, however Chelsea managed to come back and won in the second half through Frank Lampard 's goal within six minutes of the restart and Wayne Bridge 's winning goal in the 87th minute. [12] The first leg of the semi-final however turned out to be a disaster for Chelsea as they were defeated 3–1 by ten-man Monaco at Stade Louis II stadium. Two weeks later at Stamford Bridge, they were leading 2–0 shortly before the halftime. Had they kept this score to the final whistle, they would go through on away goals . However, Monaco eventually came back in the second half and the game ended in a 2-2 draw. [13] As a consequence, Claudio Ranieri was sacked at the end of the season. [14] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea_F.C._in_international_football | 110 |
how many times have chelsea won the european cup | Has Chelsea ever won the UEFA Champions League? | Chelsea have featured in the UEFA Champions League final thrice!
30 May, 2021
Premier League giants Chelsea FC won their second UEFA Champions League title after edging past Manchester City in the all-English final in Porto. As a result, the classic question - how many times have Chelsea won the UEFA Champions League? - will now have a different answer.
Chelsea’s 2020-21 campaign, which began under Frank Lampard , saw the Blues pick up four wins and two draws in the group stages of UCL . However, with former Paris Saint-Germain coach Thomas Tuchel in the hot seat, there was a visible change in the side’s performance, and they succeeded in denying Pep Guardiola a UCL crown with Manchester City.
Chelsea won the 2020-21 UEFA Champions League after beating Manchester City 1-0 at the Estádio do Dragão in Porto. This is the London club's second UCL title, having won it initially in the 2011-12 season.
The Blues' 2020-21 has been far from perfect. After a promising start took a worse turn, legendary player Frank Lampard was relieved from his managerial post. Enter Thomas Tuchel, and the German took the club to a fourth-place finish in the Premier League and kept 18 clean sheets, the second-highest by any team. However, the Blues lost the FA Cup final to Leicester City, which perhaps could have sweetened the occasion a bit more than winning club football's holy grail.
Chelsea began the 2020-21 UCL final on a slightly nervous note, as Manchester City came in with their 'pressure' tactics. Furthermore, Brazilian defender Thiago Silva limped off in the 39th minute with a groin injury.
Then, in the 42nd minute, German wonderkid Kai Havertz comes ahead of a scattered City defence to carry Mason Mount's pass past Ederson and slide it into an empty net. The strike, which ended up being the only goal of the fixture, instantly drew parallels to the London club’s 2011-12 semi-final second leg against Barcelona .
The Roberto Matteo -coached team scripted one of the most fairytale comebacks in the club's history by overturning a 2-1 aggregate score by 2-3 following goals from Brazilian midfielder Ramires and substitute Fernando Torres ' 92nd-minute dash charge that till today is his most significant moment in a Chelsea shirt.
In the 2011-12 UCL final, Didier Drogba played the hero not once but twice as he cancelled out Thomas Muller 's 83rd-minute strike with a towering header in the 88th minute and then scored the winning penalty to secure Chelsea’s maiden UEFA Champions League title. The Blues had won the penalty shootout by 4-3.
Chelsea have played in three UEFA Champions League finals, with their first appearance coming in the 2007-08 edition, where they lost to Premier League rivals Manchester United on penalties.
The 2020-21 UEFA Champions League final was the third instance of an all-English final in the landmark competition, following Chelsea's clash against Man Utd in 2007-08 and Liverpool 's meeting with Tottenham Hotspur in 2018-19 at the Wanda Metropolitano in Madrid.
Since their debut in 1999, Chelsea have featured 17 times in the UEFA Champions League. Now, they have won the UCL twice - 2011/12 and 2020-21.
|Chelsea's record in the UEFA Champions League|
|Season||Round||Result|
|1999-00||Quarter-finals||Lost to Barcelona|
|2000-01||Did not play||-|
|2001-02||Did not play||-|
|2002-03||Did not play||-|
|2003-04||Semi-finals||Lost to Monaco|
|2004-05||Semi-finals||Lost to Liverpool|
|2005-06||Last 16||Lost to Barcelona|
|2006-07||Semi-finals||Lost to Liverpool|
|2007-08||Final||Lost to Manchester United|
|2008-09||Semi-finals||Lost to Barcelona|
|2009-10||Last 16||Lost to Inter Milan|
|2010-11||Quarter-finals||Lost to Manchester United|
|2011-12||Winner||Beat Bayern Munich|
|2012-13||Group Stage||Finished third in Group E|
|2013-14||Semi-finals||Lost to Atletico Madrid|
|2014-15||Last 16||Lost to Paris Saint-Germain|
|2015-16||Last 16||Lost to Paris Saint-Germain|
|2016-17||Did not play||-|
|2017-18||Last 16||Lost to Barcelona|
|2018-19||Did not play||-|
|2019-20||Last 16||Lost to Bayern Munich|
|2020-21||Winner||Beat Manchester City|
Featured photo: Twitter / Champions League | https://www.sportsadda.com/football/features/how-many-uefa-champions-league-titles-chelsea-won-2012-2021 | 110 |
how many times have chelsea won the european cup | Men's trophy cabinet | Chelsea have won it all!
Here we detail each and every one of our major trophy triumphs...
Competition
Total
Years
UEFA Champions League
2
2012, 2021
First Division/Premier League
6
1955, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2017
FA Cup
8
1970, 1997, 2000, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2018
League Cup
5
1965, 1998, 2005, 2007, 2015
UEFA Europa League
2
2013, 2019
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
2
1971, 1998
FIFA Club World Cup
1
2021
UEFA Super Cup
2
1998, 2021
Charity/Community Shield
4
1955, 2000, 2005, 2009
Full Members' Cup
2
1986, 1990
Chelsea were crowned Champions of Europe for a second time following an outstanding performance against Manchester City in Porto...
Michy Batshuayi, the summer-signed striker who has waited patiently for action all season, rose from the substitutes' bench to write his name in Chelsea history by scoring the goal which won our sixth league championship, the fifth in the Premier League era...
Eden Hazard marked a milestone appearance with the only goal of the game, scored from a penalty he had won in the first half, but while our Belgian maestro will make the headlines, much credit also went to the Blues' defending on a hot May day...
Having had the prestigious honour of being the last team to win the FA Cup at the old Wembley, thanks to our win over Aston Villa in 2000, we became the first team to win the competition at the new-look stadium in 2007 when we beat Manchester United 1-0...
The Blues secured the League Cup for the fifth time in our history courtesy of a 2-0 win over Tottenham Hotspur...
The game was played at Cardiff's Millennium Stadium and was a hugely entertaining affair, but Jose Mourinho's side got off to the worst possible start, falling behind after only 12 minutes when Theo Walcott was allowed to ghost into the Blues' penalty area and fire past Petr Cech... | https://www.chelseafc.com/en/mens-trophy-cabinet | 110 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton, the voice of Gimme Shelter, seriously hurt in car crash | This article is more than 8 years old
The singer, one of the stars of Twenty Feet from Stardom, suffered 'major trauma' in the accident
The legendary session singer Merry Clayton – the stark and striking female voice on the Rolling Stones' Gimme Shelter, and one of the stars of the Oscar-winning documentary Twenty Feet from Stardom – has been seriously injured in a car crash.
A message posted on her website said Clayton was involved in a major accident on Monday 16 June. "Merry sustained severe injuries to her lower body, including major trauma to her lower extremities," according to the statement on her site. "We are truly grateful that dear Merry is still with us.
"She has a long road of recovery ahead and we thank you all for your prayers as we link arms together with faith and the Lord’s strength for her rapid healing. For all that know her personally, and those that have been blessed by her God-given talents, please know that her spirit is very strong and her faith unwavering. Her voice is not silenced and His praises continue to be on her lips."
Clayton, who is 65, began her career in 1962 at the age of 14, singing a duet with Bobby Darin. The following year she recorded the first version of The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss). However, it was as a backing singer that she achieved greatness, not just on Gimme Shelter, but also on Lynyrd Skynyrd's Sweet Home Alabama, a song with whose sentiments she strongly disagreed.
"I said we're going to sing the crap out of this song," she told the Guardian's Dorian Lynskey earlier this year. "They have the nerve to sing Sweet Home Alabama! That's the white interpretation of Alabama. It's not sweet home to black people! It's not sweet home at all . We're going to sing it like a protest song. We were singing it through our teeth, like we were really angry: We're going to sing your song, honey, but not because we want to – because it's necessary ."
I hope you appreciated this article. Before you move on, I was hoping you would consider taking the step of supporting the Guardian’s journalism.
From Elon Musk to Rupert Murdoch, a small number of billionaire owners have a powerful hold on so much of the information that reaches the public about what’s happening in the world. The Guardian is different. We have no billionaire owner or shareholders to consider. Our journalism is produced to serve the public interest – not profit motives.
And we avoid the trap that befalls much US media – the tendency, born of a desire to please all sides, to engage in false equivalence in the name of neutrality. While fairness guides everything we do, we know there is a right and a wrong position in the fight against racism and for reproductive justice. When we report on issues like the climate crisis, we’re not afraid to name who is responsible. And as a global news organization, we’re able to provide a fresh, outsider perspective on US politics – one so often missing from the insular American media bubble.
Around the world, readers can access the Guardian’s paywall-free journalism because of our unique reader-supported model. That’s because of people like you. Our readers keep us independent, beholden to no outside influence and accessible to everyone – whether they can afford to pay for news, or not.
If you can, please consider supporting the Guardian today. Thank you.
Betsy Reed
Editor, Guardian US | https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/jun/23/merry-clayton-gimme-shelter-seriously-hurt-car-crash | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton, the voice of Gimme Shelter, seriously hurt in car crash | This article is more than 8 years old
The singer, one of the stars of Twenty Feet from Stardom, suffered 'major trauma' in the accident
The legendary session singer Merry Clayton – the stark and striking female voice on the Rolling Stones' Gimme Shelter, and one of the stars of the Oscar-winning documentary Twenty Feet from Stardom – has been seriously injured in a car crash.
A message posted on her website said Clayton was involved in a major accident on Monday 16 June. "Merry sustained severe injuries to her lower body, including major trauma to her lower extremities," according to the statement on her site. "We are truly grateful that dear Merry is still with us.
"She has a long road of recovery ahead and we thank you all for your prayers as we link arms together with faith and the Lord’s strength for her rapid healing. For all that know her personally, and those that have been blessed by her God-given talents, please know that her spirit is very strong and her faith unwavering. Her voice is not silenced and His praises continue to be on her lips."
Clayton, who is 65, began her career in 1962 at the age of 14, singing a duet with Bobby Darin. The following year she recorded the first version of The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss). However, it was as a backing singer that she achieved greatness, not just on Gimme Shelter, but also on Lynyrd Skynyrd's Sweet Home Alabama, a song with whose sentiments she strongly disagreed.
"I said we're going to sing the crap out of this song," she told the Guardian's Dorian Lynskey earlier this year. "They have the nerve to sing Sweet Home Alabama! That's the white interpretation of Alabama. It's not sweet home to black people! It's not sweet home at all . We're going to sing it like a protest song. We were singing it through our teeth, like we were really angry: We're going to sing your song, honey, but not because we want to – because it's necessary ."
I hope you appreciated this article. Before you move on, I was hoping you would consider taking the step of supporting the Guardian’s journalism.
From Elon Musk to Rupert Murdoch, a small number of billionaire owners have a powerful hold on so much of the information that reaches the public about what’s happening in the world. The Guardian is different. We have no billionaire owner or shareholders to consider. Our journalism is produced to serve the public interest – not profit motives.
And we avoid the trap that befalls much US media – the tendency, born of a desire to please all sides, to engage in false equivalence in the name of neutrality. While fairness guides everything we do, we know there is a right and a wrong position in the fight against racism and for reproductive justice. When we report on issues like the climate crisis, we’re not afraid to name who is responsible. And as a global news organization, we’re able to provide a fresh, outsider perspective on US politics – one so often missing from the insular American media bubble.
Around the world, readers can access the Guardian’s paywall-free journalism because of our unique reader-supported model. That’s because of people like you. Our readers keep us independent, beholden to no outside influence and accessible to everyone – whether they can afford to pay for news, or not.
If you can, please consider supporting the Guardian today. Thank you.
Betsy Reed
Editor, Guardian US | https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/jun/23/merry-clayton-gimme-shelter-seriously-hurt-car-crash | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Merry Clayton
|Background information|
|Born|| December 25, 1948 |
New Orleans , Louisiana , U.S.
|Genres||Soul , gospel|
|Occupation(s)||Singer|
|Years active||1962–present|
|Labels|| Ode / A&M |
MCA Records
Motown Gospel / Universal
Merry Clayton (born December 25, 1948) is an American soul and gospel singer. She provided a number of backing vocal tracks for major performing artists in the 1960s, most notably on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter ". [1] Clayton is prominently featured in 20 Feet from Stardom , the Oscar-winning documentary about background singers and their contributions to the music industry.
Clayton was born in Gert Town, New Orleans , Louisiana . She was born on Christmas Day, and was given the name "Merry" because of the December 25th birthdate. She is the daughter of Eva B. Clayton and Reverend A.G. Williams, Sr.
Clayton was raised in New Orleans as a Christian, and spent much of her time in her father’s parish, New Zion Baptist Church. After moving to Los Angeles, she met members of The Blossoms , who convinced her to pursue a music career. [2]
Throughout her career as a backup singer, Clayton's singing can be heard on songs by Pearl Bailey , Phil Ochs , Burt Bacharach , Tom Jones , Joe Cocker , Linda Ronstadt , Carole King , and on several tracks from Neil Young 's debut album . Clayton is often credited as having recorded with Elvis Presley but her name does not appear in Elvis sessionographies. [3]
Clayton has been sampled in various songs, most notably "Watch for the Hook" by Cool Breeze featuring Goodie Mob , and supergroup Outkast . [4]
Clayton began her recording career in 1962, at the age of 14. She first sang on "Who Can I Count On?" as a duet with Bobby Darin , on his album You're the Reason I'm Living . [5]
In 1963, she recorded the first-released version of " The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss) ", [6] the same year that Betty Everett 's version reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . [7] Early in her career, Clayton performed with Ray Charles (as one of the Raelettes ). [6] At the time, Charles was the only artist her father would allow her to see at a live performance. [8]
Clayton is best known for her 1969 duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter " (though on some releases her name is misspelled as "Mary"). [6] According to Jagger, the collaboration happened partially by chance: Jagger stated that the band thought, "it'd be great to have a woman come do the… chorus." They called Clayton "randomly" in the middle of the night in Los Angeles, and she showed up to the studio "in curlers" and contributed her parts in a few takes, which Jagger remarked was "pretty amazing." [9] Clayton performed her parts while pregnant, soon afterward suffering a miscarriage. [10] Clayton was actually the band's second choice for the part; The Stones had asked Bonnie Bramlett to sing on the song, but Bramlett's husband Delaney refused to let her perform with the Stones. [11]
In 1970, Clayton recorded her own version of "Gimme Shelter", and it became the title track of her debut solo album, released that year. [12] Her solo version peaked at No. 73 on the pop charts . Her version would be the first of five singles under her name to crack the Billboard Hot 100 . That same year, she performed a live version of " Lift Every Voice and Sing " for the soundtrack for the Robert Altman film, Brewster McCloud , and also contributed vocals to Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg 's film, Performance .
In 1971, she co-wrote the song "Sho' Nuff" about her mother. [13]
In 1972, she starred as the original Acid Queen in the first London production of The Who 's Tommy .
In 1973, she featured prominently on Ringo Starr's " Oh My My ", which reached Billboard's Top 10 the following year. Along with her frequent partner Clydie King , [14] Clayton also sang backing vocals on Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Sweet Home Alabama ". [15]
In the mid-1970s Clayton sang on The Blackbyrds ' R&B hit "Rock Creek Park", and continued to release solo albums throughout the next decade, notching several minor R&B chart singles. [6]
Her soundtrack work continued into the 1980s, including "You're Always There When I Need You", the title track for the 1980 Get Smart film, The Nude Bomb , and the song "Yes" from Dirty Dancing , which hit No. 45 on the Hot 100. [6]
In the mid-1980s, Clayton was in the gospel group Brilliance, formed by Della Reese . The other members were O.C. Smith , Vermettya Royster , and Eric Strom. [16] They released an album on Atlanta International Records in 1986.
In 1987, Clayton co-starred with Ally Sheedy in the film Maid to Order . [6] That same year, Clayton also played the character "Verna Dee Jordan" in the final season of Cagney & Lacey . [6]
In 1989, Clayton recorded a cover version of " Almost Paradise " with Eric Carmen . [17]
In 1994, Clayton sang on backing vocals and also the "Man with the Golden Gun" bridge for Tori Amos 's hit, " Cornflake Girl ".
In 2006, Clayton provided background vocals for Sparta 's album Threes , on the songs "Atlas" and "Translations".
In 2013, she released The Best of Merry Clayton , a compilation of her favorite songs.
Clayton was featured in the documentary film 20 Feet from Stardom (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and went on to win the Oscar for best documentary at the 86th Academy Awards . 20 Feet from Stardom also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film , with the award being presented to the featured artists, in addition to the production crew for the film.
In 2014, Clayton provided vocals for G. Love & Special Sauce 's album Sugar .
In 2015, Clayton was featured on two tracks of Coldplay 's album A Head Full of Dreams .
In 2021, her solo album Beautiful Scars was released. [18]
Clayton was married to jazz artist Curtis Amy from 1970 until his death in 2002. [19] Their son, Kevin Amy, has also pursued a musical career. [20] Her brother is Little Feat percussionist Sam Clayton . [21]
Clayton had a miscarriage upon returning home from recording "Gimme Shelter", according to the Los Angeles Times . [22]
On June 16, 2014, Clayton was critically injured in a car collision in Los Angeles, California [23] that caused both of her legs to be amputated at the knees due to her suffering "profound trauma to her lower extremities." [24]
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|1970||Gimme Shelter||Ode||—||—|
|1971||Celebration||Ode||—||—|
|Merry Clayton||Ode||180||36|
|1975||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow||Ode||146||50|
|1979||Emotion||MCA Records||—||—|
|1994||Miracles||CGI||—||—|
|2021||Beautiful Scars||Motown Gospel||—||—|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|2013||The Best of Merry Clayton [26]||Ode/ Epic / SME||—||61|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Single|| Peak chart |
positions
|Album|
|US [25]||US R&B [25]||AUS [27]||UK [28]||CAN [29]|
|1970||" Gimme Shelter "||73||—||—||—||63||Gimme Shelter|
|1972||"After All This Time"||71||42||—||—||—||Merry Clayton|
|1973||" Oh No Not My Baby "||72||30||49||—||—||Non-album song|
|1975||" Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow "||45||42||—||—||71||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow|
|1980||" Emotion "||—||53||—||—||—||Emotion|
|1988||"Yes"||45||79||—||70||77||Dirty Dancing (soundtrack)|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Film||Role|
|1984||Blame It on the Night||Herself|
|1987||Maid to Order||Audrey James|
|2013||20 Feet from Stardom||Herself|
- ^ True, Rovi Christopher. "Merry Clayton Biography" . AOL Music . Archived from the original on April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Merry Clayton" . Merryclayton.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 .
- ^ Jorgensen, Ernst (1998). Elvis Presley: A Life in Music: The Complete Recording Sessions . St. Martin's Press . ISBN 0312185723 .
- ^ "Tracks that Sampled Merry Clayton" . Whosampled.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merry_Clayton | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Merry Clayton
|Background information|
|Born|| December 25, 1948 |
New Orleans , Louisiana , U.S.
|Genres||Soul , gospel|
|Occupation(s)||Singer|
|Years active||1962–present|
|Labels|| Ode / A&M |
MCA Records
Motown Gospel / Universal
Merry Clayton (born December 25, 1948) is an American soul and gospel singer. She provided a number of backing vocal tracks for major performing artists in the 1960s, most notably on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter ". [1] Clayton is prominently featured in 20 Feet from Stardom , the Oscar-winning documentary about background singers and their contributions to the music industry.
Clayton was born in Gert Town, New Orleans , Louisiana . She was born on Christmas Day, and was given the name "Merry" because of the December 25th birthdate. She is the daughter of Eva B. Clayton and Reverend A.G. Williams, Sr.
Clayton was raised in New Orleans as a Christian, and spent much of her time in her father’s parish, New Zion Baptist Church. After moving to Los Angeles, she met members of The Blossoms , who convinced her to pursue a music career. [2]
Throughout her career as a backup singer, Clayton's singing can be heard on songs by Pearl Bailey , Phil Ochs , Burt Bacharach , Tom Jones , Joe Cocker , Linda Ronstadt , Carole King , and on several tracks from Neil Young 's debut album . Clayton is often credited as having recorded with Elvis Presley but her name does not appear in Elvis sessionographies. [3]
Clayton has been sampled in various songs, most notably "Watch for the Hook" by Cool Breeze featuring Goodie Mob , and supergroup Outkast . [4]
Clayton began her recording career in 1962, at the age of 14. She first sang on "Who Can I Count On?" as a duet with Bobby Darin , on his album You're the Reason I'm Living . [5]
In 1963, she recorded the first-released version of " The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss) ", [6] the same year that Betty Everett 's version reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . [7] Early in her career, Clayton performed with Ray Charles (as one of the Raelettes ). [6] At the time, Charles was the only artist her father would allow her to see at a live performance. [8]
Clayton is best known for her 1969 duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter " (though on some releases her name is misspelled as "Mary"). [6] According to Jagger, the collaboration happened partially by chance: Jagger stated that the band thought, "it'd be great to have a woman come do the… chorus." They called Clayton "randomly" in the middle of the night in Los Angeles, and she showed up to the studio "in curlers" and contributed her parts in a few takes, which Jagger remarked was "pretty amazing." [9] Clayton performed her parts while pregnant, soon afterward suffering a miscarriage. [10] Clayton was actually the band's second choice for the part; The Stones had asked Bonnie Bramlett to sing on the song, but Bramlett's husband Delaney refused to let her perform with the Stones. [11]
In 1970, Clayton recorded her own version of "Gimme Shelter", and it became the title track of her debut solo album, released that year. [12] Her solo version peaked at No. 73 on the pop charts . Her version would be the first of five singles under her name to crack the Billboard Hot 100 . That same year, she performed a live version of " Lift Every Voice and Sing " for the soundtrack for the Robert Altman film, Brewster McCloud , and also contributed vocals to Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg 's film, Performance .
In 1971, she co-wrote the song "Sho' Nuff" about her mother. [13]
In 1972, she starred as the original Acid Queen in the first London production of The Who 's Tommy .
In 1973, she featured prominently on Ringo Starr's " Oh My My ", which reached Billboard's Top 10 the following year. Along with her frequent partner Clydie King , [14] Clayton also sang backing vocals on Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Sweet Home Alabama ". [15]
In the mid-1970s Clayton sang on The Blackbyrds ' R&B hit "Rock Creek Park", and continued to release solo albums throughout the next decade, notching several minor R&B chart singles. [6]
Her soundtrack work continued into the 1980s, including "You're Always There When I Need You", the title track for the 1980 Get Smart film, The Nude Bomb , and the song "Yes" from Dirty Dancing , which hit No. 45 on the Hot 100. [6]
In the mid-1980s, Clayton was in the gospel group Brilliance, formed by Della Reese . The other members were O.C. Smith , Vermettya Royster , and Eric Strom. [16] They released an album on Atlanta International Records in 1986.
In 1987, Clayton co-starred with Ally Sheedy in the film Maid to Order . [6] That same year, Clayton also played the character "Verna Dee Jordan" in the final season of Cagney & Lacey . [6]
In 1989, Clayton recorded a cover version of " Almost Paradise " with Eric Carmen . [17]
In 1994, Clayton sang on backing vocals and also the "Man with the Golden Gun" bridge for Tori Amos 's hit, " Cornflake Girl ".
In 2006, Clayton provided background vocals for Sparta 's album Threes , on the songs "Atlas" and "Translations".
In 2013, she released The Best of Merry Clayton , a compilation of her favorite songs.
Clayton was featured in the documentary film 20 Feet from Stardom (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and went on to win the Oscar for best documentary at the 86th Academy Awards . 20 Feet from Stardom also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film , with the award being presented to the featured artists, in addition to the production crew for the film.
In 2014, Clayton provided vocals for G. Love & Special Sauce 's album Sugar .
In 2015, Clayton was featured on two tracks of Coldplay 's album A Head Full of Dreams .
In 2021, her solo album Beautiful Scars was released. [18]
Clayton was married to jazz artist Curtis Amy from 1970 until his death in 2002. [19] Their son, Kevin Amy, has also pursued a musical career. [20] Her brother is Little Feat percussionist Sam Clayton . [21]
Clayton had a miscarriage upon returning home from recording "Gimme Shelter", according to the Los Angeles Times . [22]
On June 16, 2014, Clayton was critically injured in a car collision in Los Angeles, California [23] that caused both of her legs to be amputated at the knees due to her suffering "profound trauma to her lower extremities." [24]
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|1970||Gimme Shelter||Ode||—||—|
|1971||Celebration||Ode||—||—|
|Merry Clayton||Ode||180||36|
|1975||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow||Ode||146||50|
|1979||Emotion||MCA Records||—||—|
|1994||Miracles||CGI||—||—|
|2021||Beautiful Scars||Motown Gospel||—||—|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|2013||The Best of Merry Clayton [26]||Ode/ Epic / SME||—||61|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Single|| Peak chart |
positions
|Album|
|US [25]||US R&B [25]||AUS [27]||UK [28]||CAN [29]|
|1970||" Gimme Shelter "||73||—||—||—||63||Gimme Shelter|
|1972||"After All This Time"||71||42||—||—||—||Merry Clayton|
|1973||" Oh No Not My Baby "||72||30||49||—||—||Non-album song|
|1975||" Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow "||45||42||—||—||71||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow|
|1980||" Emotion "||—||53||—||—||—||Emotion|
|1988||"Yes"||45||79||—||70||77||Dirty Dancing (soundtrack)|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Film||Role|
|1984||Blame It on the Night||Herself|
|1987||Maid to Order||Audrey James|
|2013||20 Feet from Stardom||Herself|
- ^ True, Rovi Christopher. "Merry Clayton Biography" . AOL Music . Archived from the original on April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Merry Clayton" . Merryclayton.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 .
- ^ Jorgensen, Ernst (1998). Elvis Presley: A Life in Music: The Complete Recording Sessions . St. Martin's Press . ISBN 0312185723 .
- ^ "Tracks that Sampled Merry Clayton" . Whosampled.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merry_Clayton | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Gimme Shelter - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the song by the Rolling Stones. For other uses, see Gimme Shelter (disambiguation) .
|"Gimme Shelter"|
|Song by the Rolling Stones|
|from the album Let It Bleed|
|Released||5 December 1969 [1] [2] [3]|
|Recorded||23 February, 2 November 1969|
|Genre|
|Length||4 : 37|
|Label|
|Songwriter(s)||Jagger/Richards|
|Producer(s)||Jimmy Miller|
|Audio sample|
Gimme Shelter
" Gimme Shelter " is a song by English rock band the Rolling Stones . Released as the opening track from band's 1969 album Let It Bleed . [5] [6] The song covers topics of war , murder , rape and fear . [7] [6] It features prominent guest vocals by American singer Merry Clayton .
American author, music journalist and cultural critic Greil Marcus , writing for Rolling Stone magazine at the time of its release, praised the song, stating that the band has "never done anything better". [3] "Gimme Shelter" has placed in various positions on many "best of/greatest" lists including that of Rolling Stone magazine. [8] In 2021 "Gimme Shelter" was ranked at number 13 on Rolling Stone' s list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". [9]
"Gimme Shelter" was written by the Rolling Stones' lead vocalist Mick Jagger and guitarist Keith Richards , the band's primary songwriting team. [note 1] Richards began working on the song's signature opening riff in London while Jagger was away filming Performance with Richards' then-girlfriend, Anita Pallenberg . In his autobiography Life , Richards revealed that the tension of the song was inspired by his jealousy at seeing the relationship between Pallenberg and Jagger, and his suspicions of an affair between them. [10]
As released, the song begins with Richards performing a guitar intro, soon joined by Jagger's lead vocal. Of Let It Bleed ' s bleak world view, Jagger said in a 1995 interview with Rolling Stone magazine:
Well, it's a very rough, very violent era. The Vietnam War. Violence on the screens, pillage and burning. And Vietnam was not war as we knew it in the conventional sense. The thing about Vietnam was that it wasn't like World War II, and it wasn't like Korea, and it wasn't like the Gulf War. It was a real nasty war, and people didn't like it. People objected, and people didn't want to fight it ... That's a kind of end-of-the-world song, really. It's apocalypse; the whole record's like that. [11]
Similarly, on NPR in 2012:
It was a very moody piece about the world closing in on you a bit ... When it was recorded, early '69 or something, it was a time of war and tension, so that's reflected in this tune. It's still wheeled out when big storms happen, as they did the other week [during Hurricane Sandy ]. It's been used a lot to evoke natural disaster. [12]
The song's inspiration was not initially Vietnam or social unrest, however, but Richards seeing people scurrying for shelter from a sudden rain storm. According to him:
I had been sitting by the window of my friend Robert Fraser's apartment on Mount Street in London with an acoustic guitar when suddenly the sky went completely black and an incredible monsoon came down. It was just people running about looking for shelter – that was the germ of the idea. We went further into it until it became, you know, rape and murder are 'just a shot away'. [13]
The recording features guest vocals by Merry Clayton , recorded at a last-minute late-night recording session in Los Angeles during the mixing phase, arranged by her friend and record producer Jack Nitzsche . [14] After the first verse is sung by Jagger, Clayton enters and they share the next three verses. A harmonica solo by Jagger and guitar solo by Richards follow. Then, with great energy, Clayton repeatedly sings "Rape, murder! It's just a shot away! It's just a shot away!", almost screaming the final stanza. She and Jagger then repeat the line "It's just a shot away" and finish with repeats of "It's just a kiss away". When speaking of her inclusion in the recording, Jagger stated in the 2003 book According to the Rolling Stones that the Rolling Stones' producer Jimmy Miller thought of having a female singer on the track and told fellow producer Nitzsche to contact one: "The use of the female voice was the producer's idea. It would be one of those moments along the lines of 'I hear a girl on this track – get one on the phone. ' " [14] [15] Summoned from bed around midnight by Nitzsche, Clayton – about four months pregnant – made her recording with just a few takes and then returned home to bed. [14] It remains the most prominent contribution to a Rolling Stones track by a female vocalist. [16]
At about 2:59 into the song, Clayton's voice cracks under the strain; once during the second refrain on the word "shot", then on the word "murder" during the third refrain, after which Jagger is faintly heard exclaiming "Woo!" in response to Clayton's powerful delivery. [17] Upon returning home, Clayton suffered a miscarriage, attributed by some sources to her exertions during the recording. [18] [19]
Merry Clayton's name was erroneously written on the original release, appearing as "Mary". Her name is also listed as "Mary" on the 2002 Let It Bleed remastered CD. [20]
The song was recorded in London at Olympic Studios in February and March 1969; the vocals were recorded in Los Angeles at Sunset Sound Recorders and Elektra Studios in October and November that same year. [21] Nicky Hopkins played piano, Jimmy Miller played percussion, Charlie Watts played drums, Bill Wyman played bass, Jagger played harmonica and sang backup vocals with Richards and Clayton. Guitarist Brian Jones was present during the early sessions but did not contribute, [ citation needed ] Richards being credited with both rhythm and lead guitars on the album sleeve. For the recording, Richards used an Australian-made Maton SE777, a large single-cutaway hollowbody guitar, which he had previously used on " Midnight Rambler ". The guitar barely survived the recording before literally falling apart. "[O]n the very last note of 'Gimmie Shelter, ' " Richards told Guitar World in 2002, "the whole neck fell off. You can hear it on the original take." [22]
"Gimme Shelter" quickly became a staple of the Rolling Stones' live shows. It was first performed sporadically during their 1969 American Tour and became a regular addition to their setlist during the 1972 American Tour . Other concert versions appear on the Stones' albums No Security (recorded 1997, released 1998), [23] Live Licks (recorded 2003, released 2004), [24] Brussels Affair (recorded 1973, released 2011), [25] [26] and Hyde Park Live (2013). [27] A May 1995 performance recorded at Paradiso (Amsterdam) was released on the 1996 " Wild Horses " (live) single, on the 1998 " Saint of Me " single (included in the 45-CD 2011 box set The Singles 1971–2006 ), and again on Totally Stripped in 2016.
The song appeared in Ladies and Gentlemen: The Rolling Stones , a film of the Stones' 1972 North American Tour , as well as on its 2010 official DVD release. [28] It is also featured on the concert DVD/Blu-ray sets Bridges to Babylon Tour '97–98 (1998), Four Flicks (2003), The Biggest Bang (2007), Sweet Summer Sun: Hyde Park Live (2013), Totally Stripped (2016), and Havana Moon (2016). [29]
The female contributor to the live version of the song was Lisa Fischer from 1989 to 2015, [30] [31] and as of 2022 has been Sasha Allen since 2016.
In their 2012 50th anniversary tour, the Rolling Stones sang this song with Mary J. Blige , [32] Florence Welch , [32] and Lady Gaga . [33] [32]
"Gimme Shelter" was never released as a single. Nevertheless, it has been included on many compilation releases, including Gimme Shelter , [34] Hot Rocks 1964–1971 , [35] Forty Licks , [36] and GRRR! [37] In 2023, a version of the song, featuring Lady Gaga , was also included on their 50th-anniversary live tour album, GRRR Live! – Live at Newark . [38]
According to authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon: [39]
The Rolling Stones
- Mick Jagger – lead vocals, harmonica
- Keith Richards – backing vocals, lead and rhythm guitars | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimme_Shelter | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | The sad story of the female voice in The Rolling Stones' Gimme Shelter - Auralcrave | There are songs whose magic is comprised of small elements, which at the beginning seem marginal but then become their most identifying aspect. And often, behind them there are particular stories that are worth telling. One example is Pink Floyd’s The Great Gig In The Sky , with the voice of Clare Torry coming out of an apparently failed audition. Of course, it subsequently became one of the most famous vocal performances in the history of rock. Another example is The Rolling Stones’ Gimme Shelter and that female scream that can be heard in the chorus. It is a scream that hides a story with tragic implications .
It was the Autumn of 1969. The Rolling Stones were in a studio in Los Angeles for the recording of Let It Bleed . Gimme Shelter had crude lyrics, in some ways desperate, that spoke about the ugliness of the world and the need for a shelter in which to hide when you can’t take it anymore. The refrain has a cutting line, which many would sing through the years:
Rape, Murder
It’s just a shot away
The Rolling Stones - Gimme Shelter (Official Lyric Video)
Mick Jagger said: “When we got to Los Angeles and we were mixing it, we thought, ‘Well, it’d be great to have a woman come and do the rape/murder verse,’ or chorus or whatever you want to call it.” The producer Jack Nitzsche began to call some female singer contacts, despite it being quite late at night. Eventually, a phone rang . It was that of Merry Clayton, a professional singer with several important collaborations under her belt, including The Supremes and Elvis Presley. She had also been part of Ray Charles’ backing singers, the Raelettes. At that hour she was in bed, in her slippers, pregnant and ready to go to sleep. This is her story:
Well, I’m at home at almost 12 o’clock at night. And I’m hunkered down in my bed with my husband, very pregnant, and we got a call from a dear friend of mine and producer named Jack Nitzsche. Jack Nitzsche called and said you know, Merry, are you busy? I said No, I’m in bed. He says, ‘well, you know, there are some guys in town from England. And they need someone to come and sing a duet with them, but I can’t get anybody to do it. Could you come?’ At that point my husband took the phone out of my hand and got angry: ‘This time of night you’re calling Merry to do a session? You know she’s pregnant!’ But Nitzsche succeded to bring my husband on his side. In the end he managed to convince me: ‘Honey, you know, you really should go and do this date.’
She stayed in her pyjamas and hair rollers. She put on a coat, went down to the street and found a car waiting for her to take her to the studio. She didn’t even know who The Rolling Stones were . They made her listen to the song, then asked her to sing the part about rape and murder. They had to convince her; she was not happy to sing those words at first. She was the daughter of a Christian reverend. But, as she recently told the Queen Latifah Show , at one point she started thinking about all the bad news that she read in the newspapers every day, and it was as if something took a hold of her. She sang them for the first time. Then she had to sit down because of the weight of the child she was carrying, and she did a second and third take.
The rest is history. It was the most successful performance of her career, and it would become one of the most popular rock tracks ever .
But Merry would remember that night in a very different way, for what happened later. She returned home and had a miscarriage . Legend has it that being out that night and making such an effort to sing that part had played a decisive role. For a long time, she didn’t have the strength to listen to herself in that song, because of the bad memories of what had happened that night. It was as if it were a sacrifice that she could never accept, until she was forced by events and by the people around her.
“That was a dark, dark period for me, but God gave me the strength to overcome it. I turned it around. I took it as life, love and energy and directed it in another direction, so it doesn’t really bother me to sing Gimme Shelter now. Life is short as it is and I can’t live on yesterday.”
What we don’t know is whether, after that night, she would have accepted the offer to sing once more had she been called in the middle of the night. Most probably not.
Oh, a storm is threat’ning
My very life today
If I don’t get some shelter
Oh yeah, I’m gonna fade away
This story is part of the book:
Mama Mia Let Me Go!
A journey through the most intriguing lyrics and stories in rock music | https://auralcrave.com/en/2019/06/12/the-sad-story-of-the-female-voice-in-the-rolling-stones-gimme-shelter/ | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Prolific Background Singer Merry Clayton : Fresh Air | Singer Merry Clayton did the iconic background vocals of the 1969 Rolling Stones song "Gimme Shelter." But despite the fame and success of the record, Clayton remained largely anonymous. Until, that is, she was featured as one of the backup singers in the 2014 Oscar-winning documentary '20 Feet from Stardom.' Over the course of her career, Clayton sang with Ray Charles, Joe Cocker, Carole King and many others. Now she's got a new album — where she's front and center — called 'Beautiful Scars.' She spoke with Terry Gross in 2013.
Also, we'll hear some of our 2020 interview with filmmaker Craig Foster. His Netflix documentary 'My Octopus Teacher' is nominated for an Oscar.
Sponsor Message | https://www.npr.org/2021/04/08/985363178/prolific-background-singer-merry-clayton | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Merry Clayton
|Background information|
|Born|| December 25, 1948 |
New Orleans , Louisiana , U.S.
|Genres||Soul , gospel|
|Occupation(s)||Singer|
|Years active||1962–present|
|Labels|| Ode / A&M |
MCA Records
Motown Gospel / Universal
Merry Clayton (born December 25, 1948) is an American soul and gospel singer. She provided a number of backing vocal tracks for major performing artists in the 1960s, most notably on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter ". [1] Clayton is prominently featured in 20 Feet from Stardom , the Oscar-winning documentary about background singers and their contributions to the music industry.
Clayton was born in Gert Town, New Orleans , Louisiana . She was born on Christmas Day, and was given the name "Merry" because of the December 25th birthdate. She is the daughter of Eva B. Clayton and Reverend A.G. Williams, Sr.
Clayton was raised in New Orleans as a Christian, and spent much of her time in her father’s parish, New Zion Baptist Church. After moving to Los Angeles, she met members of The Blossoms , who convinced her to pursue a music career. [2]
Throughout her career as a backup singer, Clayton's singing can be heard on songs by Pearl Bailey , Phil Ochs , Burt Bacharach , Tom Jones , Joe Cocker , Linda Ronstadt , Carole King , and on several tracks from Neil Young 's debut album . Clayton is often credited as having recorded with Elvis Presley but her name does not appear in Elvis sessionographies. [3]
Clayton has been sampled in various songs, most notably "Watch for the Hook" by Cool Breeze featuring Goodie Mob , and supergroup Outkast . [4]
Clayton began her recording career in 1962, at the age of 14. She first sang on "Who Can I Count On?" as a duet with Bobby Darin , on his album You're the Reason I'm Living . [5]
In 1963, she recorded the first-released version of " The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss) ", [6] the same year that Betty Everett 's version reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . [7] Early in her career, Clayton performed with Ray Charles (as one of the Raelettes ). [6] At the time, Charles was the only artist her father would allow her to see at a live performance. [8]
Clayton is best known for her 1969 duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter " (though on some releases her name is misspelled as "Mary"). [6] According to Jagger, the collaboration happened partially by chance: Jagger stated that the band thought, "it'd be great to have a woman come do the… chorus." They called Clayton "randomly" in the middle of the night in Los Angeles, and she showed up to the studio "in curlers" and contributed her parts in a few takes, which Jagger remarked was "pretty amazing." [9] Clayton performed her parts while pregnant, soon afterward suffering a miscarriage. [10] Clayton was actually the band's second choice for the part; The Stones had asked Bonnie Bramlett to sing on the song, but Bramlett's husband Delaney refused to let her perform with the Stones. [11]
In 1970, Clayton recorded her own version of "Gimme Shelter", and it became the title track of her debut solo album, released that year. [12] Her solo version peaked at No. 73 on the pop charts . Her version would be the first of five singles under her name to crack the Billboard Hot 100 . That same year, she performed a live version of " Lift Every Voice and Sing " for the soundtrack for the Robert Altman film, Brewster McCloud , and also contributed vocals to Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg 's film, Performance .
In 1971, she co-wrote the song "Sho' Nuff" about her mother. [13]
In 1972, she starred as the original Acid Queen in the first London production of The Who 's Tommy .
In 1973, she featured prominently on Ringo Starr's " Oh My My ", which reached Billboard's Top 10 the following year. Along with her frequent partner Clydie King , [14] Clayton also sang backing vocals on Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Sweet Home Alabama ". [15]
In the mid-1970s Clayton sang on The Blackbyrds ' R&B hit "Rock Creek Park", and continued to release solo albums throughout the next decade, notching several minor R&B chart singles. [6]
Her soundtrack work continued into the 1980s, including "You're Always There When I Need You", the title track for the 1980 Get Smart film, The Nude Bomb , and the song "Yes" from Dirty Dancing , which hit No. 45 on the Hot 100. [6]
In the mid-1980s, Clayton was in the gospel group Brilliance, formed by Della Reese . The other members were O.C. Smith , Vermettya Royster , and Eric Strom. [16] They released an album on Atlanta International Records in 1986.
In 1987, Clayton co-starred with Ally Sheedy in the film Maid to Order . [6] That same year, Clayton also played the character "Verna Dee Jordan" in the final season of Cagney & Lacey . [6]
In 1989, Clayton recorded a cover version of " Almost Paradise " with Eric Carmen . [17]
In 1994, Clayton sang on backing vocals and also the "Man with the Golden Gun" bridge for Tori Amos 's hit, " Cornflake Girl ".
In 2006, Clayton provided background vocals for Sparta 's album Threes , on the songs "Atlas" and "Translations".
In 2013, she released The Best of Merry Clayton , a compilation of her favorite songs.
Clayton was featured in the documentary film 20 Feet from Stardom (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and went on to win the Oscar for best documentary at the 86th Academy Awards . 20 Feet from Stardom also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film , with the award being presented to the featured artists, in addition to the production crew for the film.
In 2014, Clayton provided vocals for G. Love & Special Sauce 's album Sugar .
In 2015, Clayton was featured on two tracks of Coldplay 's album A Head Full of Dreams .
In 2021, her solo album Beautiful Scars was released. [18]
Clayton was married to jazz artist Curtis Amy from 1970 until his death in 2002. [19] Their son, Kevin Amy, has also pursued a musical career. [20] Her brother is Little Feat percussionist Sam Clayton . [21]
Clayton had a miscarriage upon returning home from recording "Gimme Shelter", according to the Los Angeles Times . [22]
On June 16, 2014, Clayton was critically injured in a car collision in Los Angeles, California [23] that caused both of her legs to be amputated at the knees due to her suffering "profound trauma to her lower extremities." [24]
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|1970||Gimme Shelter||Ode||—||—|
|1971||Celebration||Ode||—||—|
|Merry Clayton||Ode||180||36|
|1975||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow||Ode||146||50|
|1979||Emotion||MCA Records||—||—|
|1994||Miracles||CGI||—||—|
|2021||Beautiful Scars||Motown Gospel||—||—|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|2013||The Best of Merry Clayton [26]||Ode/ Epic / SME||—||61|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Single|| Peak chart |
positions
|Album|
|US [25]||US R&B [25]||AUS [27]||UK [28]||CAN [29]|
|1970||" Gimme Shelter "||73||—||—||—||63||Gimme Shelter|
|1972||"After All This Time"||71||42||—||—||—||Merry Clayton|
|1973||" Oh No Not My Baby "||72||30||49||—||—||Non-album song|
|1975||" Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow "||45||42||—||—||71||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow|
|1980||" Emotion "||—||53||—||—||—||Emotion|
|1988||"Yes"||45||79||—||70||77||Dirty Dancing (soundtrack)|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Film||Role|
|1984||Blame It on the Night||Herself|
|1987||Maid to Order||Audrey James|
|2013||20 Feet from Stardom||Herself|
- ^ True, Rovi Christopher. "Merry Clayton Biography" . AOL Music . Archived from the original on April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Merry Clayton" . Merryclayton.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 .
- ^ Jorgensen, Ernst (1998). Elvis Presley: A Life in Music: The Complete Recording Sessions . St. Martin's Press . ISBN 0312185723 .
- ^ "Tracks that Sampled Merry Clayton" . Whosampled.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merry_Clayton | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton: 'Gimme Shelter left a dark taste in my mouth' | Robert Ham
The singer who backed the Rolling Stones, Coldplay and more weathered a miscarriage, then the loss of her legs in a car accident – but her new album Beautiful Scars shows she refuses to give up
M erry Clayton has an excellent memory. The 72-year-old singer tells tales with such particular detail: the warmth of falling asleep between gospel legends Mahalia Jackson and Linda Hopkins in the pews of her father’s church in Louisiana; the recording sessions with Bobby Darin, Lynyrd Skynyrd and the Rolling Stones, for whom she delivered the searing holler of Gimme Shelter.
What Clayton has no memory of is the 2014 car accident that was so severe that doctors were forced to amputate both of her legs below the knee. She remembers waking up in hospital, but the incident itself, and much of the five months she spent recovering, is lost. “It was like I was in another place,” she explains, speaking from her home in Los Angeles. “I knew I was here in the world, but it was just like I was somewhere else. I was in la-la land.”
The moment that stuck with Clayton was when she learned about the loss of her legs. Her doctors and family braced themselves for a panicked response. All Clayton wanted to know was if her voice was affected. Reassured that it was fine, she broke into song. Clayton’s sister summed it up: “If she’s singing, she’s fine.”
She has been singing a lot these days, especially in the wake of her appearance in 20 Feet From Stardom (2013), the Oscar-winning documentary that put the spotlight on the singers, many of them Black, who provided background vocals for the major pop and rock acts of the past five decades. For many viewers, the film helped put a name to the pealing, cracking voice that bursts through Gimme Shelter, briefly pushing aside Mick Jagger. It led to an invite to contribute to Coldplay’s 2015 album A Head Full of Dreams ; Clayton recorded her vocals a mere week after leaving the hospital.
Coldplay’s Chris Martin returned the favour when Clayton returned to the studio. Working with her longtime friend, the famed producer Lou Adler, she slowly put together her new album, Beautiful Scars , a collection of throwback R&B and modern gospel that includes the Martin-penned Love Is a Mighty River and the defiant title track written by Diane Warren, the stellar pop songwriter known for power ballads recorded by LeAnn Rimes, Aerosmith and more. “It was the closest recording situation that I’ve ever been in that was totally pure love,” Clayton says. “It was very spiritual. It’s like you’re on another sphere.”
The devotional tone of Beautiful Scars brings Clayton full circle from where she started singing: at the New Zion Baptist church in New Orleans. From as early as the age of six, she was a star of the church choir, earning the nickname Little Haley for her mimicry of Mahalia Jackson, the pre-eminent gospel singer of the time. Jackson, a friend of Clayton’s minister father, would frequent the parish when she visited New Orleans. “I would always find my way to nestle up right up under Mahalia wherever she was sitting,” says Clayton. “I would lean up against her and take a little nap because I would have been up since seven o’clock that morning.”
Clayton’s career got underway after her family moved to Los Angeles. She fell in with a group of other vocalists and with them landed her first recording session in 1962 at the age of 14, backing the pop star Bobby Darin. From the first take, he was blown away by the volume and power of Clayton’s voice and immediately wanted to sign her to a contract. The only hurdle was getting permission from Clayton’s mother. “She said: ‘OK, these are the rules. When you pick her up from school, she has to take a nap so that she can be refreshed. And then you have to correct her homework.’ So here’s poor Bobby Darin correcting homework.”
While her work with Darin didn’t lead to the pop success that they had hoped, it helped usher Clayton to her next big gig: joining the touring band for the R&B superstar Ray Charles. Her family friend, the keyboardist and future Beatles collaborator Billy Preston, had already landed the job playing organ in the group and hurried Clayton in for a rehearsal. She walked out with a contract for her parents to sign. “‘She will come back here the way she left,’” Clayton remembers her mother telling Charles. “‘If she doesn’t, we’re gonna have a problem.’” What she did return home with was Curtis Amy, Charles’s musical director and Clayton’s future husband. They were married for 32 years before his death in 2002.
It was Amy who took the call from the producer Jack Nitzsche , ringing late one night in 1969 and hoping that Clayton would sing on a track being recorded by the Rolling Stones. Still in her pyjamas, hair in rollers and four months pregnant, she arrived at Sunset Sound Studios in Hollywood minutes later, cementing her place in rock history with her ferocious “it’s just a shot away” vocal line on Gimme Shelter. “I called Curtis: ‘These boys want me to sing about rape and murder.’ I wanted them to hear me, talking real loud to my husband on the phone. But we got the gist – that it was part of the song and not something just flying out of the sky. I was tired, it was cold and my voice cracked. We listened back and they said: ‘Oh that’s bloody fabulous. Can you do it again?’”
The day after the session with the Stones, Clayton suffered a miscarriage. She attributes it to the strain she put on her body pushing the heavy studio doors and reaching to hit the vocal peaks. “We lost a little girl. It took me years and years and years to get over that. You had all this success with Gimme Shelter and you had the heartbreak with this song.” Although she recorded her own version of the song for her 1970 studio album (itself entitled Gimme Shelter), it took her a long time to listen to the Stones’ song because she so closely associated it with losing her child. “It left a dark taste in my mouth. It was a rough, rough time.”
During the 1970s, Clayton continued to amass credits as a backing vocalist: Ringo Starr’s Oh My My, Carole King’s Smackwater Jack and Joe Cocker’s Feeling Alright. She also joined her friend and fellow singer Clydie King on Lynyrd Skynyrd’s controversial Southern rock anthem Sweet Home Alabama. Adding fuel to her impassioned performance was Clayton’s familiarity with the tune that song was written as a response to: Neil Young’s Southern Man. Moved by its fiery anti-racist lyrics, she had recorded a cover of Young’s song for her self-titled solo album – three years before landing in the studio with Lynyrd Skynyrd.
It took some convincing, as when Clayton heard the title of the song, her thoughts immediately went to the racially motivated church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, that killed four young girls in 1963. It was her husband who persuaded her. “He said: ‘Why don’t you protest with this music? Sing it with everything that’s in you. Sing it as if you’re saying, ‘I got your Alabama right here.’ We went, singing through our teeth, not wanting to be there. And that was our protest.”
Through it all, Adler – or as she calls him “Uncle Lou” – remained her biggest champion. He signed Clayton to his own label and produced two of her solo albums; Adler was also responsible for Clayton performing the Acid Queen as part of an all-star orchestral version of the Who’s Tommy, performed at London’s Rainbow Theatre in 1972. Sporting, as she puts it, “an afro as big as the stage”, she chided her co-stars as they took turns sliding down the decorative mushrooms on stage. “Every other song, Rod Stewart would look at me and go: ‘Why are you taking everything so bloody serious?’ I leaned over and I told him: ‘I am serious! Don’t you understand there are marks we have to hit and things we have to do? I have to concentrate on what I’m doing. Leave me alone.’”
Clayton’s voice, as it is when she is recounting most anecdotes from her life, is filled with warmth and a hint of wonder, punctuated with a boisterous laugh. That carries through to talking about the present day. Her life in lockdown has been peaceful: she listens to Brahms or Tchaikovsky in the mornings, meditates and practises walking with her prosthetic legs. She is also coaching her granddaughter, a talented singer in her own right who makes an appearance on Beautiful Scars.
What never comes across during our conversation is any sense of despair about the accident or its aftermath. When Clayton returned home after her hospital stay, she quickly settled into a new routine of mental and physical rehabilitation with the help of her family and her doctors. “I started working really hard – but not too hard – on getting myself back to myself.”
Returning to some semblance of normality after enduring such trauma is no small accomplishment. I tell her I don’t know that I could have handled it, and I’m not alone, apparently. “I have friends who’ve told me: ‘Girl, if it were me, they would have had to put dirt on me – God knew who to put this on because I couldn’t bear it. You’re a walking, talking miracle.’ And I really, truly believe that, because I refuse to give in and I refuse to give up.”
Beautiful Scars is released 9 April on Motown Gospel.
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who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Prolific Background Singer Merry Clayton : Fresh Air | Singer Merry Clayton did the iconic background vocals of the 1969 Rolling Stones song "Gimme Shelter." But despite the fame and success of the record, Clayton remained largely anonymous. Until, that is, she was featured as one of the backup singers in the 2014 Oscar-winning documentary '20 Feet from Stardom.' Over the course of her career, Clayton sang with Ray Charles, Joe Cocker, Carole King and many others. Now she's got a new album — where she's front and center — called 'Beautiful Scars.' She spoke with Terry Gross in 2013.
Also, we'll hear some of our 2020 interview with filmmaker Craig Foster. His Netflix documentary 'My Octopus Teacher' is nominated for an Oscar.
Sponsor Message | https://www.npr.org/2021/04/08/985363178/prolific-background-singer-merry-clayton | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Mick Jagger Tells the Story Behind ‘Gimme Shelter’ and Merry Clayton’s Haunting Background Vocals | In the fall of 1969 the Rolling Stones were in a Los Angeles recording studio, putting the final touches on their album Let it Bleed . It was a tumultuous time for the Stones. They had been struggling with the album for the better part of a year as they dealt with the personal disintegration of their founder and multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, whose drug addiction and personality problems had reached a critical stage. Jones was fired from the band in June of that year. He died less than a month later. And although the Stones couldn’t have known it at the time, the year would end on another catastrophic note, as violence broke out at the notorious Altamont Free Concert just a day after Let it Bleed was released.
It was also a grim time around the world. The assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert F. Kennedy, the Tet Offensive, the brutal suppression of the Prague Spring–all of these were recent memories. Not surprisingly, Let it Bleed was not the most cheerful of albums. As Stephen Davis writes in his book Old Gods Almost Dead: The 40-Year Odyssey of the Rolling Stones , “No rock record, before or since, has ever so completely captured the sense of palpable dread that hung over its era.”
And no song on Let it Bleed articulates this dread with greater force than the apocalyptic “Gimme Shelter,” in which Mick Jagger sings of a fire “sweepin’ our very street today,” like a “Mad bull lost his way.”
Rape, murder!
It’s just a shot away
It’s just a shot awa y
In an interview last November with Melissa Block for the NPR program All Things Considered , Jagger talked about those lyrics, and the making of the song:
One of the most striking moments in the interview is when Jagger describes the circumstances surrounding soul singer Merry Clayton’ s powerful background vocals. “When we got to Los Angeles and we were mixing it, we thought, ‘Well, it’d be great to have a woman come and do the rape/murder verse,’ or chorus or whatever you want to call it,” said Jagger. “We randomly phoned up this poor lady in the middle of the night, and she arrived in her curlers and proceeded to do that in one or two takes, which is pretty amazing. She came in and knocked off this rather odd lyric. It’s not the sort of lyric you give anyone–‘Rape, murder/It’s just a shot away’–but she really got into it, as you can hear on the record.”
The daughter of a Baptist minister, Merry Clayton grew up singing in her father’s church in New Orleans. She made her professional debut at age 14, recording a duet with Bobby Darin. She went on to work with The Supremes, Elvis Presley and many others, and was a member of Ray Charles’s group of backing singers, The Raelettes. She is one of the singers featured in the new documentary film, 20 Feet From Stardom . In an interview last week with Terry Gross on NPR’s Fresh Air , Clayton talked about the night she was asked to sing on “Gimme Shelter”:
Well, I’m at home at about 12–I’d say about 11:30, almost 12 o’clock at night. And I’m hunkered down in my bed with my husband, very pregnant, and we got a call from a dear friend of mine and producer named Jack Nitzsche. Jack Nitzsche called and said you know, Merry, are you busy? I said No, I’m in bed. he says, well, you know, There are some guys in town from England. And they need someone to come and sing a duet with them, but I can’t get anybody to do it. Could you come? He said I really think this would be something good for you.
At that point, Clayton recalled, her husband took the phone out of her hand and said, “Man, what is going on? This time of night you’re calling Merry to do a session? You know she’s pregnant.” Nitzsche explained the situation, and just as Clayton was drifting back to sleep her husband nudged her and said, “Honey, you know, you really should go and do this date.” Clayton had no idea who the Rolling Stones were. When she arrived at the studio, Keith Richards was there and explained what he wanted her to do.
I said, Well, play the track. It’s late. I’d love to get back home. So they play the track and tell me that I’m going to sing–this is what you’re going to sing: Oh, children, it’s just a shot away. It had the lyrics for me. I said, Well, that’s cool. So I did the first part, and we got down to the rape, murder part. And I said, Why am I singing rape, murder? …So they told me the gist of what the lyrics were, and I said Oh, okay, that’s cool. So then I had to sit on a stool because I was a little heavy in my belly. I mean, it was a sight to behold. And we got through it. And then we went in the booth to listen, and I saw them hooting and hollering while I was singing, but I didn’t know what they were hooting and hollering about. And when I got back in the booth and listened, I said, Ooh, that’s really nice. They said, well, You want to do another? I said, well, I’ll do one more, I said and then I’m going to have to say thank you and good night. I did one more, and then I did one more. So it was three times I did it, and then I was gone. The next thing I know, that’s history.
Clayton sang with such emotional force that her voice cracked. (“I was just grateful that the crack was in tune,” she told Gross.) In the isolated vocal track above, you can hear the others in the studio shouting in amazement. Despite giving what would become the most famous performance of her career, it turned out to be a tragic night for Clayton. Shortly after leaving the studio, she lost her baby in a miscarriage. It has generally been assumed that the stress from the emotional intensity of her performance and the lateness of the hour caused the miscarriage. For many years Clayton found the song too painful to hear, let alone sing. “That was a dark, dark period for me,” she told the Los Angeles Times in 1986, “but God gave me the strength to overcome it. I turned it around. I took it as life, love and energy and directed it in another direction, so it doesn’t really bother me to sing ‘Gimme Shelter’ now. Life is short as it is and I can’t live on yesterday.”
Related Content: | https://www.openculture.com/2013/06/mick_jagger_tells_the_story_behind_gimme_shelter.html | 111 |
who is the female voice in gimme shelter | The tragic story behind The Rolling Stones song ‘Gimme Shelter’ with Merry Clayton | The Rolling Stones were about to hit their creative peak in 1969. The band who had sprung out of the creative freedom of the sixties was going to close out the decade in pole position as the most progressive pop group on the planet. Their song ‘Gimme Shelter’ written for Let It Bleed , featuring quite possibly the greatest “backing” vocal of all time from Merry Clayton, typifies their spirit at the time .
Clayton’s searing performance is about as powerful and emotional as rock ‘n’ roll can ever get and, while it is a shame that Clayton’s name isn’t as well known as The Rolling Stones, the song is also linked to another tragedy for the singer. One which left her unable to listen to the song for many years, let alone sing it.
‘Gimme Shelter’ is one of those rare songs that typifies a band. It’s dark and dangerous overtone mirrored the niche the Stones had carved for themselves. It’s lifting, the orchestral sound would be a sign of their future, and the heady cocktail within which it was concocted was all trademark Stones.
Remembered as one of The Rolling Stones’ crowning moments, the track was deeply mired in the distrust and disgust their guitarist Keith Richards found himself stuck in after his then-girlfriend Anita Pallenberg (whom Richards had taken from Brian Jones not long before) while she rehearsed sex scenes with Mick Jagger for his upcoming feature film debut.
Written in glitterati member Robert Fraser’s seedy Mayfair flat while likely snorting copious amounts of coke and heroin, the track is seething with sultry sexuality and serpentine friendships. When Mick Jagger got a hold of the song, he soon turned its focus towards the violence of the world around him, namely the Vietnam War.
In the studio, the track was brimming with energy but missing a crucial component. In a 2013 interview with NPR’s All Things Considered, Jagger gushed over Clayton’s incredible performance: “When we got to Los Angeles and we were mixing it, we thought, ‘Well, it’d be great to have a woman come and do the rape/murder verse,’ or chorus or whatever you want to call it,” he said. “We randomly phoned up this poor lady in the middle of the night, and she arrived in her curlers and proceeded to do that in one or two takes, which is pretty amazing. She came in and knocked off this rather odd lyric. It’s not the sort of lyric you give anyone–‘Rape, murder/It’s just a shot away’–but she really got into it, as you can hear on the record.”
Clayton had travelled to the studio in the middle of the night while pregnant without much thought to who the band were or what the song could be. Or indeed the lyrics she was given, “I’m like, ‘Rape, murder…’? You sure that’s what you want me to sing, honey? He’s just laughing. Him and Keith.”
It was a session she was initially sceptical of attending. “Well, I’m at home at almost 12 o’clock at night. And I’m hunkered down in my bed with my husband, very pregnant, and we got a call from a dear friend of mine and producer named Jack Nitzsche. Jack Nitzsche called and said you know, Merry, are you busy? I said No, I’m in bed. He says, ‘well, you know, there are some guys in town from England. And they need someone to come and sing a duet with them, but I can’t get anybody to do it. Could you come?’”
At this moment, Clayton’s husband had heard enough: “At that point my husband took the phone out of my hand and got angry: ‘This time of night you’re calling Merry to do a session? You know she’s pregnant!’ But Nitzsche succeded to bring my husband on his side. In the end, he managed to convince me: ‘Honey, you know, you really should go and do this date.’”
Sadly, this isn’t the end of the story. The real tragedy of the story is that shortly after the session, when she returned home, Clayton suffered a miscarriage. Many have pointed towards the session as the sole reason for the loss as the emotional stress, intensity of the recording session and its late-night timings took its toll on Clayton and her unborn child.
The connection to that pain was so intrinsically linked with the song that Clayton struggled to listen to the song at all in the years following the event, let alone sing it . Clayton had lost something so significant in her life that the idea she may have sacrificed it for a simple pop song was too much to bear. Luckily, with a good support network, she overcame the dark times.
In 1986, 17 years after recording the song, she told the Los Angeles Times: “That was a dark, dark period for me, but God gave me the strength to overcome it. I turned it around. I took it as life, love and energy and directed it in another direction, so it doesn’t really bother me to sing ‘Gimme Shelter’ now. Life is short as it is and I can’t live on yesterday.”
When listening to The Rolling Stones’ ‘Gimme Shelter’ it is incredibly difficult not to be overwhelmed by the power of Clayton. Now, with the tragic side of this story revealed, listening to the song makes its raw intensity and shuddering vocals resonate far more intently.
Watch below Clayton discuss the song alongside some words from Mick Jagger.
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who is the female voice in gimme shelter | Merry Clayton - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Merry Clayton
|Background information|
|Born|| December 25, 1948 |
New Orleans , Louisiana , U.S.
|Genres||Soul , gospel|
|Occupation(s)||Singer|
|Years active||1962–present|
|Labels|| Ode / A&M |
MCA Records
Motown Gospel / Universal
Merry Clayton (born December 25, 1948) is an American soul and gospel singer. She provided a number of backing vocal tracks for major performing artists in the 1960s, most notably on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter ". [1] Clayton is prominently featured in 20 Feet from Stardom , the Oscar-winning documentary about background singers and their contributions to the music industry.
Clayton was born in Gert Town, New Orleans , Louisiana . She was born on Christmas Day, and was given the name "Merry" because of the December 25th birthdate. She is the daughter of Eva B. Clayton and Reverend A.G. Williams, Sr.
Clayton was raised in New Orleans as a Christian, and spent much of her time in her father’s parish, New Zion Baptist Church. After moving to Los Angeles, she met members of The Blossoms , who convinced her to pursue a music career. [2]
Throughout her career as a backup singer, Clayton's singing can be heard on songs by Pearl Bailey , Phil Ochs , Burt Bacharach , Tom Jones , Joe Cocker , Linda Ronstadt , Carole King , and on several tracks from Neil Young 's debut album . Clayton is often credited as having recorded with Elvis Presley but her name does not appear in Elvis sessionographies. [3]
Clayton has been sampled in various songs, most notably "Watch for the Hook" by Cool Breeze featuring Goodie Mob , and supergroup Outkast . [4]
Clayton began her recording career in 1962, at the age of 14. She first sang on "Who Can I Count On?" as a duet with Bobby Darin , on his album You're the Reason I'm Living . [5]
In 1963, she recorded the first-released version of " The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss) ", [6] the same year that Betty Everett 's version reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . [7] Early in her career, Clayton performed with Ray Charles (as one of the Raelettes ). [6] At the time, Charles was the only artist her father would allow her to see at a live performance. [8]
Clayton is best known for her 1969 duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song " Gimme Shelter " (though on some releases her name is misspelled as "Mary"). [6] According to Jagger, the collaboration happened partially by chance: Jagger stated that the band thought, "it'd be great to have a woman come do the… chorus." They called Clayton "randomly" in the middle of the night in Los Angeles, and she showed up to the studio "in curlers" and contributed her parts in a few takes, which Jagger remarked was "pretty amazing." [9] Clayton performed her parts while pregnant, soon afterward suffering a miscarriage. [10] Clayton was actually the band's second choice for the part; The Stones had asked Bonnie Bramlett to sing on the song, but Bramlett's husband Delaney refused to let her perform with the Stones. [11]
In 1970, Clayton recorded her own version of "Gimme Shelter", and it became the title track of her debut solo album, released that year. [12] Her solo version peaked at No. 73 on the pop charts . Her version would be the first of five singles under her name to crack the Billboard Hot 100 . That same year, she performed a live version of " Lift Every Voice and Sing " for the soundtrack for the Robert Altman film, Brewster McCloud , and also contributed vocals to Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg 's film, Performance .
In 1971, she co-wrote the song "Sho' Nuff" about her mother. [13]
In 1972, she starred as the original Acid Queen in the first London production of The Who 's Tommy .
In 1973, she featured prominently on Ringo Starr's " Oh My My ", which reached Billboard's Top 10 the following year. Along with her frequent partner Clydie King , [14] Clayton also sang backing vocals on Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Sweet Home Alabama ". [15]
In the mid-1970s Clayton sang on The Blackbyrds ' R&B hit "Rock Creek Park", and continued to release solo albums throughout the next decade, notching several minor R&B chart singles. [6]
Her soundtrack work continued into the 1980s, including "You're Always There When I Need You", the title track for the 1980 Get Smart film, The Nude Bomb , and the song "Yes" from Dirty Dancing , which hit No. 45 on the Hot 100. [6]
In the mid-1980s, Clayton was in the gospel group Brilliance, formed by Della Reese . The other members were O.C. Smith , Vermettya Royster , and Eric Strom. [16] They released an album on Atlanta International Records in 1986.
In 1987, Clayton co-starred with Ally Sheedy in the film Maid to Order . [6] That same year, Clayton also played the character "Verna Dee Jordan" in the final season of Cagney & Lacey . [6]
In 1989, Clayton recorded a cover version of " Almost Paradise " with Eric Carmen . [17]
In 1994, Clayton sang on backing vocals and also the "Man with the Golden Gun" bridge for Tori Amos 's hit, " Cornflake Girl ".
In 2006, Clayton provided background vocals for Sparta 's album Threes , on the songs "Atlas" and "Translations".
In 2013, she released The Best of Merry Clayton , a compilation of her favorite songs.
Clayton was featured in the documentary film 20 Feet from Stardom (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and went on to win the Oscar for best documentary at the 86th Academy Awards . 20 Feet from Stardom also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film , with the award being presented to the featured artists, in addition to the production crew for the film.
In 2014, Clayton provided vocals for G. Love & Special Sauce 's album Sugar .
In 2015, Clayton was featured on two tracks of Coldplay 's album A Head Full of Dreams .
In 2021, her solo album Beautiful Scars was released. [18]
Clayton was married to jazz artist Curtis Amy from 1970 until his death in 2002. [19] Their son, Kevin Amy, has also pursued a musical career. [20] Her brother is Little Feat percussionist Sam Clayton . [21]
Clayton had a miscarriage upon returning home from recording "Gimme Shelter", according to the Los Angeles Times . [22]
On June 16, 2014, Clayton was critically injured in a car collision in Los Angeles, California [23] that caused both of her legs to be amputated at the knees due to her suffering "profound trauma to her lower extremities." [24]
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|1970||Gimme Shelter||Ode||—||—|
|1971||Celebration||Ode||—||—|
|Merry Clayton||Ode||180||36|
|1975||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow||Ode||146||50|
|1979||Emotion||MCA Records||—||—|
|1994||Miracles||CGI||—||—|
|2021||Beautiful Scars||Motown Gospel||—||—|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Album||Label|| Peak chart |
positions
|US [25]||US R&B [25]|
|2013||The Best of Merry Clayton [26]||Ode/ Epic / SME||—||61|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Single|| Peak chart |
positions
|Album|
|US [25]||US R&B [25]||AUS [27]||UK [28]||CAN [29]|
|1970||" Gimme Shelter "||73||—||—||—||63||Gimme Shelter|
|1972||"After All This Time"||71||42||—||—||—||Merry Clayton|
|1973||" Oh No Not My Baby "||72||30||49||—||—||Non-album song|
|1975||" Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow "||45||42||—||—||71||Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow|
|1980||" Emotion "||—||53||—||—||—||Emotion|
|1988||"Yes"||45||79||—||70||77||Dirty Dancing (soundtrack)|
|"—" denotes releases that did not chart|
|Year||Film||Role|
|1984||Blame It on the Night||Herself|
|1987||Maid to Order||Audrey James|
|2013||20 Feet from Stardom||Herself|
- ^ True, Rovi Christopher. "Merry Clayton Biography" . AOL Music . Archived from the original on April 26, 2012.
- ^ "Merry Clayton" . Merryclayton.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 .
- ^ Jorgensen, Ernst (1998). Elvis Presley: A Life in Music: The Complete Recording Sessions . St. Martin's Press . ISBN 0312185723 .
- ^ "Tracks that Sampled Merry Clayton" . Whosampled.com . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merry_Clayton | 111 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative easing - Wikipedia | Quantitative easing ( QE ) is a monetary policy action where a central bank purchases predetermined amounts of government bonds or other financial assets in order to stimulate economic activity. [1] Quantitative easing is a novel form of monetary policy that came into wide application after the financial crisis of 2007-2008 . [2] [3] It is used to mitigate an economic recession when inflation is very low or negative, making standard monetary policy ineffective. Quantitative tightening (QT) does the opposite, where for monetary policy reasons, a central bank sells off some portion of its holdings of government bonds or other financial assets.
Similar to conventional open-market operations used to implement monetary policy, a central bank implements quantitative easing by buying financial assets from commercial banks and other financial institutions, thus raising the prices of those financial assets and lowering their yield , while simultaneously increasing the money supply . However, in contrast to normal policy, quantitative easing usually involves the purchase of riskier or longer-term assets (rather than short-term government bonds) of predetermined amounts at a large scale, over a pre-committed period of time. [4] [5]
Central banks usually resort to quantitative easing when their nominal interest rate target approaches or reaches zero. Very low interest rates induce a liquidity trap , a situation where people prefer to hold cash or very liquid assets, given the low returns on other financial assets. This makes it difficult for interest rates to go below zero ; monetary authorities may then use quantitative easing to further stimulate the economy rather than trying to lower the interest rate further.
Quantitative easing can help bring the economy out of recession [6] and help ensure that inflation does not fall below the central bank's inflation target . [7] However QE programmes are also criticized for their side-effects and risks, which include the policy being more effective than intended in acting against deflation (leading to higher inflation in the longer term), or not being effective enough if banks remain reluctant to lend and potential borrowers are unwilling to borrow. Quantitative easing has also been criticized for raising financial asset prices, contributing to inequality. [8] Quantitative easing was undertaken by some major central banks worldwide following the global financial crisis of 2007–08 , and again in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [9]
Standard central bank monetary policies are usually enacted by buying or selling government bonds on the open market to reach a desired target for the interbank interest rate . However, if a recession or depression continues even when a central bank has lowered interest rates targets to nearly zero, the central bank can no longer lower interest rates — a situation known as the liquidity trap . The central bank may then attempt to stimulate the economy by implementing quantitative easing, that is, by buying financial assets without reference to interest rates. This policy is sometimes described as a last resort to stimulate the economy. [10] [11]
A central bank enacts quantitative easing by purchasing, regardless of interest rates, a predetermined quantity of bonds or other financial assets on financial markets from private financial institutions. [12] [13] This action increases the excess reserves that banks hold. The goal of this policy is to ease financial conditions, increase market liquidity , and encourage private bank lending.
Quantitative easing affects the economy through several channels: [14]
- Credit channel: By providing liquidity in the banking sector, QE makes it easier and cheaper for banks to extend loans to companies and households, thus stimulating credit growth. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds (such as corporate bonds), it can also increase the price and lower the interest yield of these riskier assets. [ citation needed ]
- Portfolio rebalancing: By enacting QE, the central bank withdraws an important part of the safe assets from the market onto its own balance sheet, which may result in private investors turning to other financial securities. Because of the relative lack of government bonds, investors are forced to "rebalance their portfolios" into other assets. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds, it can also lower the interest yield of those assets (as those assets are more scarce in the market, and thus their prices go up correspondingly). [15]
- Exchange rate: Because it increases the money supply and lowers the yield of financial assets, QE tends to depreciate a country's exchange rates relative to other currencies, through the interest rate mechanism. [16] Lower interest rates lead to a capital outflow from a country, thereby reducing foreign demand for a country's money, leading to a weaker currency. This increases demand for exports, and directly benefits exporters and export industries in the country. [ citation needed ]
- Fiscal effect: By lowering yields on sovereign bonds, QE makes it cheaper for governments to borrow on financial markets, which may empower the government to provide fiscal stimulus to the economy. Quantitative easing can be viewed as a debt refinancing operation of the "consolidated government" (the government including the central bank), whereby the consolidated government, via the central bank, retires government debt securities and refinances them into central bank reserves. [ citation needed ]
- Boosting asset prices: When a central bank buys government bonds from a pension fund, the pension fund, rather than hold on to this money, might invest it in financial assets, such as shares, that gives it a higher return. And when demand for financial assets is high, the value of these assets increases. This makes businesses and households holding shares wealthier – making them more likely to spend more, boosting economic activity. [ citation needed ]
- Signalling effect: Some economists argue that QE's main impact is due to its effect on the psychology of the markets, by signaling that the central bank will take extraordinary measures to facilitate economic recovery. For instance, it has been observed that most of the effect of QE in the Eurozone on bond yields happened between the date of the announcement of QE and the actual start of the purchases by the ECB. [ citation needed ]
The Bank of Japan introduced QE from March 19, 2001, until March 2006, after having introduced negative interest rates in 1999. Most western central banks adopted similar policies in the aftermath of the great financial crisis of 2008. [17]
A policy similar to quantitative easing had been implemented within the Roman Empire as a response to a financial crisis on 33 A.D. [18]
The US Federal Reserve belatedly implemented policies similar to the recent quantitative easing during the Great Depression of the 1930s. [19] [20] Specifically, banks' excess reserves exceeded 6 percent in 1940, whereas they vanished during the entire postwar period until 2008. [21] Despite this fact, many commentators called the scope of the Federal Reserve quantitative easing program after the 2008 crisis "unprecedented". [22] [23] [24]
A policy termed "quantitative easing" (量的緩和, ryōteki kanwa , from 量的 "quantitative" + 緩和 "easing") [25] was first used by the Bank of Japan (BoJ) to fight domestic deflation in the early 2000s . [26] [27] The BOJ had maintained short-term interest rates at close to zero since 1999. The Bank of Japan had for many years, and as late as February 2001, stated that "quantitative easing ... is not effective" and rejected its use for monetary policy. [28]
The Bank of Japan adopted quantitative easing on 19 March 2001. [29] [30] Under quantitative easing, the BOJ flooded commercial banks with excess liquidity to promote private lending, leaving them with large stocks of excess reserves and therefore little risk of a liquidity shortage. [31] The BOJ accomplished this by buying more government bonds than would be required to set the interest rate to zero. It later also bought asset-backed securities and equities and extended the terms of its commercial paper -purchasing operation. [32] The BOJ increased commercial bank current account balances from ¥5 trillion to ¥35 trillion (approximately US$300 billion) over a four-year period starting in March 2001. The BOJ also tripled the quantity of long-term Japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. [ citation needed ] However, the seven-fold increase notwithstanding, current account balances (essentially central bank reserves) being just one (usually relatively small) component of the liability side of a central bank's balance sheet (the main one being banknotes), the resulting peak increase in the BOJ's balance sheet was modest, compared to later actions by other central banks. [ citation needed ] The Bank of Japan phased out the QE policy in March 2006. [33]
After the global financial crisis of 2007-08 , policies similar to those undertaken by Japan were used by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Eurozone. Quantitative easing was used by these countries because their risk-free short-term nominal interest rates (termed the federal funds rate in the US, or the official bank rate in the UK) were either at or close to zero. According to Thomas Oatley, "QE has been the central pillar of post-crisis economic policy." [3]
During the peak of the financial crisis in 2008, the US Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet dramatically by adding new assets and new liabilities without "sterilizing" these by corresponding subtractions. In the same period, the United Kingdom also used quantitative easing as an additional arm of its monetary policy to alleviate its financial crisis. [34] [35] [36]
Core CPI
The U.S. Federal Reserve System held between $700 billion and $800 billion of Treasury notes on its balance sheet before the recession.
November 2008: QE1. In late November 2008, the Federal Reserve started buying $600 billion in mortgage-backed securities . [37] By March 2009, it held $1.75 trillion of bank debt, mortgage-backed securities, and Treasury notes; this amount reached a peak of $2.1 trillion in June 2010. Further purchases were halted as the economy started to improve, but resumed in August 2010 when the Fed decided the economy was not growing robustly. After the halt in June, holdings started falling naturally as debt matured and were projected to fall to $1.7 trillion by 2012. The Fed's revised goal became to keep holdings at $2.054 trillion. To maintain that level, the Fed bought $30 billion in two- to ten-year Treasury notes every month. [38]
November 2010: QE2. In November 2010, the Fed announced a second round of quantitative easing, buying $600 billion of Treasury securities by the end of the second quarter of 2011. [39] [40] The expression "QE2" became a ubiquitous nickname in 2010, used to refer to this second round of quantitative easing by US central banks. [41] Retrospectively, the round of quantitative easing preceding QE2 was called "QE1". [42] [43]
September 2012: QE3. A third round of quantitative easing, "QE3", was announced on 13 September 2012. In an 11–1 vote, the Federal Reserve decided to launch a new $40 billion per month, open-ended bond purchasing program of agency mortgage-backed securities. Additionally, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) announced that it would likely maintain the federal funds rate near zero "at least through 2015". [44] [45] According to NASDAQ.com, this is effectively a stimulus program that allows the Federal Reserve to relieve $40 billion per month of commercial housing market debt risk. [46] Because of its open-ended nature, QE3 has earned the popular nickname of "QE-Infinity". [47] [ better source needed ] On 12 December 2012, the FOMC announced an increase in the amount of open-ended purchases from $40 billion to $85 billion per month. [48]
On 19 June 2013, Ben Bernanke announced a "tapering" of some of the Fed's QE policies contingent upon continued positive economic data. Specifically, he said that the Fed could scale back its bond purchases from $85 billion to $65 billion a month during the upcoming September 2013 policy meeting. [49] [50] He also suggested that the bond-buying program could wrap up by mid-2014. [51] While Bernanke did not announce an interest rate hike, he suggested that if inflation followed a 2% target rate and unemployment decreased to 6.5%, the Fed would likely start raising rates. The stock markets dropped by approximately 4.3% over the three trading days following Bernanke's announcement, with the Dow Jones dropping 659 points between 19 and 24 June, closing at 14,660 at the end of the day on 24 June. [52] On 18 September 2013, the Fed decided to hold off on scaling back its bond-buying program, [53] and announced in December 2013 that it would begin to taper its purchases in January 2014. [54] Purchases were halted on 29 October 2014 [55] after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets. [56]
March 2020: QE4.
The Federal Reserve began conducting its fourth quantitative easing operation since the 2008 financial crisis; on 15 March 2020, it announced approximately $700 billion in new quantitative easing via asset purchases to support US liquidity in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [58] As of mid-summer 2020 this resulted in an additional $2 trillion in assets on the books of the Federal Reserve. [59]
The Bank of England 's QE programme commenced in March 2009, when it purchased around £165 billion in assets as of September 2009 and around £175 billion in assets by the end of October 2009. [61] Five further tranches of bond purchases between 2009 and November 2020 brought the peak QE total to £895 billion. [62]
The Bank imposed a number of constraints on the QE policy, namely, that it would not buy more than 70% of any issue of government debt; and that it would only buy traditional (non-index-linked) debt, with a maturity of more than three years. [63] Originally, the bonds eligible for purchase were limited to UK government debt, but this was later relaxed to include high quality commercial bonds. [64]
QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy. The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by the creation of new central bank money . This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer term interest rates and making it cheaper for businesses to raise capital. [65] The aim of the policy was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system, but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus. Another side effect is that investors will switch to other investments, such as shares, boosting their price and thus encouraging consumption. [66] In 2012 the Bank estimated that quantitative easing had benefited households differentially according to the assets they hold; richer households have more assets. [67]
In February 2022 the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio. [68] Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.
In August 2022 the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. [69] Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.
On 28 September 2022 the Bank of England issued a Market Notice announcing its intention to "carry out purchases of long dated gilts in a temporary and targeted way". [70] This was in response to market conditions in which the sterling exchange rate and bond asset pricing were significantly disrupted following a UK government fiscal statement. [71] The Bank stated its announcement would apply to conventional gilts of residual maturity greater than 20 years in the secondary market. The existing constraints applicable to QE bond purchases would continue to apply. The funding of the purchases would be met from central bank reserves, but would be segregated in a different portfolio from existing asset purchases. The Bank also announced that its annual £80bn target to reduce the existing QE portfolio remained unchanged but, in the light of current market conditions, the beginning of gilt sale operations would be postponed to 31 October 2022. [72]
The European Central Bank engaged in large-scale purchase of covered bonds in May 2009, [73] and purchased around €250 billion worth of sovereign bonds from targeted member states in 2010 and 2011 (the SMP Programme). However, until 2015 the ECB refused to openly admit they were doing quantitative easing. [ citation needed ]
In a dramatic change of policy, following the new Jackson Hole Consensus , on 22 January 2015 Mario Draghi , President of the European Central Bank, announced an "expanded asset purchase programme", where €60 billion per month of euro-area bonds from central governments, agencies and European institutions would be bought. [74]
Beginning in March 2015, the stimulus was planned to last until September 2016 at the earliest with a total QE of at least €1.1 trillion. Mario Draghi announced the programme would continue: "until we see a continued adjustment in the path of inflation", referring to the ECB's need to combat the growing threat of deflation across the eurozone in early 2015. [75] [76]
In March 2016, the ECB increased its monthly bond purchases to €80 billion from €60 billion and started to include corporate bonds under the asset purchasing programme and announced new ultra-cheap four-year loans to banks. From November 2019, the ECB resumed buying up eurozone government bonds at a rate of €20 billion in an effort to encourage governments to borrow more and spend in domestic investment projects. [77] In March 2020, to help the economy absorb the shock of the COVID-19 crisis, the ECB announced a €750 billion Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP). [78] The aim of the stimulus package (PEPP) was to lower borrowing costs and increase lending in the euro area. [79]
At the beginning of 2013, the Swiss National Bank had the largest balance sheet relative to the size of its economy. It was responsible for, at close to 100% of Switzerland's national output. A total of 12% of its reserves were in foreign equities. By contrast, the US Federal Reserve's holdings equalled about 20% of US GDP, while the European Central Bank's assets were worth 30% of GDP. [80]
The SNB's balance sheet has increased massively due to its QE programme, to the extent that in December 2020, the US treasury accused Switzerland of being a " currency manipulator ". The US administration recommended Switzerland to increase the retirement age for Swiss workers to reduce saving assets by the Swiss Social Security administration , in order to boost domestic demand and reduce the necessity to maintain QE to stabilize the parity between the dollar and the Swiss franc. [81]
Sveriges Riksbank launched quantitative easing in February 2015, announcing government bond purchases of nearly US$1.2 billion. [82] The annualised inflation rate in January 2015 was -0.3%, and the bank implied that Sweden's economy could slide into deflation. [82]
In early October 2010, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) announced that it would examine the purchase of ¥5 trillion (US$60 billion) in assets. This was an attempt to push down the value of the yen against the US dollar to stimulate the domestic economy by making Japanese exports cheaper; however, it was ineffective. [83]
On 4 August 2011 the BOJ announced a unilateral move to increase the commercial bank current account balance from ¥40 trillion (US$504 billion) to a total of ¥50 trillion (US$630 billion). [84] [85] In October 2011, the bank expanded its asset purchase program by ¥5 trillion ($66bn) to a total of ¥55 trillion. [86]
On 4 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would expand its asset purchase program by ¥60 trillion to ¥70 trillion per year. [87] The bank hoped to banish deflation and achieve an inflation rate of 2% within two years. This would be achieved through a QE programme worth US$1.4 trillion, an amount so large it is expected to double the money supply. [88] This policy has been named Abenomics , a portmanteau of economic policies from Shinzō Abe , the former Prime Minister of Japan .
On 31 October 2014, the BOJ announced the expansion of its bond buying program, to purchase ¥80 trillion of bonds a year. [89]
In addition to purchases of bonds, Governor Masaaki Shirakawa also directed the BOJ to begin purchasing corporate shares as well as debt securities in October 2010. The BOJ came up with a policy to purchase index ETFs as part of the 2010 Comprehensive Monetary Easing program, which initially placed a cap of ¥450 billion shares with a termination in December 2011. However, later Governor Haruhiko Kuroda replaced the program with the Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing policy which empowered the BOJ to buy ETFs with no cap or termination date, with an increased annual target of ¥1 trillion. The cap was raised multiple times to over ¥19 trillion by March 2018. And in March 16, 2020, following the Covid pandemic, the BOJ doubled its annual ETF purchase target to ¥12 trillion. [90]
The effectiveness of quantitative easing is the subject of an intense dispute among researchers as it is difficult to separate the effect of quantitative easing from other contemporaneous economic and policy measures, such as negative rates.
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan calculated that as of July 2012, there was "very little impact on the economy". [91] Bank deposits in the Fed increased by nearly $4 trillion during QE1-3, closely tracking Fed bond purchases. A different assessment has been offered by Federal Reserve Governor Jeremy Stein , who has said that measures of quantitative easing such as large-scale asset purchases "have played a significant role in supporting economic activity". [92]
While the literature on the topic has grown over time, it has also been shown that central banks' own research on the effectiveness of quantitative easing tends to be optimistic in comparison to research by independent researchers, [93] which could indicate a conflict of interest or cognitive bias in central bank research.
Several studies published in the aftermath of the crisis found that quantitative easing in the US has effectively contributed to lower long term interest rates on a variety of securities as well as lower credit risk. This boosted GDP growth and modestly increased inflation. [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] A predictable but unintended consequence of the lower interest rates was to drive investment capital into equities, thereby inflating the value of equities relative to the value of goods and services, and increasing the wealth gap between the wealthy and working class.
In the Eurozone, studies have shown that QE successfully averted deflationary spirals in 2013–2014, and prevented the widening of bond yield spreads between member states. [100] QE also helped reduce bank lending cost. [101] However, the real effect of QE on GDP and inflation remained modest [102] [103] and very heterogeneous depending on methodologies used in research studies, which find on GDP comprised between 0.2% and 1.5% and between 0.1 and 1.4% on inflation. Model-based studies tend to find a higher impact than empirical ones. [ citation needed ]
In Japan, focusing on equity purchases, studies have shown that QE successfully boosted stock prices, [104] [90] but appear to have not been successful in stimulating corporate investment. [90]
Quantitative easing may cause higher inflation than desired if the amount of easing required is overestimated and too much money is created by the purchase of liquid assets. [105] On the other hand, QE can fail to spur demand if banks remain reluctant to lend money to businesses and households. Even then, QE can still ease the process of deleveraging as it lowers yields. However, there is a time lag between monetary growth and inflation; inflationary pressures associated with money growth from QE could build before the central bank acts to counter them. [106] Inflationary risks are mitigated if the system's economy outgrows the pace of the increase of the money supply from the easing. [ citation needed ] If production in an economy increases because of the increased money supply, the value of a unit of currency may also increase, even though there is more currency available. For example, if a nation's economy were to spur a significant increase in output at a rate at least as high as the amount of debt monetized the inflationary pressures would be equalized. This can only happen if member banks actually lend the excess money out instead of hoarding the extra cash. [ citation needed ] During times of high economic output, the central bank always has the option of restoring reserves to higher levels through raising interest rates or other means, effectively reversing the easing steps taken.
Economists such as John Taylor [107] believe that quantitative easing creates unpredictability. Since the increase in bank reserves may not immediately increase the money supply if held as excess reserves, the increased reserves create the danger that inflation may eventually result when the reserves are loaned out. [108]
QE benefits debtors; since the interest rate has fallen, there is less money to be repaid. However, it directly harms creditors as they earn less money from lower interest rates. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers and consumers, as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency. [109]
In the European Union , World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists have also argued that artificially low government bond interest rates induced by QE will have an adverse impact on the underfunding condition of pension funds, since "without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years". [110] [111] In addition to this, low or negative interest rates create disincentives for saving. [112] In a way this is an intended effect, since QE is intended to spur consumer spending.
In Europe, central banks operating corporate quantitative easing (i.e., QE programmes that include corporate bonds) such as the European Central Bank or the Swiss National Bank, have been increasingly criticized by NGOs [113] for not taking into account the climate impact of the companies issuing the bonds. [114] [115] [116] [117] In effect, Corporate QE programmes are perceived as indirect subsidy to polluting companies. The European Parliament has also joined the criticism by adopting several resolutions on the matter, and has repeatedly called on the ECB to reflect climate change considerations in its policies. [118] [119]
Central banks have usually responded by arguing they had to follow the principle of "market neutrality" [120] and should therefore refrain from making discretionary choices when selecting bonds on the market. The notion that central banks can be market neutral is contested, as central banks always make choices that are not neutral for financial markets when implementing monetary policy. [121] Furthermore, research has demonstrated that, in the case of the ECB's corporate bond purchase programme, the principle of market neutrality is not a practical reality, as the ECB's purchases are concentrated on economic sectors that are not representative of the wider economy, and tend to be skewed towards carbon-intensive firms. [122]
Following this criticism, in 2020, several top level ECB policymaker such as Christine Lagarde , [123] Isabel Schnabel , Frank Elderson [124] and others have pointed out the contradiction in the market neutrality logic. In particular, Schnabel argued that "In the presence of market failures, market neutrality may not be the appropriate benchmark for a central bank when the market by itself is not achieving efficient outcomes" [125]
Since 2020, several central banks (including the ECB, Bank of England and the Swedish central banks) have announced their intention to incorporate climate criteria in their QE programmes. [126] The Network for Greening the Financial System has identified different possible measures to align central banks' collateral frameworks and QE with climate objectives. [127]
Critics frequently point to the redistributive effects of quantitative easing. For instance, British Prime Minister Theresa May openly criticized QE in July 2016 for its regressive effects: "Monetary policy – in the form of super-low interest rates and quantitative easing – has helped those on the property ladder at the expense of those who can't afford to own their own home." [128] Dhaval Joshi of BCA Research wrote that "QE cash ends up overwhelmingly in profits, thereby exacerbating already extreme income inequality and the consequent social tensions that arise from it". [129] Anthony Randazzo of the Reason Foundation wrote that QE "is fundamentally a regressive redistribution program that has been boosting wealth for those already engaged in the financial sector or those who already own homes, but passing little along to the rest of the economy. It is a primary driver of income inequality". [129]
Those criticisms are partly based on some evidence provided by central banks themselves. In 2012, a Bank of England report [130] showed that its quantitative easing policies had benefited mainly the wealthy, and that 40% of those gains went to the richest 5% of British households. [129] [131]
In May 2013, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas President Richard Fisher said that cheap money has made rich people richer, but has not done quite as much for working Americans. [132]
Answering similar criticisms expressed by MEP Molly Scott Cato , the President of the ECB Mario Draghi once declared: [133]
Some of these policies may, on the one hand, increase inequality but, on the other hand, if we ask ourselves what the major source of inequality is, the answer would be unemployment. So, to the extent that these policies help – and they are helping on that front – then certainly an accommodative monetary policy is better in the present situation than a restrictive monetary policy.
In July 2018, the ECB published a study [134] showing that its QE programme increased the net wealth of the poorest fifth of the population by 2.5 percent, compared with just 1.0 percent for the richest fifth. The study's credibility was however contested. [135] [136]
Quantitative easing (QE) policies can have a profound effect on Forex rates , since it changes the supply of one currency compared to another. For instance, if both the US and Europe are using quantitative easing to the same degree then the currency pair of US/EUR may not fluctuate. However, if the US treasury uses QE to a higher degree, as evidenced in the increased purchase of securities during an economic crisis, but India does not, then the value of the USD will decrease relative to the Indian rupee . As a result, quantitative easing has the same effect as purchasing foreign currencies, effectively manipulating the value of one currency compared to another. [137] [138]
BRIC countries have criticized the QE carried out by the central banks of developed nations. They share the argument that such actions amount to protectionism and competitive devaluation . As net exporters whose currencies are partially pegged to the dollar, they protest that QE causes inflation to rise in their countries and penalizes their industries. [139] [140] [141] [142]
In a joint statement leaders of Russia, Brazil, India, China and South Africa, collectively BRICS, have condemned the policies of western economies saying "It is critical for advanced economies to adopt responsible macro-economic and financial policies, avoid creating excessive liquidity and undertake structural reforms to lift growth" as written in the Telegraph. [143]
According to Bloomberg reporter David Lynch, the new money from quantitative easing could be used by the banks to invest in emerging markets, commodity-based economies, commodities themselves, and non-local opportunities rather than to lend to local businesses that are having difficulty getting loans. [144]
Another criticism prevalent in Europe, [145] is that QE creates moral hazard for governments. Central banks’ purchases of government securities artificially depress the cost of borrowing. Normally, governments issuing additional debt see their borrowing costs rise, which discourages them from overdoing it. In particular, market discipline in the form of higher interest rates will cause a government like Italy's, tempted to increase deficit spending, to think twice. Not so, however, when the central bank acts as bond buyer of last resort and is prepared to purchase government securities without limit. In such circumstances, market discipline will be incapacitated.
Richard W. Fisher , president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas , warned in 2010 that QE carries "the risk of being perceived as embarking on the slippery slope of debt monetization . We know that once a central bank is perceived as targeting government debt yields [112] at a time of persistent budget deficits, concern about debt monetization quickly arises." Later in the same speech, he stated that the Fed is monetizing the government debt: "The math of this new exercise is readily transparent: The Federal Reserve will buy $110 billion a month in Treasuries, an amount that, annualized, represents the projected deficit of the federal government for next year. For the next eight months, the nation's central bank will be monetizing the federal debt." [146]
Ben Bernanke remarked in 2002 that the US government had a technology called the printing press (or, today, its electronic equivalent), so that if rates reached zero and deflation threatened, the government could always act to ensure deflation was prevented. He said, however, that the government would not print money and distribute it "willy nilly" but would rather focus its efforts in certain areas (e.g., buying federal agency debt securities and mortgage-backed securities). [147] [148]
According to economist Robert McTeer , former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, there is nothing wrong with printing money during a recession, and quantitative easing is different from traditional monetary policy "only in its magnitude and pre-announcement of amount and timing". [4] [5]
In response to concerns that QE is failing to create sufficient demand, particularly in the Eurozone, some have called for "QE for the people" or " helicopter money ". Instead of buying government bonds or other securities by creating bank reserves, as the Federal Reserve and Bank of England have done, some suggest that central banks could make payments directly to households (in a similar fashion as Milton Friedman 's helicopter money ). [149]
Economists Mark Blyth and Eric Lonergan argue in Foreign Affairs that this is the most effective solution for the Eurozone, particularly given the restrictions on fiscal policy. [150] They argue that based on the evidence from tax rebates in the United States, less than 5% of GDP transferred by the ECB to the household sector in the Eurozone would suffice to generate a recovery, a fraction of what it intends to be done under standard QE. Oxford economist John Muellbauer has suggested that this could be legally implemented using the electoral register. [151]
On 27 March 2015, 19 economists including Steve Keen , Ann Pettifor , Robert Skidelsky , and Guy Standing have signed a letter to the Financial Times calling on the European Central Bank to adopt a more direct approach to its quantitative easing plan announced earlier in February. [152] In August 2019, prominent central bankers Stanley Fischer and Philip Hildebrand co-authored a paper published by BlackRock in which they propose a form of helicopter money. [153]
Carbon quantitative easing (CQE) is an untested form of QE that is featured in a newly proposed international climate policy, called a global carbon reward. [154] [155] [156] A major goal of CQE is to finance the global carbon reward by managing the exchange rate of a new representative currency , called a carbon currency. The carbon currency will act as an international unit of account and a store of value, because it will represent the mass of carbon that is mitigated and rewarded under the global carbon reward policy.
Keynesian economics became popular after the Great Depression. The idea is that in an economy with low inflation and high unemployment (especially technological unemployment ), demand side economics will stimulate consumer spending, which increases business profits, which increases investment. Keynesians promote methods like public works , infrastructure redevelopment, and increases in the social safety net to increase demand and inflation.
Quantitative easing has been nicknamed "money printing" by some members of the media, [157] [158] [159] central bankers, [160] and financial analysts. [161] [162]
However, QE is a very different form of money creation than it is commonly understood when talking about "money printing" (otherwise called monetary financing or debt monetization ). Indeed, with QE the newly created money is usually used to buy financial assets beyond just government bonds [157] (corporate bonds etc.) and QE is usually implemented in the secondary market. In most developed nations (e.g., the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, and the Eurozone), central banks are prohibited from buying government debt directly from the government and must instead buy it from the secondary market. [163] [164] This two-step process, where the government sells bonds to private entities that in turn sell them to the central bank, has been called "monetizing the debt" by many analysts. [163]
The distinguishing characteristic between QE and debt monetization is that with the former, the central bank creates money to stimulate the economy, not to finance government spending (although an indirect effect of QE is to lower rates on sovereign bonds). Also, the central bank has the stated intention of reversing the QE when the economy has recovered (by selling the government bonds and other financial assets back into the market). [157] The only effective way to determine whether a central bank has monetized debt is to compare its performance relative to its stated objectives. Many central banks have adopted an inflation target. It is likely that a central bank is monetizing the debt if it continues to buy government debt when inflation is above target and if the government has problems with debt financing. [163]
Some economists such as Adair Turner have argued that outright monetary financing would be more effective than QE. [165] [166]
Neo-Fisherism, based on theories made by Irving Fisher reasons that the solution to low inflation is not quantitative easing, but paradoxically to increase interest rates. This is due to the fact that if interest rates continue to decline, banks will lose customers and less money will be invested back into the economy.
In a situation of low inflation and high debt, customers will feel more secure holding on to cash or converting cash into commodities, which fails to stimulate economic growth. If the money supply increases from quantitative easing, customers will subsequently default in the face of higher prices, thus resetting the low inflation and worsening the low inflation issue. [167] [168] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_easing | 112 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative easing - Wikipedia | Quantitative easing ( QE ) is a monetary policy action where a central bank purchases predetermined amounts of government bonds or other financial assets in order to stimulate economic activity. [1] Quantitative easing is a novel form of monetary policy that came into wide application after the financial crisis of 2007-2008 . [2] [3] It is used to mitigate an economic recession when inflation is very low or negative, making standard monetary policy ineffective. Quantitative tightening (QT) does the opposite, where for monetary policy reasons, a central bank sells off some portion of its holdings of government bonds or other financial assets.
Similar to conventional open-market operations used to implement monetary policy, a central bank implements quantitative easing by buying financial assets from commercial banks and other financial institutions, thus raising the prices of those financial assets and lowering their yield , while simultaneously increasing the money supply . However, in contrast to normal policy, quantitative easing usually involves the purchase of riskier or longer-term assets (rather than short-term government bonds) of predetermined amounts at a large scale, over a pre-committed period of time. [4] [5]
Central banks usually resort to quantitative easing when their nominal interest rate target approaches or reaches zero. Very low interest rates induce a liquidity trap , a situation where people prefer to hold cash or very liquid assets, given the low returns on other financial assets. This makes it difficult for interest rates to go below zero ; monetary authorities may then use quantitative easing to further stimulate the economy rather than trying to lower the interest rate further.
Quantitative easing can help bring the economy out of recession [6] and help ensure that inflation does not fall below the central bank's inflation target . [7] However QE programmes are also criticized for their side-effects and risks, which include the policy being more effective than intended in acting against deflation (leading to higher inflation in the longer term), or not being effective enough if banks remain reluctant to lend and potential borrowers are unwilling to borrow. Quantitative easing has also been criticized for raising financial asset prices, contributing to inequality. [8] Quantitative easing was undertaken by some major central banks worldwide following the global financial crisis of 2007–08 , and again in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [9]
Standard central bank monetary policies are usually enacted by buying or selling government bonds on the open market to reach a desired target for the interbank interest rate . However, if a recession or depression continues even when a central bank has lowered interest rates targets to nearly zero, the central bank can no longer lower interest rates — a situation known as the liquidity trap . The central bank may then attempt to stimulate the economy by implementing quantitative easing, that is, by buying financial assets without reference to interest rates. This policy is sometimes described as a last resort to stimulate the economy. [10] [11]
A central bank enacts quantitative easing by purchasing, regardless of interest rates, a predetermined quantity of bonds or other financial assets on financial markets from private financial institutions. [12] [13] This action increases the excess reserves that banks hold. The goal of this policy is to ease financial conditions, increase market liquidity , and encourage private bank lending.
Quantitative easing affects the economy through several channels: [14]
- Credit channel: By providing liquidity in the banking sector, QE makes it easier and cheaper for banks to extend loans to companies and households, thus stimulating credit growth. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds (such as corporate bonds), it can also increase the price and lower the interest yield of these riskier assets. [ citation needed ]
- Portfolio rebalancing: By enacting QE, the central bank withdraws an important part of the safe assets from the market onto its own balance sheet, which may result in private investors turning to other financial securities. Because of the relative lack of government bonds, investors are forced to "rebalance their portfolios" into other assets. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds, it can also lower the interest yield of those assets (as those assets are more scarce in the market, and thus their prices go up correspondingly). [15]
- Exchange rate: Because it increases the money supply and lowers the yield of financial assets, QE tends to depreciate a country's exchange rates relative to other currencies, through the interest rate mechanism. [16] Lower interest rates lead to a capital outflow from a country, thereby reducing foreign demand for a country's money, leading to a weaker currency. This increases demand for exports, and directly benefits exporters and export industries in the country. [ citation needed ]
- Fiscal effect: By lowering yields on sovereign bonds, QE makes it cheaper for governments to borrow on financial markets, which may empower the government to provide fiscal stimulus to the economy. Quantitative easing can be viewed as a debt refinancing operation of the "consolidated government" (the government including the central bank), whereby the consolidated government, via the central bank, retires government debt securities and refinances them into central bank reserves. [ citation needed ]
- Boosting asset prices: When a central bank buys government bonds from a pension fund, the pension fund, rather than hold on to this money, might invest it in financial assets, such as shares, that gives it a higher return. And when demand for financial assets is high, the value of these assets increases. This makes businesses and households holding shares wealthier – making them more likely to spend more, boosting economic activity. [ citation needed ]
- Signalling effect: Some economists argue that QE's main impact is due to its effect on the psychology of the markets, by signaling that the central bank will take extraordinary measures to facilitate economic recovery. For instance, it has been observed that most of the effect of QE in the Eurozone on bond yields happened between the date of the announcement of QE and the actual start of the purchases by the ECB. [ citation needed ]
The Bank of Japan introduced QE from March 19, 2001, until March 2006, after having introduced negative interest rates in 1999. Most western central banks adopted similar policies in the aftermath of the great financial crisis of 2008. [17]
A policy similar to quantitative easing had been implemented within the Roman Empire as a response to a financial crisis on 33 A.D. [18]
The US Federal Reserve belatedly implemented policies similar to the recent quantitative easing during the Great Depression of the 1930s. [19] [20] Specifically, banks' excess reserves exceeded 6 percent in 1940, whereas they vanished during the entire postwar period until 2008. [21] Despite this fact, many commentators called the scope of the Federal Reserve quantitative easing program after the 2008 crisis "unprecedented". [22] [23] [24]
A policy termed "quantitative easing" (量的緩和, ryōteki kanwa , from 量的 "quantitative" + 緩和 "easing") [25] was first used by the Bank of Japan (BoJ) to fight domestic deflation in the early 2000s . [26] [27] The BOJ had maintained short-term interest rates at close to zero since 1999. The Bank of Japan had for many years, and as late as February 2001, stated that "quantitative easing ... is not effective" and rejected its use for monetary policy. [28]
The Bank of Japan adopted quantitative easing on 19 March 2001. [29] [30] Under quantitative easing, the BOJ flooded commercial banks with excess liquidity to promote private lending, leaving them with large stocks of excess reserves and therefore little risk of a liquidity shortage. [31] The BOJ accomplished this by buying more government bonds than would be required to set the interest rate to zero. It later also bought asset-backed securities and equities and extended the terms of its commercial paper -purchasing operation. [32] The BOJ increased commercial bank current account balances from ¥5 trillion to ¥35 trillion (approximately US$300 billion) over a four-year period starting in March 2001. The BOJ also tripled the quantity of long-term Japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. [ citation needed ] However, the seven-fold increase notwithstanding, current account balances (essentially central bank reserves) being just one (usually relatively small) component of the liability side of a central bank's balance sheet (the main one being banknotes), the resulting peak increase in the BOJ's balance sheet was modest, compared to later actions by other central banks. [ citation needed ] The Bank of Japan phased out the QE policy in March 2006. [33]
After the global financial crisis of 2007-08 , policies similar to those undertaken by Japan were used by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Eurozone. Quantitative easing was used by these countries because their risk-free short-term nominal interest rates (termed the federal funds rate in the US, or the official bank rate in the UK) were either at or close to zero. According to Thomas Oatley, "QE has been the central pillar of post-crisis economic policy." [3]
During the peak of the financial crisis in 2008, the US Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet dramatically by adding new assets and new liabilities without "sterilizing" these by corresponding subtractions. In the same period, the United Kingdom also used quantitative easing as an additional arm of its monetary policy to alleviate its financial crisis. [34] [35] [36]
Core CPI
The U.S. Federal Reserve System held between $700 billion and $800 billion of Treasury notes on its balance sheet before the recession.
November 2008: QE1. In late November 2008, the Federal Reserve started buying $600 billion in mortgage-backed securities . [37] By March 2009, it held $1.75 trillion of bank debt, mortgage-backed securities, and Treasury notes; this amount reached a peak of $2.1 trillion in June 2010. Further purchases were halted as the economy started to improve, but resumed in August 2010 when the Fed decided the economy was not growing robustly. After the halt in June, holdings started falling naturally as debt matured and were projected to fall to $1.7 trillion by 2012. The Fed's revised goal became to keep holdings at $2.054 trillion. To maintain that level, the Fed bought $30 billion in two- to ten-year Treasury notes every month. [38]
November 2010: QE2. In November 2010, the Fed announced a second round of quantitative easing, buying $600 billion of Treasury securities by the end of the second quarter of 2011. [39] [40] The expression "QE2" became a ubiquitous nickname in 2010, used to refer to this second round of quantitative easing by US central banks. [41] Retrospectively, the round of quantitative easing preceding QE2 was called "QE1". [42] [43]
September 2012: QE3. A third round of quantitative easing, "QE3", was announced on 13 September 2012. In an 11–1 vote, the Federal Reserve decided to launch a new $40 billion per month, open-ended bond purchasing program of agency mortgage-backed securities. Additionally, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) announced that it would likely maintain the federal funds rate near zero "at least through 2015". [44] [45] According to NASDAQ.com, this is effectively a stimulus program that allows the Federal Reserve to relieve $40 billion per month of commercial housing market debt risk. [46] Because of its open-ended nature, QE3 has earned the popular nickname of "QE-Infinity". [47] [ better source needed ] On 12 December 2012, the FOMC announced an increase in the amount of open-ended purchases from $40 billion to $85 billion per month. [48]
On 19 June 2013, Ben Bernanke announced a "tapering" of some of the Fed's QE policies contingent upon continued positive economic data. Specifically, he said that the Fed could scale back its bond purchases from $85 billion to $65 billion a month during the upcoming September 2013 policy meeting. [49] [50] He also suggested that the bond-buying program could wrap up by mid-2014. [51] While Bernanke did not announce an interest rate hike, he suggested that if inflation followed a 2% target rate and unemployment decreased to 6.5%, the Fed would likely start raising rates. The stock markets dropped by approximately 4.3% over the three trading days following Bernanke's announcement, with the Dow Jones dropping 659 points between 19 and 24 June, closing at 14,660 at the end of the day on 24 June. [52] On 18 September 2013, the Fed decided to hold off on scaling back its bond-buying program, [53] and announced in December 2013 that it would begin to taper its purchases in January 2014. [54] Purchases were halted on 29 October 2014 [55] after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets. [56]
March 2020: QE4.
The Federal Reserve began conducting its fourth quantitative easing operation since the 2008 financial crisis; on 15 March 2020, it announced approximately $700 billion in new quantitative easing via asset purchases to support US liquidity in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [58] As of mid-summer 2020 this resulted in an additional $2 trillion in assets on the books of the Federal Reserve. [59]
The Bank of England 's QE programme commenced in March 2009, when it purchased around £165 billion in assets as of September 2009 and around £175 billion in assets by the end of October 2009. [61] Five further tranches of bond purchases between 2009 and November 2020 brought the peak QE total to £895 billion. [62]
The Bank imposed a number of constraints on the QE policy, namely, that it would not buy more than 70% of any issue of government debt; and that it would only buy traditional (non-index-linked) debt, with a maturity of more than three years. [63] Originally, the bonds eligible for purchase were limited to UK government debt, but this was later relaxed to include high quality commercial bonds. [64]
QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy. The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by the creation of new central bank money . This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer term interest rates and making it cheaper for businesses to raise capital. [65] The aim of the policy was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system, but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus. Another side effect is that investors will switch to other investments, such as shares, boosting their price and thus encouraging consumption. [66] In 2012 the Bank estimated that quantitative easing had benefited households differentially according to the assets they hold; richer households have more assets. [67]
In February 2022 the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio. [68] Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.
In August 2022 the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. [69] Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.
On 28 September 2022 the Bank of England issued a Market Notice announcing its intention to "carry out purchases of long dated gilts in a temporary and targeted way". [70] This was in response to market conditions in which the sterling exchange rate and bond asset pricing were significantly disrupted following a UK government fiscal statement. [71] The Bank stated its announcement would apply to conventional gilts of residual maturity greater than 20 years in the secondary market. The existing constraints applicable to QE bond purchases would continue to apply. The funding of the purchases would be met from central bank reserves, but would be segregated in a different portfolio from existing asset purchases. The Bank also announced that its annual £80bn target to reduce the existing QE portfolio remained unchanged but, in the light of current market conditions, the beginning of gilt sale operations would be postponed to 31 October 2022. [72]
The European Central Bank engaged in large-scale purchase of covered bonds in May 2009, [73] and purchased around €250 billion worth of sovereign bonds from targeted member states in 2010 and 2011 (the SMP Programme). However, until 2015 the ECB refused to openly admit they were doing quantitative easing. [ citation needed ]
In a dramatic change of policy, following the new Jackson Hole Consensus , on 22 January 2015 Mario Draghi , President of the European Central Bank, announced an "expanded asset purchase programme", where €60 billion per month of euro-area bonds from central governments, agencies and European institutions would be bought. [74]
Beginning in March 2015, the stimulus was planned to last until September 2016 at the earliest with a total QE of at least €1.1 trillion. Mario Draghi announced the programme would continue: "until we see a continued adjustment in the path of inflation", referring to the ECB's need to combat the growing threat of deflation across the eurozone in early 2015. [75] [76]
In March 2016, the ECB increased its monthly bond purchases to €80 billion from €60 billion and started to include corporate bonds under the asset purchasing programme and announced new ultra-cheap four-year loans to banks. From November 2019, the ECB resumed buying up eurozone government bonds at a rate of €20 billion in an effort to encourage governments to borrow more and spend in domestic investment projects. [77] In March 2020, to help the economy absorb the shock of the COVID-19 crisis, the ECB announced a €750 billion Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP). [78] The aim of the stimulus package (PEPP) was to lower borrowing costs and increase lending in the euro area. [79]
At the beginning of 2013, the Swiss National Bank had the largest balance sheet relative to the size of its economy. It was responsible for, at close to 100% of Switzerland's national output. A total of 12% of its reserves were in foreign equities. By contrast, the US Federal Reserve's holdings equalled about 20% of US GDP, while the European Central Bank's assets were worth 30% of GDP. [80]
The SNB's balance sheet has increased massively due to its QE programme, to the extent that in December 2020, the US treasury accused Switzerland of being a " currency manipulator ". The US administration recommended Switzerland to increase the retirement age for Swiss workers to reduce saving assets by the Swiss Social Security administration , in order to boost domestic demand and reduce the necessity to maintain QE to stabilize the parity between the dollar and the Swiss franc. [81]
Sveriges Riksbank launched quantitative easing in February 2015, announcing government bond purchases of nearly US$1.2 billion. [82] The annualised inflation rate in January 2015 was -0.3%, and the bank implied that Sweden's economy could slide into deflation. [82]
In early October 2010, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) announced that it would examine the purchase of ¥5 trillion (US$60 billion) in assets. This was an attempt to push down the value of the yen against the US dollar to stimulate the domestic economy by making Japanese exports cheaper; however, it was ineffective. [83]
On 4 August 2011 the BOJ announced a unilateral move to increase the commercial bank current account balance from ¥40 trillion (US$504 billion) to a total of ¥50 trillion (US$630 billion). [84] [85] In October 2011, the bank expanded its asset purchase program by ¥5 trillion ($66bn) to a total of ¥55 trillion. [86]
On 4 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would expand its asset purchase program by ¥60 trillion to ¥70 trillion per year. [87] The bank hoped to banish deflation and achieve an inflation rate of 2% within two years. This would be achieved through a QE programme worth US$1.4 trillion, an amount so large it is expected to double the money supply. [88] This policy has been named Abenomics , a portmanteau of economic policies from Shinzō Abe , the former Prime Minister of Japan .
On 31 October 2014, the BOJ announced the expansion of its bond buying program, to purchase ¥80 trillion of bonds a year. [89]
In addition to purchases of bonds, Governor Masaaki Shirakawa also directed the BOJ to begin purchasing corporate shares as well as debt securities in October 2010. The BOJ came up with a policy to purchase index ETFs as part of the 2010 Comprehensive Monetary Easing program, which initially placed a cap of ¥450 billion shares with a termination in December 2011. However, later Governor Haruhiko Kuroda replaced the program with the Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing policy which empowered the BOJ to buy ETFs with no cap or termination date, with an increased annual target of ¥1 trillion. The cap was raised multiple times to over ¥19 trillion by March 2018. And in March 16, 2020, following the Covid pandemic, the BOJ doubled its annual ETF purchase target to ¥12 trillion. [90]
The effectiveness of quantitative easing is the subject of an intense dispute among researchers as it is difficult to separate the effect of quantitative easing from other contemporaneous economic and policy measures, such as negative rates.
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan calculated that as of July 2012, there was "very little impact on the economy". [91] Bank deposits in the Fed increased by nearly $4 trillion during QE1-3, closely tracking Fed bond purchases. A different assessment has been offered by Federal Reserve Governor Jeremy Stein , who has said that measures of quantitative easing such as large-scale asset purchases "have played a significant role in supporting economic activity". [92]
While the literature on the topic has grown over time, it has also been shown that central banks' own research on the effectiveness of quantitative easing tends to be optimistic in comparison to research by independent researchers, [93] which could indicate a conflict of interest or cognitive bias in central bank research.
Several studies published in the aftermath of the crisis found that quantitative easing in the US has effectively contributed to lower long term interest rates on a variety of securities as well as lower credit risk. This boosted GDP growth and modestly increased inflation. [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] A predictable but unintended consequence of the lower interest rates was to drive investment capital into equities, thereby inflating the value of equities relative to the value of goods and services, and increasing the wealth gap between the wealthy and working class.
In the Eurozone, studies have shown that QE successfully averted deflationary spirals in 2013–2014, and prevented the widening of bond yield spreads between member states. [100] QE also helped reduce bank lending cost. [101] However, the real effect of QE on GDP and inflation remained modest [102] [103] and very heterogeneous depending on methodologies used in research studies, which find on GDP comprised between 0.2% and 1.5% and between 0.1 and 1.4% on inflation. Model-based studies tend to find a higher impact than empirical ones. [ citation needed ]
In Japan, focusing on equity purchases, studies have shown that QE successfully boosted stock prices, [104] [90] but appear to have not been successful in stimulating corporate investment. [90]
Quantitative easing may cause higher inflation than desired if the amount of easing required is overestimated and too much money is created by the purchase of liquid assets. [105] On the other hand, QE can fail to spur demand if banks remain reluctant to lend money to businesses and households. Even then, QE can still ease the process of deleveraging as it lowers yields. However, there is a time lag between monetary growth and inflation; inflationary pressures associated with money growth from QE could build before the central bank acts to counter them. [106] Inflationary risks are mitigated if the system's economy outgrows the pace of the increase of the money supply from the easing. [ citation needed ] If production in an economy increases because of the increased money supply, the value of a unit of currency may also increase, even though there is more currency available. For example, if a nation's economy were to spur a significant increase in output at a rate at least as high as the amount of debt monetized the inflationary pressures would be equalized. This can only happen if member banks actually lend the excess money out instead of hoarding the extra cash. [ citation needed ] During times of high economic output, the central bank always has the option of restoring reserves to higher levels through raising interest rates or other means, effectively reversing the easing steps taken.
Economists such as John Taylor [107] believe that quantitative easing creates unpredictability. Since the increase in bank reserves may not immediately increase the money supply if held as excess reserves, the increased reserves create the danger that inflation may eventually result when the reserves are loaned out. [108]
QE benefits debtors; since the interest rate has fallen, there is less money to be repaid. However, it directly harms creditors as they earn less money from lower interest rates. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers and consumers, as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency. [109]
In the European Union , World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists have also argued that artificially low government bond interest rates induced by QE will have an adverse impact on the underfunding condition of pension funds, since "without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years". [110] [111] In addition to this, low or negative interest rates create disincentives for saving. [112] In a way this is an intended effect, since QE is intended to spur consumer spending.
In Europe, central banks operating corporate quantitative easing (i.e., QE programmes that include corporate bonds) such as the European Central Bank or the Swiss National Bank, have been increasingly criticized by NGOs [113] for not taking into account the climate impact of the companies issuing the bonds. [114] [115] [116] [117] In effect, Corporate QE programmes are perceived as indirect subsidy to polluting companies. The European Parliament has also joined the criticism by adopting several resolutions on the matter, and has repeatedly called on the ECB to reflect climate change considerations in its policies. [118] [119]
Central banks have usually responded by arguing they had to follow the principle of "market neutrality" [120] and should therefore refrain from making discretionary choices when selecting bonds on the market. The notion that central banks can be market neutral is contested, as central banks always make choices that are not neutral for financial markets when implementing monetary policy. [121] Furthermore, research has demonstrated that, in the case of the ECB's corporate bond purchase programme, the principle of market neutrality is not a practical reality, as the ECB's purchases are concentrated on economic sectors that are not representative of the wider economy, and tend to be skewed towards carbon-intensive firms. [122]
Following this criticism, in 2020, several top level ECB policymaker such as Christine Lagarde , [123] Isabel Schnabel , Frank Elderson [124] and others have pointed out the contradiction in the market neutrality logic. In particular, Schnabel argued that "In the presence of market failures, market neutrality may not be the appropriate benchmark for a central bank when the market by itself is not achieving efficient outcomes" [125]
Since 2020, several central banks (including the ECB, Bank of England and the Swedish central banks) have announced their intention to incorporate climate criteria in their QE programmes. [126] The Network for Greening the Financial System has identified different possible measures to align central banks' collateral frameworks and QE with climate objectives. [127]
Critics frequently point to the redistributive effects of quantitative easing. For instance, British Prime Minister Theresa May openly criticized QE in July 2016 for its regressive effects: "Monetary policy – in the form of super-low interest rates and quantitative easing – has helped those on the property ladder at the expense of those who can't afford to own their own home." [128] Dhaval Joshi of BCA Research wrote that "QE cash ends up overwhelmingly in profits, thereby exacerbating already extreme income inequality and the consequent social tensions that arise from it". [129] Anthony Randazzo of the Reason Foundation wrote that QE "is fundamentally a regressive redistribution program that has been boosting wealth for those already engaged in the financial sector or those who already own homes, but passing little along to the rest of the economy. It is a primary driver of income inequality". [129]
Those criticisms are partly based on some evidence provided by central banks themselves. In 2012, a Bank of England report [130] showed that its quantitative easing policies had benefited mainly the wealthy, and that 40% of those gains went to the richest 5% of British households. [129] [131]
In May 2013, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas President Richard Fisher said that cheap money has made rich people richer, but has not done quite as much for working Americans. [132]
Answering similar criticisms expressed by MEP Molly Scott Cato , the President of the ECB Mario Draghi once declared: [133]
Some of these policies may, on the one hand, increase inequality but, on the other hand, if we ask ourselves what the major source of inequality is, the answer would be unemployment. So, to the extent that these policies help – and they are helping on that front – then certainly an accommodative monetary policy is better in the present situation than a restrictive monetary policy.
In July 2018, the ECB published a study [134] showing that its QE programme increased the net wealth of the poorest fifth of the population by 2.5 percent, compared with just 1.0 percent for the richest fifth. The study's credibility was however contested. [135] [136]
Quantitative easing (QE) policies can have a profound effect on Forex rates , since it changes the supply of one currency compared to another. For instance, if both the US and Europe are using quantitative easing to the same degree then the currency pair of US/EUR may not fluctuate. However, if the US treasury uses QE to a higher degree, as evidenced in the increased purchase of securities during an economic crisis, but India does not, then the value of the USD will decrease relative to the Indian rupee . As a result, quantitative easing has the same effect as purchasing foreign currencies, effectively manipulating the value of one currency compared to another. [137] [138]
BRIC countries have criticized the QE carried out by the central banks of developed nations. They share the argument that such actions amount to protectionism and competitive devaluation . As net exporters whose currencies are partially pegged to the dollar, they protest that QE causes inflation to rise in their countries and penalizes their industries. [139] [140] [141] [142]
In a joint statement leaders of Russia, Brazil, India, China and South Africa, collectively BRICS, have condemned the policies of western economies saying "It is critical for advanced economies to adopt responsible macro-economic and financial policies, avoid creating excessive liquidity and undertake structural reforms to lift growth" as written in the Telegraph. [143]
According to Bloomberg reporter David Lynch, the new money from quantitative easing could be used by the banks to invest in emerging markets, commodity-based economies, commodities themselves, and non-local opportunities rather than to lend to local businesses that are having difficulty getting loans. [144]
Another criticism prevalent in Europe, [145] is that QE creates moral hazard for governments. Central banks’ purchases of government securities artificially depress the cost of borrowing. Normally, governments issuing additional debt see their borrowing costs rise, which discourages them from overdoing it. In particular, market discipline in the form of higher interest rates will cause a government like Italy's, tempted to increase deficit spending, to think twice. Not so, however, when the central bank acts as bond buyer of last resort and is prepared to purchase government securities without limit. In such circumstances, market discipline will be incapacitated.
Richard W. Fisher , president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas , warned in 2010 that QE carries "the risk of being perceived as embarking on the slippery slope of debt monetization . We know that once a central bank is perceived as targeting government debt yields [112] at a time of persistent budget deficits, concern about debt monetization quickly arises." Later in the same speech, he stated that the Fed is monetizing the government debt: "The math of this new exercise is readily transparent: The Federal Reserve will buy $110 billion a month in Treasuries, an amount that, annualized, represents the projected deficit of the federal government for next year. For the next eight months, the nation's central bank will be monetizing the federal debt." [146]
Ben Bernanke remarked in 2002 that the US government had a technology called the printing press (or, today, its electronic equivalent), so that if rates reached zero and deflation threatened, the government could always act to ensure deflation was prevented. He said, however, that the government would not print money and distribute it "willy nilly" but would rather focus its efforts in certain areas (e.g., buying federal agency debt securities and mortgage-backed securities). [147] [148]
According to economist Robert McTeer , former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, there is nothing wrong with printing money during a recession, and quantitative easing is different from traditional monetary policy "only in its magnitude and pre-announcement of amount and timing". [4] [5]
In response to concerns that QE is failing to create sufficient demand, particularly in the Eurozone, some have called for "QE for the people" or " helicopter money ". Instead of buying government bonds or other securities by creating bank reserves, as the Federal Reserve and Bank of England have done, some suggest that central banks could make payments directly to households (in a similar fashion as Milton Friedman 's helicopter money ). [149]
Economists Mark Blyth and Eric Lonergan argue in Foreign Affairs that this is the most effective solution for the Eurozone, particularly given the restrictions on fiscal policy. [150] They argue that based on the evidence from tax rebates in the United States, less than 5% of GDP transferred by the ECB to the household sector in the Eurozone would suffice to generate a recovery, a fraction of what it intends to be done under standard QE. Oxford economist John Muellbauer has suggested that this could be legally implemented using the electoral register. [151]
On 27 March 2015, 19 economists including Steve Keen , Ann Pettifor , Robert Skidelsky , and Guy Standing have signed a letter to the Financial Times calling on the European Central Bank to adopt a more direct approach to its quantitative easing plan announced earlier in February. [152] In August 2019, prominent central bankers Stanley Fischer and Philip Hildebrand co-authored a paper published by BlackRock in which they propose a form of helicopter money. [153]
Carbon quantitative easing (CQE) is an untested form of QE that is featured in a newly proposed international climate policy, called a global carbon reward. [154] [155] [156] A major goal of CQE is to finance the global carbon reward by managing the exchange rate of a new representative currency , called a carbon currency. The carbon currency will act as an international unit of account and a store of value, because it will represent the mass of carbon that is mitigated and rewarded under the global carbon reward policy.
Keynesian economics became popular after the Great Depression. The idea is that in an economy with low inflation and high unemployment (especially technological unemployment ), demand side economics will stimulate consumer spending, which increases business profits, which increases investment. Keynesians promote methods like public works , infrastructure redevelopment, and increases in the social safety net to increase demand and inflation.
Quantitative easing has been nicknamed "money printing" by some members of the media, [157] [158] [159] central bankers, [160] and financial analysts. [161] [162]
However, QE is a very different form of money creation than it is commonly understood when talking about "money printing" (otherwise called monetary financing or debt monetization ). Indeed, with QE the newly created money is usually used to buy financial assets beyond just government bonds [157] (corporate bonds etc.) and QE is usually implemented in the secondary market. In most developed nations (e.g., the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, and the Eurozone), central banks are prohibited from buying government debt directly from the government and must instead buy it from the secondary market. [163] [164] This two-step process, where the government sells bonds to private entities that in turn sell them to the central bank, has been called "monetizing the debt" by many analysts. [163]
The distinguishing characteristic between QE and debt monetization is that with the former, the central bank creates money to stimulate the economy, not to finance government spending (although an indirect effect of QE is to lower rates on sovereign bonds). Also, the central bank has the stated intention of reversing the QE when the economy has recovered (by selling the government bonds and other financial assets back into the market). [157] The only effective way to determine whether a central bank has monetized debt is to compare its performance relative to its stated objectives. Many central banks have adopted an inflation target. It is likely that a central bank is monetizing the debt if it continues to buy government debt when inflation is above target and if the government has problems with debt financing. [163]
Some economists such as Adair Turner have argued that outright monetary financing would be more effective than QE. [165] [166]
Neo-Fisherism, based on theories made by Irving Fisher reasons that the solution to low inflation is not quantitative easing, but paradoxically to increase interest rates. This is due to the fact that if interest rates continue to decline, banks will lose customers and less money will be invested back into the economy.
In a situation of low inflation and high debt, customers will feel more secure holding on to cash or converting cash into commodities, which fails to stimulate economic growth. If the money supply increases from quantitative easing, customers will subsequently default in the face of higher prices, thus resetting the low inflation and worsening the low inflation issue. [167] [168] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_easing | 112 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative Easing 2 (QE2) | The second round of quantitative easing performed by the Federal Reserve to combat the 2008 Global Financial Crisis
Quantitative Easing 2 or QE2 refers to the second round of quantitative easing performed by the Federal Reserve. QE2 was essentially a monetary policy tool used to foster economic development in the United States in response to the global recession of 2007/2008. The policy was established and integrated in the last quarter of 2010 to foster economic recovery.
As a response to the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, the Federal Reserve decided to initiate QE1 (the first round of quantitative easing) to counter the financial crisis. During the QE1 phase of open market operations, the Federal Reserve purchased $500 billion in securities backed by mortgages, along with another $100 billion in other debt instruments. It was done to support the mortgage and housing market.
The federal funds rate was then lowered to zero, and the Federal Reserve began making interest payments to member banks for their respective reserve requirements. QE1 was the central bank’s last resort and primary tool to combat the 2008 crisis. It lasted for over a year – from December 2008 to March 2010.
Despite the Federal Reserve’s efforts with QE1, the member banks were still not lending funds at the desired rate. The introduction of QE2 was prompted by the lack of motivation by banks to lend out more money, which would’ve ideally increased the money supply in the economy. Through QE2, the Federal Reserve initially hoped to mildly drive up inflation and increase demand, resulting in economic stimulation.
Through QE2, the Federal Reserve aimed to prevent the possibility of long-lasting deflation , as deflation (a constant decrease in prices over time) hinders overall economic expansion. The mild increase in inflation would encourage consumer spending in the present, following the premise that a slow increase in prices would encourage consumer spending in the present time to avoid the expected future price increments. The increase in inflation, ideally, was to increase demand. The Federal Reserve targeted an inflation rate of 2% (excluding volatile gas and food prices).
In June 2011, the Federal Reserve announced the end of QE2 and maintained $2 trillion worth of securities.
To gain a basic comprehension of QE2, it is pivotal to understand the general concept of quantitative easing.
Quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the central bank of a country (such as the Federal Reserve) purchases long-term securities from other “member” banks and issues credit to the respective banks’ reserves. The central bank creates funds to fund the purchases of securities.
Quantitative easing creates an increase in money supply throughout the economy, in conjunction with decreased long-term interest rates. The decreased interest rates encourage lending by banks, helping stimulate the economy at large.
When a central bank issues credit to a member bank, it is added to the bank’s balance sheet and provides the member bank with funds to ensure that it meets the reserve requirement. A reserve requirement is a benchmark of the amount of funds each member bank should have in its reserve at the closing of the business day. The addition of credit to the member bank’s reserves drives up the money supply, resulting in decreased interest rates.
Through this expansion of the central bank’s open market operations – i.e., the quantitative easing or the sales and purchases of securities to and from member banks – the bank can lower the federal funds rate (the interest rate at which depository institutions lend reserve balances to other depository institutions overnight on an uncollateralized basis) to zero.
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quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative easing - Wikipedia | Quantitative easing ( QE ) is a monetary policy action where a central bank purchases predetermined amounts of government bonds or other financial assets in order to stimulate economic activity. [1] Quantitative easing is a novel form of monetary policy that came into wide application after the financial crisis of 2007-2008 . [2] [3] It is used to mitigate an economic recession when inflation is very low or negative, making standard monetary policy ineffective. Quantitative tightening (QT) does the opposite, where for monetary policy reasons, a central bank sells off some portion of its holdings of government bonds or other financial assets.
Similar to conventional open-market operations used to implement monetary policy, a central bank implements quantitative easing by buying financial assets from commercial banks and other financial institutions, thus raising the prices of those financial assets and lowering their yield , while simultaneously increasing the money supply . However, in contrast to normal policy, quantitative easing usually involves the purchase of riskier or longer-term assets (rather than short-term government bonds) of predetermined amounts at a large scale, over a pre-committed period of time. [4] [5]
Central banks usually resort to quantitative easing when their nominal interest rate target approaches or reaches zero. Very low interest rates induce a liquidity trap , a situation where people prefer to hold cash or very liquid assets, given the low returns on other financial assets. This makes it difficult for interest rates to go below zero ; monetary authorities may then use quantitative easing to further stimulate the economy rather than trying to lower the interest rate further.
Quantitative easing can help bring the economy out of recession [6] and help ensure that inflation does not fall below the central bank's inflation target . [7] However QE programmes are also criticized for their side-effects and risks, which include the policy being more effective than intended in acting against deflation (leading to higher inflation in the longer term), or not being effective enough if banks remain reluctant to lend and potential borrowers are unwilling to borrow. Quantitative easing has also been criticized for raising financial asset prices, contributing to inequality. [8] Quantitative easing was undertaken by some major central banks worldwide following the global financial crisis of 2007–08 , and again in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [9]
Standard central bank monetary policies are usually enacted by buying or selling government bonds on the open market to reach a desired target for the interbank interest rate . However, if a recession or depression continues even when a central bank has lowered interest rates targets to nearly zero, the central bank can no longer lower interest rates — a situation known as the liquidity trap . The central bank may then attempt to stimulate the economy by implementing quantitative easing, that is, by buying financial assets without reference to interest rates. This policy is sometimes described as a last resort to stimulate the economy. [10] [11]
A central bank enacts quantitative easing by purchasing, regardless of interest rates, a predetermined quantity of bonds or other financial assets on financial markets from private financial institutions. [12] [13] This action increases the excess reserves that banks hold. The goal of this policy is to ease financial conditions, increase market liquidity , and encourage private bank lending.
Quantitative easing affects the economy through several channels: [14]
- Credit channel: By providing liquidity in the banking sector, QE makes it easier and cheaper for banks to extend loans to companies and households, thus stimulating credit growth. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds (such as corporate bonds), it can also increase the price and lower the interest yield of these riskier assets. [ citation needed ]
- Portfolio rebalancing: By enacting QE, the central bank withdraws an important part of the safe assets from the market onto its own balance sheet, which may result in private investors turning to other financial securities. Because of the relative lack of government bonds, investors are forced to "rebalance their portfolios" into other assets. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds, it can also lower the interest yield of those assets (as those assets are more scarce in the market, and thus their prices go up correspondingly). [15]
- Exchange rate: Because it increases the money supply and lowers the yield of financial assets, QE tends to depreciate a country's exchange rates relative to other currencies, through the interest rate mechanism. [16] Lower interest rates lead to a capital outflow from a country, thereby reducing foreign demand for a country's money, leading to a weaker currency. This increases demand for exports, and directly benefits exporters and export industries in the country. [ citation needed ]
- Fiscal effect: By lowering yields on sovereign bonds, QE makes it cheaper for governments to borrow on financial markets, which may empower the government to provide fiscal stimulus to the economy. Quantitative easing can be viewed as a debt refinancing operation of the "consolidated government" (the government including the central bank), whereby the consolidated government, via the central bank, retires government debt securities and refinances them into central bank reserves. [ citation needed ]
- Boosting asset prices: When a central bank buys government bonds from a pension fund, the pension fund, rather than hold on to this money, might invest it in financial assets, such as shares, that gives it a higher return. And when demand for financial assets is high, the value of these assets increases. This makes businesses and households holding shares wealthier – making them more likely to spend more, boosting economic activity. [ citation needed ]
- Signalling effect: Some economists argue that QE's main impact is due to its effect on the psychology of the markets, by signaling that the central bank will take extraordinary measures to facilitate economic recovery. For instance, it has been observed that most of the effect of QE in the Eurozone on bond yields happened between the date of the announcement of QE and the actual start of the purchases by the ECB. [ citation needed ]
The Bank of Japan introduced QE from March 19, 2001, until March 2006, after having introduced negative interest rates in 1999. Most western central banks adopted similar policies in the aftermath of the great financial crisis of 2008. [17]
A policy similar to quantitative easing had been implemented within the Roman Empire as a response to a financial crisis on 33 A.D. [18]
The US Federal Reserve belatedly implemented policies similar to the recent quantitative easing during the Great Depression of the 1930s. [19] [20] Specifically, banks' excess reserves exceeded 6 percent in 1940, whereas they vanished during the entire postwar period until 2008. [21] Despite this fact, many commentators called the scope of the Federal Reserve quantitative easing program after the 2008 crisis "unprecedented". [22] [23] [24]
A policy termed "quantitative easing" (量的緩和, ryōteki kanwa , from 量的 "quantitative" + 緩和 "easing") [25] was first used by the Bank of Japan (BoJ) to fight domestic deflation in the early 2000s . [26] [27] The BOJ had maintained short-term interest rates at close to zero since 1999. The Bank of Japan had for many years, and as late as February 2001, stated that "quantitative easing ... is not effective" and rejected its use for monetary policy. [28]
The Bank of Japan adopted quantitative easing on 19 March 2001. [29] [30] Under quantitative easing, the BOJ flooded commercial banks with excess liquidity to promote private lending, leaving them with large stocks of excess reserves and therefore little risk of a liquidity shortage. [31] The BOJ accomplished this by buying more government bonds than would be required to set the interest rate to zero. It later also bought asset-backed securities and equities and extended the terms of its commercial paper -purchasing operation. [32] The BOJ increased commercial bank current account balances from ¥5 trillion to ¥35 trillion (approximately US$300 billion) over a four-year period starting in March 2001. The BOJ also tripled the quantity of long-term Japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. [ citation needed ] However, the seven-fold increase notwithstanding, current account balances (essentially central bank reserves) being just one (usually relatively small) component of the liability side of a central bank's balance sheet (the main one being banknotes), the resulting peak increase in the BOJ's balance sheet was modest, compared to later actions by other central banks. [ citation needed ] The Bank of Japan phased out the QE policy in March 2006. [33]
After the global financial crisis of 2007-08 , policies similar to those undertaken by Japan were used by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Eurozone. Quantitative easing was used by these countries because their risk-free short-term nominal interest rates (termed the federal funds rate in the US, or the official bank rate in the UK) were either at or close to zero. According to Thomas Oatley, "QE has been the central pillar of post-crisis economic policy." [3]
During the peak of the financial crisis in 2008, the US Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet dramatically by adding new assets and new liabilities without "sterilizing" these by corresponding subtractions. In the same period, the United Kingdom also used quantitative easing as an additional arm of its monetary policy to alleviate its financial crisis. [34] [35] [36]
Core CPI
The U.S. Federal Reserve System held between $700 billion and $800 billion of Treasury notes on its balance sheet before the recession.
November 2008: QE1. In late November 2008, the Federal Reserve started buying $600 billion in mortgage-backed securities . [37] By March 2009, it held $1.75 trillion of bank debt, mortgage-backed securities, and Treasury notes; this amount reached a peak of $2.1 trillion in June 2010. Further purchases were halted as the economy started to improve, but resumed in August 2010 when the Fed decided the economy was not growing robustly. After the halt in June, holdings started falling naturally as debt matured and were projected to fall to $1.7 trillion by 2012. The Fed's revised goal became to keep holdings at $2.054 trillion. To maintain that level, the Fed bought $30 billion in two- to ten-year Treasury notes every month. [38]
November 2010: QE2. In November 2010, the Fed announced a second round of quantitative easing, buying $600 billion of Treasury securities by the end of the second quarter of 2011. [39] [40] The expression "QE2" became a ubiquitous nickname in 2010, used to refer to this second round of quantitative easing by US central banks. [41] Retrospectively, the round of quantitative easing preceding QE2 was called "QE1". [42] [43]
September 2012: QE3. A third round of quantitative easing, "QE3", was announced on 13 September 2012. In an 11–1 vote, the Federal Reserve decided to launch a new $40 billion per month, open-ended bond purchasing program of agency mortgage-backed securities. Additionally, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) announced that it would likely maintain the federal funds rate near zero "at least through 2015". [44] [45] According to NASDAQ.com, this is effectively a stimulus program that allows the Federal Reserve to relieve $40 billion per month of commercial housing market debt risk. [46] Because of its open-ended nature, QE3 has earned the popular nickname of "QE-Infinity". [47] [ better source needed ] On 12 December 2012, the FOMC announced an increase in the amount of open-ended purchases from $40 billion to $85 billion per month. [48]
On 19 June 2013, Ben Bernanke announced a "tapering" of some of the Fed's QE policies contingent upon continued positive economic data. Specifically, he said that the Fed could scale back its bond purchases from $85 billion to $65 billion a month during the upcoming September 2013 policy meeting. [49] [50] He also suggested that the bond-buying program could wrap up by mid-2014. [51] While Bernanke did not announce an interest rate hike, he suggested that if inflation followed a 2% target rate and unemployment decreased to 6.5%, the Fed would likely start raising rates. The stock markets dropped by approximately 4.3% over the three trading days following Bernanke's announcement, with the Dow Jones dropping 659 points between 19 and 24 June, closing at 14,660 at the end of the day on 24 June. [52] On 18 September 2013, the Fed decided to hold off on scaling back its bond-buying program, [53] and announced in December 2013 that it would begin to taper its purchases in January 2014. [54] Purchases were halted on 29 October 2014 [55] after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets. [56]
March 2020: QE4.
The Federal Reserve began conducting its fourth quantitative easing operation since the 2008 financial crisis; on 15 March 2020, it announced approximately $700 billion in new quantitative easing via asset purchases to support US liquidity in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [58] As of mid-summer 2020 this resulted in an additional $2 trillion in assets on the books of the Federal Reserve. [59]
The Bank of England 's QE programme commenced in March 2009, when it purchased around £165 billion in assets as of September 2009 and around £175 billion in assets by the end of October 2009. [61] Five further tranches of bond purchases between 2009 and November 2020 brought the peak QE total to £895 billion. [62]
The Bank imposed a number of constraints on the QE policy, namely, that it would not buy more than 70% of any issue of government debt; and that it would only buy traditional (non-index-linked) debt, with a maturity of more than three years. [63] Originally, the bonds eligible for purchase were limited to UK government debt, but this was later relaxed to include high quality commercial bonds. [64]
QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy. The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by the creation of new central bank money . This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer term interest rates and making it cheaper for businesses to raise capital. [65] The aim of the policy was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system, but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus. Another side effect is that investors will switch to other investments, such as shares, boosting their price and thus encouraging consumption. [66] In 2012 the Bank estimated that quantitative easing had benefited households differentially according to the assets they hold; richer households have more assets. [67]
In February 2022 the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio. [68] Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.
In August 2022 the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. [69] Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.
On 28 September 2022 the Bank of England issued a Market Notice announcing its intention to "carry out purchases of long dated gilts in a temporary and targeted way". [70] This was in response to market conditions in which the sterling exchange rate and bond asset pricing were significantly disrupted following a UK government fiscal statement. [71] The Bank stated its announcement would apply to conventional gilts of residual maturity greater than 20 years in the secondary market. The existing constraints applicable to QE bond purchases would continue to apply. The funding of the purchases would be met from central bank reserves, but would be segregated in a different portfolio from existing asset purchases. The Bank also announced that its annual £80bn target to reduce the existing QE portfolio remained unchanged but, in the light of current market conditions, the beginning of gilt sale operations would be postponed to 31 October 2022. [72]
The European Central Bank engaged in large-scale purchase of covered bonds in May 2009, [73] and purchased around €250 billion worth of sovereign bonds from targeted member states in 2010 and 2011 (the SMP Programme). However, until 2015 the ECB refused to openly admit they were doing quantitative easing. [ citation needed ]
In a dramatic change of policy, following the new Jackson Hole Consensus , on 22 January 2015 Mario Draghi , President of the European Central Bank, announced an "expanded asset purchase programme", where €60 billion per month of euro-area bonds from central governments, agencies and European institutions would be bought. [74]
Beginning in March 2015, the stimulus was planned to last until September 2016 at the earliest with a total QE of at least €1.1 trillion. Mario Draghi announced the programme would continue: "until we see a continued adjustment in the path of inflation", referring to the ECB's need to combat the growing threat of deflation across the eurozone in early 2015. [75] [76]
In March 2016, the ECB increased its monthly bond purchases to €80 billion from €60 billion and started to include corporate bonds under the asset purchasing programme and announced new ultra-cheap four-year loans to banks. From November 2019, the ECB resumed buying up eurozone government bonds at a rate of €20 billion in an effort to encourage governments to borrow more and spend in domestic investment projects. [77] In March 2020, to help the economy absorb the shock of the COVID-19 crisis, the ECB announced a €750 billion Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP). [78] The aim of the stimulus package (PEPP) was to lower borrowing costs and increase lending in the euro area. [79]
At the beginning of 2013, the Swiss National Bank had the largest balance sheet relative to the size of its economy. It was responsible for, at close to 100% of Switzerland's national output. A total of 12% of its reserves were in foreign equities. By contrast, the US Federal Reserve's holdings equalled about 20% of US GDP, while the European Central Bank's assets were worth 30% of GDP. [80]
The SNB's balance sheet has increased massively due to its QE programme, to the extent that in December 2020, the US treasury accused Switzerland of being a " currency manipulator ". The US administration recommended Switzerland to increase the retirement age for Swiss workers to reduce saving assets by the Swiss Social Security administration , in order to boost domestic demand and reduce the necessity to maintain QE to stabilize the parity between the dollar and the Swiss franc. [81]
Sveriges Riksbank launched quantitative easing in February 2015, announcing government bond purchases of nearly US$1.2 billion. [82] The annualised inflation rate in January 2015 was -0.3%, and the bank implied that Sweden's economy could slide into deflation. [82]
In early October 2010, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) announced that it would examine the purchase of ¥5 trillion (US$60 billion) in assets. This was an attempt to push down the value of the yen against the US dollar to stimulate the domestic economy by making Japanese exports cheaper; however, it was ineffective. [83]
On 4 August 2011 the BOJ announced a unilateral move to increase the commercial bank current account balance from ¥40 trillion (US$504 billion) to a total of ¥50 trillion (US$630 billion). [84] [85] In October 2011, the bank expanded its asset purchase program by ¥5 trillion ($66bn) to a total of ¥55 trillion. [86]
On 4 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would expand its asset purchase program by ¥60 trillion to ¥70 trillion per year. [87] The bank hoped to banish deflation and achieve an inflation rate of 2% within two years. This would be achieved through a QE programme worth US$1.4 trillion, an amount so large it is expected to double the money supply. [88] This policy has been named Abenomics , a portmanteau of economic policies from Shinzō Abe , the former Prime Minister of Japan .
On 31 October 2014, the BOJ announced the expansion of its bond buying program, to purchase ¥80 trillion of bonds a year. [89]
In addition to purchases of bonds, Governor Masaaki Shirakawa also directed the BOJ to begin purchasing corporate shares as well as debt securities in October 2010. The BOJ came up with a policy to purchase index ETFs as part of the 2010 Comprehensive Monetary Easing program, which initially placed a cap of ¥450 billion shares with a termination in December 2011. However, later Governor Haruhiko Kuroda replaced the program with the Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing policy which empowered the BOJ to buy ETFs with no cap or termination date, with an increased annual target of ¥1 trillion. The cap was raised multiple times to over ¥19 trillion by March 2018. And in March 16, 2020, following the Covid pandemic, the BOJ doubled its annual ETF purchase target to ¥12 trillion. [90]
The effectiveness of quantitative easing is the subject of an intense dispute among researchers as it is difficult to separate the effect of quantitative easing from other contemporaneous economic and policy measures, such as negative rates.
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan calculated that as of July 2012, there was "very little impact on the economy". [91] Bank deposits in the Fed increased by nearly $4 trillion during QE1-3, closely tracking Fed bond purchases. A different assessment has been offered by Federal Reserve Governor Jeremy Stein , who has said that measures of quantitative easing such as large-scale asset purchases "have played a significant role in supporting economic activity". [92]
While the literature on the topic has grown over time, it has also been shown that central banks' own research on the effectiveness of quantitative easing tends to be optimistic in comparison to research by independent researchers, [93] which could indicate a conflict of interest or cognitive bias in central bank research.
Several studies published in the aftermath of the crisis found that quantitative easing in the US has effectively contributed to lower long term interest rates on a variety of securities as well as lower credit risk. This boosted GDP growth and modestly increased inflation. [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] A predictable but unintended consequence of the lower interest rates was to drive investment capital into equities, thereby inflating the value of equities relative to the value of goods and services, and increasing the wealth gap between the wealthy and working class.
In the Eurozone, studies have shown that QE successfully averted deflationary spirals in 2013–2014, and prevented the widening of bond yield spreads between member states. [100] QE also helped reduce bank lending cost. [101] However, the real effect of QE on GDP and inflation remained modest [102] [103] and very heterogeneous depending on methodologies used in research studies, which find on GDP comprised between 0.2% and 1.5% and between 0.1 and 1.4% on inflation. Model-based studies tend to find a higher impact than empirical ones. [ citation needed ]
In Japan, focusing on equity purchases, studies have shown that QE successfully boosted stock prices, [104] [90] but appear to have not been successful in stimulating corporate investment. [90]
Quantitative easing may cause higher inflation than desired if the amount of easing required is overestimated and too much money is created by the purchase of liquid assets. [105] On the other hand, QE can fail to spur demand if banks remain reluctant to lend money to businesses and households. Even then, QE can still ease the process of deleveraging as it lowers yields. However, there is a time lag between monetary growth and inflation; inflationary pressures associated with money growth from QE could build before the central bank acts to counter them. [106] Inflationary risks are mitigated if the system's economy outgrows the pace of the increase of the money supply from the easing. [ citation needed ] If production in an economy increases because of the increased money supply, the value of a unit of currency may also increase, even though there is more currency available. For example, if a nation's economy were to spur a significant increase in output at a rate at least as high as the amount of debt monetized the inflationary pressures would be equalized. This can only happen if member banks actually lend the excess money out instead of hoarding the extra cash. [ citation needed ] During times of high economic output, the central bank always has the option of restoring reserves to higher levels through raising interest rates or other means, effectively reversing the easing steps taken.
Economists such as John Taylor [107] believe that quantitative easing creates unpredictability. Since the increase in bank reserves may not immediately increase the money supply if held as excess reserves, the increased reserves create the danger that inflation may eventually result when the reserves are loaned out. [108]
QE benefits debtors; since the interest rate has fallen, there is less money to be repaid. However, it directly harms creditors as they earn less money from lower interest rates. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers and consumers, as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency. [109]
In the European Union , World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists have also argued that artificially low government bond interest rates induced by QE will have an adverse impact on the underfunding condition of pension funds, since "without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years". [110] [111] In addition to this, low or negative interest rates create disincentives for saving. [112] In a way this is an intended effect, since QE is intended to spur consumer spending.
In Europe, central banks operating corporate quantitative easing (i.e., QE programmes that include corporate bonds) such as the European Central Bank or the Swiss National Bank, have been increasingly criticized by NGOs [113] for not taking into account the climate impact of the companies issuing the bonds. [114] [115] [116] [117] In effect, Corporate QE programmes are perceived as indirect subsidy to polluting companies. The European Parliament has also joined the criticism by adopting several resolutions on the matter, and has repeatedly called on the ECB to reflect climate change considerations in its policies. [118] [119]
Central banks have usually responded by arguing they had to follow the principle of "market neutrality" [120] and should therefore refrain from making discretionary choices when selecting bonds on the market. The notion that central banks can be market neutral is contested, as central banks always make choices that are not neutral for financial markets when implementing monetary policy. [121] Furthermore, research has demonstrated that, in the case of the ECB's corporate bond purchase programme, the principle of market neutrality is not a practical reality, as the ECB's purchases are concentrated on economic sectors that are not representative of the wider economy, and tend to be skewed towards carbon-intensive firms. [122]
Following this criticism, in 2020, several top level ECB policymaker such as Christine Lagarde , [123] Isabel Schnabel , Frank Elderson [124] and others have pointed out the contradiction in the market neutrality logic. In particular, Schnabel argued that "In the presence of market failures, market neutrality may not be the appropriate benchmark for a central bank when the market by itself is not achieving efficient outcomes" [125]
Since 2020, several central banks (including the ECB, Bank of England and the Swedish central banks) have announced their intention to incorporate climate criteria in their QE programmes. [126] The Network for Greening the Financial System has identified different possible measures to align central banks' collateral frameworks and QE with climate objectives. [127]
Critics frequently point to the redistributive effects of quantitative easing. For instance, British Prime Minister Theresa May openly criticized QE in July 2016 for its regressive effects: "Monetary policy – in the form of super-low interest rates and quantitative easing – has helped those on the property ladder at the expense of those who can't afford to own their own home." [128] Dhaval Joshi of BCA Research wrote that "QE cash ends up overwhelmingly in profits, thereby exacerbating already extreme income inequality and the consequent social tensions that arise from it". [129] Anthony Randazzo of the Reason Foundation wrote that QE "is fundamentally a regressive redistribution program that has been boosting wealth for those already engaged in the financial sector or those who already own homes, but passing little along to the rest of the economy. It is a primary driver of income inequality". [129]
Those criticisms are partly based on some evidence provided by central banks themselves. In 2012, a Bank of England report [130] showed that its quantitative easing policies had benefited mainly the wealthy, and that 40% of those gains went to the richest 5% of British households. [129] [131]
In May 2013, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas President Richard Fisher said that cheap money has made rich people richer, but has not done quite as much for working Americans. [132]
Answering similar criticisms expressed by MEP Molly Scott Cato , the President of the ECB Mario Draghi once declared: [133]
Some of these policies may, on the one hand, increase inequality but, on the other hand, if we ask ourselves what the major source of inequality is, the answer would be unemployment. So, to the extent that these policies help – and they are helping on that front – then certainly an accommodative monetary policy is better in the present situation than a restrictive monetary policy.
In July 2018, the ECB published a study [134] showing that its QE programme increased the net wealth of the poorest fifth of the population by 2.5 percent, compared with just 1.0 percent for the richest fifth. The study's credibility was however contested. [135] [136]
Quantitative easing (QE) policies can have a profound effect on Forex rates , since it changes the supply of one currency compared to another. For instance, if both the US and Europe are using quantitative easing to the same degree then the currency pair of US/EUR may not fluctuate. However, if the US treasury uses QE to a higher degree, as evidenced in the increased purchase of securities during an economic crisis, but India does not, then the value of the USD will decrease relative to the Indian rupee . As a result, quantitative easing has the same effect as purchasing foreign currencies, effectively manipulating the value of one currency compared to another. [137] [138]
BRIC countries have criticized the QE carried out by the central banks of developed nations. They share the argument that such actions amount to protectionism and competitive devaluation . As net exporters whose currencies are partially pegged to the dollar, they protest that QE causes inflation to rise in their countries and penalizes their industries. [139] [140] [141] [142]
In a joint statement leaders of Russia, Brazil, India, China and South Africa, collectively BRICS, have condemned the policies of western economies saying "It is critical for advanced economies to adopt responsible macro-economic and financial policies, avoid creating excessive liquidity and undertake structural reforms to lift growth" as written in the Telegraph. [143]
According to Bloomberg reporter David Lynch, the new money from quantitative easing could be used by the banks to invest in emerging markets, commodity-based economies, commodities themselves, and non-local opportunities rather than to lend to local businesses that are having difficulty getting loans. [144]
Another criticism prevalent in Europe, [145] is that QE creates moral hazard for governments. Central banks’ purchases of government securities artificially depress the cost of borrowing. Normally, governments issuing additional debt see their borrowing costs rise, which discourages them from overdoing it. In particular, market discipline in the form of higher interest rates will cause a government like Italy's, tempted to increase deficit spending, to think twice. Not so, however, when the central bank acts as bond buyer of last resort and is prepared to purchase government securities without limit. In such circumstances, market discipline will be incapacitated.
Richard W. Fisher , president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas , warned in 2010 that QE carries "the risk of being perceived as embarking on the slippery slope of debt monetization . We know that once a central bank is perceived as targeting government debt yields [112] at a time of persistent budget deficits, concern about debt monetization quickly arises." Later in the same speech, he stated that the Fed is monetizing the government debt: "The math of this new exercise is readily transparent: The Federal Reserve will buy $110 billion a month in Treasuries, an amount that, annualized, represents the projected deficit of the federal government for next year. For the next eight months, the nation's central bank will be monetizing the federal debt." [146]
Ben Bernanke remarked in 2002 that the US government had a technology called the printing press (or, today, its electronic equivalent), so that if rates reached zero and deflation threatened, the government could always act to ensure deflation was prevented. He said, however, that the government would not print money and distribute it "willy nilly" but would rather focus its efforts in certain areas (e.g., buying federal agency debt securities and mortgage-backed securities). [147] [148]
According to economist Robert McTeer , former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, there is nothing wrong with printing money during a recession, and quantitative easing is different from traditional monetary policy "only in its magnitude and pre-announcement of amount and timing". [4] [5]
In response to concerns that QE is failing to create sufficient demand, particularly in the Eurozone, some have called for "QE for the people" or " helicopter money ". Instead of buying government bonds or other securities by creating bank reserves, as the Federal Reserve and Bank of England have done, some suggest that central banks could make payments directly to households (in a similar fashion as Milton Friedman 's helicopter money ). [149]
Economists Mark Blyth and Eric Lonergan argue in Foreign Affairs that this is the most effective solution for the Eurozone, particularly given the restrictions on fiscal policy. [150] They argue that based on the evidence from tax rebates in the United States, less than 5% of GDP transferred by the ECB to the household sector in the Eurozone would suffice to generate a recovery, a fraction of what it intends to be done under standard QE. Oxford economist John Muellbauer has suggested that this could be legally implemented using the electoral register. [151]
On 27 March 2015, 19 economists including Steve Keen , Ann Pettifor , Robert Skidelsky , and Guy Standing have signed a letter to the Financial Times calling on the European Central Bank to adopt a more direct approach to its quantitative easing plan announced earlier in February. [152] In August 2019, prominent central bankers Stanley Fischer and Philip Hildebrand co-authored a paper published by BlackRock in which they propose a form of helicopter money. [153]
Carbon quantitative easing (CQE) is an untested form of QE that is featured in a newly proposed international climate policy, called a global carbon reward. [154] [155] [156] A major goal of CQE is to finance the global carbon reward by managing the exchange rate of a new representative currency , called a carbon currency. The carbon currency will act as an international unit of account and a store of value, because it will represent the mass of carbon that is mitigated and rewarded under the global carbon reward policy.
Keynesian economics became popular after the Great Depression. The idea is that in an economy with low inflation and high unemployment (especially technological unemployment ), demand side economics will stimulate consumer spending, which increases business profits, which increases investment. Keynesians promote methods like public works , infrastructure redevelopment, and increases in the social safety net to increase demand and inflation.
Quantitative easing has been nicknamed "money printing" by some members of the media, [157] [158] [159] central bankers, [160] and financial analysts. [161] [162]
However, QE is a very different form of money creation than it is commonly understood when talking about "money printing" (otherwise called monetary financing or debt monetization ). Indeed, with QE the newly created money is usually used to buy financial assets beyond just government bonds [157] (corporate bonds etc.) and QE is usually implemented in the secondary market. In most developed nations (e.g., the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, and the Eurozone), central banks are prohibited from buying government debt directly from the government and must instead buy it from the secondary market. [163] [164] This two-step process, where the government sells bonds to private entities that in turn sell them to the central bank, has been called "monetizing the debt" by many analysts. [163]
The distinguishing characteristic between QE and debt monetization is that with the former, the central bank creates money to stimulate the economy, not to finance government spending (although an indirect effect of QE is to lower rates on sovereign bonds). Also, the central bank has the stated intention of reversing the QE when the economy has recovered (by selling the government bonds and other financial assets back into the market). [157] The only effective way to determine whether a central bank has monetized debt is to compare its performance relative to its stated objectives. Many central banks have adopted an inflation target. It is likely that a central bank is monetizing the debt if it continues to buy government debt when inflation is above target and if the government has problems with debt financing. [163]
Some economists such as Adair Turner have argued that outright monetary financing would be more effective than QE. [165] [166]
Neo-Fisherism, based on theories made by Irving Fisher reasons that the solution to low inflation is not quantitative easing, but paradoxically to increase interest rates. This is due to the fact that if interest rates continue to decline, banks will lose customers and less money will be invested back into the economy.
In a situation of low inflation and high debt, customers will feel more secure holding on to cash or converting cash into commodities, which fails to stimulate economic growth. If the money supply increases from quantitative easing, customers will subsequently default in the face of higher prices, thus resetting the low inflation and worsening the low inflation issue. [167] [168] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_easing | 112 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | What Is Quantitative Easing (QE), and How Does It Work? | Quantitative easing (QE) is a form of monetary policy in which a central bank, like the U.S. Federal Reserve, purchases securities from the open market to reduce interest rates and increase the money supply.
Quantitative easing creates new bank reserves, providing banks with more liquidity and encouraging lending and investment. In the United States, the Federal Reserve implements QE policies.
- Quantitative easing is a form of monetary policy used by central banks to increase the domestic money supply and spur economic activity.
- In QE, the central bank purchases government bonds and other financial instruments, such as mortgage-backed securities (MBS).
- Quantitive easing is typically implemented when interest rates are near zero and economic growth is stalled.
- In the United States, the Federal Reserve implements quantitative easing policies.
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Quantitive easing is often implemented when interest rates hover near zero and economic growth is stalled. Central banks have limited tools, like interest rate reduction, to influence economic growth. Without the ability to lower rates further, central banks must strategically increase the supply of money.
To execute quantitative easing, central banks buy government bonds and other securities, injecting bank reserves into the economy. Increasing the supply of money lowers interest rates further and provides liquidity to the banking system, allowing banks to lend with easier terms.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, quantitative easing was used and the Federal Reserve increased its holdings, accounting for 56% of the Treasury issuance of securities through the first quarter of 2021.
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A government's fiscal policy may be implemented concurrently to expand the money supply. While the Federal Reserve can influence the supply of money in the economy, The U.S. Treasury Department can create new money and implement new tax policies with fiscal policy, sending money, directly or indirectly, into the economy. Quantitative easing can be a combination of both monetary and fiscal policy.
Most economists believe that the Federal Reserve's quantitative easing program helped to rescue the U.S. and global economy following the 2007-2008 financial crisis , however, the results of QE are difficult to quantify.
Globally, central banks have attempted to deploy quantitative easing as a means of preventing recession and deflation in their countries with similarly inconclusive results. While QE policy is effective at lowering interest rates and boosting the stock market, its broader impact on the economy isn’t apparent.
Commonly, the effects of quantitative easing benefit borrowers over savers and investors over non-investors, and there are pros and cons to QE, according to Stephen Williamson, a former economist with the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
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As money is increased in an economy, the risk of inflation looms. As the liquidity works through the system, central banks remain vigilant, as the time lag between the increase in the money supply and the inflation rate is generally 12 to 18 months.
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A quantitative easing strategy that does not spur intended economic growth but causes inflation can also create stagflation , a scenario where both the inflation rate and the unemployment rate are high.
As liquidity increases for banks, a central bank like the Fed cannot force banks to increase lending activities nor can they force individuals and businesses to borrow and invest. This creates a “ credit crunch ,” where cash is held at banks or corporations hoard cash due to an uncertain business climate.
Quantitative easing may devalue the domestic currency as the money supply increases. While a devalued currency can help domestic manufacturers with exported goods cheaper in the global market, a falling currency value makes imports more expensive, increasing the cost of production and consumer price levels.
To combat the Great Recession , the U.S. Federal Reserve ran a quantitative easing program from 2009-2014. The Federal Reserve's balance sheet increased with bonds, mortgages, and other assets. U.S. bank reserves grew to over $4 trillion by 2017 providing liquidity to lend those reserves and stimulate overall economic growth. However, banks held $2.7 trillion in excess reserves, an unexpected outcome of the Federal Reserve's QE program.
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In 2020, the Fed announced its plan to purchase $700 billion in assets as an emergency QE measure following the economic and market turmoil spurred by the COVID-19 shutdown. However, in 2022, the Federal Reserve dramatically shifted its monetary policy to include significant interest rate hikes and a reduction in the Fed’s asset holdings to sidetrack the persistent trend of higher inflation that emerged in 2021.
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Following the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 , Japan fell into an economic recession . The Bank of Japan began an aggressive quantitative easing program to curb deflation and stimulate the economy, moving from buying Japanese government bonds to buying private debt and stocks. The quantitive easing campaign failed to meet its goals as the Japanese gross domestic product (GDP) fell from roughly $5.45 trillion to $4.52 trillion.
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The Swiss National Bank (SNB) also employed a quantitative easing strategy following the 2008 financial crisis and the SNB owned assets that exceeded the annual economic output for the entire country. Although economic growth was spurred, it is unclear how much of the subsequent recovery can be attributed to the SNB's quantitative easing program.
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In August 2016, the Bank of England (BoE) launched a quantitative easing program to help address the potential economic ramifications of Brexit . By buying 60 billion pounds of government bonds and 10 billion pounds in corporate debt, the plan was intended to keep interest rates from rising and stimulate business investment and employment.
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By June 2018, the Office for National Statistics in the U.K. reported that gross fixed capital formation was growing at an average quarterly rate of 0.4%, lower than the average rate from 2009 through 2018. U.K. economists were unable to determine whether or not growth would have been evident without this quantitative easing program.
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Quantitative easing is a type of monetary policy in which a nation’s central bank tries to increase the liquidity in its financial system, typically by purchasing long term government bonds from that nation’s largest banks and stimulating economic growth by encouraging banks to lend or invest more freely.
Critics have argued that quantitative easing is effectively a form of money printing and point to examples in history where money printing has led to hyperinflation . However, proponents of quantitative easing claim that banks act as intermediaries rather than placing cash directly in the hands of individuals and businesses so quantitative easing carries less risk of producing runaway inflation.
QE replaces bonds in the banking system with cash, effectively increasing the money supply, and making it easier for banks to free up capital, so they can underwrite more loans and buy other assets. A bank can lend any deposits above its 10% in reserve.
12
Quantitative easing is a form of monetary policy in which a central bank, like the U.S. Federal Reserve, purchases securities through open market operations to increase the supply of money and encourage bank lending and investment. QE policies have been implemented globally, however, their impact on a country's economy is often debated.
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quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | What Is Quantitative Easing (QE), and How Does It Work? | Quantitative easing (QE) is a form of monetary policy in which a central bank, like the U.S. Federal Reserve, purchases securities from the open market to reduce interest rates and increase the money supply.
Quantitative easing creates new bank reserves, providing banks with more liquidity and encouraging lending and investment. In the United States, the Federal Reserve implements QE policies.
- Quantitative easing is a form of monetary policy used by central banks to increase the domestic money supply and spur economic activity.
- In QE, the central bank purchases government bonds and other financial instruments, such as mortgage-backed securities (MBS).
- Quantitive easing is typically implemented when interest rates are near zero and economic growth is stalled.
- In the United States, the Federal Reserve implements quantitative easing policies.
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Quantitive easing is often implemented when interest rates hover near zero and economic growth is stalled. Central banks have limited tools, like interest rate reduction, to influence economic growth. Without the ability to lower rates further, central banks must strategically increase the supply of money.
To execute quantitative easing, central banks buy government bonds and other securities, injecting bank reserves into the economy. Increasing the supply of money lowers interest rates further and provides liquidity to the banking system, allowing banks to lend with easier terms.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, quantitative easing was used and the Federal Reserve increased its holdings, accounting for 56% of the Treasury issuance of securities through the first quarter of 2021.
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A government's fiscal policy may be implemented concurrently to expand the money supply. While the Federal Reserve can influence the supply of money in the economy, The U.S. Treasury Department can create new money and implement new tax policies with fiscal policy, sending money, directly or indirectly, into the economy. Quantitative easing can be a combination of both monetary and fiscal policy.
Most economists believe that the Federal Reserve's quantitative easing program helped to rescue the U.S. and global economy following the 2007-2008 financial crisis , however, the results of QE are difficult to quantify.
Globally, central banks have attempted to deploy quantitative easing as a means of preventing recession and deflation in their countries with similarly inconclusive results. While QE policy is effective at lowering interest rates and boosting the stock market, its broader impact on the economy isn’t apparent.
Commonly, the effects of quantitative easing benefit borrowers over savers and investors over non-investors, and there are pros and cons to QE, according to Stephen Williamson, a former economist with the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
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As money is increased in an economy, the risk of inflation looms. As the liquidity works through the system, central banks remain vigilant, as the time lag between the increase in the money supply and the inflation rate is generally 12 to 18 months.
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A quantitative easing strategy that does not spur intended economic growth but causes inflation can also create stagflation , a scenario where both the inflation rate and the unemployment rate are high.
As liquidity increases for banks, a central bank like the Fed cannot force banks to increase lending activities nor can they force individuals and businesses to borrow and invest. This creates a “ credit crunch ,” where cash is held at banks or corporations hoard cash due to an uncertain business climate.
Quantitative easing may devalue the domestic currency as the money supply increases. While a devalued currency can help domestic manufacturers with exported goods cheaper in the global market, a falling currency value makes imports more expensive, increasing the cost of production and consumer price levels.
To combat the Great Recession , the U.S. Federal Reserve ran a quantitative easing program from 2009-2014. The Federal Reserve's balance sheet increased with bonds, mortgages, and other assets. U.S. bank reserves grew to over $4 trillion by 2017 providing liquidity to lend those reserves and stimulate overall economic growth. However, banks held $2.7 trillion in excess reserves, an unexpected outcome of the Federal Reserve's QE program.
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In 2020, the Fed announced its plan to purchase $700 billion in assets as an emergency QE measure following the economic and market turmoil spurred by the COVID-19 shutdown. However, in 2022, the Federal Reserve dramatically shifted its monetary policy to include significant interest rate hikes and a reduction in the Fed’s asset holdings to sidetrack the persistent trend of higher inflation that emerged in 2021.
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Following the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 , Japan fell into an economic recession . The Bank of Japan began an aggressive quantitative easing program to curb deflation and stimulate the economy, moving from buying Japanese government bonds to buying private debt and stocks. The quantitive easing campaign failed to meet its goals as the Japanese gross domestic product (GDP) fell from roughly $5.45 trillion to $4.52 trillion.
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The Swiss National Bank (SNB) also employed a quantitative easing strategy following the 2008 financial crisis and the SNB owned assets that exceeded the annual economic output for the entire country. Although economic growth was spurred, it is unclear how much of the subsequent recovery can be attributed to the SNB's quantitative easing program.
8
9
In August 2016, the Bank of England (BoE) launched a quantitative easing program to help address the potential economic ramifications of Brexit . By buying 60 billion pounds of government bonds and 10 billion pounds in corporate debt, the plan was intended to keep interest rates from rising and stimulate business investment and employment.
10
By June 2018, the Office for National Statistics in the U.K. reported that gross fixed capital formation was growing at an average quarterly rate of 0.4%, lower than the average rate from 2009 through 2018. U.K. economists were unable to determine whether or not growth would have been evident without this quantitative easing program.
11
Quantitative easing is a type of monetary policy in which a nation’s central bank tries to increase the liquidity in its financial system, typically by purchasing long term government bonds from that nation’s largest banks and stimulating economic growth by encouraging banks to lend or invest more freely.
Critics have argued that quantitative easing is effectively a form of money printing and point to examples in history where money printing has led to hyperinflation . However, proponents of quantitative easing claim that banks act as intermediaries rather than placing cash directly in the hands of individuals and businesses so quantitative easing carries less risk of producing runaway inflation.
QE replaces bonds in the banking system with cash, effectively increasing the money supply, and making it easier for banks to free up capital, so they can underwrite more loans and buy other assets. A bank can lend any deposits above its 10% in reserve.
12
Quantitative easing is a form of monetary policy in which a central bank, like the U.S. Federal Reserve, purchases securities through open market operations to increase the supply of money and encourage bank lending and investment. QE policies have been implemented globally, however, their impact on a country's economy is often debated.
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quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative Easing: Here's How It Works | Bankrate | At Bankrate we strive to help you make smarter financial decisions. While we adhere to strict , this post may contain references to products from our partners. Here's an explanation for .
The Federal Reserve typically slashes interest rates in recessions to revive an ailing economy — but in more severe crises, it might not be enough to shore up growth.
When desperate times call for desperate measures, the Fed breaks out unconventional tools to keep borrowing costs cheap and access to credit liquid. One such policy has become a household name among investors and Fed watchers in the days since the Great Recession of 2007-2009: quantitative easing.
A tricky task, however, can be walking back that extra stimulus after the financial system recovers, a challenge officials are undoubtedly going to wrestle with in 2022 as inflation soars to a 40-year high.
Here’s everything you need to know about the Fed’s recession-fighting tool.
Quantitative easing (also known as QE) is a nontraditional Fed policy more formally known as large-scale asset purchases, or LSAPs, where the U.S. central bank buys hundreds of billions of dollars in assets, mostly U.S. Treasury securities, federal agency debt and mortgage-backed securities.
The program is considered nontraditional and unconventional because it’s different from what the Fed usually does to guide the U.S. economy: adjusting the benchmark federal funds rate , lowering rates to stimulate growth and raising them to stabilize it.
QE works through open-market trading operations at the regional Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The Fed buys assets through the primary dealers with which it’s authorized to make transactions — financial firms that buy government securities directly from the government with the intent of selling it to others. The Fed then credits banks’ accounts with the cash equivalent in value to the asset it purchased, which increases the size of the Fed’s balance sheet .
“By virtue of taking the bond off the market, it replaces it with cash in the system, meaning there’s now more cash available for lending to consumers, businesses and municipalities,” says Greg McBride, CFA, Bankrate chief financial analyst.
The Fed’s purchases weigh on yields even more because they create demand for those securities, which raises their prices. As interest rates fall, businesses find it even easier to finance new investments, such as hiring or equipment.
Officials turn over all profits to the Treasury, including when those bonds pay out semiannual coupons and reach maturity.
But how it works isn’t as important as what it achieves. QE helps add more life to the financial system in times of severe distress by pushing down interest rates on the longer-dated borrowing not directly influenced by the fed funds rate.
That’s because Treasury yields are another important benchmark interest rate that influence many other consumer products, such as mortgage and refinance rates . It can also ultimately drive down corporate and municipal bonds, along with consumer and small business loan rates.
“This usually gets done when we’re coming out of some horrendous crisis,” says Dec Mullarkey, managing director of investment strategy at SLC Management, the asset management arm of Sun Life Financial. “The intent is, you are going to increase lending, opportunity and borrowing, and that will create growth in the economy.”
Because QE replaces bonds in the system with cash, it effectively increases the money supply. The process also helps improve market functioning by vacuuming up debt that’s been piling up on the market for a while. That makes it easier for banks to free up capital, so they can underwrite more loans and buy other assets.
“It’s like dropping a rock in a pond and seeing the waves ripple out in every direction,” Bankrate’s McBride says.
Despite being a relatively unconventional tool, many central banks have tried their hands at some form of QE, with the policy implemented across Europe and Asia.
The Bank of Japan was the first central bank in the modern era to attempt to rescue a sputtering economy through a policy it called quantitative easing. After facing a financial crisis in the 1990s, the Bank of Japan in March 2001 started growing the amount of bank reserves in the system.
Account balances increased to about ¥35 trillion — what’s roughly $303 billion today — mainly through monthly purchases of Japanese government bonds (JGBs). Eventually, however, the Bank of Japan transitioned away from buying government debt and into that of privately issued debt, purchasing corporate bonds, exchange-traded funds and real-estate investment funds. The program officially concluded in March 2006.
The Bank of England introduced a similar QE program during the global financial crisis of 2008, purchasing in total about £200 billion worth of government debt, mainly gilts. England’s central bank has since made three more forays into QE, in response to the European debt crisis, Brexit and the coronavirus pandemic.
The Fed announced the first round of QE, known as QE1, in November 2008. It officially kicked off in March 2009 and concluded a year later, with the U.S. central bank purchasing $1.25 trillion total in mortgage-backed securities, $200 billion in agency debt and $300 billion in long-term Treasury securities.
A second round, dubbed QE2, was then announced in November 2010, followed by another iteration known as Operation Twist, and then “QE3.” In August 2007, before the financial crisis hit, the Fed’s balance sheet totaled about $870 billion. By January 2015, after those large-scale asset purchases had occurred, its balance sheet swelled to $4.5 trillion.
Coronavirus pandemic-era QE makes those purchases look like mere breadcrumbs. After slashing interest rates to zero in an emergency meeting on March 15, 2020 , the Fed said it would buy at least $500 billion in Treasury securities and $200 billion in agency mortgage-backed securities.
Then, as markets kept sputtering days later, the Fed effectively handed out a blank-check to the program , pledging to buy those same assets “in the amounts needed to support smooth market functioning and effective transmission of monetary policy to broader financial conditions.” Only starting in June 2020 did the Fed officially announce that it’d purchase $80 billion worth of Treasury securities and $40 billion mortgage-backed assets a month.
Since the coronavirus crisis, the balance sheet has ballooned to above $8.9 trillion, the largest level in history.
The Fed can only purchase government-backed debt under its current mandate , though it can get around those guidelines in emergency situations by creating a special vehicle with funds from the Treasury as a backstop.
Some experts in the aftermath of the Great Recession questioned whether QE could lead to runaway inflation by adding too much liquidity into the system . That never happened, with price pressures averaging at 1.7 percent in the years afterward and before the pandemic.
The critique, however, is alive again today, as consumer prices in January soared 7.5 percent after holding at the highest level in decades for the entirety of 2021.
Price pressures have also originated from disrupted supply chains and goods shortages, an avenue that the Fed doesn’t directly control. But some economists argue that the Fed’s massive QE efforts might have spurred too much demand, and the financial system can’t currently keep up. After all, the labor force is still short of 2.9 million positions since the pandemic.
But one aspect of inflation has appeared to be a given when it comes to QE: stock valuations. Because the program pushes down bond yields, other arguments purport that it facilitates more risk-taking among investors, pushing them into higher-returning investments, like stocks and real estate. Even though some experts warn that could lead to asset bubbles, it might also generate growth in economic activity, according to McBride.
Asset purchases are a tricky balancing act for Fed officials because they’re often hard to unwind, even in the face of high inflation.
The Fed, for example, hasn’t wanted to cut markets off cold turkey from a QE program as massive as that of the coronavirus pandemic era. Officials fear doing so could prompt an unduly harsh market reaction, perhaps tightening conditions so much that it leads to poor economic outcomes.
Instead, in November 2021, they started gradually slowing how many bonds they’re buying each month , until those purchases gradually hit zero. The Fed’s looks set to wrap that process — known as taper — by mid-March.
After that comes the complicated process of rolling assets off the balance sheet: the mirror to QE, often dubbed quantitative tightening, where the U.S. central bank actually lets bonds roll off of its balance sheet.
History suggests it won’t be an easy process. The Fed shrank its balance sheet by about $1 trillion in the years after the Great Recession, but investors grew apprehensive the longer that went on. Stocks in December 2018 had their worst month since the Great Depression when Powell described the process as being on autopilot. Flash forward to the fall of 2019, and the Fed ultimately started growing its balance sheet again after dysfunction in the repurchase agreement, or repo, market indicated that it might’ve taken the process too far.
Other experts have argued that QE might not boost borrowing and lending as much as intended, given it’s a policy introduced in deep recessions when banks are pickier and consumers are more frugal.
“All the academic studies show it helped a little, but no one’s saying this is a home run,” SLC’s Mullarkey says. “Banks in particular did their due diligence and were fairly strict on lending guidelines. It didn’t flow into consumers the way you might’ve expected, and consumers in general pulled back on borrowing.”
If you were lucky enough to refinance your mortgage to a lower rate in 2020 , you can send your thank you letter to the Fed. Mortgage rates fell below 3 percent in the year, largely thanks to the Fed’s efforts.
That represents the most direct way you can feel the impact from QE — and if it’s not in your wallet, it’s in your 401(k) .
“It is a way for the Fed to reduce borrowing costs for a much broader segment of the borrowing public,” Bankrate’s McBride says. “This gives the Fed more of a direct impact on things like mortgage rates and car loan rates, than their traditional tool — the fed funds rate — which tends to have the most pronounced impact on deposit rates, credit card rates and home equity lines of credit.” | https://www.bankrate.com/banking/federal-reserve/what-is-quantitative-easing/ | 112 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | Quantitative easing - Wikipedia | Quantitative easing ( QE ) is a monetary policy action where a central bank purchases predetermined amounts of government bonds or other financial assets in order to stimulate economic activity. [1] Quantitative easing is a novel form of monetary policy that came into wide application after the financial crisis of 2007-2008 . [2] [3] It is used to mitigate an economic recession when inflation is very low or negative, making standard monetary policy ineffective. Quantitative tightening (QT) does the opposite, where for monetary policy reasons, a central bank sells off some portion of its holdings of government bonds or other financial assets.
Similar to conventional open-market operations used to implement monetary policy, a central bank implements quantitative easing by buying financial assets from commercial banks and other financial institutions, thus raising the prices of those financial assets and lowering their yield , while simultaneously increasing the money supply . However, in contrast to normal policy, quantitative easing usually involves the purchase of riskier or longer-term assets (rather than short-term government bonds) of predetermined amounts at a large scale, over a pre-committed period of time. [4] [5]
Central banks usually resort to quantitative easing when their nominal interest rate target approaches or reaches zero. Very low interest rates induce a liquidity trap , a situation where people prefer to hold cash or very liquid assets, given the low returns on other financial assets. This makes it difficult for interest rates to go below zero ; monetary authorities may then use quantitative easing to further stimulate the economy rather than trying to lower the interest rate further.
Quantitative easing can help bring the economy out of recession [6] and help ensure that inflation does not fall below the central bank's inflation target . [7] However QE programmes are also criticized for their side-effects and risks, which include the policy being more effective than intended in acting against deflation (leading to higher inflation in the longer term), or not being effective enough if banks remain reluctant to lend and potential borrowers are unwilling to borrow. Quantitative easing has also been criticized for raising financial asset prices, contributing to inequality. [8] Quantitative easing was undertaken by some major central banks worldwide following the global financial crisis of 2007–08 , and again in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [9]
Standard central bank monetary policies are usually enacted by buying or selling government bonds on the open market to reach a desired target for the interbank interest rate . However, if a recession or depression continues even when a central bank has lowered interest rates targets to nearly zero, the central bank can no longer lower interest rates — a situation known as the liquidity trap . The central bank may then attempt to stimulate the economy by implementing quantitative easing, that is, by buying financial assets without reference to interest rates. This policy is sometimes described as a last resort to stimulate the economy. [10] [11]
A central bank enacts quantitative easing by purchasing, regardless of interest rates, a predetermined quantity of bonds or other financial assets on financial markets from private financial institutions. [12] [13] This action increases the excess reserves that banks hold. The goal of this policy is to ease financial conditions, increase market liquidity , and encourage private bank lending.
Quantitative easing affects the economy through several channels: [14]
- Credit channel: By providing liquidity in the banking sector, QE makes it easier and cheaper for banks to extend loans to companies and households, thus stimulating credit growth. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds (such as corporate bonds), it can also increase the price and lower the interest yield of these riskier assets. [ citation needed ]
- Portfolio rebalancing: By enacting QE, the central bank withdraws an important part of the safe assets from the market onto its own balance sheet, which may result in private investors turning to other financial securities. Because of the relative lack of government bonds, investors are forced to "rebalance their portfolios" into other assets. Additionally, if the central bank also purchases financial instruments that are riskier than government bonds, it can also lower the interest yield of those assets (as those assets are more scarce in the market, and thus their prices go up correspondingly). [15]
- Exchange rate: Because it increases the money supply and lowers the yield of financial assets, QE tends to depreciate a country's exchange rates relative to other currencies, through the interest rate mechanism. [16] Lower interest rates lead to a capital outflow from a country, thereby reducing foreign demand for a country's money, leading to a weaker currency. This increases demand for exports, and directly benefits exporters and export industries in the country. [ citation needed ]
- Fiscal effect: By lowering yields on sovereign bonds, QE makes it cheaper for governments to borrow on financial markets, which may empower the government to provide fiscal stimulus to the economy. Quantitative easing can be viewed as a debt refinancing operation of the "consolidated government" (the government including the central bank), whereby the consolidated government, via the central bank, retires government debt securities and refinances them into central bank reserves. [ citation needed ]
- Boosting asset prices: When a central bank buys government bonds from a pension fund, the pension fund, rather than hold on to this money, might invest it in financial assets, such as shares, that gives it a higher return. And when demand for financial assets is high, the value of these assets increases. This makes businesses and households holding shares wealthier – making them more likely to spend more, boosting economic activity. [ citation needed ]
- Signalling effect: Some economists argue that QE's main impact is due to its effect on the psychology of the markets, by signaling that the central bank will take extraordinary measures to facilitate economic recovery. For instance, it has been observed that most of the effect of QE in the Eurozone on bond yields happened between the date of the announcement of QE and the actual start of the purchases by the ECB. [ citation needed ]
The Bank of Japan introduced QE from March 19, 2001, until March 2006, after having introduced negative interest rates in 1999. Most western central banks adopted similar policies in the aftermath of the great financial crisis of 2008. [17]
A policy similar to quantitative easing had been implemented within the Roman Empire as a response to a financial crisis on 33 A.D. [18]
The US Federal Reserve belatedly implemented policies similar to the recent quantitative easing during the Great Depression of the 1930s. [19] [20] Specifically, banks' excess reserves exceeded 6 percent in 1940, whereas they vanished during the entire postwar period until 2008. [21] Despite this fact, many commentators called the scope of the Federal Reserve quantitative easing program after the 2008 crisis "unprecedented". [22] [23] [24]
A policy termed "quantitative easing" (量的緩和, ryōteki kanwa , from 量的 "quantitative" + 緩和 "easing") [25] was first used by the Bank of Japan (BoJ) to fight domestic deflation in the early 2000s . [26] [27] The BOJ had maintained short-term interest rates at close to zero since 1999. The Bank of Japan had for many years, and as late as February 2001, stated that "quantitative easing ... is not effective" and rejected its use for monetary policy. [28]
The Bank of Japan adopted quantitative easing on 19 March 2001. [29] [30] Under quantitative easing, the BOJ flooded commercial banks with excess liquidity to promote private lending, leaving them with large stocks of excess reserves and therefore little risk of a liquidity shortage. [31] The BOJ accomplished this by buying more government bonds than would be required to set the interest rate to zero. It later also bought asset-backed securities and equities and extended the terms of its commercial paper -purchasing operation. [32] The BOJ increased commercial bank current account balances from ¥5 trillion to ¥35 trillion (approximately US$300 billion) over a four-year period starting in March 2001. The BOJ also tripled the quantity of long-term Japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. [ citation needed ] However, the seven-fold increase notwithstanding, current account balances (essentially central bank reserves) being just one (usually relatively small) component of the liability side of a central bank's balance sheet (the main one being banknotes), the resulting peak increase in the BOJ's balance sheet was modest, compared to later actions by other central banks. [ citation needed ] The Bank of Japan phased out the QE policy in March 2006. [33]
After the global financial crisis of 2007-08 , policies similar to those undertaken by Japan were used by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Eurozone. Quantitative easing was used by these countries because their risk-free short-term nominal interest rates (termed the federal funds rate in the US, or the official bank rate in the UK) were either at or close to zero. According to Thomas Oatley, "QE has been the central pillar of post-crisis economic policy." [3]
During the peak of the financial crisis in 2008, the US Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet dramatically by adding new assets and new liabilities without "sterilizing" these by corresponding subtractions. In the same period, the United Kingdom also used quantitative easing as an additional arm of its monetary policy to alleviate its financial crisis. [34] [35] [36]
Core CPI
The U.S. Federal Reserve System held between $700 billion and $800 billion of Treasury notes on its balance sheet before the recession.
November 2008: QE1. In late November 2008, the Federal Reserve started buying $600 billion in mortgage-backed securities . [37] By March 2009, it held $1.75 trillion of bank debt, mortgage-backed securities, and Treasury notes; this amount reached a peak of $2.1 trillion in June 2010. Further purchases were halted as the economy started to improve, but resumed in August 2010 when the Fed decided the economy was not growing robustly. After the halt in June, holdings started falling naturally as debt matured and were projected to fall to $1.7 trillion by 2012. The Fed's revised goal became to keep holdings at $2.054 trillion. To maintain that level, the Fed bought $30 billion in two- to ten-year Treasury notes every month. [38]
November 2010: QE2. In November 2010, the Fed announced a second round of quantitative easing, buying $600 billion of Treasury securities by the end of the second quarter of 2011. [39] [40] The expression "QE2" became a ubiquitous nickname in 2010, used to refer to this second round of quantitative easing by US central banks. [41] Retrospectively, the round of quantitative easing preceding QE2 was called "QE1". [42] [43]
September 2012: QE3. A third round of quantitative easing, "QE3", was announced on 13 September 2012. In an 11–1 vote, the Federal Reserve decided to launch a new $40 billion per month, open-ended bond purchasing program of agency mortgage-backed securities. Additionally, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) announced that it would likely maintain the federal funds rate near zero "at least through 2015". [44] [45] According to NASDAQ.com, this is effectively a stimulus program that allows the Federal Reserve to relieve $40 billion per month of commercial housing market debt risk. [46] Because of its open-ended nature, QE3 has earned the popular nickname of "QE-Infinity". [47] [ better source needed ] On 12 December 2012, the FOMC announced an increase in the amount of open-ended purchases from $40 billion to $85 billion per month. [48]
On 19 June 2013, Ben Bernanke announced a "tapering" of some of the Fed's QE policies contingent upon continued positive economic data. Specifically, he said that the Fed could scale back its bond purchases from $85 billion to $65 billion a month during the upcoming September 2013 policy meeting. [49] [50] He also suggested that the bond-buying program could wrap up by mid-2014. [51] While Bernanke did not announce an interest rate hike, he suggested that if inflation followed a 2% target rate and unemployment decreased to 6.5%, the Fed would likely start raising rates. The stock markets dropped by approximately 4.3% over the three trading days following Bernanke's announcement, with the Dow Jones dropping 659 points between 19 and 24 June, closing at 14,660 at the end of the day on 24 June. [52] On 18 September 2013, the Fed decided to hold off on scaling back its bond-buying program, [53] and announced in December 2013 that it would begin to taper its purchases in January 2014. [54] Purchases were halted on 29 October 2014 [55] after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets. [56]
March 2020: QE4.
The Federal Reserve began conducting its fourth quantitative easing operation since the 2008 financial crisis; on 15 March 2020, it announced approximately $700 billion in new quantitative easing via asset purchases to support US liquidity in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . [58] As of mid-summer 2020 this resulted in an additional $2 trillion in assets on the books of the Federal Reserve. [59]
The Bank of England 's QE programme commenced in March 2009, when it purchased around £165 billion in assets as of September 2009 and around £175 billion in assets by the end of October 2009. [61] Five further tranches of bond purchases between 2009 and November 2020 brought the peak QE total to £895 billion. [62]
The Bank imposed a number of constraints on the QE policy, namely, that it would not buy more than 70% of any issue of government debt; and that it would only buy traditional (non-index-linked) debt, with a maturity of more than three years. [63] Originally, the bonds eligible for purchase were limited to UK government debt, but this was later relaxed to include high quality commercial bonds. [64]
QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy. The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by the creation of new central bank money . This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer term interest rates and making it cheaper for businesses to raise capital. [65] The aim of the policy was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system, but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus. Another side effect is that investors will switch to other investments, such as shares, boosting their price and thus encouraging consumption. [66] In 2012 the Bank estimated that quantitative easing had benefited households differentially according to the assets they hold; richer households have more assets. [67]
In February 2022 the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio. [68] Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.
In August 2022 the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. [69] Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.
On 28 September 2022 the Bank of England issued a Market Notice announcing its intention to "carry out purchases of long dated gilts in a temporary and targeted way". [70] This was in response to market conditions in which the sterling exchange rate and bond asset pricing were significantly disrupted following a UK government fiscal statement. [71] The Bank stated its announcement would apply to conventional gilts of residual maturity greater than 20 years in the secondary market. The existing constraints applicable to QE bond purchases would continue to apply. The funding of the purchases would be met from central bank reserves, but would be segregated in a different portfolio from existing asset purchases. The Bank also announced that its annual £80bn target to reduce the existing QE portfolio remained unchanged but, in the light of current market conditions, the beginning of gilt sale operations would be postponed to 31 October 2022. [72]
The European Central Bank engaged in large-scale purchase of covered bonds in May 2009, [73] and purchased around €250 billion worth of sovereign bonds from targeted member states in 2010 and 2011 (the SMP Programme). However, until 2015 the ECB refused to openly admit they were doing quantitative easing. [ citation needed ]
In a dramatic change of policy, following the new Jackson Hole Consensus , on 22 January 2015 Mario Draghi , President of the European Central Bank, announced an "expanded asset purchase programme", where €60 billion per month of euro-area bonds from central governments, agencies and European institutions would be bought. [74]
Beginning in March 2015, the stimulus was planned to last until September 2016 at the earliest with a total QE of at least €1.1 trillion. Mario Draghi announced the programme would continue: "until we see a continued adjustment in the path of inflation", referring to the ECB's need to combat the growing threat of deflation across the eurozone in early 2015. [75] [76]
In March 2016, the ECB increased its monthly bond purchases to €80 billion from €60 billion and started to include corporate bonds under the asset purchasing programme and announced new ultra-cheap four-year loans to banks. From November 2019, the ECB resumed buying up eurozone government bonds at a rate of €20 billion in an effort to encourage governments to borrow more and spend in domestic investment projects. [77] In March 2020, to help the economy absorb the shock of the COVID-19 crisis, the ECB announced a €750 billion Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP). [78] The aim of the stimulus package (PEPP) was to lower borrowing costs and increase lending in the euro area. [79]
At the beginning of 2013, the Swiss National Bank had the largest balance sheet relative to the size of its economy. It was responsible for, at close to 100% of Switzerland's national output. A total of 12% of its reserves were in foreign equities. By contrast, the US Federal Reserve's holdings equalled about 20% of US GDP, while the European Central Bank's assets were worth 30% of GDP. [80]
The SNB's balance sheet has increased massively due to its QE programme, to the extent that in December 2020, the US treasury accused Switzerland of being a " currency manipulator ". The US administration recommended Switzerland to increase the retirement age for Swiss workers to reduce saving assets by the Swiss Social Security administration , in order to boost domestic demand and reduce the necessity to maintain QE to stabilize the parity between the dollar and the Swiss franc. [81]
Sveriges Riksbank launched quantitative easing in February 2015, announcing government bond purchases of nearly US$1.2 billion. [82] The annualised inflation rate in January 2015 was -0.3%, and the bank implied that Sweden's economy could slide into deflation. [82]
In early October 2010, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) announced that it would examine the purchase of ¥5 trillion (US$60 billion) in assets. This was an attempt to push down the value of the yen against the US dollar to stimulate the domestic economy by making Japanese exports cheaper; however, it was ineffective. [83]
On 4 August 2011 the BOJ announced a unilateral move to increase the commercial bank current account balance from ¥40 trillion (US$504 billion) to a total of ¥50 trillion (US$630 billion). [84] [85] In October 2011, the bank expanded its asset purchase program by ¥5 trillion ($66bn) to a total of ¥55 trillion. [86]
On 4 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would expand its asset purchase program by ¥60 trillion to ¥70 trillion per year. [87] The bank hoped to banish deflation and achieve an inflation rate of 2% within two years. This would be achieved through a QE programme worth US$1.4 trillion, an amount so large it is expected to double the money supply. [88] This policy has been named Abenomics , a portmanteau of economic policies from Shinzō Abe , the former Prime Minister of Japan .
On 31 October 2014, the BOJ announced the expansion of its bond buying program, to purchase ¥80 trillion of bonds a year. [89]
In addition to purchases of bonds, Governor Masaaki Shirakawa also directed the BOJ to begin purchasing corporate shares as well as debt securities in October 2010. The BOJ came up with a policy to purchase index ETFs as part of the 2010 Comprehensive Monetary Easing program, which initially placed a cap of ¥450 billion shares with a termination in December 2011. However, later Governor Haruhiko Kuroda replaced the program with the Quantitative and Qualitative Monetary Easing policy which empowered the BOJ to buy ETFs with no cap or termination date, with an increased annual target of ¥1 trillion. The cap was raised multiple times to over ¥19 trillion by March 2018. And in March 16, 2020, following the Covid pandemic, the BOJ doubled its annual ETF purchase target to ¥12 trillion. [90]
The effectiveness of quantitative easing is the subject of an intense dispute among researchers as it is difficult to separate the effect of quantitative easing from other contemporaneous economic and policy measures, such as negative rates.
Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan calculated that as of July 2012, there was "very little impact on the economy". [91] Bank deposits in the Fed increased by nearly $4 trillion during QE1-3, closely tracking Fed bond purchases. A different assessment has been offered by Federal Reserve Governor Jeremy Stein , who has said that measures of quantitative easing such as large-scale asset purchases "have played a significant role in supporting economic activity". [92]
While the literature on the topic has grown over time, it has also been shown that central banks' own research on the effectiveness of quantitative easing tends to be optimistic in comparison to research by independent researchers, [93] which could indicate a conflict of interest or cognitive bias in central bank research.
Several studies published in the aftermath of the crisis found that quantitative easing in the US has effectively contributed to lower long term interest rates on a variety of securities as well as lower credit risk. This boosted GDP growth and modestly increased inflation. [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] A predictable but unintended consequence of the lower interest rates was to drive investment capital into equities, thereby inflating the value of equities relative to the value of goods and services, and increasing the wealth gap between the wealthy and working class.
In the Eurozone, studies have shown that QE successfully averted deflationary spirals in 2013–2014, and prevented the widening of bond yield spreads between member states. [100] QE also helped reduce bank lending cost. [101] However, the real effect of QE on GDP and inflation remained modest [102] [103] and very heterogeneous depending on methodologies used in research studies, which find on GDP comprised between 0.2% and 1.5% and between 0.1 and 1.4% on inflation. Model-based studies tend to find a higher impact than empirical ones. [ citation needed ]
In Japan, focusing on equity purchases, studies have shown that QE successfully boosted stock prices, [104] [90] but appear to have not been successful in stimulating corporate investment. [90]
Quantitative easing may cause higher inflation than desired if the amount of easing required is overestimated and too much money is created by the purchase of liquid assets. [105] On the other hand, QE can fail to spur demand if banks remain reluctant to lend money to businesses and households. Even then, QE can still ease the process of deleveraging as it lowers yields. However, there is a time lag between monetary growth and inflation; inflationary pressures associated with money growth from QE could build before the central bank acts to counter them. [106] Inflationary risks are mitigated if the system's economy outgrows the pace of the increase of the money supply from the easing. [ citation needed ] If production in an economy increases because of the increased money supply, the value of a unit of currency may also increase, even though there is more currency available. For example, if a nation's economy were to spur a significant increase in output at a rate at least as high as the amount of debt monetized the inflationary pressures would be equalized. This can only happen if member banks actually lend the excess money out instead of hoarding the extra cash. [ citation needed ] During times of high economic output, the central bank always has the option of restoring reserves to higher levels through raising interest rates or other means, effectively reversing the easing steps taken.
Economists such as John Taylor [107] believe that quantitative easing creates unpredictability. Since the increase in bank reserves may not immediately increase the money supply if held as excess reserves, the increased reserves create the danger that inflation may eventually result when the reserves are loaned out. [108]
QE benefits debtors; since the interest rate has fallen, there is less money to be repaid. However, it directly harms creditors as they earn less money from lower interest rates. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers and consumers, as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency. [109]
In the European Union , World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists have also argued that artificially low government bond interest rates induced by QE will have an adverse impact on the underfunding condition of pension funds, since "without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years". [110] [111] In addition to this, low or negative interest rates create disincentives for saving. [112] In a way this is an intended effect, since QE is intended to spur consumer spending.
In Europe, central banks operating corporate quantitative easing (i.e., QE programmes that include corporate bonds) such as the European Central Bank or the Swiss National Bank, have been increasingly criticized by NGOs [113] for not taking into account the climate impact of the companies issuing the bonds. [114] [115] [116] [117] In effect, Corporate QE programmes are perceived as indirect subsidy to polluting companies. The European Parliament has also joined the criticism by adopting several resolutions on the matter, and has repeatedly called on the ECB to reflect climate change considerations in its policies. [118] [119]
Central banks have usually responded by arguing they had to follow the principle of "market neutrality" [120] and should therefore refrain from making discretionary choices when selecting bonds on the market. The notion that central banks can be market neutral is contested, as central banks always make choices that are not neutral for financial markets when implementing monetary policy. [121] Furthermore, research has demonstrated that, in the case of the ECB's corporate bond purchase programme, the principle of market neutrality is not a practical reality, as the ECB's purchases are concentrated on economic sectors that are not representative of the wider economy, and tend to be skewed towards carbon-intensive firms. [122]
Following this criticism, in 2020, several top level ECB policymaker such as Christine Lagarde , [123] Isabel Schnabel , Frank Elderson [124] and others have pointed out the contradiction in the market neutrality logic. In particular, Schnabel argued that "In the presence of market failures, market neutrality may not be the appropriate benchmark for a central bank when the market by itself is not achieving efficient outcomes" [125]
Since 2020, several central banks (including the ECB, Bank of England and the Swedish central banks) have announced their intention to incorporate climate criteria in their QE programmes. [126] The Network for Greening the Financial System has identified different possible measures to align central banks' collateral frameworks and QE with climate objectives. [127]
Critics frequently point to the redistributive effects of quantitative easing. For instance, British Prime Minister Theresa May openly criticized QE in July 2016 for its regressive effects: "Monetary policy – in the form of super-low interest rates and quantitative easing – has helped those on the property ladder at the expense of those who can't afford to own their own home." [128] Dhaval Joshi of BCA Research wrote that "QE cash ends up overwhelmingly in profits, thereby exacerbating already extreme income inequality and the consequent social tensions that arise from it". [129] Anthony Randazzo of the Reason Foundation wrote that QE "is fundamentally a regressive redistribution program that has been boosting wealth for those already engaged in the financial sector or those who already own homes, but passing little along to the rest of the economy. It is a primary driver of income inequality". [129]
Those criticisms are partly based on some evidence provided by central banks themselves. In 2012, a Bank of England report [130] showed that its quantitative easing policies had benefited mainly the wealthy, and that 40% of those gains went to the richest 5% of British households. [129] [131]
In May 2013, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas President Richard Fisher said that cheap money has made rich people richer, but has not done quite as much for working Americans. [132]
Answering similar criticisms expressed by MEP Molly Scott Cato , the President of the ECB Mario Draghi once declared: [133]
Some of these policies may, on the one hand, increase inequality but, on the other hand, if we ask ourselves what the major source of inequality is, the answer would be unemployment. So, to the extent that these policies help – and they are helping on that front – then certainly an accommodative monetary policy is better in the present situation than a restrictive monetary policy.
In July 2018, the ECB published a study [134] showing that its QE programme increased the net wealth of the poorest fifth of the population by 2.5 percent, compared with just 1.0 percent for the richest fifth. The study's credibility was however contested. [135] [136]
Quantitative easing (QE) policies can have a profound effect on Forex rates , since it changes the supply of one currency compared to another. For instance, if both the US and Europe are using quantitative easing to the same degree then the currency pair of US/EUR may not fluctuate. However, if the US treasury uses QE to a higher degree, as evidenced in the increased purchase of securities during an economic crisis, but India does not, then the value of the USD will decrease relative to the Indian rupee . As a result, quantitative easing has the same effect as purchasing foreign currencies, effectively manipulating the value of one currency compared to another. [137] [138]
BRIC countries have criticized the QE carried out by the central banks of developed nations. They share the argument that such actions amount to protectionism and competitive devaluation . As net exporters whose currencies are partially pegged to the dollar, they protest that QE causes inflation to rise in their countries and penalizes their industries. [139] [140] [141] [142]
In a joint statement leaders of Russia, Brazil, India, China and South Africa, collectively BRICS, have condemned the policies of western economies saying "It is critical for advanced economies to adopt responsible macro-economic and financial policies, avoid creating excessive liquidity and undertake structural reforms to lift growth" as written in the Telegraph. [143]
According to Bloomberg reporter David Lynch, the new money from quantitative easing could be used by the banks to invest in emerging markets, commodity-based economies, commodities themselves, and non-local opportunities rather than to lend to local businesses that are having difficulty getting loans. [144]
Another criticism prevalent in Europe, [145] is that QE creates moral hazard for governments. Central banks’ purchases of government securities artificially depress the cost of borrowing. Normally, governments issuing additional debt see their borrowing costs rise, which discourages them from overdoing it. In particular, market discipline in the form of higher interest rates will cause a government like Italy's, tempted to increase deficit spending, to think twice. Not so, however, when the central bank acts as bond buyer of last resort and is prepared to purchase government securities without limit. In such circumstances, market discipline will be incapacitated.
Richard W. Fisher , president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas , warned in 2010 that QE carries "the risk of being perceived as embarking on the slippery slope of debt monetization . We know that once a central bank is perceived as targeting government debt yields [112] at a time of persistent budget deficits, concern about debt monetization quickly arises." Later in the same speech, he stated that the Fed is monetizing the government debt: "The math of this new exercise is readily transparent: The Federal Reserve will buy $110 billion a month in Treasuries, an amount that, annualized, represents the projected deficit of the federal government for next year. For the next eight months, the nation's central bank will be monetizing the federal debt." [146]
Ben Bernanke remarked in 2002 that the US government had a technology called the printing press (or, today, its electronic equivalent), so that if rates reached zero and deflation threatened, the government could always act to ensure deflation was prevented. He said, however, that the government would not print money and distribute it "willy nilly" but would rather focus its efforts in certain areas (e.g., buying federal agency debt securities and mortgage-backed securities). [147] [148]
According to economist Robert McTeer , former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, there is nothing wrong with printing money during a recession, and quantitative easing is different from traditional monetary policy "only in its magnitude and pre-announcement of amount and timing". [4] [5]
In response to concerns that QE is failing to create sufficient demand, particularly in the Eurozone, some have called for "QE for the people" or " helicopter money ". Instead of buying government bonds or other securities by creating bank reserves, as the Federal Reserve and Bank of England have done, some suggest that central banks could make payments directly to households (in a similar fashion as Milton Friedman 's helicopter money ). [149]
Economists Mark Blyth and Eric Lonergan argue in Foreign Affairs that this is the most effective solution for the Eurozone, particularly given the restrictions on fiscal policy. [150] They argue that based on the evidence from tax rebates in the United States, less than 5% of GDP transferred by the ECB to the household sector in the Eurozone would suffice to generate a recovery, a fraction of what it intends to be done under standard QE. Oxford economist John Muellbauer has suggested that this could be legally implemented using the electoral register. [151]
On 27 March 2015, 19 economists including Steve Keen , Ann Pettifor , Robert Skidelsky , and Guy Standing have signed a letter to the Financial Times calling on the European Central Bank to adopt a more direct approach to its quantitative easing plan announced earlier in February. [152] In August 2019, prominent central bankers Stanley Fischer and Philip Hildebrand co-authored a paper published by BlackRock in which they propose a form of helicopter money. [153]
Carbon quantitative easing (CQE) is an untested form of QE that is featured in a newly proposed international climate policy, called a global carbon reward. [154] [155] [156] A major goal of CQE is to finance the global carbon reward by managing the exchange rate of a new representative currency , called a carbon currency. The carbon currency will act as an international unit of account and a store of value, because it will represent the mass of carbon that is mitigated and rewarded under the global carbon reward policy.
Keynesian economics became popular after the Great Depression. The idea is that in an economy with low inflation and high unemployment (especially technological unemployment ), demand side economics will stimulate consumer spending, which increases business profits, which increases investment. Keynesians promote methods like public works , infrastructure redevelopment, and increases in the social safety net to increase demand and inflation.
Quantitative easing has been nicknamed "money printing" by some members of the media, [157] [158] [159] central bankers, [160] and financial analysts. [161] [162]
However, QE is a very different form of money creation than it is commonly understood when talking about "money printing" (otherwise called monetary financing or debt monetization ). Indeed, with QE the newly created money is usually used to buy financial assets beyond just government bonds [157] (corporate bonds etc.) and QE is usually implemented in the secondary market. In most developed nations (e.g., the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, and the Eurozone), central banks are prohibited from buying government debt directly from the government and must instead buy it from the secondary market. [163] [164] This two-step process, where the government sells bonds to private entities that in turn sell them to the central bank, has been called "monetizing the debt" by many analysts. [163]
The distinguishing characteristic between QE and debt monetization is that with the former, the central bank creates money to stimulate the economy, not to finance government spending (although an indirect effect of QE is to lower rates on sovereign bonds). Also, the central bank has the stated intention of reversing the QE when the economy has recovered (by selling the government bonds and other financial assets back into the market). [157] The only effective way to determine whether a central bank has monetized debt is to compare its performance relative to its stated objectives. Many central banks have adopted an inflation target. It is likely that a central bank is monetizing the debt if it continues to buy government debt when inflation is above target and if the government has problems with debt financing. [163]
Some economists such as Adair Turner have argued that outright monetary financing would be more effective than QE. [165] [166]
Neo-Fisherism, based on theories made by Irving Fisher reasons that the solution to low inflation is not quantitative easing, but paradoxically to increase interest rates. This is due to the fact that if interest rates continue to decline, banks will lose customers and less money will be invested back into the economy.
In a situation of low inflation and high debt, customers will feel more secure holding on to cash or converting cash into commodities, which fails to stimulate economic growth. If the money supply increases from quantitative easing, customers will subsequently default in the face of higher prices, thus resetting the low inflation and worsening the low inflation issue. [167] [168] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_easing | 112 |
quantitative easing refers to the process whereby the federal reserve | How the Federal Reserve’s Quantitative Easing Affects the Federal Budget | Quantitative easing (QE) refers to the Federal Reserve’s purchases of large quantities of Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities issued by government-sponsored enterprises and federal agencies to achieve its monetary policy objectives. Historically, the Federal Reserve has used QE when it has already lowered interest rates to near zero and additional monetary stimulus is needed. QE provides that additional stimulus by reducing long-term interest rates and increasing liquidity in financial markets.
QE affects the federal budget through two channels:
- It changes net borrowing costs of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve.
- It stimulates economic activity, which affects other budgetary categories.
If economic output was far below potential output (the maximum sustainable output of the economy) and short-term interest rates were set close to zero, the effects of QE would at first reduce federal deficits, generally. As economic conditions improved and interest rates rose, however, the deficit-reducing effects of that policy would diminish and could even reverse and add to the federal deficit.
In the Congressional Budget Office’s assessment, the Federal Reserve’s QE programs conducted in response to the 2007–2009 recession and the 2020 recession induced by the coronavirus pandemic initially reduced federal budget deficits. The QE programs also have led to earlier increases in the federal funds rate—the interest rate that financial institutions charge each other for overnight loans of their monetary reserves—than would have occurred otherwise, in CBO’s assessment. After the 2007–2009 recession, QE programs were followed by quantitative tightening (QT) policies—that is, reductions in the Federal Reserve’s holdings of Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities.
In CBO’s projections, the Federal Reserve again conducts quantitative tightening from 2022 to 2025. Its holdings of Treasury securities gradually rise again in the later years of the decade to meet growing demand for currency. The net budgetary effects over time of the combined QE and QT policies are uncertain.
Quantitative easing (QE)—large asset purchasing programs conducted by the Federal Reserve—affects the U.S. economy and the federal budget both directly and indirectly. QE programs increase the size of and change the composition of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet, which is composed of assets and liabilities. Because of the balance sheet’s economic and budgetary effects, the Congressional Budget Office projects its size and composition when developing its economic and budget projections. Those projections reflect current and anticipated policies of the Federal Reserve—whether QE (balance sheet expansions) or QT (quantitative tightening, or balance sheet contractions).
This report discusses the mechanisms by which QE affects the federal deficit. It also describes the two large expansions of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet that resulted from QE policies instituted in response to the 2007–2009 and 2020 recessions and discusses the risks involved when the Federal Reserve uses QE to achieve its monetary policy objectives of full employment and price stability.
The Federal Reserve used quantitative easing in response to the two most recent recessions—the 2007–2009 recession and the 2020 recession caused by the coronavirus pandemic. In both instances, the Federal Reserve purchased large amounts of Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities (MBSs) issued by government-sponsored enterprises and federal agencies. 1 The central bank purchased those assets by creating bank reserves as liabilities.
Once monetary stimulus is no longer necessary, the Federal Reserve can contract its balance sheet in a process called quantitative tightening, in which the assets purchased during balance sheet expansions are allowed to either drop off the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet as they mature (in a process known as balance sheet runoff) or are sold by the Federal Reserve. Between 2017 and 2019, the Federal Reserve used QT to shrink its balance sheet.
Historically, the Federal Reserve has used QE when its primary monetary policy tool, the federal funds rate (the rate that depository institutions charge each other for overnight loans of their reserves), is already at its lower bound and additional monetary stimulus is needed. 2 QE provides that additional stimulus by reducing long-term interest rates and increasing liquidity in financial markets. 3 Those measures help achieve the Federal Reserve’s monetary policy objectives of full employment and price stability. Although those objectives are generally consistent with a better outlook for the federal budget, the Federal Reserve sets monetary policy, including QE and QT, to achieve its dual mandate, which does not include explicit consideration of the federal budgetary effects of its policies. When the Federal Reserve engages in QE, the government’s total liabilities, which include the Federal Reserve’s liabilities, remain the same. One type of interest-bearing liability (a Treasury security, for example) is replaced with another (bank reserves).
The Federal Reserve stopped expanding its balance sheet through QE in early 2022 as the economy continued to expand following the 2020 recession and began reducing the size of its balance sheet through QT in the middle of 2022. In CBO’s projections, the Federal Reserve reinvests only a portion of the principal proceeds from Treasury securities and MBSs that mature, so that slightly less than $100 billion of assets drop off of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet each month. QT is expected to continue until 2026, at which point the Federal Reserve is projected to purchase enough Treasury securities to keep reserves as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) at a constant value consistent with prepandemic levels.
When the Federal Reserve conducts QE, its balance sheet expands. Such expansions affect remittances, which are payments made by the Federal Reserve to the Treasury. Remittances are equal to the difference between the income generated by the Federal Reserve System and the sum of the following: the costs of generating that income, dividend payments to the Federal Reserve System’s member banks, and changes in the amount of the surplus that the Federal Reserve holds on its books.
Most of the Federal Reserve’s income comes from earnings on the assets it holds, and most of its expenses are for interest paid to banks that hold reserves and financial institutions participating in reverse repurchase agreements (RRPs). 4 The effect of balance sheet expansions that occur under QE depends on the difference between the interest rates on the assets the central bank purchases and the rates on the bank reserves and other liabilities it issues to pay for them. The Federal Reserve uses changes to the rate of interest it pays on bank reserves to manage its primary monetary policy tool, the federal funds rate.
When the interest rate that the Federal Reserve pays on bank reserves is set below the interest rate on the assets it has purchased, the Federal Reserve generates more net profits and remittances from having expanded its balance sheet, all else being equal. Conversely, when the interest rate on reserves is set above the rate on the assets purchased, remittances are smaller because of the expanded balance sheet. Remittances would be suspended if the Federal Reserve’s expenses exceeded its income.
As part of its response to the 2007–2009 recession and the 2020 recession, the Federal Reserve’s QE policies substantially expanded its balance sheet. Because the interest rate on reserves has remained, on average, below that on assets purchased, those balance sheet expansions have resulted in increased remittances (as of May 2022). That effect, however, is likely to diminish and might reverse as the Federal Reserve continues to raise the interest rate on reserves to meet its target for the federal funds rate.
QE affects the federal budget through two broad mechanisms. First, by changing the path of interest rates, QE affects the net borrowing costs of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve (and thus its remittances to the Treasury). Second, QE tends to stimulate the economy, which affects other budgetary categories. The net effect of QE on the federal budget through those channels is difficult to assess and depends on a number of factors.
If economic output was far below potential output (the maximum sustainable output of the economy) and short-term interest rates were set close to zero, the effects of QE would at first reduce federal deficits, generally. As economic conditions improved and interest rates rose, however, the deficit-reducing effects of that policy would diminish and could even reverse and add to the federal deficit.
The magnitude of those effects would depend on the rate at which the balance sheet expanded under QE and later contracted under QT as the economy grew. In CBO’s assessment, the QE programs the Federal Reserve implemented in response to the 2007–2009 and 2020 recessions initially reduced the federal budget deficit, but their net budgetary effects over the long run are uncertain.
If the economy was at or above potential output when the Federal Reserve conducted QE, the stimulative effect of that policy would more likely result in higher inflation rather than higher real output—that is, output adjusted to remove the effects of inflation. (As of May 2022, QE had not been conducted when economic output was above potential output.) A large enough increase in inflation would prompt the Federal Reserve to raise short-term interest rates, and as short-term interest rates rose, the government’s net borrowing costs would increase and remittances from the Federal Reserve would be reduced, all else being equal. The overall budgetary effect of QE under those conditions could be positive, neutral, or negative and would depend on how quickly and by how much inflation and short-term interest rates rose.
QE carries inherent risks. The economic outlook is uncertain, and there is a risk that the Federal Reserve will not provide the amount of QE (or QT) necessary to achieve its goals of maximum employment and price stability, especially if the economy deviates from expectations. In addition to general risks of monetary policy, QE also carries risks that are unique to using it as a tool of monetary policy. QE potentially makes the government’s borrowing costs more sensitive to interest rate fluctuations, raises the risk of instability in financial markets, and increases the likelihood that the Federal Reserve will incur net losses.
The Federal Reserve’s balance sheet is the consolidated statement of the assets and liabilities of the Federal Reserve System. (See Box 1 for additional details.) The Federal Reserve buys and sells financial assets in its pursuit of its dual mandate of price stability and maximum employment, and it pays for those assets primarily by creating bank reserves and issuing Federal Reserve notes (or paper currency), which are Federal Reserve liabilities. 5 Quantitative easing expands the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet and quantitative tightening contracts the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet.
The Federal Reserve’s balance sheet shows its assets (the resources it owns) and its liabilities (what it owes to other entities). 1 As of the end of 2021, Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities (MBSs) accounted for 94 percent of all Federal Reserve assets, and reserves and currency accounted for 71 percent of its liabilities. (See the table below for the largest categories of assets and liabilities held by the Federal Reserve as of December 2021.)
The Federal Reserve owns assets in the following categories:
- U.S. Treasury securities. The Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities in open market operations. 2 Treasury securities include bills, notes, bonds, and Treasury inflation-protected securities (TIPS).
- Mortgage-backed securities. MBSs are fixed-income securities backed by a pool of mortgages that represent claims on the principal and interest payments of the underlying loans. The Federal Reserve purchases MBSs backed by Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac (government-sponsored enterprises) or Ginnie Mae (a government corporation) in open market operations.
- Loans. The Federal Reserve acts as a lender of last resort. That is, it can lend funds directly to depository institutions by using discount-window lending, a process by which banks borrow from the Federal Reserve at an above-market rate. Under section 13(3) of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, the Federal Reserve also has the authority to make loans to other entities in “unusual and exigent circumstances.” 3
- Central bank liquidity swaps. To support the demand for U.S. dollars in international financial markets, the Federal Reserve can provide dollars to a trusted foreign central bank in exchange for an equivalent amount of the foreign central bank’s currency, based on the market exchange rate at the time of the transaction. The Federal Reserve and the foreign central bank agree to reverse the transaction at a specified future date at the same exchange rate the “swap” was entered into, eliminating exchange rate risk.
- Net portfolio holdings of special purpose vehicles (SPVs). Under its emergency lending authority, the Federal Reserve can establish programs called facilities that make loans and purchase assets to support the flow of credit to consumers, businesses, and state and local governments. Those take the form of separate limited liability corporations (LLCs), which receive direct loans from the Federal Reserve and equity investments from the Treasury. The facilities then use those funds to purchase assets from and make loans to various borrowers.
- Repurchase agreements. To meet temporary increases in demand for reserves, the Federal Reserve can enter into repurchase (repo) agreements. In a repo agreement, the Federal Reserve purchases a security from a primary dealer and agrees to sell the security back to the primary dealer at a specified price on a future date. 4
- Other. Other assets on the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet that make up a small share of its total balance sheet include gold and assets denominated in foreign currencies.
The Federal Reserve’s liabilities consist of the following:
- Reserves. Depository institutions and some government agencies maintain accounts with the Federal Reserve to make and receive payments between themselves on behalf of clients. The balances they maintain at the Federal Reserve are known as reserves.
- Currency in circulation. When a depository institution requires more currency to meet customer demand, currency is sent from the Federal Reserve to the institution, with an equivalent decline in the institution’s reserve holdings at the Federal Reserve. That is, the depository institution trades reserves for currency.
- Treasury General Account (TGA). The TGA is the Treasury’s primary checking account. Most receipts of the federal government are deposited in this account, and most outlays from the Treasury are paid from this account. When the Treasury collects a receipt, the payment is made from a depository institution to the Treasury, resulting in an increase in the TGA offset by a commensurate decline in reserves.
- Reverse repurchase agreements. To help manage short-term interest rates in money markets, the Federal Reserve can conduct reverse repurchase agreements through which the Federal Reserve sells securities to financial institutions who agree to sell the securities back to the Federal Reserve at a specified price on a future date.
- Other. Various other liabilities on the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet include foreign official deposits, government-sponsored enterprise deposits, and Treasury contributions to SPVs; together they make up a small share of the balance sheet’s total liabilities.
1 . When the Federal Reserve purchases an asset, its value is generally recorded on the balance sheet at face value, with the unamortized discount or premium at the time of purchases as a separate asset item. The amortization of premiums and accretion of discounts are then recognized as an expense or income over the life of the asset.
2 . Open market operations are the Federal Reserve’s purchases or sales of government securities to expand or contract reserves of the banking system and influence interest rates. For more information, see Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Policy Tools, “Open Market Operations” (July 28, 2021), www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/openmarket.htm .
3 . For more information about that law, see Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Reserve Act, “Section 13, Powers of Federal Reserve Banks” (February 13, 2017), www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/section13.htm (accessed August 18, 2022).
4 . Primary dealers are trading counterparties of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in its implementation of monetary policy.
The size and composition of the balance sheet is the result of many factors, including monetary policy decisions made by the Federal Reserve, demand for U.S. currency, and the borrowing and spending actions taken by the Treasury.
Size. The balance sheet increases in size when the Federal Reserve purchases securities and issues corresponding liabilities such as reserves or currency; that is, assets and liabilities held by the Federal Reserve expand in tandem. Since the Federal Reserve was established in 1913, the size of its balance sheet has increased for two main reasons: first, to meet growing demands for currency, and second, as a tool to encourage price stability and maximum employment when economic output was far below potential economic output. Historically, the Federal Reserve has used reductions in the federal funds rate as its primary way of providing monetary policy stimulus. It has only engaged in QE when additional stimulus has been needed after the federal funds rate hit its lower bound.
Until 2007, demand for currency primarily drove changes in the size of the balance sheet. Because demand for currency tends to grow gradually, the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet (that is, its assets and liabilities) also grew slowly, as it issued currency and acquired assets. Because economic growth outstripped growth in the balance sheet, the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet as a percentage of GDP declined from roughly 7 percent in 1975 to 6 percent in 2007.
Since 2008, the Federal Reserve has used QE to expand its balance sheet to help achieve its dual mandate when its primary monetary policy tool, the federal funds rate, had already been lowered to its lower bound. For example, in response to the 2007–2009 recession, the Federal Reserve reduced the federal funds rate to near zero. 6 The central bank also established a number of emergency lending programs to serve as lender of last resort for some distressed financial sectors. Even so, the economy remained weak, and the Federal Reserve began purchasing assets in large quantities to put downward pressure on longer-term interest rates. As a result, the value of assets and liabilities held by the Federal Reserve increased from $891 billion (6 percent of GDP) in 2007 to $4.5 trillion (25 percent of GDP) in 2015 (see Figure 1 ).
Trillions of Dollars
Between 2017 and 2019, as the economy continued to expand following the 2007–2009 recession and economic activity increased, the Federal Reserve conducted QT, which reduced the size of its balance sheet. Over those years, the value of assets held by the Federal Reserve declined from $4.5 trillion (22 percent of GDP) to $4.2 trillion (19 percent of GDP). Assets purchased by the Federal Reserve during and after the 2007–2009 recession matured (when assets mature, they “run off” the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet because their par value, or outstanding principal balance, is paid to the Federal Reserve, which reduces both assets and liabilities). At the same time, the Federal Reserve slowed its purchases of new assets, resulting in a net decline in its holdings of assets.
Composition. From 1975 to 2007, Treasury securities dominated the asset side of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet. The central bank paid for those securities by issuing liabilities, of which the majority was currency. Reserves accounted for only a small fraction of total liabilities.
The composition of the Federal Reserve’s assets shifted during the 2007–2009 recession and the recovery that followed. The central bank purchased MBSs in addition to large quantities of Treasury securities to support economic recovery and reduce instability in financial markets. Emergency liquidity and credit programs, or facilities, established by the Federal Reserve also purchased more securities and extended more loans.
Although those purchases changed the composition of government liabilities held by private investors, the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet expansions did not reduce the total amount of such liabilities (see Box 2 ). The Federal Reserve paid for most of those assets by crediting banks with added reserves (see Figure 1 ). As a result, bank reserves accounted for a far greater share of the Federal Reserve’s liabilities than they did before the 2007–2009 recession. In addition, as part of the changes to monetary policy that began in 2015, the Federal Reserve established a program of regular overnight repurchase operations with a broad set of institutions; that program increased the share of overnight repurchase agreements on the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet. 7
As part of quantitative easing (QE), the Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities from private investors. Those purchases do not reduce the total amount of the liabilities of the government as a whole (the Treasury plus the Federal Reserve), but they do change the composition of those liabilities.
The total amount of governmental liabilities is a broader measure of government debt than Treasury debt held by the public, and it includes Treasury securities held by nonfederal entities, bank reserves (other than those held by the Treasury Department in the Treasury General Account), and U.S. currency. The interest payments on those liabilities include interest payments made by the Treasury and the Federal Reserve.
When the Federal Reserve purchases a Treasury security by creating new bank reserves, the reduction in Treasury securities held by investors is fully offset by an increase in the amount of reserves. Since both Treasury securities and bank reserves are included in the total stock of governmental liabilities, those purchases have no effect on the total stock.
Take, for example, a scenario in which the only assets held by the private sector are Treasury securities and reserves. 1 Suppose that the private sector owns $100 in Treasury securities and $100 in reserves. (The private sector holds many assets and the government has many liabilities, but this simple example isolates the effect of the Federal Reserve’s purchases of Treasury securities.)
Now suppose that the Federal Reserve purchases $50 of Treasury securities from the private sector and pays for those assets with newly created bank reserves. The value of the private sector’s total holdings of governmental liabilities (which are assets of the private sector) does not change, but the composition of those holdings does: The private sector now holds $50 of Treasury securities and $150 of reserves. The total value of liabilities of the government as a whole also remains the same after the Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities. Both Treasury securities and reserves pay interest, so the total quantity of interest-bearing governmental liabilities is unchanged.
When the Federal Reserve purchases agency mortgage-backed securities (MBSs), the proper accounting treatment is less clear. The audited financial statement of the federal government does not classify Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac as part of the government. However, the Congressional Budget Office views them as part of the government: They are in federal conservatorship and they are controlled by the Federal Housing Finance Agency, their conservator, and the Treasury, which has ownership rights to a majority of their stock. Thus, Federal Reserve purchases of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac securities exchange one form of governmental liability for another. Under that broader view of government, the stock of governmental liabilities does not change when the Federal Reserve purchases agency MBSs.
Although QE generally does not change the stock of governmental liabilities, it does change the composition of those liabilities. In some ways, bank reserves, reverse repurchase agreements (through which the Federal Reserve sells securities to financial institutions that agree to sell the securities back at a specified price on a future date), and Treasury securities are similar. They are all interest-bearing governmental liabilities. 2 The interest rates paid on bank reserves and on overnight reverse repurchase agreements are set by the Federal Reserve and are closely tied to the federal funds rate (the rate that depository institutions charge each other for overnight loans of their reserves). When the Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities, the effect of that action on the federal budget is roughly equivalent to a situation in which the Treasury Department buys back its own debt and replaces it with new Treasury securities that mature in one day.
There are, however, several important differences between Treasury securities and bank reserves. First, most Treasury securities (in particular, notes and bonds) pay the holder of the security a fixed amount of interest twice a year for the life of the security. By contrast, the interest rate on bank reserves, which is set administratively by the Federal Reserve, can be changed daily. Because bank reserves are effectively variable rate assets, the existing and future level of interest rates on overnight loans are critical factors in determining the effects of QE on the government’s net borrowing costs over time. Additionally, bank reserves can only be held by banks, whereas Treasury securities can be purchased by individuals, nonfinancial institutions, and nondepository financial institutions as well as by banks. 3 Finally, Treasury securities are frequently used as collateral for short-term lending in money markets whereas reserves are not.
When the Federal Reserve purchases agency MBSs by creating bank reserves, it does not change the amount of governmental liabilities, but the government’s risks and potential returns increase. When private investors hold agency MBSs, the government bears the risk of default on the mortgage payments underlying the MBSs and the investors who hold those MBSs bear the prepayment risk (that is, the uncertainty about the rate at which homeowners will refinance or sell their homes and prepay their mortgage balances). They also reap any additional compensation (in the form of higher interest rates) relative to assets like Treasury securities that do not carry prepayment risk. When the Federal Reserve purchases those MBSs from private investors, those additional risks and potential for higher compensation are transferred from the private sector to the government. In theory, the Treasury Department may be able to roughly replicate the effects of the Federal Reserve’s purchases of Treasury securities as part of QE by swapping existing Treasury securities with new very short-term bills; however, the shifting of risk and profit potential from the private sector to the federal government resulting from the Federal Reserve’s purchases of MBSs would be less possible to replicate through Treasury debt management decisions alone.
By changing the composition of governmental liabilities, QE can alter the timing of the effects of increased federal deficits on private investment. For instance, during an economic downturn, deficits tend to sharply increase. Those larger deficits place upward pressure on interest rates, which crowds out investment (that is, it reduces investment below what it otherwise would have been). A QE program would reduce that upward pressure on interest rates, thereby reducing the crowding out effect.
The overall net effect of QE on total crowding out over time is unclear, however. Because QE stimulates economic growth and puts upward pressure on prices, it allows the Federal Reserve to meet its monetary policy goals sooner than it would without conducting QE, and in turn, to remove monetary accommodation sooner. To do so, the Federal Reserve raises the federal funds rate and conducts quantitative tightening, which tends to push up longer-term interest rates and increase crowding out of investment.
1 . During periods of QE, the Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities primarily from private investors on the secondary market, which is when investors trade securities with other investors, rather than with the initial issuer of the security. The Federal Reserve also reinvests some of the principal proceeds, or income earned on its investments, in newly issued Treasury securities.
2 . In 2006, lawmakers provided the Federal Reserve with authority to pay depository institutions interest on reserve balances held at Reserve Banks, which went into effect in 2011. In October 2008, the Congress agreed to extend that authority to the Federal Reserve immediately.
3 . Select nondepository financial institutions and foreign government entities can also engage in reverse repurchase agreements with the Federal Reserve.
Between 2007 and 2019, the Federal Reserve’s holdings of Treasury securities grew significantly, though the total share of Treasury securities held by the Federal Reserve declined (see Figure 2 and see Figure 3 ). That decline was largest for the shortest maturities (under 1 year) and the longest maturities (10 years or more). Although those numbers appear to indicate a smaller presence of the Federal Reserve in Treasury markets, all the relative declines can be attributed to growth in the denominator of the series, the quantity of Treasury securities outstanding for each maturity. For example, at the end of 2007, the par value of Treasury securities maturing in more than 10 years held by the Federal Reserve was $72 billion; at the end of 2019, that amount had grown to $583 billion. But the total value of such securities outstanding had risen from $207 billion to $2,080 billion, so the share held by the Federal Reserve declined from 34 percent to 28 percent.
Percent
Percent
The Federal Reserve also changes the composition of its balance sheet by conducting repurchase (repo) agreements and reverse repurchase agreements. In a repo agreement, the Federal Reserve purchases securities with the agreement that the seller will repurchase the securities at a later date. That transaction increases the supply of reserves in the banking system. Conversely, in an RRP, the Federal Reserve sells securities with the agreement that the buyer will sell the securities back to the Federal Reserve at a later date. That transaction decreases the supply of reserves in the banking system. 8 Both types of agreements support monetary policy implementation and smooth market functioning, but they are not expected to have a significant net effect on the federal budget, all else being equal. 9
Quantitative Easing in Response to the 2020 Recession. In response to the economic effects of the pandemic, the Federal Reserve conducted QE by purchasing large quantities of Treasury securities and MBSs to help stabilize financial markets and support the economy. 10 Those actions contributed to the doubling of the size of the balance sheet, increasing the par value of assets held by the Federal Reserve from $4.2 trillion in the last quarter of 2019 (19 percent of GDP) to $8.8 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2021 (36 percent of GDP), greater than the previous high of $4.5 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2014 (25 percent of GDP). 11 As a result of the Federal Reserve’s purchases of Treasury securities since March 2020, the share of outstanding Treasury securities held by the Federal Reserve increased significantly for all maturities (see Figure 2 ). The Federal Reserve’s purchases consisted of MBSs and Treasury securities with maturities between 1 year and 30 years; generally, those purchases probably raised the market prices of those assets and, correspondingly, reduced the interest rates on those same asset types. In turn, the declines in yields on MBSs and Treasury securities led to declines in interest rates on other debt instruments as well.
The Federal Reserve financed many of those purchases by creating reserves: Reserves rose from $1.6 trillion at the end of 2019 to $4.0 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2021. Demand for currency also increased; currency in circulation rose from $1.8 trillion at the end of 2019 to $2.2 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2021.
The amount of reverse repurchase agreements increased significantly starting in March 2021, rising from less than $10 billion in February 2021 to $1.9 trillion in the fourth quarter of 2021. That increase was caused by a decline in outstanding Treasury bills and a heightened demand by money market mutual funds for short-term safe assets. It affected the relative quantities of reserves and reverse repurchase agreements but did not change the size of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet. When financial institutions participate in RRPs, reserves are effectively exchanged for RRPs on the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet, so any increase in RRPs is associated with a corresponding decrease in reserves.
The Congressional Budget Office projects the size and composition of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet when it produces economic and budget projections. In early 2022, as the economy continued to expand following the 2020 recession, the Federal Reserve pivoted from a policy of expanding the balance sheet under QE to one of contracting the balance sheet under QT. In CBO’s projections, the Federal Reserve’s holdings of MBSs decline over the 11 years from 2022 through 2032, and its holdings of Treasury securities decline through 2025, after which point the central bank purchases enough Treasury securities to keep reserves as a share of GDP constant over the remainder of the forecast horizon.
Also in CBO’s projections, starting in the middle of 2022, the Federal Reserve reduces the share of principal proceeds reinvested in new purchases of Treasury securities and MBSs, thereby allowing the size of the balance sheet to decline. Specifically, the agency expects the Federal Reserve to reinvest enough of the principal proceeds from maturing Treasury securities and agency MBSs so that slightly less than $100 billion of assets mature off the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet each month. 12 In CBO’s projections, it is unlikely that more than $30 billion of MBSs run off the balance sheet each month because of rising interest rates and limited prepayments on mortgages underlying the MBSs. In the agency’s projections, the Federal Reserve lets Treasury securities run off the balance sheet until 2026, when reserves as a share of GDP return to prepandemic levels. After that point, the Federal Reserve would purchase enough Treasury securities to meet growing demand for currency and to keep reserves as a share of GDP unchanged over the remainder of the forecast horizon.
On the liability side of the balance sheet, the amount of RRPs will probably decline over the next year as more Treasury bills are issued and households spend excess savings they accumulated since the start of the pandemic, CBO projects. Additionally, the amount of currency is expected to continue to grow at a gradual pace to meet increasing demand over the forecast window. Finally, bank reserves are projected to decline rapidly starting in 2023 until reaching prepandemic levels as a share of GDP in 2026.
Federal Reserve banks earn income from interest-bearing assets, primarily Treasury securities and MBSs that were initially purchased through open market operations (that is, transactions between the Federal Reserve and the private sector). Generating that interest income is not in and of itself a policy objective; rather, it is a by-product of the Federal Reserve’s conduct of monetary policy in the interest of achieving its dual mandate and of taking measures to achieve its financial stability objectives. By law, that income, minus the cost of generating it (which consists of the interest paid on Federal Reserve liabilities, the cost of the system’s operations, and dividends paid to member banks), is transmitted to the Treasury as remittances.
Before the 2007–2009 recession, the Federal Reserve generally held Treasury securities as assets and issued Federal Reserve notes as liabilities. To issue those notes, the central bank purchases them from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing at a price based on their production costs, which include the costs of the raw materials and facilities for producing the notes. The Federal Reserve incurs additional costs related to issuing and maintaining the supply of notes, including transportation, disposal of notes taken out of circulation, and anticounterfeit efforts, for example. Overall, the costs associated with acquiring and maintaining the notes are small compared with their face value. The Federal Reserve then trades the notes at face value for Treasury securities. The difference between the costs of acquiring and maintaining the notes and their face value, along with earnings from the interest received on the Treasury securities, results in profits for the Federal Reserve. Consequently, the Federal Reserve has remitted funds to the Treasury in every year over the past 50 years.
As a result of QE, reserves have replaced Federal Reserve notes as the largest liability of the central bank. Federal Reserve notes are noninterest-bearing, but the Federal Reserve pays interest on the reserves that banks hold. Since 2008, that interest rate has been a key tool in how the Federal Reserve conducts monetary policy because that rate determines the costs of expanding its balance sheet under QE. When that rate is set below the interest rate on the assets it has purchased, the Federal Reserve generates more net profits and thus pays larger remittances from having expanded its balance sheet, all else being equal. When that rate is set above the interest rate on the assets purchased, remittances are reduced. 13
Remittances account for a small share of federal revenues, but they have grown noticeably in recent years. Remittances averaged 1.5 percent of revenues, or 0.27 percent of GDP, from 1987 to 2007 (see Figure 4 ). In response to the 2007–2009 financial crisis, the Federal Reserve decreased interest rates and significantly expanded its balance sheet through quantitative easing. The weighted-average rate of interest earned on its portfolio of assets exceeded the rate paid on its corresponding liabilities. That positive interest rate differential, or spread, when applied to a larger balance sheet, boosted remittances to an average of $90 billion (3.3 percent of revenues, or 0.53 percent of GDP) per fiscal year over the period from 2010 (the first full fiscal year since the balance sheet expansion began) to 2016 (the year in which the Federal Reserve first raised interest rates since the beginning of the crisis). Those revenues were about five times the amount of those from estate and gift taxes, three times the amount of those from customs duties, and about the same as the receipts from excise taxes over the same period. (Individual income taxes, the largest source of federal revenues, accounted for 46.0 percent of the total for that period.)
Percent
As the economy recovered from the financial crisis and returned to a more sustained economic expansion, the central bank increased short-term interest rates and conducted QT to allow its asset holdings to decrease as a share of GDP. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) raised the interest rate on reserves from its low of 25 basis points (or 0.25 percentage points) set during the crisis to 50 basis points (or 0.50 percentage points) in December 2015, the first of several times the FOMC raised the rate over the next several years. Each of those increases directly raised the Federal Reserve’s interest expenses. Simultaneously, QT slowly reduced the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet as a share of GDP. 14 Largely because of those changes, remittances began to drop in fiscal year 2017, falling to $81 billion (2.5 percent of revenues, or 0.42 percent of GDP) that year and to $53 billion (1.5 percent of revenues, or 0.25 percent of GDP) by fiscal year 2019.
The Federal Reserve’s response to the recession caused by the pandemic has led to another large increase in remittances to the Treasury because short-term interest rates have remained on average below the rates on the purchased assets and the Federal Reserve has not conducted significant asset sales (as of May 2022). In March 2020, the FOMC reduced the interest rate on reserves to 10 basis points and began to increase its holdings of Treasury securities and MBSs. In fiscal year 2021, remittances increased to $101 billion (2.5 percent of revenues, or 0.45 percent of GDP). That increase was largely caused by the wider differential between the interest rates on the Federal Reserve’s assets and the interest rates on its liabilities and the larger balance sheet to which that spread applied. 15
In CBO’s baseline projections, remittances peak this fiscal year at $111 billion (2.4 percent of revenues, or 0.45 percent of GDP) and then drop in fiscal year 2023 because of higher interest rates paid by the Federal Reserve on bank reserves (see Figure 5 ). As more of the Federal Reserve’s short-term assets mature and move off the balance sheet, interest expenses decrease and, starting in 2025, remittances begin to increase. The Federal Reserve is expected to begin increasing its asset holdings in 2026 to meet the demand for currency and reserves; remittances would continue to increase as a share of GDP, CBO projects.
Percent
Those projections are subject to uncertainty, particularly regarding interest rates. (See Figure 6 for CBO’s baseline interest rate projections.) On the one hand, if the economy or financial markets deteriorated or if additional crises occurred, the Federal Reserve could purchase additional assets or sustain lower interest rates, which could increase remittances. On the other hand, if it raised interest rates in the next several years by more than CBO forecast or if it sold assets rather than merely allowing them to mature, the interest expenses of Federal Reserve Banks could increase by more than their interest income or, in the event of asset sales, cause capital losses to be realized. 16 Those outcomes would reduce remittances and could even result in their temporary lapse. 17
Percent
Quantitative easing affects the federal budget through two channels: by changing net borrowing costs of the U.S. government—defined here to include the Treasury and the Federal Reserve—and by stimulating aggregate economic activity, which affects the budget in a variety of ways. In general, it is difficult to gauge whether the overall effect of QE on the nation’s finances is positive, negative, or neutral over the entire period that it affects the budget. In CBO’s assessment, the QE measures taken in response to the 2007–2009 and 2020 recessions reduced deficits in the short run, but their net budgetary effects in the long run are uncertain.
To assess the effects of QE, it is necessary to identify the alternative: What would happen if the Federal Reserve did not use QE (and associated QT) as monetary policy tools? In such a scenario, it is likely that the central bank would keep short-term interest rates lower for longer to provide additional stimulus to the economy. 18 In addition, it might take longer to achieve the Federal Reserve’s objectives of maximum employment and price stability, leading to lower nominal incomes, less tax revenue, and increased federal expenditures through automatic stabilizers—changes in federal revenues and outlays that automatically occur in response to cyclical movements in the economy. However, keeping short-term interest rates lower for longer would probably lead to lower net interest costs as well.
The net borrowing costs of the U.S. government consist of all interest payments the government makes minus all interest income it earns. Through its effect on interest rates, QE changes the net borrowing costs of the government mainly in two ways: the interest paid on some Treasury securities and the remittances from the Federal Reserve to the Treasury.
Interest Paid on Treasury Securities. The primary channel through which QE affects net borrowing costs is through changing market interest rates and, in turn, interest rates on Treasury securities. 19 QE affects short-term and longer-term rates when the Federal Reserve purchases securities. 20 As the Treasury issues new securities, either as a result of increasing the total supply of Treasury securities or of replacing maturing securities, those changes in interest rates directly affect the interest expenses of the Treasury.
Remittances. QE also affects remittances paid by the Federal Reserve to the Treasury, which are recorded as revenues in the budget. When the Federal Reserve expands its balance sheet through QE, it earns more income in the form of interest received on the assets it purchases. At the same time, the Federal Reserve’s interest expenses also increase because of the additional payments it makes on bank reserves and RRPs. The net effect of QE on remittances is the difference between the increase in income and the increase in interest expenses.
By reducing long-term interest rates, QE stimulates economic growth and thereby affects other budgetary categories. 21 Reductions in long-term interest rates increase economic output in the following ways:
- They reduce the cost of capital and encourage additional business investment.
- They increase the demand by households for houses, cars, and other durable goods. 22
- They support higher domestic consumption of other goods and services by lowering the cost of credit for consumers.
- They boost the prices of longer-term assets, such as equities and houses, and the resulting increases in wealth also help support people’s spending.
- They generally reduce international demand for U.S. financial assets and, in turn, the foreign exchange value of U.S. currency. 23 A weaker foreign exchange value of the dollar tends to boost U.S. exports by increasing the competitiveness of those exports in foreign markets. 24
- Because they stimulate economic growth, they lead to higher rates of inflation.
QE also provides liquidity to financial markets in times of financial stress, which mitigates negative economic effects from financial market disruptions.
Those changes in the economy caused by QE can in turn affect federal spending and revenues. Outlays for some programs considered automatic stabilizers, like federal unemployment insurance and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly called the Food Stamp program), tend to grow during economic downturns as unemployment rises and additional people qualify for benefits. Conversely, income and payroll tax revenues tend to fall with reductions in aggregate demand during downturns. To the extent that lower long-term interest rates caused by QE help to stimulate the economy and thereby mitigate economic downturns, QE can lead to lower outlays for programs that function as automatic stabilizers as well as higher tax revenues, holding all else constant.
In addition, to the extent QE led to higher rates of inflation, it would tend to further increase taxable income and therefore federal revenues. But it would also boost outlays for programs that are affected by price changes (including unemployment insurance and SNAP). The net effect of higher prices on the federal budget would depend on a number of factors, including whether and how they affect interest rates and economic growth.
In CBO’s view, the effect of QE on the budget in the short run depends on the gap between economic output and potential output. The net effect of balance sheet expansions on the nation’s finances over the long run is difficult to assess and may be positive, negative, or neutral.
When Economic Output Is Below Potential Output. In CBO’s view, if economic output is below potential output, QE leads to an initial decline in federal deficits but to uncertain long-run effects. The Federal Reserve’s previous uses of QE took place when economic output was below potential output and after the federal funds rate had been dropped to its effective lower bound.
Short-Run Effects . In the short run, QE that takes place when economic output is below potential output reduces federal deficits through its effect on interest rates. By lowering interest rates, QE under those conditions lowers interest payments from the Treasury to holders of federal debt, increases the Federal Reserve’s remittances to the Treasury, and reduces federal deficits through its other macroeconomic effects.
QE initially lowers the Treasury’s interest payments by reducing the interest paid on any newly issued fixed- rate securities. 25 When market interest rates decline, the Treasury can issue long-term fixed-rate debt at lower interest rates. The more fixed-rate debt securities the Treasury replaces with new debt securities at lower rates, the larger the decline in its net interest costs. 26
QE also initially increases remittances from the Federal Reserve to the Treasury. When short-term interest rates are at the effective lower bound, the longer-term assets purchased by the Federal Reserve typically have rates of return that are higher than the interest rate it pays on bank reserves. As a result, additional purchases by the Federal Reserve initially increase its interest income more than its interest expenses.
Finally, the positive macroeconomic effects of QE reduce federal deficits in the short run through other budgetary channels. By stimulating the economy during economic downturns, QE strengthens the labor market and reduces outlays for programs like unemployment insurance that function as automatic stabilizers. By stimulating economic output, QE also increases federal income and payroll tax revenues.
Long-Run Effects. In CBO’s view, when economic output is below potential output, the net effect of QE on the federal deficit over the long run is uncertain. The short-run effects of QE reduce the gap between economic output and potential output, and as economic output recovers, the deficit-reducing effects of balance sheet expansions decline or even reverse. Conducting QE can help the Federal Reserve achieve its mandated goals (full employment and price stability) sooner and, as a result, allow the central bank to raise the target range for the federal funds rate sooner than it would have if it had not expanded its balance sheet.
Raising the target range for the federal funds rate sooner eventually leads to less net income for the government. First, it increases the Federal Reserve’s interest expenses much more than it increases its interest income. Because the Federal Reserve buys mostly longer-term, fixed-rate securities as part of QE, those securities as well as the reserves and RRPs used to pay for them persist on the balance sheet if they are not sold. They are, therefore, likely to still be held during periods when economic conditions warrant increases in the target for the federal funds rate. Hence, the income earned by the Federal Reserve on the assets it holds tends to be relatively insensitive to changes in short-term interest rates, but banks’ reserves and RRPs are floating rate liabilities; that is, they pay interest rates that change as soon as the Federal Reserve adjusts the target range for the federal funds rate. Those changes reduce the net income of the Federal Reserve and thus its remittances to the Treasury. The magnitude of that downward pressure on remittances depends on the amount of reserves and RRPs that remain on the balance sheet when the target range for the federal funds rate rises. If the Federal Reserve sells the assets rather than holds them to maturity, it would instead be likely to realize capital losses as market interest rates rise, which would have a similar downward effect on remittances.
Second, QE leads to higher net borrowing costs in the long run. As the economy recovers and economic output returns to potential output and markets expect a quicker rise in the federal funds rate, other short-term interest rates will rise in anticipation of Federal Reserve rate hikes. That increase in short-term interest rates raises net interest costs for the Treasury relative to what they would have been had the balance sheet not expanded.
By stimulating economic growth, QE is also likely to eventually result in upward pressure on prices and inflation. The net effect of higher prices on federal deficits can depend on a number of factors, including whether and how they affect interest rates and economic growth. 27
Following QE with QT could reduce inflationary pressure and the need for interest rate hikes, thereby altering the pattern of the budgetary effects stemming from changes in the balance sheet. If the Federal Reserve allowed assets to mature without replacing them, as economic output approached potential output, the contraction in the balance sheet resulting from QT would partially moderate some of the rise in net borrowing costs resulting from higher short-term rates. If the Federal Reserve sold assets, it would reduce its interest expenses but might realize capital losses; the net budgetary effect would depend on the target for the federal funds rate, prevailing market interest rates, and which assets were sold. (For more details about the effects of QT on the economy and the budget, see Box 3 .)
Quantitative tightening (QT) is the process by which the assets purchased during a balance sheet expansion either drop off the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet as they mature or are sold by the Federal Reserve. In the Congressional Budget Office’s projections, the Federal Reserve lets Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities (MBSs) run off the balance sheet at a maximum pace of slightly less than $100 billion per month and allows Treasury securities to run off the balance sheet until the quantity of reserves returns to prepandemic levels relative to gross domestic product.
Quantitative tightening removes monetary policy accommodation that resulted from earlier quantitative easing. QT leads to long-term interest rates that are higher than would otherwise be the case, which reduces domestic investment and consumer spending on housing and durable goods, thereby diminishing the support provided to economic activity. In addition, shrinking the balance sheet puts upward pressure on the exchange value of the dollar, which depresses growth of U.S. exports. By reducing the support provided to economic activity and slowing economic growth, QT lowers inflationary pressure and reduces the need for the Federal Reserve to raise short-term interest rates.
The effect of quantitative tightening on Federal Reserve remittances depends on several factors: the interest rate on the assets that either matured or were sold, the interest rate on reserves, the interest rate on assets that the Federal Reserve would have purchased if it replaced the maturing assets with new ones, and whether assets were sold or merely allowed to mature without replacement. Higher interest rates on newly issued long-term Treasury securities (relative to a scenario in which the Federal Reserve did not let assets mature off the balance sheet) would lead to higher interest costs paid by the Treasury. Additionally, slowing economic growth as a result of quantitative tightening would probably lead to smaller tax collections than would have occurred had the Federal Reserve not let assets mature off the balance sheet.
The effects of quantitative easing and quantitative tightening on the economy and the budget are highly uncertain. For example, if quantitative easing occurred when output was above potential, it would probably lead to increased inflation, which would require the Federal Reserve to raise short-term interest rates and start quantitative tightening earlier than it would have needed to otherwise. That could significantly increase federal borrowing costs, resulting in larger deficits than would have prevailed had the Federal Reserve not conducted quantitative easing followed by quantitative tightening.
Whether QT resulted from runoff or from sales, it would raise long-term interest rates and slow economic growth. Higher long-term interest rates resulting from QT would reduce domestic investment and consumer spending on housing and durable goods, thereby diminishing the support provided to economic activity. In addition, QT would put upward pressure on the foreign exchange value of the dollar, which would depress growth of U.S. exports. By slowing economic growth, QT would lower inflationary pressure and reduce the need for the Federal Reserve to use rate hikes to reduce inflationary pressure. Consequently, QT could limit the rise in net borrowing costs that would arise when short-term rates rose.
The effect of each dollar of QT on the federal deficit and economy might not perfectly offset the effect of each dollar of QE. The magnitude of the effect of each dollar of assets purchased under QE depends on the characteristics of the asset purchased and, in turn, how those purchases affect the supply of assets held by private investors. Some of those characteristics include whether the asset is a Treasury security or an MBS, and the amount of time until the asset matures. 28 Similarly, the magnitude of the effects of QT depends on those same characteristics of the assets that come off the balance sheet. When QT is conducted through runoff, the assets that come off the balance sheet fastest are those with the shortest time to maturity. As a result, an asymmetry can arise between the types of assets that tend to be purchased under QE and those that tend to come off the balance sheet when QT is conducted through runoff. The extent to which the effects of QE and QT on the economy and budget ultimately offset each other could depend on other factors as well, including prevailing short-term interest rates, inflation rates, and whether there are supply or demand shocks. 29
The Effects of Previous Expansions . The expansions of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet resulting from QE that occurred in response to the 2007–2009 and 2020 recessions were conducted when economic output was below potential output and the federal funds rate was at its effective lower bound. In CBO’s view, those expansions initially reduced federal deficits. However, the long-run effects of those purchases on the federal budget are uncertain. CBO has not estimated the budgetary effects of previous QE programs. Assessing those effects would require estimates, which CBO did not produce, of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet, the economy that would have existed, and the resulting paths for federal spending and revenues had the Federal Reserve not conducted QE. Additionally, CBO has not produced estimates that isolate the effects of QE from other factors that influence the federal budget, including the economic shocks that led the Federal Reserve to conduct QE. 30
When Economic Output Is Above Potential Output. Because QE has not been conducted when economic output is above potential output, the effect on the budget of QE conducted under such circumstances is highly uncertain (as of May 2022). In CBO’s view, QE that took place under those conditions or when interest rates were above their lower bound would be less likely to reduce federal deficits in the short run than when output was below potential. It would probably increase inflation rates above the Federal Reserve’s long-run target, which would prompt it to raise short-term interest rates. As short-term interest rates rose, net borrowing costs would increase, all else held constant. The net effect on the federal deficit of conducting QE under those conditions could be positive, neutral, or negative depending on how quickly and by how much inflation and short-term interest rates rose.
Using QE to achieve monetary policy objectives carries risks. When the Federal Reserve employs any tool of monetary policy—such as short-term policy rate adjustments or QE—it does so on the basis of its expectations about the economy. If the economy evolves differently than expected, the Federal Reserve can adjust its monetary policy strategy.
However, the future course of the economy is highly uncertain and there is always the risk of providing too much or too little economic stimulus, either of which could result in temporary deviations from the Federal Reserve’s desired objectives of full employment and price stability. For example, if the economy experienced an adverse shock, the Federal Reserve might not respond quickly enough and short-term interest rates might be set too high or the size of its balance sheet might be too small. In that case, the unintended consequences of that policy would probably be inflation below the Federal Reserve’s 2 percent objective or employment that is less than the maximum sustainable level. In contrast, if the economy experienced a positive shock, short-term interest rates might be too low or its balance sheet might be too large, with the possible consequences being inflation above the Federal Reserve’s 2 percent objective, asset price bubbles, and a weakening of the value of the dollar on international currency exchanges.
In addition to the general risks associated with using any tool of monetary policy, using QE as a policy tool carries its own unique set of risks. It makes the government’s interest costs more sensitive to interest rate fluctuations, potentially leads to net losses for the Federal Reserve, and raises the risk of financial market instability. In addition, QT (which often follows periods of QE) also exposes the government to risks.
When the Federal Reserve conducts QE, it makes total government borrowing costs more sensitive to changes in interest rates. Most of the assets purchased by the Federal Reserve pay interest at fixed rates, but the bank reserves issued by the Federal Reserve to pay for those assets have variable interest costs. When the Federal Reserve expands its balance sheet through QE by creating bank reserves with which to purchase securities, it makes a larger share of total governmental liabilities, including those of the Federal Reserve and the Treasury, subject to a variable interest rate. That larger share exposes the U.S. government to greater interest rate risk.
QE also heightens the risk that the Federal Reserve will have periods of net losses—that is, expenses that exceed its income. In such cases, the Federal Reserve would record a deferred asset and suspend remittances to the Treasury. In CBO’s view, any such losses would be smaller than the combined positive profits resulting from QE itself (which initially boosts profits) and from the long-run growth in demand for Federal Reserve notes. In addition, CBO estimates that temporary net losses would not directly affect the Federal Reserve’s ability to achieve its dual mandate. Nonetheless, periods of net losses could affect perceptions of the Federal Reserve’s independence or its ability to achieve its objectives. In turn, that could influence expectations about inflation or growth.
QE may affect financial-sector stability in different ways. On the one hand, QE may impose a regulatory burden on the financial sector, which could reduce the supply of credit and increase the riskiness of the banking sector. When the Federal Reserve purchases assets from nonbank entities, bank assets rise because the Federal Reserve credits banks with reserves (unless they are offset by sales of Treasury securities or other safe and liquid assets). 31 Regulations limit the degree to which banks can increase their asset holdings (without an increase in bank capital) by increasing their liabilities. 32 If a bank exceeded the limit established by regulators, it would probably respond by reducing holdings of safer low-return assets and discouraging additional deposits through lower interest rates. Those actions could impede the functioning of some markets in which banks play a central role and could increase the riskiness of banks’ balance sheets.
On the other hand, it is possible that maintaining a large Federal Reserve balance sheet would discourage excessive creation of risky assets in the private sector. When the Federal Reserve purchases an asset, it typically pays for that asset with newly created reserves, which from the private sector’s perspective are safe short-term assets. Expanding the supply of safe short-term assets might discourage financial institutions in the private sector from issuing their own short-term liabilities, which could be subject to a sharp reduction in demand in times of market stress. 33 Thus, by keeping a large balance sheet, the Federal Reserve could make the financial sector more resilient to disorderly financial market events.
When the Federal Reserve conducts QT, it reduces the supply of bank reserves, which are an important liquid asset for banks. Federal Reserve balance sheet policy (that is, whether the Federal Reserve is expanding or reducing its balance sheet through QE or QT) sets the supply of reserves, whereas financial markets determine the demand for them. However, that demand can be difficult to observe and predict. In the fall of 2019, for example, interest rates in private repo markets rapidly increased, a sign of stress that suggested a sudden unmet need for liquidity in financial markets. That spike occurred at a time when the Federal Reserve was using QT to remove some of the accommodation its earlier expansion in response to the 2007–2009 recession had provided. The central bank announced the precise and very gradual reduction in the level of reserves well in advance, but a shortage of liquid assets emerged suddenly and led to uncertainty in broader financial markets. Another QT program would pose similar risks of instability in financial markets.
Those risks are mitigated somewhat by the Federal Reserve’s introduction of a standing repo facility, which allows primary dealers and select depository institutions to convert Treasury securities and agency MBSs into reserves when necessary. As the supply of reserves is gradually reduced toward the minimum quantity of reserves necessary for stability in money markets, demand for repurchase agreements should increase gradually, signaling that the minimum quantity of reserves was being approached. That change in demand for the repurchase facility could allow the Federal Reserve to slow the pace of QT or cease it altogether before stress in money markets emerged.
Another type of risk arising from QT is that the resulting upward pressure on long-term interest rates could reduce economic output. That reduction in economic growth could also result in a decline in the inflation rate below the Federal Reserve’s long-term goal or reduce employment below the central bank’s assessment of maximum employment.
1 . MBSs are fixed-income securities backed by a pool of mortgages, which represent claims on the principal and interest payments of the underlying loans. Government-sponsored enterprises are financial institutions created by federal law—generally through a federal charter—to carry out activities such as increasing the availability of credit for borrowers or enhancing liquidity in particular sectors of the economy, notably agriculture and housing.
2 . The lower bound on the federal funds rate is an interest rate near zero, below which the effectiveness of further declines in the interest rate would provide little or no additional economic stimulus.
3 . Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be sold for cash. During times of financial market stress, there is typically an increased demand for highly liquid assets such as bank reserves. The Federal Reserve’s purchases of long-term securities lead to an increase in bank reserves and thus an increase in liquidity.
4 . A reverse repurchase agreement occurs when a central bank sells Treasury securities to a dealer of government securities with the agreement that it will repurchase the Treasury securities at a higher price at some later date. Those transactions usually occur over short periods (typically overnight) and are used by central banks to manage the money supply. The counterparty in a reverse repurchase agreement is the party that holds the Treasury security before it gets repurchased by the Federal Reserve at that later date.
5 . Federal Reserve notes, or paper currency, are liabilities of the Federal Reserve, but coins are not. This report uses the word “currency” to mean the stock of Federal Reserve notes.
6 . In 2008, the Federal Reserve began paying interest on reserves; since then, the market for federal funds has diminished in importance. Now, the rate of interest the Federal Reserve pays on reserves is a better indicator of the stance of monetary policy than the federal funds rate. Nonetheless, the two rates are closely related and because of the historical significance of the federal funds rate as an indicator of the stance of monetary policy, this report refers to it for that purpose.
7 . An overnight repurchase agreement (repo) is an overnight loan to dealers in government securities. An investor or central bank extends a loan to a dealer of government securities usually on an overnight basis, receiving Treasury securities in exchange. The dealer buys back the securities the following day. Any difference between the initial purchase price and the subsequent resale price determines the implicit overnight interest rate.
8 . In July 2021, the Federal Reserve established a standing repo facility, which allows primary dealers and select depository institutions to convert Treasury securities and agency MBSs into reserves when necessary. The facility is unlikely to see significant uptake until the quantity of reserves held by depository institutions declines to near minimum levels.
9 . Changes in the use of RRPs and repos do not significantly affect the budget because they are substitutes for reserves and typically pay similar interest rates.
10 . The expansion of the balance sheet using QE programs that occurred in response to the 2007–2009 recession ended at the beginning of 2015.
11 . By comparison, foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities declined from 32.9 percent of GDP ($7.1 trillion) in the first quarter of 2020 to 32.3 percent of GDP ($7.7 trillion) in the fourth quarter of 2021, and total foreign holdings of U.S. assets rose from 183 percent of GDP ($39.3 trillion) to 222 percent of GDP ($53.2 trillion) over those same quarters. Foreign holdings of U.S. assets are claims on U.S. residents (households and businesses) that are owned by foreign investors.
12 . Consistent with the Federal Reserve’s QT policy that saw the balance sheet begin to shrink in early 2018, CBO does not expect asset sales to be utilized. However, CBO’s projection of the Federal Reserve’s policy decisions is uncertain, and it is possible that the central bank will opt to sell MBSs so that holdings of those assets decline more quickly.
13 . The expected effect of Federal Reserve purchases on remittances can be measured by the term premium. The term premium is the percentage-point wedge between long-term interest rates and the average of expected short-term rates over the period until a bond matures. That term premium reflects several factors including the following: compensation for the risk of holding long-term bonds, differences in liquidity between bonds of different maturities, and investors’ preferences for certain maturities over others. A positive term premium indicates that additional assets purchased by the Federal Reserve will earn a premium relative to market expectations for the interest expenses it will incur on the liabilities it issues to pay for those assets, thereby increasing remittances and reducing deficits, on net.
14 . Although the nominal size of the balance sheet began shrinking in 2017 as a result of QT, the balance sheet began shrinking as a share of GDP in 2015.
15 . The demand for RRPs in recent months has been greater than the demand after the 2007–2009 financial crisis. That difference is not expected to significantly affect remittances because the interest rate on RRPs is expected to continue closely following the interest rate on reserves.
16 . Capital losses occur when an asset that has decreased in value is sold for a lower price than the original purchase price or its adjusted basis (that is, the cost of an asset adjusted for various events that have occurred during its ownership and that affect its value).
17 . When the Federal Reserve’s expenses have exceeded its income over short periods in the past, it has recorded a “deferred asset,” or debit balance against future profits, to enable it to meet current obligations; as the Federal Reserve returns to profitability, those deferred assets are marked down. In CBO’s view, such a scenario would have no direct implications for the central bank’s ability to achieve its monetary policy objectives. Paragraph 11-96 of the Federal Reserve’s accounting manual describes deferred assets. See Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Financial Accounting Manual for Federal Reserve Banks (January 2022), p. 56, https://go.usa.gov/xuk4s (PDF, 1.5 MB).
18 . Other factors may influence the economic and budgetary effects of QE and QT, such as the scale, timing, and speed with which QE and QT are conducted. However, CBO has not examined alternative counterfactuals that encompass changes to any of those factors.
19 . Several characteristics of QE affect interest rates, including the size and composition of the balance sheet and people’s expectations about future changes in the balance sheet. For a thorough description of how changes in the balance sheet affect interest rates, see Jane Ihrig and others, “Expectations About the Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet and the Term Structure of Interest Rates,” International Journal of Central Banking , vol. 14, no. 2 (March 2018), www.ijcb.org/journal/ijcb18q1a8.htm ; and Canlin Li and Min Wei, “Term Structure Modeling With Supply Factors and the Federal Reserve’s Large-Scale Asset Purchase Programs,” International Journal of Central Banking , vol. 9, no. 1 (March 2013), www.ijcb.org/journal/ijcb13q1a1.htm .
20 . It is possible that QE would reduce expected short-term rates in the very near term by providing a signal to financial markets about the policy stance of the Federal Reserve. For example, QE announcements could signal to markets that the Federal Reserve was attaching a higher weight to reducing unemployment, in which case the central bank would raise short-term rates by less as the unemployment rate fell. It is also possible that asset purchases could signal to markets that the Federal Reserve expected slower economic growth in the near future, in which case it would be unlikely to increase short-term interest rates in the near term.
21 . Quantitative estimates vary, but most studies find that the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet expansion through QE programs and maturity extension programs probably had a weak but positive effect on the economy from 2008 to 2014. Studies also suggest that the balance sheet’s expansion in that period reduced the unemployment rate and raised GDP relative to what they would have been in the absence of those programs. See Kenneth N. Kuttner, “Outside the Box: Unconventional Monetary Policy in the Great Recession and Beyond,” Journal of Economic Perspectives , vol. 4, no. 32 (Fall 2018), pp. 121–146, https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.32.4.121 .
22 . According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, residential investment consists of new construction of single and multifamily units, improvements to existing housing units, and various other expenditures on housing units.
23 . A number of papers have produced evidence that QE weakens the exchange value of the domestic currency. See Luca Dedola and others, “Does a Big Bazooka Matter? Quantitative Easing Policies and Exchange Rates,” Journal of Monetary Economics , vol. 117 (January 2021), pp. 489–506, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2020.03.002 ; Saroj Bhattarai, Arpita Chatterjee, and Woong Yong Park, “Effects of U.S. Quantitative Easing on Emerging Market Economies,” ADBI Working Paper Series, no. 803 (Asian Development Bank Institute, January 2018), https://tinyurl.com/2p2m6ewy (PDF, 652 KB); and Pablo Anaya, Michael Hachula, and Christian J. Offermanns, “Spillovers of U.S. Unconventional Monetary Policy to Emerging Markets: The Role of Capital Flows,” Journal of International Money and Finance , vol. 73 (May 2017), pp. 275–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2017.02.008 .
24 . The foreign exchange value of the dollar refers to the value of the dollar relative to a basket of foreign currencies. By reducing the value of the dollar in foreign exchange markets, QE increases the relative value of the Federal Reserve’s holdings of foreign exchange assets, which boosts remittances because changes in the value of those holdings are treated as income by the central bank. However, those effects are small relative to the other effects that QE has on remittances.
25 . Lower interest rates reduce the flow of interest payments to and from the federal government. CBO estimates that, on net, federal outlays and deficits would be smaller in a scenario with lower interest rates. For example, if interest rates for Treasury securities of all maturities were 100 basis points less than CBO projects, starting in fiscal year 2022, net interest outlays of the Treasury would be $2.7 trillion (or 33 percent) less over the 2022–2032 period. See Congressional Budget Office, “Workbook for How Changes in Economic Conditions Might Affect the Federal Budget: 2022 to 2032” (interactive, June 2022), www.cbo.gov/publication/57980 .
26 . In addition, 2.7 percent of all marketable Treasury securities outstanding (that is, those already issued) pay a variable rate of interest linked to prevailing market rates for 13-week Treasury bills. To the extent that QE lowers not only long-term interest rates, but also short-term interest rates, the interest costs for new and outstanding variable-rate securities would also fall.
27 . CBO estimates in one stylized scenario with higher inflation that the resulting increases in revenues and outlays are similar. See Congressional Budget Office, “Workbook for How Changes in Economic Conditions Might Affect the Federal Budget: 2022 to 2032” (interactive, June 2022), www.cbo.gov/publication/57980 .
28 . A number of differences between Treasury securities and MBSs, in particular those related to the relationship between prepayments and changes in interest rates, have implications for QE and QT that are outside the scope of this report.
29 . Another important factor in determining the effect of each dollar of QE and QT is how the Treasury responds to each program in terms of the mix of different maturity lengths and other characteristics of the Treasury securities it chooses to issue.
30 . For the Federal Reserve’s analysis of the effect of QE on the federal budget, see Federal Open Market Committee, memorandum, “Fiscal Implications of Additional Large-Scale Asset Purchases for the Federal Government and the Federal Reserve” (March 11, 2013), https://tinyurl.com/45d5ch3t (PDF, 1 MB).
31 . For example, consider a case in which the Federal Reserve purchases Treasury securities from a hedge fund (or any nonbank entity). The hedge fund sells the Treasury securities to the Federal Reserve and is credited with deposits at the hedge fund’s depository institution, whereas the depository institution is credited with the corresponding amount of reserves held at the Federal Reserve. Thus, the depository institution’s assets and liabilities increase, although it is not party to the transaction between the Federal Reserve and the hedge fund.
32 . When a bank increases its asset holdings by increasing its liabilities, it is said to be leveraged. The regulatory limit referred to here is called the leverage ratio.
33 . See Robin Greenwood, Samuel Gregory Hanson, and Jeremy C. Stein, “The Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet as a Financial-Stability Tool,” Jackson Hole Economic Symposium Conference Proceedings (Federal Bank of Kansas City, 2016), pp. 335–397, www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=52330 .
This report, which is part of the Congressional Budget Office’s continuing efforts to make its work transparent, supplies information about the agency’s projections of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet and remittances to the Treasury. In keeping with CBO’s mandate to provide objective, impartial analysis, the report makes no recommendations.
Nathaniel Frentz, Daniel Fried, Edward Gamber, and Michael McGrane wrote the report with guidance from Mark Doms and Sebastien Gay. Robert Arnold, John Kitchen (formerly of CBO), Junghoon Lee, Avi Lerner, John McClelland, Jeffrey Schafer, and Jeffrey Werling (formerly of CBO) offered comments.
Seth Carpenter of Morgan Stanley, Michael Cloherty of UBS, William English of Yale University, Andre Neveu of James Madison University, and David Wilcox of the Peterson Institute for International Economics provided comments on an earlier draft. The assistance of external reviewers implies no responsibility for the final product; that responsibility rests solely with CBO.
Jeffrey Kling and Robert Sunshine reviewed the report. Caitlin Verboon edited it, and R. L. Rebach created the graphics and prepared the text for publication. The report is available at www.cbo.gov/publication/57519 .
CBO seeks feedback to make its work as useful as possible. Please send comments to [email protected] .
Phillip L. Swagel
Director
September 2022 | https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58457 | 112 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | Digital History | Answers to Quiz 1 on the American Revolution
Digital History ID 3737
1. The United States won its independence from:
C. Britain
2. The Revolutionary War lasted from:
B. 1775-1783.
3. These famous words - "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ... " are part of:
C. The Declaration of Independence
4. Which American Revolution figure was sentenced to death in the French Revolution?:
C. Thomas Paine
5. The second half of the war was fought almost entirely in:
A. The South.
6. Before being executed by the British, this 21-year-old Patriot recited a line from Joseph Addison's tragedy Cato - "I only regret I have but one life to give for my country":
C. Nathan Hale.
7. The people who opposed the Revolution were called:
A. Loyalists.
8. Freedom was promised to slaves if they would fight:
A. In the British army.
9. To win the Revolution, America needed the help of:
C. The French.
10. On July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of American independence:
A. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died.
11. A famous Revolutionary War pamphlet began:
B. These are the times that try men's souls.
12. How many battle deaths did the Americans suffer in the war?:
A. 4,400.
13. A total of 25,000 people died as a result of the Revolution. Relative to the size of the population, which would that be equal to today?
C. 1 million
14. What percent of colonists actively backed the Revolution?:
C. Less than 50 percent
15. Yankee Doodle called the feather in his cap "macaroni" because:
A. That was the name of a popular clothing fashion.
16. For most of the war, Washington's chief accomplishment was:
A. Keeping the army together.
17. The Minutemen were so called because:
A. They could be mustered in a few minutes.
18. Only one of the following signed the Declaration of Independence. Which one?
A. Josiah Bartlett.
19. Most Americans who fought in the Revolution:
B. Served briefly and then went home.
20. The British occupied which of the following cities at some point during the Revolution:
All are correct:
A. Boston. B. New York. C. Philadelphia. D. Charleston.
21. At the time of the Revolution, slave could be found in how many of the 13 colonies?
All are correct:
A. Five B. Seven C. Thirteen
22. According to the Declaration of Independence, "all men ... are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights ..." Among the rights specified in the Declaration are:
D. The pursuit of happiness
23. The Declaration refers to the King of Britain several times, but not by name. Who was then the King of Britain?
C. George III
24. The oldest signer of the Declaration of Independence was 70. Who was he?
C. Benjamin Franklin
25. Who published "Common Sense," a pamphlet that helped to stir up a feeling for independence among Americans?
C. Thomas Paine
26. A popular cry during the pre-Revolutionary period in America was "Taxation without representation is ..." Add the missing word.
B. Tyranny
27. The ship of American naval hero John Paul Jones was battered by the British vessel Serapis and Jones was asked to surrender. What was his reply?
D. "I have not yet begun to fight."
28. Benedict Arnold served the American army with distinction before he was branded as a traitor. Which of the following statements about him is TRUE?
D. All of the statements are TRUE
Copyright 2021 Digital History | https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=13&psid=3737 | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | U.S. History 1301: Final Exam Flashcards | James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II. Had "The Divine Right of Kings" were chosen by God. "If you disagree with me you disagree with God." Bad at sharing power with Parliament.
Around lots of swamps and water, lots of mosquitos. Survival was hard. Half of Population wiped out.
Jamestown. You get the same regardless of how hard you work. No incentive to work hard. John Smith proposed "he who will not work shall not eat"
He was one of the English settlers at Jamestown (and he married Pocahontas). He discovered how to successfully crossbreed and grow tobacco in Virginia and cure it for export, which made Virginia an economically successful colony.
The first elected lawmaking body in North America, established by the Virginia Company to allow representative government in Virginia.
A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies
Jefferson elected; defeats Adams, first peaceful, orderly transfer of power via competitive elections. (Democratic Republican)
1763 - An Indian uprising after the French and Indian War, led by an Ottowa chief named Pontiac. They opposed British expansion into the western Ohio Valley and began destroying British forts in the area. The attacks ended when Pontiac was killed.
Happened because Virginia was land rich but labor poor. People wanted to go to Virginia but couldn't afford to pay the passage. (Voluntary and temporary)
-Cut spending and began paying off National Debt. The U.S. went from $83 million to $57 million.
-Took over state debt in order to bind them to the union.
-Eliminated internal federal taxes, funded Treasury through land and sales tariffs.
-Cut budgets for Army and Navy.
-Took over state debt in order to bind them to the union.
-Eliminated internal federal taxes, funded Treasury through land and sales tariffs.
-Cut budgets for Army and Navy.
Indentured Servitude was preferred because of "seasoning period" where many died. Once mortality rate dropped slavery became more popular.
The Barbary Wars (or Tripolitan Wars) were two wars between the United States of America and Barbary States in North Africa in the early 19th century. At issue was the pirates' demand of tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. American naval power attacked the pirate cities and extracted concessions of fair passage from their rulers. U.S. First major interaction with African Community.
Rebellion of discontent former landless servants led by Nathaniel Bacon. Led to a move from indentured servants to African slaves for labor purposes.
territory in western United States purchased from France by Jefferson in 1803 for $15 million. U.S. doubled in size.
A proclamation to where the colonists couldn't move and expand to the west of the Appalachian mountains. That was preserved for the Native Americans.
an expedition sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore the northwestern territories of the United States, meet with and establish friendly relations with Indian tribes, bring trade goods for Indians, explore flora and fauna.
Economic system in which laws are passed to create positive balance on trade. Using laws to help own domestic business.
"Separists" wanted their own colony. Had permission to land in Massachusetts, named their colony Plymouth.
A forced enrollment of recruits for military duty. After 1800, England restricted impressment mostly to naval service. The Napoleonic Wars increased English need for sea power and led to the impressment of a large number of deserters, criminals, and British subjects who had become naturalized Americans. Frequent interception of American ships to impress American citizens was a major cause of the War of 1812.
This act required colonists to pay for an official stamp, or seal, when they bought paper items. (Tax)
1620 - The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.
The American ship Chesapeake refused to allow the British on the Leopard to board to look for deserters. In response, the Leopard fired on the Chesapeake. As a result of the incident, the U.S. expelled all British ships from its waters until Britain issued an apology.
This act issued by Jefferson forbade American trading ships from leaving the U.S. It was meant to force Britain and France to change their policies towards neutral vessels by depriving them of American trade. It was difficult to enforce because it was opposed by merchants and everyone else whose livelihood depended upon international trade. It also hurt the national economy, so it was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act.
New England depended on maritime trade, so they weren't making any money, they're mad because they didn't want Jefferson elected in the first place.
New England depended on maritime trade, so they weren't making any money, they're mad because they didn't want Jefferson elected in the first place.
A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier. Ended in 1814
Battle between Americans and Native Americans. Tecumseh and the Prophet attempted to oppress white settlement in the West, but defeated by William Henry Harrison. Led to talk of Canadian invasion and served as a cause to the War of 1812. Broke Tehcumseh alliance.
Southerners and Westerners who were eager for war with Britain. They had a strong sense of nationalism, and they wanted to takeover British land in North America and expand. Madison asked congress for declaration of war.
...
a leader of the American Revolution and a famous orator who spoke out against British rule of the American colonies (1736-1799)
Series of assaults by Metacom, King Philip, on English settlements in New England. The attacks slowed the westward migration of New England settlers for several decades.
...
First moment in modern western civilization in which political parties are allowed to exist and debate over political policy.
Several accusations of witchcraft led to sensational trials in Salem, Massachusetts. 18 people were hanged as witches. Afterwards, most of the people involved admitted that the trials and executions had been a terrible mistake.
British and Americans fought for control of Lake Erie. American forces gained control of Lake Erie. Strategic value.
In favor of small government. Associated with countryside. "Government grows at the expense of personal liberty". Beware of anyone trying to get too much power.
Elderly inhabitant of Salem. He challenges the court in an attempt to defend his wife who has been convicted of witchcraft. He is pressed to death as a result.
an American victory over the British in the War of 1812, which ended the British threat to the Northwest Territory. Tecumseh was Indian leader killed in this battle.
According to this nineteenth-century British peer and historian, "power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely."
Creek War, (1813-14), war that resulted in U.S. victory over Creek Indians, who were British allies during the War of 1812, resulting in vast cession of their lands in Alabama and Georgia.
The fundamental orders describe the government set up by the Connecticut River towns, setting its structure and powers.
The Fort Mims massacre took place on August 30, 1813, during the Creek War, when a force of Creek Indians belonging to the Red Sticks faction, under the command of head warriors Peter McQueen and William Weatherford (also known as Lamochattee or Red Eagle), stormed the fort and defeated the militia garrison.
If they lose their virtue they will be ready to surrender their liberties to the first external or internal invader.
Runs on idea church & state should be separate. Being a good christian should be voluntary. Banished from Massachusetts and starts Rhode Island.
Passed at the same time that the Stamp Act was repealed, the Act declared that Parliament had the power to tax the colonies both internally and externally, and had absolute power over the colonial legislatures.
An English Quaker "Society of Friends" who founded Pennsylvania, which was based upon religious toleration.
the British landed in Chesapeake in August 1814 & set on to Blandensburg where the American militia fled, & then set fire to the capitol; Retaliation to U.S. burning York, it's embarrassing.
Widespread Religious Tolerance. "City of Brotherly Love" Doesn't have proper military. Lived in peace with Indians until French-Indian War.
Fought between British and American forces in the War of 1812. It was one of the turning points of the war where American forces warded off a sea invasion of the busy port city of Baltimore, Maryland. The defense of Baltimore's Fort McHenry in the battle inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the poem "The Star-Spangled Banner" which would later become the national anthem of the United States. An example of how the War of 1812 created a sense of "being American" or Nationalism.
The first bloodshed of the American Revolution (1770), as British guards at the Boston Customs House opened fire on a crowd killing five Americans.
Meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of 1812 in which the party listed it's complaints against the ruling Republican Party. These actions were largely viewed as traitorous to the country and lost the Federalist much influence. Royal Navy was parked not letting anyone leave with exports, New England was upset, wanted to separate from U.S. and sign peace with England.
Allowed East India Company to avoid navigation taxes when exporting tea to colonies and gave them power to monopolize tea trade; Tea would go from EIC, to Britain, to Colonies. This angered colonists and threatened merchants and the colonial economy.
Against British taxes in which Boston colonists disguised as Mohawks dumped valuable tea into Boston Harbor. Intended to be symbolism.
Ended the War of 1812. Did not address grievances that led to the war (stalemate for both sides). Everything stays the same. At the same time Britain has fleet heading to capture New Orleans.
This series of laws were very harsh laws that intended to make Massachusetts pay for its resistance.
Andrew Jackson sends army and militia to New Orleans, becomes new American Hero. American Victory, 1812 ends.
This was one of the Coercive Acts, which shut down Boston Harbor until Boston repaid the East India Company for the lost tea.
A name for President Monroe's two terms, a period of strong nationalism, economic growth, and territorial expansion. Since the Federalist party dissolved after the War of 1812, there was only one political party and no partisan conflicts.
This was another of the Coercive Acts, which said that members of the Massachusetts assembly would no longer be elected, but instead would be appointed by the king. In response, the colonists elected a their own legislature which met in the interior of the colony.
Last President from Founding Fathers, well regarded, almost unanimously elected into office. President during Era of Good Feelings. President who purchased Florida from Spain.
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Act which allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in England instead of the colonies
First tremor to the Civil War. Missouri wants to become a state, they have enough people, however, they have slaves.
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Required the colonials to provide food, lodging, and supplies for the British troops in the colonies.
Representative Tallmadge. Conditions for statehood: no more slaves allowed to be brought in, all slaves born in MI after statehood will be freed at age 25. Tallmadge: "threaten us but we're devoted to the freedom of men"
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Law that set up a government for Canada and protected the rights of French Catholics
A machine for cleaning the seeds from cotton fibers, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Makes it more practical to grow/breed cotton. Southerners see slavery not as a "necessary evil" but as a "positive good".
The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774, to protest the Intolerable Acts. The congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, voted for a boycott of British imports, and sent a petition to King George III, conceding to Parliament the power of regulation of commerce but stringently objecting to its arbitrary taxation and unfair judicial system.
Representative Henry Clay; Missouri can be a slave state, bring in Maine too. If you're North of the line, no slavery, if you're South, yes slavery.
North and South America are "henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power". U.S. will regard European political intervention in the Americas as dangerous to our peace and safety.
A policy of spreading more political power to more people. It was a "Common Man" theme. Expanded the right to vote; Universal Male Suffrage (got rid of property requirement), only certain states gave women & people of color the right to vote.
Ended the "Era of Good Feelings". John Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, William Crawford. John Q. Adams won after Henry Clay dropped race and lent support.
The battles of Lexington and Concord initiated the Revolutionary War between the American colonists and the British. British governor Thomas Gage sent troops to Concord to stop the colonists who were loading arms. The next day, on April 19, 1775, the first shots were fired in Lexington, starting the war. The battles resulted in a British retreat to Boston.
A zone separating two states in which neither state exercises political control. Wilderness and civilization.
Refers to the presidential election of 1824 in which Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, convinced the House of Representatives to elect Adams rather than Jackson. And Henry Clay became Secretary of State.
Political authority that directed the struggle for independence beginning in 1775. American government until the Constitution is written. Washington is chosen to lead the Army by Adams.
National Bank to regulate money supply and build up capital, favors high protective tariffs (to encourage buying American), favors funding for internal improvements.
First major battle of the Revolutions. It showed that the Americans could hold their own, but the British were also not easy to defeat. Ultimately, the Americans were forced to withdraw after running out of ammunition, and Bunker Hill was in British hands. However, the British suffered more deaths. Britain gave up Boston.
Religious revival in the colonies in 1730s and 1740s; George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards preached a message of atonement for sins by admitting them to God.
Andrew Jackson defeated John Q. Adams. Adams was supported by South and West, became "Victory for the Common Man"
On July 8, 1775, the colonies made a final offer of peace to Britain, agreeing to be loyal to the British government if it addressed their grievances (repealed the Coercive Acts, ended the taxation without representation policies). It was rejected by Parliament, which in December 1775 passed the American Prohibitory Act forbidding all further trade with the colonies. Colonists decided they needed independence. | https://quizlet.com/461104326/us-history-1301-final-exam-flash-cards/#:~:text=The%20Southern%20theater%20of%20the%20American%20%EE%80%80Revolutionary%EE%80%81%20%EE%80%80War%EE%80%81,consisted%20of%20both%20strategic%20battles%20and%20guerrilla%20warfare. | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | U.S. History 1301: Final Exam Flashcards | James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II. Had "The Divine Right of Kings" were chosen by God. "If you disagree with me you disagree with God." Bad at sharing power with Parliament.
Around lots of swamps and water, lots of mosquitos. Survival was hard. Half of Population wiped out.
Jamestown. You get the same regardless of how hard you work. No incentive to work hard. John Smith proposed "he who will not work shall not eat"
He was one of the English settlers at Jamestown (and he married Pocahontas). He discovered how to successfully crossbreed and grow tobacco in Virginia and cure it for export, which made Virginia an economically successful colony.
The first elected lawmaking body in North America, established by the Virginia Company to allow representative government in Virginia.
A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies
Jefferson elected; defeats Adams, first peaceful, orderly transfer of power via competitive elections. (Democratic Republican)
1763 - An Indian uprising after the French and Indian War, led by an Ottowa chief named Pontiac. They opposed British expansion into the western Ohio Valley and began destroying British forts in the area. The attacks ended when Pontiac was killed.
Happened because Virginia was land rich but labor poor. People wanted to go to Virginia but couldn't afford to pay the passage. (Voluntary and temporary)
-Cut spending and began paying off National Debt. The U.S. went from $83 million to $57 million.
-Took over state debt in order to bind them to the union.
-Eliminated internal federal taxes, funded Treasury through land and sales tariffs.
-Cut budgets for Army and Navy.
-Took over state debt in order to bind them to the union.
-Eliminated internal federal taxes, funded Treasury through land and sales tariffs.
-Cut budgets for Army and Navy.
Indentured Servitude was preferred because of "seasoning period" where many died. Once mortality rate dropped slavery became more popular.
The Barbary Wars (or Tripolitan Wars) were two wars between the United States of America and Barbary States in North Africa in the early 19th century. At issue was the pirates' demand of tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. American naval power attacked the pirate cities and extracted concessions of fair passage from their rulers. U.S. First major interaction with African Community.
Rebellion of discontent former landless servants led by Nathaniel Bacon. Led to a move from indentured servants to African slaves for labor purposes.
territory in western United States purchased from France by Jefferson in 1803 for $15 million. U.S. doubled in size.
A proclamation to where the colonists couldn't move and expand to the west of the Appalachian mountains. That was preserved for the Native Americans.
an expedition sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore the northwestern territories of the United States, meet with and establish friendly relations with Indian tribes, bring trade goods for Indians, explore flora and fauna.
Economic system in which laws are passed to create positive balance on trade. Using laws to help own domestic business.
"Separists" wanted their own colony. Had permission to land in Massachusetts, named their colony Plymouth.
A forced enrollment of recruits for military duty. After 1800, England restricted impressment mostly to naval service. The Napoleonic Wars increased English need for sea power and led to the impressment of a large number of deserters, criminals, and British subjects who had become naturalized Americans. Frequent interception of American ships to impress American citizens was a major cause of the War of 1812.
This act required colonists to pay for an official stamp, or seal, when they bought paper items. (Tax)
1620 - The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.
The American ship Chesapeake refused to allow the British on the Leopard to board to look for deserters. In response, the Leopard fired on the Chesapeake. As a result of the incident, the U.S. expelled all British ships from its waters until Britain issued an apology.
This act issued by Jefferson forbade American trading ships from leaving the U.S. It was meant to force Britain and France to change their policies towards neutral vessels by depriving them of American trade. It was difficult to enforce because it was opposed by merchants and everyone else whose livelihood depended upon international trade. It also hurt the national economy, so it was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act.
New England depended on maritime trade, so they weren't making any money, they're mad because they didn't want Jefferson elected in the first place.
New England depended on maritime trade, so they weren't making any money, they're mad because they didn't want Jefferson elected in the first place.
A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier. Ended in 1814
Battle between Americans and Native Americans. Tecumseh and the Prophet attempted to oppress white settlement in the West, but defeated by William Henry Harrison. Led to talk of Canadian invasion and served as a cause to the War of 1812. Broke Tehcumseh alliance.
Southerners and Westerners who were eager for war with Britain. They had a strong sense of nationalism, and they wanted to takeover British land in North America and expand. Madison asked congress for declaration of war.
...
a leader of the American Revolution and a famous orator who spoke out against British rule of the American colonies (1736-1799)
Series of assaults by Metacom, King Philip, on English settlements in New England. The attacks slowed the westward migration of New England settlers for several decades.
...
First moment in modern western civilization in which political parties are allowed to exist and debate over political policy.
Several accusations of witchcraft led to sensational trials in Salem, Massachusetts. 18 people were hanged as witches. Afterwards, most of the people involved admitted that the trials and executions had been a terrible mistake.
British and Americans fought for control of Lake Erie. American forces gained control of Lake Erie. Strategic value.
In favor of small government. Associated with countryside. "Government grows at the expense of personal liberty". Beware of anyone trying to get too much power.
Elderly inhabitant of Salem. He challenges the court in an attempt to defend his wife who has been convicted of witchcraft. He is pressed to death as a result.
an American victory over the British in the War of 1812, which ended the British threat to the Northwest Territory. Tecumseh was Indian leader killed in this battle.
According to this nineteenth-century British peer and historian, "power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely."
Creek War, (1813-14), war that resulted in U.S. victory over Creek Indians, who were British allies during the War of 1812, resulting in vast cession of their lands in Alabama and Georgia.
The fundamental orders describe the government set up by the Connecticut River towns, setting its structure and powers.
The Fort Mims massacre took place on August 30, 1813, during the Creek War, when a force of Creek Indians belonging to the Red Sticks faction, under the command of head warriors Peter McQueen and William Weatherford (also known as Lamochattee or Red Eagle), stormed the fort and defeated the militia garrison.
If they lose their virtue they will be ready to surrender their liberties to the first external or internal invader.
Runs on idea church & state should be separate. Being a good christian should be voluntary. Banished from Massachusetts and starts Rhode Island.
Passed at the same time that the Stamp Act was repealed, the Act declared that Parliament had the power to tax the colonies both internally and externally, and had absolute power over the colonial legislatures.
An English Quaker "Society of Friends" who founded Pennsylvania, which was based upon religious toleration.
the British landed in Chesapeake in August 1814 & set on to Blandensburg where the American militia fled, & then set fire to the capitol; Retaliation to U.S. burning York, it's embarrassing.
Widespread Religious Tolerance. "City of Brotherly Love" Doesn't have proper military. Lived in peace with Indians until French-Indian War.
Fought between British and American forces in the War of 1812. It was one of the turning points of the war where American forces warded off a sea invasion of the busy port city of Baltimore, Maryland. The defense of Baltimore's Fort McHenry in the battle inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the poem "The Star-Spangled Banner" which would later become the national anthem of the United States. An example of how the War of 1812 created a sense of "being American" or Nationalism.
The first bloodshed of the American Revolution (1770), as British guards at the Boston Customs House opened fire on a crowd killing five Americans.
Meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of 1812 in which the party listed it's complaints against the ruling Republican Party. These actions were largely viewed as traitorous to the country and lost the Federalist much influence. Royal Navy was parked not letting anyone leave with exports, New England was upset, wanted to separate from U.S. and sign peace with England.
Allowed East India Company to avoid navigation taxes when exporting tea to colonies and gave them power to monopolize tea trade; Tea would go from EIC, to Britain, to Colonies. This angered colonists and threatened merchants and the colonial economy.
Against British taxes in which Boston colonists disguised as Mohawks dumped valuable tea into Boston Harbor. Intended to be symbolism.
Ended the War of 1812. Did not address grievances that led to the war (stalemate for both sides). Everything stays the same. At the same time Britain has fleet heading to capture New Orleans.
This series of laws were very harsh laws that intended to make Massachusetts pay for its resistance.
Andrew Jackson sends army and militia to New Orleans, becomes new American Hero. American Victory, 1812 ends.
This was one of the Coercive Acts, which shut down Boston Harbor until Boston repaid the East India Company for the lost tea.
A name for President Monroe's two terms, a period of strong nationalism, economic growth, and territorial expansion. Since the Federalist party dissolved after the War of 1812, there was only one political party and no partisan conflicts.
This was another of the Coercive Acts, which said that members of the Massachusetts assembly would no longer be elected, but instead would be appointed by the king. In response, the colonists elected a their own legislature which met in the interior of the colony.
Last President from Founding Fathers, well regarded, almost unanimously elected into office. President during Era of Good Feelings. President who purchased Florida from Spain.
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Act which allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in England instead of the colonies
First tremor to the Civil War. Missouri wants to become a state, they have enough people, however, they have slaves.
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Required the colonials to provide food, lodging, and supplies for the British troops in the colonies.
Representative Tallmadge. Conditions for statehood: no more slaves allowed to be brought in, all slaves born in MI after statehood will be freed at age 25. Tallmadge: "threaten us but we're devoted to the freedom of men"
Another of the Coercive Acts-- Law that set up a government for Canada and protected the rights of French Catholics
A machine for cleaning the seeds from cotton fibers, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Makes it more practical to grow/breed cotton. Southerners see slavery not as a "necessary evil" but as a "positive good".
The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774, to protest the Intolerable Acts. The congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, voted for a boycott of British imports, and sent a petition to King George III, conceding to Parliament the power of regulation of commerce but stringently objecting to its arbitrary taxation and unfair judicial system.
Representative Henry Clay; Missouri can be a slave state, bring in Maine too. If you're North of the line, no slavery, if you're South, yes slavery.
North and South America are "henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power". U.S. will regard European political intervention in the Americas as dangerous to our peace and safety.
A policy of spreading more political power to more people. It was a "Common Man" theme. Expanded the right to vote; Universal Male Suffrage (got rid of property requirement), only certain states gave women & people of color the right to vote.
Ended the "Era of Good Feelings". John Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, William Crawford. John Q. Adams won after Henry Clay dropped race and lent support.
The battles of Lexington and Concord initiated the Revolutionary War between the American colonists and the British. British governor Thomas Gage sent troops to Concord to stop the colonists who were loading arms. The next day, on April 19, 1775, the first shots were fired in Lexington, starting the war. The battles resulted in a British retreat to Boston.
A zone separating two states in which neither state exercises political control. Wilderness and civilization.
Refers to the presidential election of 1824 in which Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, convinced the House of Representatives to elect Adams rather than Jackson. And Henry Clay became Secretary of State.
Political authority that directed the struggle for independence beginning in 1775. American government until the Constitution is written. Washington is chosen to lead the Army by Adams.
National Bank to regulate money supply and build up capital, favors high protective tariffs (to encourage buying American), favors funding for internal improvements.
First major battle of the Revolutions. It showed that the Americans could hold their own, but the British were also not easy to defeat. Ultimately, the Americans were forced to withdraw after running out of ammunition, and Bunker Hill was in British hands. However, the British suffered more deaths. Britain gave up Boston.
Religious revival in the colonies in 1730s and 1740s; George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards preached a message of atonement for sins by admitting them to God.
Andrew Jackson defeated John Q. Adams. Adams was supported by South and West, became "Victory for the Common Man"
On July 8, 1775, the colonies made a final offer of peace to Britain, agreeing to be loyal to the British government if it addressed their grievances (repealed the Coercive Acts, ended the taxation without representation policies). It was rejected by Parliament, which in December 1775 passed the American Prohibitory Act forbidding all further trade with the colonies. Colonists decided they needed independence. | https://quizlet.com/461104326/us-history-1301-final-exam-flash-cards/#:~:text=The%20Southern%20theater%20of%20the%20American%20%EE%80%80Revolutionary%EE%80%81%20%EE%80%80War%EE%80%81,consisted%20of%20both%20strategic%20battles%20and%20guerrilla%20warfare. | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War | Southern theater
1775–1779
1775–1779
The southern theater of the American Revolutionary War was the central theater of military operations in the second half of the American Revolutionary War , 1778–1781. It encompassed engagements primarily in Virginia , Georgia and South Carolina . Tactics consisted of both strategic battles and guerrilla warfare .
During the first three years of the conflict, 1775–1778, the largest military encounters between Continental Army and the British Army had been in the New England and Middle colonies, around the cities of Boston , New York , and Philadelphia . After the failure of the Saratoga campaign , the British Army largely abandoned operations in the north and pursued peace through subjugation in the Southern Colonies . [2] Before 1778, these colonies were largely dominated by Patriot -controlled governments and militias , although there was also a Continental Army presence that played a role in the 1776 defense of Charleston , the suppression of Loyalist militias, and attempts to drive the British from strongly Loyalist East Florida .
The British began to implement their "Southern Strategy" in late 1778, in Georgia. It initially achieved success with the capture of Savannah, Georgia , which was followed in 1780 by operations in South Carolina that included the defeat of Continental forces at Charleston and Camden . At the same time France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) declared war on Great Britain in support of the United States. Spain captured all of British West Florida , culminating in the siege of Pensacola in 1781. France initially offered only naval support for the first few years after its declaration of war but in 1781 sent massive numbers of soldiers to join General George Washington 's army and marched into Virginia from New York. Major General Nathanael Greene , who took over as Continental Army commander after Camden, engaged in a strategy of avoidance and attrition against the British. The two forces fought a string of battles, most of which were tactical, though pyrrhic victories for the British Army. The high cost in casualties left it strategically weakened, while the Continental Army remained largely intact to continue fighting. This was best exemplified by the Battle of Guilford Courthouse . Several American victories, such as the Battle of Ramseur's Mill , the Battle of Cowpens , and the Battle of Kings Mountain , also served to weaken the overall British military strength. The culminating engagement, the siege of Yorktown , ended with the surrender of British Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis on October 19, 1781. It was essentially the last major battle of the Revolutionary War. [3] [4] Shortly afterward, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783 .
In most colonies British officials quickly departed as the Patriots took control. In Virginia, the royal governor resisted. In the Gunpowder Incident of April 20, 1775, Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia , removed gunpowder stored in Williamsburg to a British warship in the James River . Dunmore saw rising unrest in the colony and was trying to deprive Virginia militia of supplies needed for insurrection. The Patriot militia, led by Patrick Henry , forced Dunmore to pay for the gunpowder. Dunmore continued to hunt for caches of military equipment and supplies in the following months, acts that were sometimes anticipated by Patriot militia, who would move supplies before his arrival. [5]
Dunmore issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. After an incident at Kemp's Landing in November where Dunmore's troops killed and captured Patriot militiamen, Patriot forces defeated Loyalist troops (which included runaway slaves Dunmore had formed into his Ethiopian Regiment ) at the Battle of Great Bridge on December 9. Dunmore and his troops retreated to Royal Navy ships anchored off Norfolk ; these naval forces bombarded and burned the town on January 1, 1776. Patriot forces in the town completed the destruction of the former Loyalist stronghold. Dunmore was driven from an island in Chesapeake Bay that summer, and never returned to Virginia. [6]
Georgia 's royal governor, James Wright , nominally remained in power until January 1776, when the unexpected arrival of British ships near Savannah prompted the local Committee of Safety to order his arrest. Georgia Patriots and Loyalists alike believed the fleet had arrived to provide military support to the governor; it had been sent from the besieged British forces in Boston, Massachusetts to acquire rice and other provisions. Wright escaped captivity and reached the fleet. In the Battle of the Rice Boats in early March, the British successfully left Savannah with a number of merchant vessels containing the desired rice supplies.
South Carolina's population was politically divided when the war began. The lowland communities, dominated by Charleston , sided strongly with the Patriots, while the back country held a large number of Loyalist sympathizers. [7] By August 1775, both sides were recruiting militia companies. [8] In September, a Patriot militia seized Fort Johnson , Charleston's major defense works, and Governor William Campbell fled to a Royal Navy ship in the harbor. [9]
The seizure by Loyalists of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition intended for the Cherokee caused an escalation in tensions that led to the first siege of Ninety Six in western South Carolina late November. [10] Patriot recruiting was by then outstripping that of the Loyalists, and a major campaign (called the Snow Campaign due to unusually heavy snowfall) involving as many as 5,000 Patriots led by Colonel Richard Richardson succeeded in capturing or driving away most of the Loyalist leadership. Loyalists fled, either to East Florida or to the Cherokee lands. A faction of the Cherokee, known as the Chickamauga , rose up in support of the British and Loyalists in 1776. They were finally defeated by militia forces from North and South Carolina.
Crucial in any British attempt to gain control of the South was the possession of a port to bring in supplies and men. To this end, the British organized an expedition to establish a strong post somewhere in the southern colonies, and sent military leaders to recruit Loyalists in North Carolina. The expedition's departure from Europe was significantly delayed, and the Loyalist force that was recruited to meet it was decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in late February 1776. When General Henry Clinton arrived at Cape Fear , North Carolina, in May, he found conditions there unsuitable for a strong post. Scouting by the Royal Navy identified Charleston, whose defenses were unfinished and seemed vulnerable, as a more suitable location. In June 1776, Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker led an assault on Fort Sullivan , which guarded the Charleston harbor.
Clinton had failed to order a complete reconnaissance of the area. His 2,200 men force was landed on Long Island (adjacent to Sullivan's Island on which the fort was positioned), and they found the channel dividing the two islands too deep to ford. [11] Instead of re-embarking on his boats, he relied on the expedition's naval forces to reduce the fort, which became known after the war as Fort Moultrie . However, the firepower of the British ships was unable to make an impression on the spongy palmetto logs that formed the majority of the fort's defenses, and the bombardment failed in its objective. [12] It was a humiliating failure, and Clinton called off his campaign in the Carolinas. [13] Clinton and Parker argued after the engagement, each blaming the other for the failure of the assault. [13] It is debated that the South was lost by this failure to take Charleston in 1776, as it left the Loyalists unsupported for three years, while allowing the port of Charleston to serve the American cause until 1780. [14]
Patriots in Georgia attempted several times to defeat the British garrison that was based at Saint Augustine in British East Florida . This garrison actively supported the activities of Loyalists who fled there from Georgia and other southern states, and were responsible for raiding cattle and other supplies in southern Georgia. The first attempt was organized by Charles Lee after he took command of the Southern Department , but sputtered out when he was recalled to the main army. The second attempt was organized by Georgia Governor Button Gwinnett (who as a representative of Georgia to the Continental Congress , was one of the signatories (first signature on the left) on the United States Declaration of Independence ) with minimal help from the new commander of the Southern Department , Robert Howe , in 1777. This expedition also failed. Gwinnett and his militia commander, Lachlan McIntosh , could not agree on anything. Some Georgia militia companies made it into East Florida, but they were checked in the May Battle of Thomas Creek . The last expedition was in early 1778. More than 2,000 Continentals and state militia were raised for the effort, but it also failed due to issues of command between Howe and Georgia governor John Houstoun . [15] A brief skirmish at Alligator Bridge in late June, combined with tropical diseases and command issues in the Patriot forces, left East Florida firmly in British hands for the war's duration.
In 1778, the British again turned their attention to the South, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists. Their belief in widespread Loyalist support was based on the accounts of Loyalist exiles in London who had direct access to the British Secretary of State for America, George Germain . [16] Keen to recover their lands and be rewarded for their loyalty to the crown, these men realized that the best way to convince the British to undertake a major operation in the South would be to exaggerate the level of potential Loyalist support. As a group, they had great influence on the British ministers in London. [17] In addition, there were strong business, trading and family ties among some Loyalists and the British in London. The British operated under the expectation that they would find substantial support for their actions, if only they liberated the right areas. While in South Carolina, Cornwallis wrote in a letter to Clinton that "Our assurances of attachment from our poor distressed friends in North Carolina are as strong as ever." [18] For the most part, this assumption was incorrect, as Cornwallis soon realized as the campaign progressed. [19]
On April 19, 1778, three row galleys of the Georgia Navy engaged, defeated, and captured a Royal Navy brigantine , an armed British East Florida provincial sloop, and an armed brig. [20]
On December 29, 1778, a British expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from New York, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell , captured Savannah, Georgia . He was joined in mid-January 1779 by Brigadier General Augustine Prevost , leading troops that marched up from Saint Augustine , taking over outposts along the way. Prevost assumed command of the forces in Georgia; and dispatched Campbell with 1,000 men toward Augusta with the goals of gaining control of that town and the recruitment of Loyalists. [21]
The remnants of the defense of Savannah had retreated to Purrysburg, South Carolina , about 12 miles (19 km) upriver from Savannah, where they were met by Major General Benjamin Lincoln , commander of Continental Army forces in the South. He marched most of the army from Charleston, South Carolina in a move intended to monitor and oppose Prevost. Early in February, 1779, Prevost sent a few hundred men to occupy Beaufort in a move probably intended to divert Lincoln's attention from Campbell's movements; Lincoln responded by sending General Moultrie and 300 men to drive them out. The February 3, 1779, Battle of Beaufort was largely indecisive, and both contingents eventually returned to their bases.
In the meantime, Campbell had taken control of Augusta without much resistance, and Loyalists were beginning to turn out. While he enrolled more than 1,000 men over a two-week period, he was powerless to prevent the defeat of a sizable number of Loyalists by Patriot militia under Andrew Pickens in the February 14, 1779, Battle of Kettle Creek , 50 miles (80 km) from Augusta. This demonstrated to everyone in the area the limits of the British Army's ability to protect Loyalists. Campbell suddenly left Augusta, apparently in response to the arrival of John Ashe and more than 1,000 North Carolina militia Lincoln sent to add to the 1,000 militia that were already across the river from Augusta in South Carolina. On the way back to Savannah, Campbell turned over command of his men to Augustine Prevost's brother, Mark . The younger Prevost turned the tables on Ashe, who was following him south, surprising and very nearly destroying his force of 1,300 in the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek . [22]
By April, Lincoln had been reinforced by large numbers of South Carolina militia and received additional military supplies through Dutch shipments to Charleston. He decided to move toward Augusta. Leaving 1,000 men under the command of General Moultrie at Purrysburg to monitor Augustine Prevost, he began the march north on April 23, 1779. Prevost's reaction was to lead 2,500 men from Savannah toward Purrysburg on April 29. Moultrie fell back toward Charleston rather than engaging, and Prevost was within 10 miles (16 km) on May 10 before he began to see resistance. Two days later he intercepted a message indicating that Lincoln, alerted to Prevost's advance, was hurrying back from Augusta to assist in the defense of Charleston. Prevost retreated to the islands southwest of Charleston, leaving an entrenched guard at Stono Ferry (near present-day Rantowles, South Carolina ) to cover his retreat. When Lincoln got back to Charleston he led about 1,200 men, mostly untried militia, after Prevost. This force was repulsed by the British on June 20, 1779, in the Battle of Stono Ferry . The rear guard, having succeeded in its objective, abandoned that post a few days later. [23] Prevost's foray against Charleston was notable for his troop's arbitrary looting and pillaging, which enraged friend and foe alike in the South Carolina low country. [24]
In October 1779, French and Continental Army forces tried to retake Savannah . Under the leadership of General Lincoln, and with the assistance of a French naval squadron commanded by Comte d'Estaing , it was a spectacular failure. The combined French-American forces suffered some 901 casualties, to the British 54. [25] The French Navy found Savannah's fortifications similar to those that had defied Admiral Peter Parker at Charleston in 1776. The artillery bombardment had little effect on the defenses, but unlike Charleston—where Clinton decided against attacking Fort Moultrie by land—Estaing decided to press the assault after the naval bombardment had failed. [26] In this assault, Count Kazimierz Pułaski , the Polish commander of American cavalry , was fatally wounded. [27] With Savannah secured, Clinton could launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. Lincoln moved his remaining troops to Charleston to assist in the construction of its defenses. [28]
Clinton moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. His advance on the city was uncontested; the American naval commander, Commodore Abraham Whipple , scuttled five of his eight frigates in the harbor to make a boom for its defense. [29] Inside the city, General Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British colonel Banastre Tarleton cut off the city's supply lines in victories at Moncks Corner in April and Lenud's Ferry in early May, [30] Charleston was surrounded. [31] Clinton began constructing siege lines. On March 11 he commenced the bombardment of the town. [32]
On May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the American Civil War . [33] With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South's biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war. This victory left the American military structure in the South in ruins. It was only after Nathanael Greene slipped past Cornwallis after the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in 1781 that the British finally lost this advantage in the South. [34]
The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw toward North Carolina, but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the Battle of Waxhaws on May 29. Historians have debated accounts spread after the battle that Tarleton's forces had massacred many Patriots after they had surrendered. As a consequence, "Bloody Tarleton" or "Bloody Ban" became a hated name, and the phrase, "Tarleton's quarter"—referring to his reputed lack of mercy, or " quarter "—soon became a rallying cry for the Patriots. Whether or not the battle was the massacre that it was claimed, its ramifications were felt throughout the campaign. When a Loyalist militia surrendered at the end of the Battle of Kings Mountain , many of them were killed when Patriot marksmen continued to fire while shouting "Tarleton's Quarters!". [35] Tarleton later published an account of the war that glossed over accusations of misconduct towards American militia, and portrayed him in an unabashedly positive light. [36]
After Charleston, organized American military activity in the South virtually collapsed. The states carried on their governmental functions, and the war was carried on by partisans such as Francis Marion , Thomas Sumter , William R. Davie , Andrew Pickens , and Elijah Clarke . General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched General Horatio Gates , the victor of Saratoga, to the South with a new army, but Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the Battle of Camden (August 16, 1780). Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina. [37]
Cornwallis's attempts to raise Loyalists in large numbers in North Carolina were effectively crushed when Patriot militia defeated a larger force of Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780. Many of the Patriot men had crossed the Appalachian Mountains from the Washington District of North Carolina to fight the British, and were so named the Overmountain Men . The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed—not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at high risk once the British army moved on. The defeat at Kings Mountain and the continuing harassment of his communications and supply lines by militia forces in South Carolina forced Cornwallis to withdraw and winter in South Carolina.
Gates was replaced by Washington's most dependable subordinate, General Nathanael Greene . Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General Daniel Morgan , a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton's troops at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781. As after Kings Mountain, Cornwallis was later criticized for detaching part of his army without adequate support. [38] Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of skirmishes and military movements referred to as the "Race to the Dan" (so named because the Dan River flows close to the border between North Carolina and Virginia); each encounter resulted in a tactical victory for the British but gave them no strategic advantage, while attrition took its toll. [39]
Cornwallis knew that Greene had divided his forces and wanted to face either Morgan's or Greene's contingent before they could rejoin. He stripped his army of all excess baggage in an effort to keep up with the fast-moving Patriots. When Greene learned of this decision, his gleeful response was "Then, he is ours!" [40] Cornwallis's lack of provisions as a consequence played a role in his later difficulties.
Greene first engaged Cornwallis in the Battle of Cowan's Ford , where Greene had sent General William Lee Davidson with 900 men. When Davidson was killed in the river, the Americans retreated. Greene was weakened, but he continued his delaying tactics, fighting a dozen more skirmishes in South and North Carolina against Cornwallis's forces. About 2,000 British troops died in these engagements. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." His tactics have been likened to the Fabian strategy of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus , the Roman general who wore down the superior forces of the Carthaginian Hannibal by a slow war of attrition . [41] Greene eventually felt strong enough to face Cornwallis directly—near New Garden, North Carolina (modern day Greensboro, North Carolina ). Although Cornwallis was the tactical victor in the Battle of Guilford Court House , the casualties his army suffered forced him to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina , for resupply and reinforcements. [42]
While Cornwallis was unable to completely destroy Greene, he recognized that most of the supplies that the American forces were relying on were coming from Virginia, a state that up to this point in the war had been relatively untouched. Against the wishes of Clinton, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia in the hopes that cutting the supply lines to the Carolinas would make American resistance there impossible. [43] [44] This theory was supported by Lord George Germain in a series of letters that left Clinton out of the decision-making process for the Southern Army, despite his nominally being its overall commander. [45] Without informing Clinton, Cornwallis marched north from Wilmington into Virginia to engage in raiding operations, [46] where he eventually met the army commanded by William Phillips and Benedict Arnold , which had engaged in raiding activities there. [47] These raids resulted in massive destruction of tobacco fields and curing barns, as the colonists used tobacco to fund their war efforts. The British destruction of about 10,000 hogsheads of tobacco (roughly 10 million pounds) in 1780 and 1781 became known as the Tobacco War . [48] [49]
When Cornwallis left Greensboro for Wilmington, he left the road open for Greene to begin the American reconquest of South Carolina. This he achieved by the end of June, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord Rawdon 's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 miles north of Camden ) on April 25. From May 22 to June 19, 1781 Greene led the siege of Ninety-Six , which he was only forced to abandon when word arrived that Rawdon was bringing troops to relieve the siege. However, the actions of Greene and militia commanders like Francis Marion drove Rawdon to eventually abandon the Ninety Six District and Camden, effectively reducing the British presence in South Carolina to the port of Charleston. Augusta, Georgia was also besieged on May 22, and fell to Patriot forces under Andrew Pickens and Harry "Light Horse" Lee on June 6, reducing the British presence in that state to the port of Savannah. [50]
Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills of the Santee River . On September 8, with 2,600 men, he engaged British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart at Eutaw Springs . Americans who fell in this battle were immortalized by American author Philip Freneau in his 1781 poem "To the Memory of Brave Americans." The battle, although tactically a draw, so weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them in for the remaining months of the war. [51]
Upon arrival in Virginia, Cornwallis took command of the existing British forces in the region, which had been commanded first by turncoat Benedict Arnold , and then by Major General William Phillips . Phillips, a good friend of Cornwallis, died two days before Cornwallis reached his position at Petersburg . [52] Having marched without informing Clinton of his movements (communications between the two British commanders was by sea and extremely slow, sometimes up to three weeks), Cornwallis sent word of his northward march and set about destroying American supplies in the Chesapeake region. [53]
In March 1781, in response to the threat of Arnold and Phillips, General Washington had dispatched the Marquis de Lafayette to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. It was during this period that Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to choose a position on the Virginia Peninsula —referred to in contemporary letters as the "Williamsburg Neck"—and construct a fortified naval post to shelter ships of the line . In complying with this order, Cornwallis put himself at risk to become trapped. With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de Grasse and General Washington's combined French-American army, Cornwallis found himself cut off. When the Royal Navy fleet, under Admiral Thomas Graves , was defeated by the French at the Battle of the Chesapeake , and a French siege train arrived from Newport, Rhode Island , his position became untenable. Cornwallis surrendered to General Washington and the French commander the Comte de Rochambeau on October 19, 1781. [54]
Cornwallis reported this disaster to Clinton in a letter that opened:
I have the mortification to inform Your Excellency that I have been forced to give up the posts of York and Gloucester and to surrender the troops under my command by capitulation, on the 19th instant, as prisoners of war to the combined forces of America. [55]
With the surrender at Yorktown, the full participation of French forces in that battle, and the resulting loss of Cornwallis's army, the British war effort ground to a halt. The sole remaining British army of any size remaining in America was that under Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton, paralyzed by the defeat, made no further action and was replaced by Guy Carleton in 1782. [56] Such a shocking reversal in fortune, coming as it had on the back of a rare naval defeat, served to increase the shift in British popular opinion against the war. The North Ministry collapsed, a peace-oriented government took power, and no further major operation on the American continent occurred for the rest of the war. While Saratoga had started the decline of British fortunes in the Revolution, Yorktown was its death knell. [57]
The Southern Campaign of the Revolution National Heritage Corridor was established in the National Heritage Area Act in 2022. [58] The National Heritage Area will help preserve and promote tourism at several dozen historic sites along an 8-mile wide corridor in North Carolina and South Carolina. [59] [60] [61]
- Alden, John (1981). The South in the Revolution, 1763 to 1789 . Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0003-5 . OCLC 245906364 .
- Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War , London, 2003
- Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1 .
- Buchanan, John, The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas (1999)
- Cann, Marvin (October 1975). "Prelude to War: The First Battle of Ninety Six: November 19–21, 1775". The South Carolina Historical Quarterly . 76 (4): 197–214. JSTOR 27567333 .
- Clement, R: "The World Turned Upside down At the Surrender of Yorktown", Journal of American Folklore , Vol. 92, No. 363 (Jan. - Mar., 1979), pp. 66–67
- Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_theater_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | Digital History | Answers to Quiz 1 on the American Revolution
Digital History ID 3737
1. The United States won its independence from:
C. Britain
2. The Revolutionary War lasted from:
B. 1775-1783.
3. These famous words - "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ... " are part of:
C. The Declaration of Independence
4. Which American Revolution figure was sentenced to death in the French Revolution?:
C. Thomas Paine
5. The second half of the war was fought almost entirely in:
A. The South.
6. Before being executed by the British, this 21-year-old Patriot recited a line from Joseph Addison's tragedy Cato - "I only regret I have but one life to give for my country":
C. Nathan Hale.
7. The people who opposed the Revolution were called:
A. Loyalists.
8. Freedom was promised to slaves if they would fight:
A. In the British army.
9. To win the Revolution, America needed the help of:
C. The French.
10. On July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of American independence:
A. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died.
11. A famous Revolutionary War pamphlet began:
B. These are the times that try men's souls.
12. How many battle deaths did the Americans suffer in the war?:
A. 4,400.
13. A total of 25,000 people died as a result of the Revolution. Relative to the size of the population, which would that be equal to today?
C. 1 million
14. What percent of colonists actively backed the Revolution?:
C. Less than 50 percent
15. Yankee Doodle called the feather in his cap "macaroni" because:
A. That was the name of a popular clothing fashion.
16. For most of the war, Washington's chief accomplishment was:
A. Keeping the army together.
17. The Minutemen were so called because:
A. They could be mustered in a few minutes.
18. Only one of the following signed the Declaration of Independence. Which one?
A. Josiah Bartlett.
19. Most Americans who fought in the Revolution:
B. Served briefly and then went home.
20. The British occupied which of the following cities at some point during the Revolution:
All are correct:
A. Boston. B. New York. C. Philadelphia. D. Charleston.
21. At the time of the Revolution, slave could be found in how many of the 13 colonies?
All are correct:
A. Five B. Seven C. Thirteen
22. According to the Declaration of Independence, "all men ... are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights ..." Among the rights specified in the Declaration are:
D. The pursuit of happiness
23. The Declaration refers to the King of Britain several times, but not by name. Who was then the King of Britain?
C. George III
24. The oldest signer of the Declaration of Independence was 70. Who was he?
C. Benjamin Franklin
25. Who published "Common Sense," a pamphlet that helped to stir up a feeling for independence among Americans?
C. Thomas Paine
26. A popular cry during the pre-Revolutionary period in America was "Taxation without representation is ..." Add the missing word.
B. Tyranny
27. The ship of American naval hero John Paul Jones was battered by the British vessel Serapis and Jones was asked to surrender. What was his reply?
D. "I have not yet begun to fight."
28. Benedict Arnold served the American army with distinction before he was branded as a traitor. Which of the following statements about him is TRUE?
D. All of the statements are TRUE
Copyright 2021 Digital History | https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?psid=3737&smtID=13 | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | Revolutionary War: Southern Phase, 1778-1781 | The American Revolution, 1763 | The Continental victory at Saratoga in 1777 and the Treaty with the French in 1778 transformed the war, especially for the British. Increased French aid to the Continentals was very slow in coming; coordinated military activity between the two new allies was even slower to happen. Meanwhile, the British were immediately faced with a global conflict with France. As a result, the British changed their strategy yet again in 1778. Rather than mounting a full-scale military campaign against the Continental Army, the British decided to focus their efforts on the loyalists, who they still believed were the majority of the American population.
Believing the loyalists were strongest in the South and hoping to enlist the slaves in their cause--an objective that seems incompatible with a focus on Southern loyalists--the British turned their efforts to the South. In fact, the British had some important military successes in the South. They occupied Savannah, Georgia, in late 1778 and Charleston, South Carolina, in May 1779. They also struck a disastrous blow on General Horatio Gates' forces at Camden, South Carolina, in August 1780.
Although the British were successful in most conventional battles, the fighting in the South, under the leadership of Generals Nathanael Greene and Daniel Morgan, turned toward guerrilla and hit-and-run warfare. Moreover, the British had overestimated loyalist sentiment in the South; their presence actually forced many, who had been sitting out the war, to take sides, most in favor of the Patriots. At the same time, the British underestimated the logistical problems they would encounter, especially when their army was in the interior away from the supplies offered by their fleet. Patriot forces, on the other hand, were supplied and could hide among the local population. As a result, the British southern strategy was a dismal failure.
For additional documents related to these topics, search Loc.gov using such key words as Henry Clinton, Charles Cornwallis, Nathanael Greene, Daniel Morgan, such battles as Camden, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse, and individual southern states and cities. Search Washington's Papers and the Journals of the Continental Congress by date (of specific battles, for example), and use the terms found in the documents. | https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/american-revolution-1763-1783/revolutionary-war-southern-phase-1778-1781/ | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | American Revolutionary War - Wikipedia | This article is about military actions primarily. For origins and aftermath, see American Revolution .
American
Revolutionary War
Campaigns and theaters
Revolutionary War
Campaigns and theaters
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence , was the military conflict of the American Revolution in which American Patriot forces under George Washington 's command defeated the British , establishing and securing the independence of the United States . Fighting began on April 19, 1775 at the Battles of Lexington and Concord . The war was formalized and intensified following passage of the Lee Resolution , which asserted that the Thirteen Colonies were "free and independent states", and the Declaration of Independence , drafted by the Committee of Five and written primarily by Thomas Jefferson , by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia , on July 2, 1776 and July 4, 1776, respectively.
In the war, American patriot forces were supported by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Spain . The British, in turn, were supported by Hessian soldiers from present-day Germany , most Native Americans , Loyalists , and freedmen . The conflict was fought in North America , the Caribbean , and the Atlantic Ocean .
Established by Royal charter in the 17th and 18th centuries, the American colonies were largely autonomous in domestic affairs and commercially prosperous, trading with Britain, its Caribbean colonies , and other European powers via their Caribbean entrepôts . After the British victory over the French in the Seven Years' War in 1763, tensions and disputes between Britain and the 13 American colonies arose over policies related to trade, trans-Appalachian settlement, and taxation, including the Stamp and Townshend Acts . Colonial opposition led to the Boston Massacre in 1770, which strengthened American Patriots' desire for independence from Britain. While the earlier taxation measures were repealed, the British Parliament adopted the Tea Act in 1773, a measure that led to the Boston Tea Party on December 16. In response, Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts in mid-1774, closed Boston Harbor , and revoked Massachusetts ' charter, which placed the colony under the British monarchy's direct governance.
These measures stirred unrest throughout the colonies, 12 of which sent delegates to Philadelphia in early September 1774 to organize a protest as the First Continental Congress . In an appeal to Britain's George III seeking peace, the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the King and threatened a boycott of British goods, known as the Continental Association , if the Intolerable Acts were not withdrawn. Despite attempts to achieve a peaceful solution, fighting began after the Westminster Massacre in March at the Battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775. In June, the Second Continental Congress formalized Patriot militias into the Continental Army and appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of it. Although the coercion policy advocated by the North ministry was opposed by a faction within Parliament, both sides saw conflict as inevitable. The Olive Branch Petition sent by Congress to George III in July 1775 was rejected, and in August Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion .
Following the British Army 's defeat at the Siege of Boston in March 1776, Sir William Howe , the British Army's new commander-in-chief, launched the New York and New Jersey campaign . Howe captured New York City in November, and Washington responded by secretly crossing the Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton , which restored Patriot confidence. In summer 1777, Howe succeeded in taking Philadelphia , forcing the Continental Congress to flee Philadelphia to Lancaster and later York and to move the Liberty Bell , which it hid for nine months under floor boards at Zion Reformed Church in Allentown .
In October, a separate British force under John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga . This victory was crucial in convincing powers like France and Spain that an independent United States was a viable entity. With Philadelphia occupied, Washington and 12,000 Continental Army troops secured refuge in Valley Forge from December 1777 to June 1778. At Valley Forge, General von Steuben drilled the Continental Army into a more viable fighting unit but as many as 2,000 Continental Army troops died from disease and possibly malnutrition over a brutal Valley Forge winter.
France provided the Continental Army with informal economic and military support from the beginning of the rebellion. After Saratoga, the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In return for a guarantee of independence, the Continental Congress joined France in its global war with Britain and agreed to defend the French West Indies . Spain also allied with France against Britain in the Treaty of Aranjuez in 1779, though it did not formally ally with the Americans. Nevertheless, access to ports in Spanish Louisiana allowed the Patriots to import arms and supplies, while the Spanish Gulf Coast campaign deprived the Royal Navy of key bases in the south.
This undermined the 1778 strategy devised by Howe's replacement, Sir Henry Clinton , which took the war into the Southern United States . Despite some initial success, Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. After an attempt to resupply the garrison failed , Cornwallis surrendered in October. Although the British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, Britain's forces in America were largely confined to several harbors and Great Lakes forts, and fighting in North America largely ceased. In April 1782, the North ministry was replaced by a new British government , which accepted American independence and began negotiating the Treaty of Paris . Under the treaty, which was ratified on September 3, 1783, Britain accepted American independence, and the American Revolutionary War came to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Britain's conflicts with France and Spain . [42]
Main article: American Revolution
The French and Indian War, part of the wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War , ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris , which expelled France from Britain 's possessions in New France . [43] Acquisition of territories in Atlantic Canada and West Florida , inhabited largely by French or Spanish -speaking Catholics , led British authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with English-speaking settlers. Preventing conflict between settlers and Indian tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation. [44]
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida , with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts , were rescinded despite the fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean . [44]
The vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and Indians in the west, while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the Proclamation Line. [45] With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands, the colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. [46]
Although directly administered by the Crown, acting through a local governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. [46]
The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. [46] The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act ; routinely ignored prior to 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. [47] In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry , which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act . [48]
However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling. [49] Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre . [50] The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry , which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. [51]
Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair , then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company , which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies . Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the Act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. [52] In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into Boston Harbor , an event later known as the Boston Tea Party . The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts , aimed specifically at Massachusetts , although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general. This led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in British Parliament, and in the London press. [53]
Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their royal governors. [54] Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, variously called congresses, conventions, and conferences, effectively replacing royal control. With the exception of Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. [55] Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. [56] However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed the Continental Association ; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, the Association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against Britain. [57]
While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. [57] [u] Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. [58] However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. [59] In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries . The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each Assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. [60] On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord , which began the war. [61]
After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. [62] However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere; he refused to present the petition to the king, which was therefore rejected in early September. [63] Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. [62] Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion , issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. [64]
Backed by the Whigs , Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards independence. [65] However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. [66] After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. [67] Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops . [68] Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. [69] The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by the colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. [70]
Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense , which was published January 10, 1776 and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. [71] To draft the Declaration of Independence , the Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five , consisting of Thomas Jefferson , John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston . [72] The Declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson, who devoted himself to it from June 11 to June 28, 1776, in a three-story residence at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia . [73]
Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the Declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III . This is also one of the foremost times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies . [74]
On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4, [75] which Washington read to his troops in New York City on July 9. [76] At this point, the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in a struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists . [77] Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists and those who were indifferent. [78] Others calculate the split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. [79]
At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, the committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. [80] Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane , sent to France to recruit military engineers, [81] were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. [82]
The war consisted of two principal campaign theaters within the Thirteen Colonies , and a smaller but strategically important one in the west of the Appalachian Mountains . Fighting began in the Northern Theater and was at its most severe from 1775 to 1778. The Patriots achieved several strategic victories in the South . After defeating a British army at Saratoga in October 1777, the French formally entered the war as an American ally. [83]
During 1778, Washington prevented the British army breaking out of New York City, while militia under George Rogers Clark supported by Francophone settlers and their Indian allies conquered Western Quebec , which became the Northwest Territory . With the war in the north stalemated, in 1779 the British initiated their southern strategy , which aimed to mobilise Loyalist support in the region and reoccupy Patriot-controlled territory north to Chesapeake Bay . The campaign was initially successful, with the British capture of Charleston being a major setback for southern Patriots; however, a Franco-American force surrounded a British army at Yorktown and their surrender in October 1781, effectively ended fighting in North America. [78]
On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage , Commander-in-Chief, North America since 1763 and also Governor of Massachusetts from 1774, received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts , and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams , who were considered the principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the Patriots could respond. [84] [85] However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker , commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist the attempted seizure. [86] The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world , was a brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord . British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston, which was then besieged by the militia. [87]
In May, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Sir Henry Clinton . [88] On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill , a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. [89] Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, [90] Gage appealed to London for a larger army to suppress the revolt, [91] but instead was replaced as commander by Howe. [89]
On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated George Washington as commander-in-chief of the new Continental Army . [92] Washington previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in the French and Indian War , [93] and on June 16, John Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies." [94] He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. [95] In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga . [96] Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, [97] from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor . Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated the city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia , while Washington moved south to New York City . [98]
Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John , Charlottetown , and Yarmouth . In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with the Iroquois for their support, [99] while US envoys urged them to remain neutral. [100] Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. [101] After defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, [102] the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776. [103] A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. [104]
British pursuit was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga , while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland . [105] These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, [106] and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated the Canadians. [107]
In Virginia , an attempt by Governor Lord Dunmore to seize militia stores on April 20, 1775, led to an increase in tension, although conflict was avoided for the time being. [108] This changed after the publication of Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown. [109] British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near the port of Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Dunmore ordered the Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. [110]
The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, [111] and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign . [112] Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge . [113] A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, [114] but it failed and left the South under Patriot control until 1780. [115]
A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against The Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there. [116] On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu . Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau . Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and the civilian inhabitants of the area that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance, to which they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17. [117] A month later, after a brief skirmish with HMS Glasgow , they returned to New London, Connecticut , the base for American naval operations during the Revolution. [118]
After regrouping at Halifax, Nova Scotia , William Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. [119] He set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; [120] Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops.
On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers , which included Nathan Hale , became the Army's first intelligence unit. [121] [v] When Washington was driven off Long Island , he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge , Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring . [124] [w] The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. [124] Over the course of the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on intelligence operations. [125]
Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. [126] On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights , but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. [127] Through the night of August 28, General Henry Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin 's regiments as a rearguard. [128]
Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference , but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. [129] On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. [130] On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point , and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains , and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. [131]
Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners. [132] The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. [133] General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island to secure the Loyalist port. [134] [x] General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, leaving Washington unmolested. [136]
The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for the American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. [137] Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore , where it remained for over two months, until February 27, 1777. [138] Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state . [139]
In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak, [140] and King George III awarded the Order of the Bath to Howe. [141] Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. [142] In the meantime, the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. [143]
Two weeks after Congress withdrew to Baltimore , on the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River , leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania , located about 30 miles upriver from Philadelphia , to today's Mercer County, New Jersey , in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation.
Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved with numerous clashes with small bands of patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton . By Christmas they were tired and weary, while a heavy snow storm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall , to assume no attack of any consequence would occur. [144] At daybreak on the 26th, the American patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, [145] while 900 prisoners, German cannons and much supply were captured. [146]
The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause, [147] and dispelled their fear of the what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries". [148] A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2; [149] during the night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. [150]
After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey , where he remained until May [151] and received Congressional direction to inoculate all patriot troops against smallpox . [152] [y] With the exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, [154] Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans. [155]
The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the Hudson River , allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. [156] In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia , while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. [157] Germain received this on February 23, 1777, followed a few days later by a memorandum from Burgoyne, then in London on leave. [158]
Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany , leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. [158] Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead. [159]
Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food. [160] This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. [161] St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix ; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. [162] Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town. [163]
Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. [164] When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights , forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. [165] Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. [166]
After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. [167] He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. [168] After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown . [169] Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed. [170]
To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy , commanded by John Hazelwood . An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed; [171] [172] a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. [173] His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. [174]
On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge ; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, [175] foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. [176] Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. [177] However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army; he did this by training "model companies" in each regiment, who then instructed their home units. [178] Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war. [179]
Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. [180] Although public opinion favored the American cause, Finance Minister Turgot argued they did not need French help to gain independence, and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded Louis XVI to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean. [181]
Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had wide public support, Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with France, and over 20% of Congressmen voted against it. [182] Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it. [183]
Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies from American expansion. [184] These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined. [185] Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence. [186]
On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance . In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War . [183] Charles III of Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into Louisiana , a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain. [187]
Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the Treaty of Aranjuez (1779) , Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar , Menorca and Spanish Florida . [188] The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. [189] One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the US would not sign another treaty with France until their NATO agreement of 1949. [183] This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress. [190]
To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the US representative in Paris, Silas Deane promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Such as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette , whom Congress via Dean appointed a major General, [191] [192] on July 31, 1777. [193]
When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General to refuse. [194] Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy. [195] The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality , formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. [196]
The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests. [197] Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition, a role filled by Prussia in the Seven Years' War; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts. [198]
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. [199] He did not welcome war with France, but he believed the British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France. [200] Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France on the European continent. [201] Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater, [202] and diverted major military resources away from America. [203]
Vergennes's colleague stated, "For her honour, France had to seize this opportunity to rise from her degradation ... If she neglected it, if fear overcame duty, she would add debasement to humiliation, and become an object of contempt to her own century and to all future peoples". [204]
At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. [203] On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments, the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges, the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties, and the Americans held the field at the end of the day. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York. [205]
A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General John Sullivan commanding land forces. [206] The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk. [207] Further activity was limited to British raids on Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor in October. [208]
In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook . [209] Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General William Tryon to raid Connecticut . [210] In July, a large American naval operation, the Penobscot Expedition , attempted to retake Maine , then part of Massachusetts, but was defeated. [211] Persistent Iroquois raids along the border with Quebec led to the punitive Sullivan Expedition in April 1779, destroying many settlements but failing to stop them. [212]
During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. [213] Morale was poor, public support fell away in the long war, the Continental dollar was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the Pennsylvania Line and New Jersey Line regiments over the conditions in early 1780. [214]
In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms ; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated. [215] A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield , effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. [216] In July, Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point ; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact John André was captured and later executed. [217] Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed " To the Inhabitants of America "; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British. [218]
The Southern Strategy was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists, including Joseph Galloway. They argued that it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain, regardless of who governed it. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions in the south, Canada to the north, and Ohio on their western border; with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy , Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic. [219]
Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prévost , the British commander in East Florida , to advance into Georgia in December 1778. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell , an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen, captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property. [220] Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at Brier Creek on March 3. [221]
In June 1779, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to recapture Savannah . [222] Prévost was replaced by Lord Cornwallis , who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces. [223]
Reinforced by Clinton, Cornwallis' troops captured Charleston in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton 's mainly Loyalist force routed a Continental Army force nearly three times its size under the command of Colonel Abraham Buford at the Battle of Waxhaws . The battle is controversial for allegations of a massacre, which were later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots. [224]
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms, with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war. [225] The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral " grandees " to side with them. [226] Skirmishes at Williamson's Plantation , Cedar Springs, Rocky Mount , and Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina. [227]
In July 1780, Congress appointed General Horatio Gates commander in the south; he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina. [228] Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support. [229] In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain , dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region. [230] Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General Nathanael Greene in December 1780. [231]
Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under Daniel Morgan , who defeated Tarleton's British Legion at Cowpens on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force. [232] The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. [233] Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina seeking supplies and reinforcements. [234]
The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte on April 15. [235] On June 6, Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah. [236] The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign. [237]
From the beginning of the war, Bernardo de Gálvez , the Governor of Spanish Louisiana , allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into New Orleans , then ship them to Pittsburgh . [238] This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast. [239]
The trade was organized by Oliver Pollock , a successful merchant in Havana and New Orleans who was appointed US "commercial agent". [240] It also helped support the American campaign in the west ; in the 1778 Illinois campaign , militia under General George Rogers Clark .
In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather. [241] Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. Virginia militia, Canadien settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on July 4 then secured Vincennes , though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton . In early 1779, the Virginians counter-attacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western British Quebec as the American Northwest Territory in the Treaty of Paris concluding the war. [242]
When Spain joined France's war against Britain in 1779, their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. Later that year, however, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. [243] First, he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge , Louisiana , Fort Bute , and Natchez , Mississippi , and captured five forts. [244] In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburg. [245]
On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba , and on the Virginia county courthouse at Cahokia by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. [z] The scale of violence in the Licking River Valley , was extreme "even for frontier standards." It led to men of English and German settlements to join Clark's militia when the British and their hired German soldiers withdrew to the Great Lakes. [246] The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success in the Battle of Piqua but did not end Indian raids. [247]
French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers on November 5. [248] [aa] The war in the west had become a stalemate with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance. [250]
In 1781, Galvez and Pollock campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida, including British-held Mobile and Pensacola . [251] The Spanish operations impaired the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. [252] [ab]
1782 saw large scale retaliations between settlers and Native Americans of the region, including the Gnadenhutten massacre and the Crawford expedition . The 1782 Battle of Blue Licks was one of the last major engagements of the American Revolutionary War. News of the treaty between Great Britain and the United States arrived late that year. By this time, about 7% of Kentucky settlers had been killed in battles against Native Americans, contrasting with 1% of the population killed in the 13 colonies. Lingering resentments led to continued fighting in the west after the war officially ended.
Main article: Yorktown campaign
Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City ; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot . [253] In Charleston , Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia , which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither of them informed Clinton. [254]
Washington and Rochambeau , meanwhile, discussed their options. Washington wanted to attack the British in New York, and Rochambeau wanted to attack them in Virginia, where Cornwallis' forces were less established and arguably easier to defeat. [255] Washington eventually gave way, and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia, [256] but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York. Concerned by this threat, he instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base, where the Royal Navy could evacuate British troops to help defend New York. [257]
When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown , where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation. [258] An agreement by the Spanish navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. [253] This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their coordination was planned more carefully. [259] Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. [260] Expecting to be withdrawn within a few days, he also abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat. [261]
On August 31, a British fleet under Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown. [262] After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse had remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated. [263] An attempted breakout over the York River at Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather. [264] Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries to Washington to negotiate surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, these were finalized the next day. [265] Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton and Germain. Despite criticism from his junior officers, Cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions; Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in obscurity. [266]
Subsequent to Yorktown, American forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between Washington and Clinton made to facilitate British departure following the January 1782 law of Parliament forbidding any further British offensive action in North America. British-American negotiations in Paris led to preliminaries signed November 1782 acknowledging US independence. The enacted Congressional war aim for British withdrawal from its North American claims to be ceded to the US was completed for the coastal cities in stages. [267]
In the South, Generals Greene and Wayne loosely invested the withdrawing British at Savannah and Charleston, where they observed the British finally removing their regulars from Charleston on December 14, 1782. [268] Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free blacks, as well as Loyalists with their slaves were transported in a relocation to Nova Scotia and the British West Indies . [ac] Native American allies of the British and some freed blacks were left to escape through the American lines unaided.
Washington moved his army to New Windsor on the Hudson River about sixty miles north of New York City, [269] and there the substance of the Continental Army was furloughed home with officers at half pay until the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war on September 3, 1783. At that time, Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washington's Continental Army and began issuing land grants to veterans in the Northwest Territories for their war service. The last of the British occupation of New York City ended on November 25, 1783, with the departure of Clinton's replacement, General Sir Guy Carleton . [270]
To win their insurrection, the Americans needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight. To restore the empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel the Congress to dissolve itself. [272] Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare, the first being a colonial conflict in which objections to Imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war with all thirteen states split between Patriots, Loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved. [273]
The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic and Britain, with America as one of a number of different theaters. [273] After entering the war in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under US command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and by capturing British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico denied bases to the Royal Navy, as well as retaking Menorca and besieging Gibraltar in Europe. [274]
Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to their economy. [275] The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality , formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. [196] While of limited effect, these interventions forced the British to divert men and resources away from North America. [78]
The Second Continental Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned into a protracted war. Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from their mother country that lay six to twelve weeks away by sail. They were spread across most of the North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most farms were remote from the seaports, and controlling four or five major ports did not give British armies control over the inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems. [276]
Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia, combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. Together they took away French claims in North America west to the Mississippi River in the French and Indian War . The state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. In the American Revolution, they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army, each with their own state officer corps. [276] Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers , and the Patriots had more popular support than the Loyalists. British hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but they fought less than expected. [13]
Main article: Continental Army
When the war began, Congress lacked a professional army or navy, and each colony only maintained local militias. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations. [277] To compensate for this, Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, the origin of the modern United States Army , and appointed Washington as commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers. [278]
Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental Line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as Nathanael Greene ; his chief of artillery, Henry Knox ; and Alexander Hamilton , the chief of staff. [279] One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer was Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual . [278] The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area. [277] [ad]
Washington designed the overall military strategy of the war in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal. [282] For the first three years until after Valley Forge , the Continental Army was largely supplemented by local state militias. Initially, Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers and officers. [283] Over the course of the entire war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies and never gave up fighting for the American cause. [284]
By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics; the British in particular were constrained by the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men, [285] while the combined Franco-American army at Yorktown was only about 19,000. [286] At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militia for the Revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. [287]
As a whole, American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) were won from trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. [279] Nevertheless, after 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly by Baron von Steuben 's training. [278] Immediately after the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to match the British troops in action at the Battle of Monmouth , including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack then counter-charging for the first time in Washington's army. [288] Here Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important in the long run. Washington informed Henry Laurens [ae] "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little." [290]
Although Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough. [291] Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military. [292] Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of Secretary of War, and appointed Major General Benjamin Lincoln in February 1781 to the position. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army. [293] [278]
During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston . [294] Congress established the Continental Navy on October 13, 1775, and appointed Esek Hopkins as its first commander; [295] for most of the war, it consisted of a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by numerous privateers. [296] On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines , forefather of the United States Marine Corps . [281]
John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero by capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters. [297] The last was by the frigate USS Alliance commanded by Captain John Barry . On March 10, 1783, the Alliance outgunned HMS Sybil in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to Congress. [298] After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas. [299]
Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. Overall, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself. [300] [af] About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war. [15]
At the beginning of the war, the Americans had no major international allies, as most nation-states watched and waited to see how developments would unfold in British North America. Over time, the Continental Army acquitted itself well in the face of British regulars and their hired German soldiers known to all European great powers. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington , the Battles of Saratoga , and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown , proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations including France and Spain, and the Dutch Republic ; the latter moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them. [302]
The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France , who was already a long-time rival of Britain, to offer the Americans the Treaty of Amity and Commerce . The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the US. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither made a formal reply. [303]
On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the US, which ensured additional US privateer support for French possessions in the Caribbean. [ag] Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through Lafayette on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781. [306] [ah]
The British military had considerable experience of fighting in North America, most recently during the Seven Years' War which forced France to give up New France in 1763. [308] However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics, as well as support from the colonial militia, which was not available in the American Revolutionary War. Reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived. [309]
Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. [310] This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York and Charleston. [311] British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the Dutch Caribbean , their economy was able to survive. [312]
The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map". [313] While Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle, [314] Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an "opportunity that would never come again". [315] The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility". [316]
The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million. [317] The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined. [318] With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later. [319]
Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief, the first of whom was Thomas Gage; appointed in 1763, his initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Rightly or wrongly, many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at Bunker Hill. [320] His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America. [321]
The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy. [322] However, it allowed the Patriots to take the initiative and British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. [323] Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities. [324] Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as the delay in launching the New York campaign and failure to pursue Washington's beaten army. [325] Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. [326]
Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated. [327] In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton, appointed instead of Carleton who was considered overly cautious. [328] Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy, [326] like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues. [329] As a result, he was largely inactive in 1779 and much of 1780; in October 1780, he warned Germain of "fatal consequences" if matters did not improve. [330]
In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot , replaced in early 1781 by Rodney. [253] He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis' invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City. [331] After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City. [332]
During the 18th century, states commonly hired foreign soldiers . This especially included Britain; during the Seven Years' War, foreign soldiers comprised 10% of the British army and their use caused little debate. [333] When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ professional German soldiers . There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, an historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments. [334] An alternate source was readily available in the Holy Roman Empire , where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was Hesse-Kassel , known as "the Mercenary State". [335]
The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; over the next decade, more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America, Gibraltar, South Africa and India, of whom 30,000 served in the American War. [336] Often generically referred to as "Hessians", they included men from many other states, including Hanover and Brunswick . [337] Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the Ottomans ; however, negotiations with Catherine the Great made little progress. [338]
Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war. [339] In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects". [340] The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers, which reprinted key speeches and in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves. Provided by British sympathizers, these were smuggled into North America from London by George Merchant, a recently released American prisoner. [341]
The prospect of foreign German soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments. [342] [343] By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of what was regarded as "foreign mercenaries" became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence. [339] The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German-American immigrants. [344]
The presence of over 150,000 German-Americans meant both sides felt the German soldiers might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of "handbills" promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs. [345] Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris. [346] German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties. [347]
Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown; [348] consequently, British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists, but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support. [277] [ai] Nevertheless, they continued to deceive themselves on their level of American support as late as 1780, a year before hostilities ended. [349]
Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war. [30] Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population, [79] they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the Tidewater region and South Carolina who produced cash crops in tobacco and indigo comparable to global markets in Caribbean sugar. [79]
When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars. [350] The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives. [351] The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the Battle of Kings Mountain ; the Patriot victory irreversibly impaired any further Loyalist militia capability in the South. [234]
When the early war policy was administered by General William Howe , the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods. [352] The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists. [222] After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 and Westminster turned to "hard war" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs. [353] Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering . [354]
A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion —provided some of the best troops in British service; it received a commission in the British Army. [355] It was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery. [356] [aj] It was commanded by Banastre Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for "brutality and needless slaughter". [357] [ better source needed ] In May 1779 the British Legion was one of five regiments that formed the American Establishment . [358]
Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted to do so. For example, throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps, [359] and Frederika Charlotte Riedesel documented the Saratoga campaign . [360] Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps. They were a necessary part of eighteenth-century armies, and numbered in the thousands during the war. [361]
Women also assumed military roles: aside from military tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp, some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides of the Revolutionary War. [362] Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army and wore men's clothes by the time the Battle of Germantown happened. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and "performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown ... with the courage of a soldier". [363]
On April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington is said to have ridden to alert militia forces of Putnam County, New York, and Danbury, Connecticut, to warn them of the British's approach; she has been called the "female Paul Revere". [364] A report in The New England Quarterly says there is little evidence backing the story, [365] and whether the ride occurred is questioned. [365] [366] [367] [368] A few others disguised themselves as men . Deborah Sampson fought until her gender was discovered and discharged as a result; Sally St. Clair was killed in action during the war. [363]
When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on Southern plantations . [369] In November 1775, Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned. [370]
The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed on farms to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers , he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape. [371] As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783. [372]
Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves in total escapes. [373] In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (about 30 percent of the enslaved population) either fled, migrated, or died, which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war. [374]
Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in June 1788. [375] Ultimately, around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions in old age; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom. [376]
As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia , where they founded settlements such as Birchtown . [377] White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica and the Bahamas . The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the British West Indies included regular soldiers from Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment , and those from Charleston who helped garrison the Leeward Islands . [372]
Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Natives fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes who deployed around 1,500 men. [32]
Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of North Carolina . Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee , who perpetuated the Cherokee–American wars against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended. [378]
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah . [379] Many Native Americans were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws , and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte , the Battle of Mobile , and the Siege of Pensacola . [380]
The Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War, whatever side they took; the Seneca , Onondaga , and Cayuga tribes sided with the British; members of the Mohawks fought on both sides; and many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition throughout New York to debilitate the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split. [381]
In the western theater of the American Revolutionary War , conflicts between settlers and Native Americans led to lingering distrust. [382] In the 1783 Treaty of Paris , Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River , but the Indian inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations. [383] Tribes in the Northwest Territory joined as the Western Confederacy and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the Northwest Indian War . [384]
Lord North , Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich , who was head of the Royal Navy from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778, and French declaration of war in June. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter. [385]
British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to Congress. [386] The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body, suspend any objectionable legislation, surrender its right to local colonial taxation, and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return, all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned, British debts honored, and locally enforced martial law accepted. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end. [387]
When the commissioners returned to London in November 1778, they recommended a change in policy. Sir Henry Clinton, the new British Commander-in-Chief in America, was ordered to stop treating the rebels as enemies, rather than subjects whose loyalty might be regained. [388] Those standing orders would be in effect for three years until Clinton was relieved. [389]
North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after the defeat of Yorktown, he was forced to accept the fact that this policy had failed. [390] It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade. [391] The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers. [392]
On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes. [393] North now resigned, obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to US independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the new government took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by Lord Shelburne who acknowledged American independence. [394]
When Lord Rockingham, the Whig leader and friend of the American cause was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. All were experienced in Congressional leadership. The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also an Enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of European great powers in Prussia , England's former ally, and Austria , a Catholic empire like Spain. Since the 1760s, Franklin had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then served as aa colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. John Adams of Massachusetts had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. John Jay of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, Henry Laurens of South Carolina had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. He had been a successor to John Jay as president of Congress and with Franklin was a member of the American Philosophical Society . Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty. [267]
The Whig negotiators for Lord Rockingham and his successor, Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, included long-time friend of Benjamin Franklin from his time in London, David Hartley and Richard Oswald , who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London. [267] The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands: independence, territory up to the Mississippi, navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico, and fishing rights in Newfoundland. [267]
British strategy was to strengthen the U.S. sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America, and they had little interest in these proposals. [396] However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782. [397] The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain, thus reversing the losses of 1763. [398] Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans; France proposed setting the western boundary of the US along the Appalachians, matching the British 1763 Proclamation Line . The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin, but required the cession of Georgia in violation of the Franco-American alliance. [398]
Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed. [399] Key agreements for the United States in obtaining peace included recognition of United States independence, including recognition that the U.S. would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida and south of Canada, and the granting of fishing rights in the Grand Banks , off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence ; the United States and Great Britain were each given perpetual access to the Mississippi River. [400] [401]
An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence, and the conclusive treaty was signed on September 2, 1783, in Paris, effective the following day on September 3, 1783, when Britain signed its treaty with France. John Adams, who helped draft the treaty, claimed it represented "one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe". Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring. [402] On November 25, the last British troops remaining in the U.S. were evacuated from New York to Halifax . [403]
Main article: American Revolution
Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as "little short of a standing miracle". [404] The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. The last uniformed British troops departed their last East Coast port cities in Savannah , Charleston , and New York City , by November 25, 1783, which marked the end of British occupation in the new United States. [405]
On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, General Guy Carleton issued a similar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to evacuate until a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect. [406]
As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed "to their homes" until the "definitive treaty of peace", when they would be automatically discharged. The U.S. armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on Monday, June 2, 1783. [407] Once the Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain on September 3, 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and left to retire at Mount Vernon . [267]
The expanse of territory that was now the United States was ceded from its colonial mother country alone. It included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes line between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River . The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years of the Revolutionary War. Kentucky County, Virginia , for instance, had a 1775 population of 150. By 1790, 15 years later, its population had grown to over 73,000. [408]
Britain's extended post-war policy for the U.S. continued to try to establish an Indian buffer state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the War of 1812 . The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so American Indian tribes that had been British allies for the most part. [383] Though British forts on their lands had been ceded to either the French or the British prior to the creation of the United States, [409] Natives were not referred to in the British cession to the U.S. [410]
While tribes were not consulted by the British for the treaty, in practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795) , including erecting an additional British Fort Miami in Maumee, Ohio . British sponsorship of local warfare on the U.S. continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty , authored by Alexander Hamilton went into effect on February 29, 1796. [410] [ak] At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the U.S. by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans. [408]
Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created United States, Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it. [al] Its territory adjacent to the U.S. was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi River and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida . [412] It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans . Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to Southwestern Natives to resist American settlement. A former Continental Army General, James Wilkinson settled in Kentucky County , Virginia in 1784, and there he fostered settler secession from Virginia during the Spanish-allied Chickamauga Cherokee war . Beginning in 1787, he received pay as Spanish Agent 13, and subsequently expanded his efforts to persuade American settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains to secede from the United States, first in the Washington administration and later again in the Jefferson administration . [412]
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing an estimated 130,000 among all its populations during those years. [40] [am] Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions. [413]
Up to 70,000 American patriots died during active military service. [414] Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. [415] [an] The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. [416]
The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States. [417] [ao] The Spanish lost a total of 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida. [418] [ap]
A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779). [40] [aq] Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; among those labeled German deserters, however, it is estimated that 1,800 were killed in combat. [12] [ar]
The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties and set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, and the constitutions of other free countries often bear a striking resemblance to the U.S. Constitution , often word-for-word in places. It inspired revolutions in France, Haiti, Latin America, and elsewhere in the modern era. [426]
Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality, it did little to change the status of women, despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war . While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some, yet denying it to others, the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780, many of the states banned the importation of slaves, but the institution itself continued. [427]
In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom. [428] With support from Benjamin Franklin, in 1790 the Quakers petitioned Congress to abolish slavery; [429] the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it. [430] However, even many like Adams who viewed slavery as a 'foul contagion' opposed the 1790 petition as a threat to the Union. [431] In 1808, Jefferson passed legislation banning the importation of slaves , but allowed the domestic slave trade to continue, arguing the federal government had no right to regulate individual states. [432]
The body of historical writings on the American Revolution cite many motivations for the Patriot revolt that ultimately led to the nation's independence and establishment. [433] American patriots stressed the denial of their constitutional rights as Englishmen , especially " no taxation without representation ." Contemporaries credit the American Enlightenment with laying the intellectual, moral, and ethical foundations for the American Revolution among the Founding Fathers , who were influenced by the classical liberalism of John Locke and other enlightenment age writers and philosophers.
Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major influence on Revolutionary-era American thinking, but historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May contend that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his political Treatises . [434] Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united the 13 colonies . In turn, that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and deeply opposed aristocratic control. [435] In Britain , on the other hand, republicanism was largely a fringe ideology since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British monarchy and political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies; instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open at the time to the majority of white men. In analysis of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have often cited three motivations behind it: [436]
- The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including subsequent revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. [437] [438] [439]
- The " new social history " approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages.
- The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States. [440] Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts. [441] [442]
After the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849, the U.S. Postal Service frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events of the Revolutionary War. The first such stamp was the Liberty Bell issue of 1926 on the 150th anniversary of American independence. [443]
- Selected issues:
The Liberty Bell stamp, issued on the 150th anniversary of American independence in 1926
150th anniversary of the Battles of Saratoga stamp featuring Burgoyne 's surrender, issued in 1927
Washington at prayer at Valley Forge stamp, issued in 1928
150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown stamp featuring Rochambeau , Washington , and de Grasse , issued in 1931
- ^ Two independent "COR" Regiments, the Congress's Own Regiments, were recruited among British Canadiens. The 1st Canadian Regiment formed by James Livingston of Chambly, Quebec; [1] and the 2nd Canadian Regiment formed by Moses Hazen of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. [2]
- ^ Augustin de La Balme independently marched on Detroit under a French flag with British Canadien militia recruited from western Quebec ( Illinois County, Virginia ) at the county seat of Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes. [3]
- ^ (until 1779)
- ^ Sixty-five percent of Britain's German auxiliaries employed in North America were from Hesse-Kassel (16,000) and Hesse-Hanau (2,422), flying this same flag. [6]
- ^ Twenty percent of Britain's German auxiliaries employed in North America were from Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (5,723), flying this flag. [7]
- ^ The British hired over 30,000 professional soldiers from various German states who served in North America from 1775 to 1782. [9] Commentators and historians often refer to them as mercenaries or auxiliaries, terms that are sometimes used interchangeably. [8]
- ^ (from 1779)
- ^ Arnold served on the American side from 1775 to 1780; after defecting, he served on the British side from 1780 to 1783.
- ^ 1780–1783
- ^ The total in active duty service for the American Cause during the American Revolutionary War numbered 200,000. [13]
- ^ 5,000 sailors (peak), [14] manning privateers, an additional 55,000 total sailors [15]
- ^ In 1780, General Rochambeau landed in Rhode Island with an independent command of about 6000 troops, [18] and in 1781 Admiral de Grasse landed nearly 4000 troops who were detached to Lafayette's Continental Army surrounding British General Cornwallis in Virginia at Yorktown . [19] An additional 750 French troops participated with the Spanish assault on Pensacola. [20]
- ^ For five months in 1778 from July to November, the French deployed a fleet to assist American operations off of New York, Rhode Island and Savannah commanded by Admiral d'Estaing , with little result. [21] In September 1781, Admiral de Grasse left the West Indies to defeat the British fleet off Virginia at the Battle of the Chesapeake , then offloaded 3,000 troops and siege cannon to support Washington's Siege of Yorktown . [22]
- ^ Governor Bernardo de Gálvez deployed 500 Spanish regulars in his New Orleans based attacks on British held locations west of the Mississippi River in Spanish Luisiana . [24] In later engagements, Galvez had 800 regulars from New Orleans to assault Mobile, reinforced by infantry from regiments of Jose de Ezpeleta from Havana. In the assault on Pensacola, the Spanish Army contingents from Havana exceeded 9,000. [25] For the final days of the siege at Pensacola siege, Admiral Jose Solano's fleet landed 1600 crack infantry veterans from that of Gibraltar . [20]
- ^ Admiral Jose Solano's fleet arrived from the Mediterranean Sea to support the Spanish conquest of English Pensacola, West Florida. [20]
- ^ British 121,000 (global 1781) [26] "Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September (including 400 in hospital), some 3,430 were always on duty". [27]
- ^ Royal Navy 94 ships-of-the-line global, 104 frigates global, [28] 37 sloops global, [28] 171,000 sailors [29]
- ^ Contains a detailed listing of American, French, British, German, and Loyalist regiments; indicates when they were raised, the main battles, and what happened to them. Also includes the main warships on both sides, and all the important battles.
- ^ Beyond the 2112 deaths recorded by the French Government fighting for U.S. independence, additional men died fighting Britain in a war waged by France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic from 1778 to 1784, "overseas" from the American Revolution as posited by a British scholar [ specify ] in his "War of the American Revolution". [37]
- ^ Clodfelter reports that the total deaths among the British and their allies numbered 15,000 killed in battle or died of wounds. These included estimates of 3000 Germans, 3000 Loyalists and Canadians, 3000 lost at sea, and 500 Native Americans killed in battle or died of wounds. [35]
- ^ "Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: ... they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of their sovereign, ...: But, ... we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament, as are bonafide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its respective members; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external, [without the consent of American subjects]." quoted from the Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress October 14, 1774.
- ^ To learn when and where the attack would occur Washington asked for a volunteer among the Rangers to spy on activity behind enemy lines in Brooklyn . Young Nathan Hale stepped forward, but he was only able to provide Washington with nominal intelligence at that time. [122] On September 21, Hale was recognized in a New York City tavern, and was apprehended with maps and sketches of British fortifications and troop positions in his pockets. Howe ordered that he be summarily hung as a spy without trial the next day. [123]
- ^ Tallmadge's cover name became John Bolton, and he was the architect of the spy ring. [124]
- ^ The American prisoners were subsequently sent to the infamous prison ships in the East River, where more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. [135]
- ^ The mandate came by way of Benjamin Rush, chair of the Medical Committee. Congress had directed that all troops who had not previously survived smallpox infection be inoculated. In explaining himself to state governors, Washington lamented that he had lost "an army" to smallpox in 1776 by the "Natural way" of immunity. [153]
- ^ Bird's expedition numbered 150 British soldiers, several hundred Loyalists, and 700 Shawnee, Wyandot and Ottawa auxiliaries. The force skirted into the eastern regions of Patriot-conquered western Quebec that had been annexed as Illinois County, Virginia . His target was Virginia militia stationed at Lexington . As they approached downriver on the Ohio River, rumor among the natives spread that the feared Colonel Clark had discovered their approach. Bird's natives and Loyalists abandoned their mission 90 miles upriver to loot settlements at the Licking River . At the surrender of Ruddles Station, safe passage to families was promised, but 200 were massacred by Indian raiders. Grenier maintains that "The slaughter the Indians and rangers perpetrated was unprecedented".
- ^ Most Native Americans living in the area remembered the French better than any of the British they had met. Despite the British military nearby, the Miami people sought to avoid fighting with either Virginian Clark or Frenchman La Balme. On La Balme's horseback advance onto Detroit, he paused two weeks to ruin a local French trader and loot surrounding Miami towns. La Balme might have treated them as allies, but he pushed Little Turtle into warrior leadership, converting most Miami tribes into British military allies, and launching the military career of one of the most successful opponents of westward settlement over the next thirty years. [249]
- ^ Governor Bernardo de Gálvez is only one of eight men made honorary US citizens for his service in the American Cause. see Bridget Bowman (29 December 2014). "Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid's Very Good Year". Roll Call. The Economist Group. Retrieved April 25, 2020.
- ^ In Nova Scotia, a province that had been a Massachusetts county in the 1600s, British settlement of freed black Loyalists from the American Revolutionary War secured its Canadian claim there. Britain continued its last "Bourbon War" with the French and Spanish primarily amidst their mutually conflicting territorial claims adjacent the Caribbean Sea including Jamaica, adjacent the Mediterranean Sea including Gibraltar and Isla Mallorca, and adjacent the Indian Ocean during the Second Mysore War .
- ^ Three branches of the United States Military trace their roots to the American Revolutionary War; the Army comes from the Continental Army ; the Navy comes from the Continental Navy , appointing Esek Hopkins as the Navy's first commander. [280] The Marine Corps links to the Continental Marines , created by Congress on November 10, 1775. [281]
- ^ Laurens was president of the Second Continental Congress at this time. [289]
- ^ In what was known as the Whaleboat War , American privateers mainly from New Jersey, Brooklyn and Connecticut attacked and robbed British merchant ships and raided and robbed coastal communities of Long Island reputed to have Loyalist sympathies. [301]
- ^ King George III feared that the war's prospects would make it unlikely he could reclaim the North American colonies. [304] During the later years of the Revolution, the British were drawn into numerous other conflicts about the globe. [305]
- ^ The final elements for US victory over Britain and US independence was assured by direct military intervention from France, as well as ongoing French supply and commercial trade over the final three years of the war. [307]
- ^ On militia see Boatner 1974, p. 707;
Weigley 1973, ch. 2
- ^ "British Legion Infantry strength at Cowpens was between 200 and 271 enlisted men". However, this statement is referenced to a note on pp. 175–76, which says, "The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usually considered to have had about 200–250 men, but returns for the 25 December 1780 muster show only 175. Totals obtained by Cornwallis, dated 15 January, show that the whole legion had 451 men, but approximately 250 were dragoons". There would therefore appear to be no evidence for putting the total strength of the five British Legion light infantry companies at more than 200. [356]
- ^ For the thirteen years prior to the Anglo-American commercial Jay Treaty of 1796 under President George Washington , the British maintained five forts in New York state: two forts at northern Lake Champlain, and three beginning at Fort Niagara stretching east along Lake Ontario. In the Northwest Territory, they garrisoned Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac . [411]
- ^ There had been native-born Spanish (hidalgo) uprisings in several American colonies during the American Revolution, contesting mercantilist reforms of Carlos III that had removed privileges inherited from the Conquistadors among encomiendas , and they also challenged Jesuit dominance in the Catholic Church there. American ship captains were known to have smuggled banned copies of the Declaration of Independence into Spanish Caribbean ports, provoking Spanish colonial discontent.
- ^ In addition to as many as 30% deaths in port cities, and especially high rates among the closely confined prisoner-of-war ships, scholars have reported large numbers lost among the Mexican population, and large percentage losses among the American Indian along trade routes, Atlantic to Pacific, Eskimo to Aztec.
- ^ If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War . Uncertainty arises from the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. [12]
- ^ Elsewhere around the world, the French lost another approximately 5,000 total dead in conflicts 1778–1784. [417]
- ^ During the same time period in the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War , the Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain. [418]
- ^ British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces . [419] In the first three years of the Anglo-French War (1778), British list 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778–1780). [40] In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during British conflicts outside of North America, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean, and the East Indies. [420] Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds outside of its North American engagements. [12]
- ^ Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during British conflicts worldwide 1775–1784; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776–1780). [421] The greatest killer at sea was scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. [422] It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily grog rations of sailors. [423] Around 42,000 sailors deserted worldwide during the era. [29] The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; 2,283 were taken by American privateers. [300] Worldwide 1775–1784, an estimated 3,386 British merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war among Americans, French, Spanish, and Dutch. [424]
A selection of works relating to the war not listed above;
- Allison, David, and Larrie D. Ferreiro, eds. The American Revolution: A World War (Smithsonian, 2018) excerpt
- Bancroft, George (1854–1878). History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent – eight volumes .
Volumes committed to the American Revolution: Vol. 7 ; Vol. 8 ; Vol. 9 ; Vol. 10
- Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution . Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint)
- British Army (1916) [7 August 1781]. Proceedings of a Board of general officers of the British army at New York, 1781 . New-York Historical Society. Collections. The John Watts de Peyster publication fund series, no. 49. New York Historical Society.
The board of inquiry was convened by Sir Henry Clinton into Army accounts and expenditures
- Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History . 55 (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975 . doi : 10.1017/S0022050700040602 . JSTOR 2123771 . S2CID 145691938 .
There is an overwhelming consensus that Americans' economic standard of living on the eve of the Revolution was among the highest in the world.
- Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". The Journal of Economic History . 55 (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975 . doi : 10.1017/S0022050700040602 . JSTOR 2123771 . S2CID 145691938 .
There is an overwhelming consensus that Americans' economic standard of living on the eve of the Revolution was among the highest in the world.
- Wood, Gordon (1969). The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 . Williamsburg, Virginia: Institute of Early American History and Culture. p. 653. ISBN 9780393006445 .
- Zeller-Frederick, Andrew A. (April 18, 2018). "The Hessians Who Escaped Washington's Trap at Trenton" . Journal of the American Revolution . Bruce H. Franklin.
Citing William M. Dwyer and Edward J. Lowell, The Hessians: And the Other German Auxiliaries in the Revolutionary War , 1970
- Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78 (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions.
- ——. General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83 (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions.
Many primary sources are available at Princeton University Law School 's Avalon Project and at the Library of Congress ' Digital Collections. Original editions for titles related to the American Revolutionary War are also available online at Internet Archive and HathiTrust digital library.
- Declaration of Independence (Report). National Archives, Washington D.C.: Continental Congress of the United States. 1776.
- Emmerich, Adreas. The Partisan in War , a treatise on light infantry tactics written in 1789. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War | 113 |
where was the second half of the american revolutionary war primarily fought | Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War | Southern theater
1775–1779
1775–1779
The southern theater of the American Revolutionary War was the central theater of military operations in the second half of the American Revolutionary War , 1778–1781. It encompassed engagements primarily in Virginia , Georgia and South Carolina . Tactics consisted of both strategic battles and guerrilla warfare .
During the first three years of the conflict, 1775–1778, the largest military encounters between Continental Army and the British Army had been in the New England and Middle colonies, around the cities of Boston , New York , and Philadelphia . After the failure of the Saratoga campaign , the British Army largely abandoned operations in the north and pursued peace through subjugation in the Southern Colonies . [2] Before 1778, these colonies were largely dominated by Patriot -controlled governments and militias , although there was also a Continental Army presence that played a role in the 1776 defense of Charleston , the suppression of Loyalist militias, and attempts to drive the British from strongly Loyalist East Florida .
The British began to implement their "Southern Strategy" in late 1778, in Georgia. It initially achieved success with the capture of Savannah, Georgia , which was followed in 1780 by operations in South Carolina that included the defeat of Continental forces at Charleston and Camden . At the same time France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) declared war on Great Britain in support of the United States. Spain captured all of British West Florida , culminating in the siege of Pensacola in 1781. France initially offered only naval support for the first few years after its declaration of war but in 1781 sent massive numbers of soldiers to join General George Washington 's army and marched into Virginia from New York. Major General Nathanael Greene , who took over as Continental Army commander after Camden, engaged in a strategy of avoidance and attrition against the British. The two forces fought a string of battles, most of which were tactical, though pyrrhic victories for the British Army. The high cost in casualties left it strategically weakened, while the Continental Army remained largely intact to continue fighting. This was best exemplified by the Battle of Guilford Courthouse . Several American victories, such as the Battle of Ramseur's Mill , the Battle of Cowpens , and the Battle of Kings Mountain , also served to weaken the overall British military strength. The culminating engagement, the siege of Yorktown , ended with the surrender of British Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis on October 19, 1781. It was essentially the last major battle of the Revolutionary War. [3] [4] Shortly afterward, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783 .
In most colonies British officials quickly departed as the Patriots took control. In Virginia, the royal governor resisted. In the Gunpowder Incident of April 20, 1775, Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia , removed gunpowder stored in Williamsburg to a British warship in the James River . Dunmore saw rising unrest in the colony and was trying to deprive Virginia militia of supplies needed for insurrection. The Patriot militia, led by Patrick Henry , forced Dunmore to pay for the gunpowder. Dunmore continued to hunt for caches of military equipment and supplies in the following months, acts that were sometimes anticipated by Patriot militia, who would move supplies before his arrival. [5]
Dunmore issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. After an incident at Kemp's Landing in November where Dunmore's troops killed and captured Patriot militiamen, Patriot forces defeated Loyalist troops (which included runaway slaves Dunmore had formed into his Ethiopian Regiment ) at the Battle of Great Bridge on December 9. Dunmore and his troops retreated to Royal Navy ships anchored off Norfolk ; these naval forces bombarded and burned the town on January 1, 1776. Patriot forces in the town completed the destruction of the former Loyalist stronghold. Dunmore was driven from an island in Chesapeake Bay that summer, and never returned to Virginia. [6]
Georgia 's royal governor, James Wright , nominally remained in power until January 1776, when the unexpected arrival of British ships near Savannah prompted the local Committee of Safety to order his arrest. Georgia Patriots and Loyalists alike believed the fleet had arrived to provide military support to the governor; it had been sent from the besieged British forces in Boston, Massachusetts to acquire rice and other provisions. Wright escaped captivity and reached the fleet. In the Battle of the Rice Boats in early March, the British successfully left Savannah with a number of merchant vessels containing the desired rice supplies.
South Carolina's population was politically divided when the war began. The lowland communities, dominated by Charleston , sided strongly with the Patriots, while the back country held a large number of Loyalist sympathizers. [7] By August 1775, both sides were recruiting militia companies. [8] In September, a Patriot militia seized Fort Johnson , Charleston's major defense works, and Governor William Campbell fled to a Royal Navy ship in the harbor. [9]
The seizure by Loyalists of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition intended for the Cherokee caused an escalation in tensions that led to the first siege of Ninety Six in western South Carolina late November. [10] Patriot recruiting was by then outstripping that of the Loyalists, and a major campaign (called the Snow Campaign due to unusually heavy snowfall) involving as many as 5,000 Patriots led by Colonel Richard Richardson succeeded in capturing or driving away most of the Loyalist leadership. Loyalists fled, either to East Florida or to the Cherokee lands. A faction of the Cherokee, known as the Chickamauga , rose up in support of the British and Loyalists in 1776. They were finally defeated by militia forces from North and South Carolina.
Crucial in any British attempt to gain control of the South was the possession of a port to bring in supplies and men. To this end, the British organized an expedition to establish a strong post somewhere in the southern colonies, and sent military leaders to recruit Loyalists in North Carolina. The expedition's departure from Europe was significantly delayed, and the Loyalist force that was recruited to meet it was decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in late February 1776. When General Henry Clinton arrived at Cape Fear , North Carolina, in May, he found conditions there unsuitable for a strong post. Scouting by the Royal Navy identified Charleston, whose defenses were unfinished and seemed vulnerable, as a more suitable location. In June 1776, Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker led an assault on Fort Sullivan , which guarded the Charleston harbor.
Clinton had failed to order a complete reconnaissance of the area. His 2,200 men force was landed on Long Island (adjacent to Sullivan's Island on which the fort was positioned), and they found the channel dividing the two islands too deep to ford. [11] Instead of re-embarking on his boats, he relied on the expedition's naval forces to reduce the fort, which became known after the war as Fort Moultrie . However, the firepower of the British ships was unable to make an impression on the spongy palmetto logs that formed the majority of the fort's defenses, and the bombardment failed in its objective. [12] It was a humiliating failure, and Clinton called off his campaign in the Carolinas. [13] Clinton and Parker argued after the engagement, each blaming the other for the failure of the assault. [13] It is debated that the South was lost by this failure to take Charleston in 1776, as it left the Loyalists unsupported for three years, while allowing the port of Charleston to serve the American cause until 1780. [14]
Patriots in Georgia attempted several times to defeat the British garrison that was based at Saint Augustine in British East Florida . This garrison actively supported the activities of Loyalists who fled there from Georgia and other southern states, and were responsible for raiding cattle and other supplies in southern Georgia. The first attempt was organized by Charles Lee after he took command of the Southern Department , but sputtered out when he was recalled to the main army. The second attempt was organized by Georgia Governor Button Gwinnett (who as a representative of Georgia to the Continental Congress , was one of the signatories (first signature on the left) on the United States Declaration of Independence ) with minimal help from the new commander of the Southern Department , Robert Howe , in 1777. This expedition also failed. Gwinnett and his militia commander, Lachlan McIntosh , could not agree on anything. Some Georgia militia companies made it into East Florida, but they were checked in the May Battle of Thomas Creek . The last expedition was in early 1778. More than 2,000 Continentals and state militia were raised for the effort, but it also failed due to issues of command between Howe and Georgia governor John Houstoun . [15] A brief skirmish at Alligator Bridge in late June, combined with tropical diseases and command issues in the Patriot forces, left East Florida firmly in British hands for the war's duration.
In 1778, the British again turned their attention to the South, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists. Their belief in widespread Loyalist support was based on the accounts of Loyalist exiles in London who had direct access to the British Secretary of State for America, George Germain . [16] Keen to recover their lands and be rewarded for their loyalty to the crown, these men realized that the best way to convince the British to undertake a major operation in the South would be to exaggerate the level of potential Loyalist support. As a group, they had great influence on the British ministers in London. [17] In addition, there were strong business, trading and family ties among some Loyalists and the British in London. The British operated under the expectation that they would find substantial support for their actions, if only they liberated the right areas. While in South Carolina, Cornwallis wrote in a letter to Clinton that "Our assurances of attachment from our poor distressed friends in North Carolina are as strong as ever." [18] For the most part, this assumption was incorrect, as Cornwallis soon realized as the campaign progressed. [19]
On April 19, 1778, three row galleys of the Georgia Navy engaged, defeated, and captured a Royal Navy brigantine , an armed British East Florida provincial sloop, and an armed brig. [20]
On December 29, 1778, a British expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from New York, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell , captured Savannah, Georgia . He was joined in mid-January 1779 by Brigadier General Augustine Prevost , leading troops that marched up from Saint Augustine , taking over outposts along the way. Prevost assumed command of the forces in Georgia; and dispatched Campbell with 1,000 men toward Augusta with the goals of gaining control of that town and the recruitment of Loyalists. [21]
The remnants of the defense of Savannah had retreated to Purrysburg, South Carolina , about 12 miles (19 km) upriver from Savannah, where they were met by Major General Benjamin Lincoln , commander of Continental Army forces in the South. He marched most of the army from Charleston, South Carolina in a move intended to monitor and oppose Prevost. Early in February, 1779, Prevost sent a few hundred men to occupy Beaufort in a move probably intended to divert Lincoln's attention from Campbell's movements; Lincoln responded by sending General Moultrie and 300 men to drive them out. The February 3, 1779, Battle of Beaufort was largely indecisive, and both contingents eventually returned to their bases.
In the meantime, Campbell had taken control of Augusta without much resistance, and Loyalists were beginning to turn out. While he enrolled more than 1,000 men over a two-week period, he was powerless to prevent the defeat of a sizable number of Loyalists by Patriot militia under Andrew Pickens in the February 14, 1779, Battle of Kettle Creek , 50 miles (80 km) from Augusta. This demonstrated to everyone in the area the limits of the British Army's ability to protect Loyalists. Campbell suddenly left Augusta, apparently in response to the arrival of John Ashe and more than 1,000 North Carolina militia Lincoln sent to add to the 1,000 militia that were already across the river from Augusta in South Carolina. On the way back to Savannah, Campbell turned over command of his men to Augustine Prevost's brother, Mark . The younger Prevost turned the tables on Ashe, who was following him south, surprising and very nearly destroying his force of 1,300 in the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek . [22]
By April, Lincoln had been reinforced by large numbers of South Carolina militia and received additional military supplies through Dutch shipments to Charleston. He decided to move toward Augusta. Leaving 1,000 men under the command of General Moultrie at Purrysburg to monitor Augustine Prevost, he began the march north on April 23, 1779. Prevost's reaction was to lead 2,500 men from Savannah toward Purrysburg on April 29. Moultrie fell back toward Charleston rather than engaging, and Prevost was within 10 miles (16 km) on May 10 before he began to see resistance. Two days later he intercepted a message indicating that Lincoln, alerted to Prevost's advance, was hurrying back from Augusta to assist in the defense of Charleston. Prevost retreated to the islands southwest of Charleston, leaving an entrenched guard at Stono Ferry (near present-day Rantowles, South Carolina ) to cover his retreat. When Lincoln got back to Charleston he led about 1,200 men, mostly untried militia, after Prevost. This force was repulsed by the British on June 20, 1779, in the Battle of Stono Ferry . The rear guard, having succeeded in its objective, abandoned that post a few days later. [23] Prevost's foray against Charleston was notable for his troop's arbitrary looting and pillaging, which enraged friend and foe alike in the South Carolina low country. [24]
In October 1779, French and Continental Army forces tried to retake Savannah . Under the leadership of General Lincoln, and with the assistance of a French naval squadron commanded by Comte d'Estaing , it was a spectacular failure. The combined French-American forces suffered some 901 casualties, to the British 54. [25] The French Navy found Savannah's fortifications similar to those that had defied Admiral Peter Parker at Charleston in 1776. The artillery bombardment had little effect on the defenses, but unlike Charleston—where Clinton decided against attacking Fort Moultrie by land—Estaing decided to press the assault after the naval bombardment had failed. [26] In this assault, Count Kazimierz Pułaski , the Polish commander of American cavalry , was fatally wounded. [27] With Savannah secured, Clinton could launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. Lincoln moved his remaining troops to Charleston to assist in the construction of its defenses. [28]
Clinton moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. His advance on the city was uncontested; the American naval commander, Commodore Abraham Whipple , scuttled five of his eight frigates in the harbor to make a boom for its defense. [29] Inside the city, General Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British colonel Banastre Tarleton cut off the city's supply lines in victories at Moncks Corner in April and Lenud's Ferry in early May, [30] Charleston was surrounded. [31] Clinton began constructing siege lines. On March 11 he commenced the bombardment of the town. [32]
On May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the American Civil War . [33] With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South's biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war. This victory left the American military structure in the South in ruins. It was only after Nathanael Greene slipped past Cornwallis after the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in 1781 that the British finally lost this advantage in the South. [34]
The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw toward North Carolina, but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the Battle of Waxhaws on May 29. Historians have debated accounts spread after the battle that Tarleton's forces had massacred many Patriots after they had surrendered. As a consequence, "Bloody Tarleton" or "Bloody Ban" became a hated name, and the phrase, "Tarleton's quarter"—referring to his reputed lack of mercy, or " quarter "—soon became a rallying cry for the Patriots. Whether or not the battle was the massacre that it was claimed, its ramifications were felt throughout the campaign. When a Loyalist militia surrendered at the end of the Battle of Kings Mountain , many of them were killed when Patriot marksmen continued to fire while shouting "Tarleton's Quarters!". [35] Tarleton later published an account of the war that glossed over accusations of misconduct towards American militia, and portrayed him in an unabashedly positive light. [36]
After Charleston, organized American military activity in the South virtually collapsed. The states carried on their governmental functions, and the war was carried on by partisans such as Francis Marion , Thomas Sumter , William R. Davie , Andrew Pickens , and Elijah Clarke . General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched General Horatio Gates , the victor of Saratoga, to the South with a new army, but Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the Battle of Camden (August 16, 1780). Cornwallis prepared to invade North Carolina. [37]
Cornwallis's attempts to raise Loyalists in large numbers in North Carolina were effectively crushed when Patriot militia defeated a larger force of Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780. Many of the Patriot men had crossed the Appalachian Mountains from the Washington District of North Carolina to fight the British, and were so named the Overmountain Men . The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed—not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at high risk once the British army moved on. The defeat at Kings Mountain and the continuing harassment of his communications and supply lines by militia forces in South Carolina forced Cornwallis to withdraw and winter in South Carolina.
Gates was replaced by Washington's most dependable subordinate, General Nathanael Greene . Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General Daniel Morgan , a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton's troops at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781. As after Kings Mountain, Cornwallis was later criticized for detaching part of his army without adequate support. [38] Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of skirmishes and military movements referred to as the "Race to the Dan" (so named because the Dan River flows close to the border between North Carolina and Virginia); each encounter resulted in a tactical victory for the British but gave them no strategic advantage, while attrition took its toll. [39]
Cornwallis knew that Greene had divided his forces and wanted to face either Morgan's or Greene's contingent before they could rejoin. He stripped his army of all excess baggage in an effort to keep up with the fast-moving Patriots. When Greene learned of this decision, his gleeful response was "Then, he is ours!" [40] Cornwallis's lack of provisions as a consequence played a role in his later difficulties.
Greene first engaged Cornwallis in the Battle of Cowan's Ford , where Greene had sent General William Lee Davidson with 900 men. When Davidson was killed in the river, the Americans retreated. Greene was weakened, but he continued his delaying tactics, fighting a dozen more skirmishes in South and North Carolina against Cornwallis's forces. About 2,000 British troops died in these engagements. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." His tactics have been likened to the Fabian strategy of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus , the Roman general who wore down the superior forces of the Carthaginian Hannibal by a slow war of attrition . [41] Greene eventually felt strong enough to face Cornwallis directly—near New Garden, North Carolina (modern day Greensboro, North Carolina ). Although Cornwallis was the tactical victor in the Battle of Guilford Court House , the casualties his army suffered forced him to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina , for resupply and reinforcements. [42]
While Cornwallis was unable to completely destroy Greene, he recognized that most of the supplies that the American forces were relying on were coming from Virginia, a state that up to this point in the war had been relatively untouched. Against the wishes of Clinton, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia in the hopes that cutting the supply lines to the Carolinas would make American resistance there impossible. [43] [44] This theory was supported by Lord George Germain in a series of letters that left Clinton out of the decision-making process for the Southern Army, despite his nominally being its overall commander. [45] Without informing Clinton, Cornwallis marched north from Wilmington into Virginia to engage in raiding operations, [46] where he eventually met the army commanded by William Phillips and Benedict Arnold , which had engaged in raiding activities there. [47] These raids resulted in massive destruction of tobacco fields and curing barns, as the colonists used tobacco to fund their war efforts. The British destruction of about 10,000 hogsheads of tobacco (roughly 10 million pounds) in 1780 and 1781 became known as the Tobacco War . [48] [49]
When Cornwallis left Greensboro for Wilmington, he left the road open for Greene to begin the American reconquest of South Carolina. This he achieved by the end of June, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord Rawdon 's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 miles north of Camden ) on April 25. From May 22 to June 19, 1781 Greene led the siege of Ninety-Six , which he was only forced to abandon when word arrived that Rawdon was bringing troops to relieve the siege. However, the actions of Greene and militia commanders like Francis Marion drove Rawdon to eventually abandon the Ninety Six District and Camden, effectively reducing the British presence in South Carolina to the port of Charleston. Augusta, Georgia was also besieged on May 22, and fell to Patriot forces under Andrew Pickens and Harry "Light Horse" Lee on June 6, reducing the British presence in that state to the port of Savannah. [50]
Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills of the Santee River . On September 8, with 2,600 men, he engaged British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart at Eutaw Springs . Americans who fell in this battle were immortalized by American author Philip Freneau in his 1781 poem "To the Memory of Brave Americans." The battle, although tactically a draw, so weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them in for the remaining months of the war. [51]
Upon arrival in Virginia, Cornwallis took command of the existing British forces in the region, which had been commanded first by turncoat Benedict Arnold , and then by Major General William Phillips . Phillips, a good friend of Cornwallis, died two days before Cornwallis reached his position at Petersburg . [52] Having marched without informing Clinton of his movements (communications between the two British commanders was by sea and extremely slow, sometimes up to three weeks), Cornwallis sent word of his northward march and set about destroying American supplies in the Chesapeake region. [53]
In March 1781, in response to the threat of Arnold and Phillips, General Washington had dispatched the Marquis de Lafayette to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. It was during this period that Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to choose a position on the Virginia Peninsula —referred to in contemporary letters as the "Williamsburg Neck"—and construct a fortified naval post to shelter ships of the line . In complying with this order, Cornwallis put himself at risk to become trapped. With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de Grasse and General Washington's combined French-American army, Cornwallis found himself cut off. When the Royal Navy fleet, under Admiral Thomas Graves , was defeated by the French at the Battle of the Chesapeake , and a French siege train arrived from Newport, Rhode Island , his position became untenable. Cornwallis surrendered to General Washington and the French commander the Comte de Rochambeau on October 19, 1781. [54]
Cornwallis reported this disaster to Clinton in a letter that opened:
I have the mortification to inform Your Excellency that I have been forced to give up the posts of York and Gloucester and to surrender the troops under my command by capitulation, on the 19th instant, as prisoners of war to the combined forces of America. [55]
With the surrender at Yorktown, the full participation of French forces in that battle, and the resulting loss of Cornwallis's army, the British war effort ground to a halt. The sole remaining British army of any size remaining in America was that under Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton, paralyzed by the defeat, made no further action and was replaced by Guy Carleton in 1782. [56] Such a shocking reversal in fortune, coming as it had on the back of a rare naval defeat, served to increase the shift in British popular opinion against the war. The North Ministry collapsed, a peace-oriented government took power, and no further major operation on the American continent occurred for the rest of the war. While Saratoga had started the decline of British fortunes in the Revolution, Yorktown was its death knell. [57]
The Southern Campaign of the Revolution National Heritage Corridor was established in the National Heritage Area Act in 2022. [58] The National Heritage Area will help preserve and promote tourism at several dozen historic sites along an 8-mile wide corridor in North Carolina and South Carolina. [59] [60] [61]
- Alden, John (1981). The South in the Revolution, 1763 to 1789 . Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-0003-5 . OCLC 245906364 .
- Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War , London, 2003
- Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1 .
- Buchanan, John, The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas (1999)
- Cann, Marvin (October 1975). "Prelude to War: The First Battle of Ninety Six: November 19–21, 1775". The South Carolina Historical Quarterly . 76 (4): 197–214. JSTOR 27567333 .
- Clement, R: "The World Turned Upside down At the Surrender of Yorktown", Journal of American Folklore , Vol. 92, No. 363 (Jan. - Mar., 1979), pp. 66–67
- Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_theater_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War | 113 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth | Bill Cullen Archive | Produced for daily syndication
A team of three challengers comes onstage and each challenger introduces him/herself with the same name. One challenger really is the person s/he claims to be, while the other two are imposters. The host reads an affidavit, written in the first person, explaining why the central character is significant, after which the challengers take their seats at podiums labeled with the numbers 1, 2, & 3.
Each of the four panelists, in turn, has about a minute to cross-examine the challengers by asking them questions about their field of expertise, what they did, etc. After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is.
After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is. After the votes had been cast, it was customary for the host to ask, "Will the real (name) please stand up?" The real challenger stands up, and the vote scores are tallied. On this particular version, the contestants split $50 for each wrong vote cast or $500 if all four panelists were wrong.
To Tell the Truth was the first series developed by legendary producer Bob Stewart after he joined Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions. It's actually fairly surprising that the series ever went into production because the mere premise seemed so preposterous to those who heard Stewart's pitch. Mark Goodson flatly rejected it, feeling that three civilians could never trick a panel largely consisting of professional actors. Gene Rayburn, a friend & former co-worker of Stewart's, told him that it could never work. A run-through where three contestants stumped a roomful of Goodson-Todman staffers turned everyone into believers, and the series debuted in 1956 on CBS. It ran until 1968.
The series was revived for first-run syndication in 1969. Orson Bean, Peggy Cass & Kitty Carlisle, regular panelists from the original series, joined the new series. Bill, who had only appeared on the original series twice, came aboard as well. Bean departed after the first season. The rest of the regulars remained for the entire series, joined each week by a guest star.
Original host Bud Collyer elected not to host this version, considering himself retired (in an eerie coincidence, Collyer died suddenly on the day that this version premiered in many cities). Goodson-Todman, needing a new host, turned to former I've Got a Secret host Garry Moore, which was surprising because Moore had also retired, having left his series in 1964. He returned for Truth and remained with the show until a bout with throat cancer sidelined him in 1976. He made a full recovery but elected not to return, saying he took his illness as a sign from above that it was time to retire.
Bill had been the "go-to" guy for guest-hosting when Garry Moore frequently took vacations, but when the time came to sign a permanent host, the decision was made to bring in Joe Garagiola as host and leave Bill on the panel. In his book What's My Line? , Gil Fates explains that "Bill's superlative gamesmanship was so missed on the panel." That's how talented Bill Cullen was, folks...he reached a level of greatness that actually cost him a job.
One subtle thing that distinguishes this series from the rest of Bill's TV work was the way that his limp was dealt with on this program. Throughout his career, Bill's shows would open with him already seated, or very close to where he needed to be, so that he only had to take a few steps. If he had to walk any more than that, the cameras would cut away. None of that applied to To Tell the Truth. Each program with Bill on the panel opened with the host walking to center stage to greet each member of the panel, one at a time. Bill would walk to center stage, shake hands with the host, then walk to the desk, in full view of the camera. Typically the camera would zoom into minimize the sight of the limp, but it was still apparent. At the end of each episode, Bill would get up and walk to center stage again for the "mill-around" as the credits rolled.
This version of the show is probably best known for its unusual "mod" set, apparently inspired by the artwork of Peter Max, as well as the rock song, penned by Goodson-Todman director Paul Alter, that served as the show's theme music ("It's a lie, lie...you're telling a lie...")
195 episodes of To Tell The Truth were produced each season, enough for 39 weeks of programming. According to a 1975 magazine article, the shows were taped on Tuesdays, five per day, from mid-September to mid-June each season.
Bill once had the hiccups when taping five To Tell The Truth shows in one day. "When the shows ran through a week, people thought I had hiccupped an entire week, and were sorry for me! More than 5000 letters came in offering sympathy and remedies, and I was very touched."
Many of the "central characters" that the panel had to identify were people who just had interesting stories, pursuits, or careers. But because of the nature of the show, To Tell the Truth was able to showcase many people who had achieved a degree of celebrity without their faces being particularly well-known. Among the contestants on this version: The Exorcist author William Peter Blatty; MAD Magazine founder William M. Gaines; ice cream tycoon Tom Carvell; and Bugs Bunny creator Bob Clampett.
Two years after this version ended, most of the same production staff worked on a new version hosted by Canadian personality Robin Ward. Cullen, Cass and Carlisle all made appearances on this one-season version, though never all at the same time.
To Tell The Truth has proven to be the most durable of the Goodson-Todman panel shows. From its original network run in the mid-fifties to the two-season remake that debuted in 2000 to the current incarnation on ABC, there have been six distinct versions and about twenty different people have filled the host's chair (probably more than for any other game show). Kitty Carlisle made a single appearance on the 2000 version, which marked her sixth decade of panel appearances on the show.
It's believed that the entire 1969-78 series still exists. It has aired on Game Show Network and Buzzr. A selection of episodes is available for viewing at the Paley Center, including episodes that haven't been rerun.
Marshall Aker's To Tell The Truth on the Web - History and info about the show, plus episode guides for a handful of seasons | https://www.billcullen.net/to-tell-the-truth | 114 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth | Bill Cullen Archive | Produced for daily syndication
A team of three challengers comes onstage and each challenger introduces him/herself with the same name. One challenger really is the person s/he claims to be, while the other two are imposters. The host reads an affidavit, written in the first person, explaining why the central character is significant, after which the challengers take their seats at podiums labeled with the numbers 1, 2, & 3.
Each of the four panelists, in turn, has about a minute to cross-examine the challengers by asking them questions about their field of expertise, what they did, etc. After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is.
After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is. After the votes had been cast, it was customary for the host to ask, "Will the real (name) please stand up?" The real challenger stands up, and the vote scores are tallied. On this particular version, the contestants split $50 for each wrong vote cast or $500 if all four panelists were wrong.
To Tell the Truth was the first series developed by legendary producer Bob Stewart after he joined Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions. It's actually fairly surprising that the series ever went into production because the mere premise seemed so preposterous to those who heard Stewart's pitch. Mark Goodson flatly rejected it, feeling that three civilians could never trick a panel largely consisting of professional actors. Gene Rayburn, a friend & former co-worker of Stewart's, told him that it could never work. A run-through where three contestants stumped a roomful of Goodson-Todman staffers turned everyone into believers, and the series debuted in 1956 on CBS. It ran until 1968.
The series was revived for first-run syndication in 1969. Orson Bean, Peggy Cass & Kitty Carlisle, regular panelists from the original series, joined the new series. Bill, who had only appeared on the original series twice, came aboard as well. Bean departed after the first season. The rest of the regulars remained for the entire series, joined each week by a guest star.
Original host Bud Collyer elected not to host this version, considering himself retired (in an eerie coincidence, Collyer died suddenly on the day that this version premiered in many cities). Goodson-Todman, needing a new host, turned to former I've Got a Secret host Garry Moore, which was surprising because Moore had also retired, having left his series in 1964. He returned for Truth and remained with the show until a bout with throat cancer sidelined him in 1976. He made a full recovery but elected not to return, saying he took his illness as a sign from above that it was time to retire.
Bill had been the "go-to" guy for guest-hosting when Garry Moore frequently took vacations, but when the time came to sign a permanent host, the decision was made to bring in Joe Garagiola as host and leave Bill on the panel. In his book What's My Line? , Gil Fates explains that "Bill's superlative gamesmanship was so missed on the panel." That's how talented Bill Cullen was, folks...he reached a level of greatness that actually cost him a job.
One subtle thing that distinguishes this series from the rest of Bill's TV work was the way that his limp was dealt with on this program. Throughout his career, Bill's shows would open with him already seated, or very close to where he needed to be, so that he only had to take a few steps. If he had to walk any more than that, the cameras would cut away. None of that applied to To Tell the Truth. Each program with Bill on the panel opened with the host walking to center stage to greet each member of the panel, one at a time. Bill would walk to center stage, shake hands with the host, then walk to the desk, in full view of the camera. Typically the camera would zoom into minimize the sight of the limp, but it was still apparent. At the end of each episode, Bill would get up and walk to center stage again for the "mill-around" as the credits rolled.
This version of the show is probably best known for its unusual "mod" set, apparently inspired by the artwork of Peter Max, as well as the rock song, penned by Goodson-Todman director Paul Alter, that served as the show's theme music ("It's a lie, lie...you're telling a lie...")
195 episodes of To Tell The Truth were produced each season, enough for 39 weeks of programming. According to a 1975 magazine article, the shows were taped on Tuesdays, five per day, from mid-September to mid-June each season.
Bill once had the hiccups when taping five To Tell The Truth shows in one day. "When the shows ran through a week, people thought I had hiccupped an entire week, and were sorry for me! More than 5000 letters came in offering sympathy and remedies, and I was very touched."
Many of the "central characters" that the panel had to identify were people who just had interesting stories, pursuits, or careers. But because of the nature of the show, To Tell the Truth was able to showcase many people who had achieved a degree of celebrity without their faces being particularly well-known. Among the contestants on this version: The Exorcist author William Peter Blatty; MAD Magazine founder William M. Gaines; ice cream tycoon Tom Carvell; and Bugs Bunny creator Bob Clampett.
Two years after this version ended, most of the same production staff worked on a new version hosted by Canadian personality Robin Ward. Cullen, Cass and Carlisle all made appearances on this one-season version, though never all at the same time.
To Tell The Truth has proven to be the most durable of the Goodson-Todman panel shows. From its original network run in the mid-fifties to the two-season remake that debuted in 2000 to the current incarnation on ABC, there have been six distinct versions and about twenty different people have filled the host's chair (probably more than for any other game show). Kitty Carlisle made a single appearance on the 2000 version, which marked her sixth decade of panel appearances on the show.
It's believed that the entire 1969-78 series still exists. It has aired on Game Show Network and Buzzr. A selection of episodes is available for viewing at the Paley Center, including episodes that haven't been rerun.
Marshall Aker's To Tell The Truth on the Web - History and info about the show, plus episode guides for a handful of seasons | https://www.billcullen.net/to-tell-the-truth | 114 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the game show. For other uses, see To Tell the Truth (disambiguation) .
"TTTT" redirects here. Not to be confused with 4T (disambiguation) , T4 (disambiguation) , or The Four T's (disambiguation) .
|To Tell the Truth|
|Genre||Panel show|
|Created by||Bob Stewart|
|Presented by|
|Narrated by|
|Music by|| Score Productions |
Gary Stockdale
|Country of origin||United States|
|Original language||English|
|No. of seasons|| 9 (1969–78) |
2 (2000–02)
6 (2016–22)
|No. of episodes|| 1,625 (CBS Daytime; 1962–68) |
1,715 (Syndicated; 1969–78)
195 (Syndicated; 1980–81)
190 (NBC Daytime; 1990–91)
86 (ABC; 2016–22)
|Production|
|Running time|| 22–26 minutes (1956–2002) |
42–46 minutes (2016–22)
|Production companies|| Goodson-Todman Productions |
(1956–81)
Mark Goodson Productions
(1990–2002)
Pearson Television
(2000–02)
Gaspin Media
(2016–22)
A2 Productions
(2016–22)
Fremantle North America
(2016–22)
|Release|
|Original network|| CBS (1956–68) |
NBC (1990–91)
Syndicated (1969–78, 1980–81, 2000–02)
ABC (2016–22)
|Original release|| December 18, 1956 – |
April 26, 2022
To Tell the Truth is an American television panel show in which four celebrity panelists are presented with three contestants (the "team of challengers", each an individual or pair) and must identify which is the "central character" whose unusual occupation or experience has been read aloud by the show's moderator/host. When the panelists question the contestants, the two impostors may lie whereas the "central character" must tell the truth. The setup adds the impostor element to the format of What's My Line? and I've Got a Secret .
The show was created by Bob Stewart and originally produced by Mark Goodson–Bill Todman Productions . It aired—both on the CBS television network , from 1956 to 1968, and in syndication , from 1969 to 1978—and has been revived several times since then, reaching a total of 31 seasons by 2021. The original host was Bud Collyer , who hosted the show during its CBS years from 1956 to 1968. He was replaced by Garry Moore when the show moved to syndication in 1969, and stayed the host into 1977, though Moore's health trouble resulted in a number of guest hosts during his tenure, and led to his eventual retirement, to be replaced on a permanent basis as host by Joe Garagiola , a former panelist and frequent guest host. Garagiola hosted until the show was cancelled in 1978.
Robin Ward hosted a 1980–81 syndicated revival of the program, and a 1990–91 revival on the NBC network featured a succession of different hosts - Gordon Elliott , Lynn Swann and Alex Trebek . The show was revived again in syndication from 2000 to 2002 and hosted by John O'Hurley . The most recent iteration aired on the ABC network from 2016 to 2022 and hosted by Anthony Anderson .
Although there have been some variations in the rules over the years (including the addition of a secondary game in some versions), certain basic aspects have remained consistent throughout all versions of To Tell the Truth. Three challengers are introduced, all claiming to be the central character. The announcer typically asks the challengers, who stand side by side, "What is your name, please?" Each challenger then states, "My name is [central character's name]." The celebrity panelists then read along as the host reads aloud a signed affidavit about the central character.
The panelists are each given a period of time to question the challengers. Questions are directed to the challengers by number (designated "Number One," "Number Two" and "Number Three"), with the central character sworn to give truthful answers, and the impostors permitted to lie and pretend to be the central character.
After questioning is complete, each member of the panel votes on which of the challengers he or she believes to be the central character, either by writing the number on a card or holding up a card with the number of their choice, without consulting the other panelists. Any panelist who knows one of the challengers or has another unfair advantage is required to recuse or disqualify themselves, which, for scoring purposes, is counted as an incorrect vote. They would also sit out of the questioning.
Once the votes are in, the host asks, "Will the real [person's name] please stand up?" The central character then stands, often after some brief playful feinting and false starts among all three challengers. Occasionally, the central character would be asked to do something else related to his or her story instead of standing up. The two impostors then reveal their real names and their actual occupations. Prize money is awarded and divided among all three of the challengers, based on the number of incorrect votes received by the impostors.
To Tell the Truth was to have premiered on Tuesday, December 18, 1956, on CBS in primetime as Nothing But The Truth , but the program title was changed to To Tell the Truth the day before the show's debut. (There was one pilot episode titled "Nothing But The Truth"; both the planned and eventual titles derive from the standard English court oath "to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.")
The series was recorded in New York City, initially at Studio 54 , before moving to the Ed Sullivan Theater late in its run. The existence of an audience ticket for a taping indicates that the show originated in color at the CBS Broadcast Center in late 1966. [1]
Bud Collyer was the show's host ( Mike Wallace hosted the pilot); recurring panelists by the 1960s included Tom Poston , Peggy Cass , Orson Bean , and Kitty Carlisle . (Cass and Carlisle stayed on as panelists for most subsequent editions.) Earlier regular panelists included Johnny Carson , Polly Bergen , Jayne Meadows , Don Ameche , Hy Gardner , Dick Van Dyke , Faye Emerson , Hildy Parks , John Cameron Swayze , Betty White , and Ralph Bellamy . Bern Bennett , Collyer's announcer on Beat the Clock , was the inaugural announcer of To Tell the Truth in the 1950s. Upon Bennett's transfer to CBS's Los Angeles studios, Johnny Olson , who in time became the best-known of all Goodson–Todman Productions announcers, joined the show in 1960 and remained with the show until 1972.
On the pilot and the primetime run, three games were played per episode. For the pilot, a wrong vote from each of the four-member panel and one wrong vote derived from the majority vote of the audience (a total of five votes) paid $300, the total prize money divided among the three challengers. The studio audience also voted, with the majority vote counting equally with that of one by a celebrity panelist; thus, the maximum of five incorrect votes resulted in $1,500 divided among the challengers. If there was a tie for the highest vote from the audience, and for each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted. There was no consolation prize for no wrong votes.
For the majority of the primetime run there was no audience vote, thus each wrong vote from the four-member panel paid $250, divided among the three challengers, for a possible $1,000 for a complete stump of four wrong answers. A consolation prize of $150 was awarded and divided among the three challengers if there were no wrong votes. For each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted. A design element in the set for this series was a platform situated directly above and behind the emcee's desk. The contestants stood on this platform during their introduction, allowing the camera to pan directly down to the host. They then traveled down a curved staircase to the main stage level to play the game. Some subsequent versions would use a variation of the original set design; others did not and had all the action at floor level.
On Monday, June 18, 1962, a daytime five-day-per-week edition was introduced, running at 3 p.m. Eastern Time. The daytime show, also hosted by Collyer, featured a separate panel for its first three years, with actress Phyllis Newman as the only regular. The evening panel took over the afternoon show in 1965; in early 1968, Bert Convy replaced Poston in the first chair.
The daytime show was reduced to two games to accommodate a five-minute CBS news bulletin towards the half-hour mark. On the CBS daytime run, each wrong vote paid the three challengers $100 for a possible total of $400 divided among the three challengers for a "complete stump" of all four wrong votes. If all the votes were correct, the challengers split a consolation prize of $75. During the show's final year and a half, the studio audience also voted, with the majority vote counting equally with that of one of the celebrity panelists, thus a maximum of $500 divided among the challengers could be awarded for the maximum five incorrect votes. If there was a tie for the highest vote from the audience, and for each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted. The audience vote was utilized on the nighttime show for its final six episodes (increasing the maximum possible payout to $1,250).
One CBS daytime episode featuring Dorothy Kilgallen , best known as a regular panelist on What's My Line? , was broadcast in the Eastern, Central, and Mountain time zones on Monday, November 8, 1965, as news of her sudden death was circulated by wire services. The breaking news story prompted CBS newscaster Douglas Edwards to announce her death immediately after the episode ended. She had videotaped the program six days earlier, according to the New York Herald Tribune . The newspaper added that Kilgallen and Arlene Francis both pretended to be Joan Crawford while sitting next to the real Crawford in a celebrity segment that the daytime series featured regularly starting in 1965. The episode was one of the large majority of To Tell the Truth daytime episodes that were destroyed because of the common practice of wiping videotape for reuse, prior to the development of less expensive technology. This was a different half-hour telecast from the 1962 primetime episode on which Kilgallen can be seen and heard as one of the panelists. Game Show Network repeated that episode decades later.
The primetime show ended on May 22, 1967, with the daytime show ending on September 6, 1968. The latter was replaced by the expansions of Search for Tomorrow and Guiding Light , the last two remaining 15-minute programs on daytime television, to 30 minutes apiece, in a scheduling shuffle with The Edge of Night , The Secret Storm , and Art Linkletter's House Party . Like the primetime version, the daytime show's popularity underwent a steady decline toward the end of its run, as it faced two popular daytime dramas on ABC and NBC, General Hospital and Another World , respectively.
Metropole Orchestra leader Dolf van der Linden composed the show's first theme, "Peter Pan", used from 1956 to 1961. From 1961 to 1967, the show switched to a Bob Cobert -penned theme with a beat similar to "Peter Pan", and then to a Score Productions tune during its final CBS daytime season.
Most episodes of the original nighttime run of the series were preserved on black-and-white kinescope , along with a few color videotape episodes. [2] Only a handful of shows remain from the CBS daytime series' first three years because of the then-common practice of wiping videotapes and reusing them due to their high cost and tight storage space. Many daytime episodes (including some in color) from 1966 to 1968 exist, including the color finale.
Reruns of the black-and-white kinescopes have been shown on Buzzr . [3]
To Tell the Truth returned only a year later, in autumn of 1969, in first-run syndication. During the early years of its run, the syndicated Truth became a highly-rated component of stations' early-evening schedules after the Federal Communications Commission imposed the Prime Time Access Rule in 1971, [4] opening up at least a half hour (a full hour, usually, on Eastern Time Zone stations) to fill with non-network fare between either the local or network evening newscast and the start of their networks' primetime schedules for the evening. [4] Other stations found success running the program in place of a daytime network game or soap opera , or in the afternoon fringe time period between the end of network daytime programming at 4:30/3:30 Central and the evening newscasts.
Like the network editions that preceded it, the syndicated To Tell the Truth taped its episodes in New York for its entire run. Initially occupying the same studio space at the Ed Sullivan Theater that it had for the last few years of the network series, the show would eventually move operations to NBC’s Rockefeller Center studios in the early 1970s.
Each wrong vote in this version was worth $50 to the challengers; complete stumps of the entire panel won the challengers a total of $500. There were two games per episode, and there was often a live demonstration or video clip to illustrate the central character's story after many of the games.
The show was first released to local stations on September 8, 1969. A total of 1,715 episodes of this version were produced, with the series ending on September 7, 1978. Some markets that added the series after its initial 1969 release opted to carry the show for another season or two after 1978 in order to catch up on the episodes that had not aired in their viewing area.
To host the revival series, Goodson and Todman made a call to original host Bud Collyer; [5] however, Collyer had been suffering from a series of health issues that led to his death on the day the 1969 series premiered, and he told them "I'm just not up to it." [5] The next call they made was to Garry Moore , the former host of I've Got a Secret as well as the CBS variety series The Garry Moore Show . Moore had largely been away from television since his variety series was cancelled in 1964 (he left I've Got a Secret around the same time), but he decided the time was right to return and he accepted the offer to host the new series. [6] Regular panelists included Orson Bean during the first year, Peggy Cass , Kitty Carlisle and Bill Cullen , who was also the designated substitute host whenever necessary. Many regulars from the original run appeared, including Tom Poston and Bert Convy . Semi-regulars during the 1968–73 time period included Gene Rayburn , Joe Garagiola , Tony Roberts and Nipsey Russell .
In late 1976, during the eighth season, Moore was diagnosed with esophageal cancer [6] and left for the remainder of the season to deal with his illness. As he had done numerous times before, Bill Cullen became his replacement. As Cullen's time as host continued on, Mark Goodson noted how Cullen's serving as host, rather than as a panelist, hurt the chemistry he had shared with Cass and Carlisle. [7] A decision was made to have Cullen return to the panel permanently and give semi-regular panelist Joe Garagiola the hosting position. Using a baseball term for "substitute," Garagiola stated that he was " pinch hitter " for Moore, who returned to the series for a farewell performance on the ninth-season premiere in 1977. Moore explained why he had left the program, then after presiding over one last game, announced his final retirement from television and handed the host position to Garagiola permanently. To Tell the Truth ended production at the end of the season.
Johnny Olson stayed with To Tell the Truth when it moved to syndication. He left in 1972, when he moved to Los Angeles to announce the Goodson-Todman revivals of The Price Is Right and I've Got a Secret . NBC staff announcer Bill Wendell succeeded Olson from 1972 to 1977, with Alan Kalter taking over during the final season. Don Pardo , also an NBC staff announcer, served as a backup to Wendell and Kalter.
To Tell the Truth used three distinctive sets throughout its nine-year syndicated run. The first, designed by Theodore Cooper and making heavy use of the psychedelic art styles popular in the period, was used for the first two seasons and the first four weeks of the third; [8] those designs were muted somewhat with pastel shades on the second set used from that point through the first 30 weeks of the fourth season. The third—and longest-lived—set, which Cooper also designed, was a mostly-blue block motif with gold accents, and included a large on-stage representation of the show's new logo, which made use of stacking and interlocking letters, behind the panel. This set was used for the remainder of the run, and the logo would be reused on the future 1990 revival. [9]
This version featured a lyrical, pop music-styled theme song written and composed by Score Productions chief Bob Israel and Truth producer Paul Alter , along with veteran theme composer Charles Fox ; an instrumental, and orchestral, version would be used for the 1990 series.
The bulk of this version is intact. However, the current status of the first season is unknown, and is presumed to be lost to wiping . GSN has never rerun the first season of the show, and had always begun with the second season, in 1970. One episode from the first season exists in the UCLA Film and Television Archive . Buzzr began airing episodes from 1973 in October 2018.
On the October 5, 1973, episode, one of the challengers was Georg Olden , who disclosed that he was the graphic designer who created the "To Tell the Truth man" icon that was used during the 1956–1978 seasons. [10]
On September 8, 1980, a new To Tell the Truth series premiered in syndication. The new series emanated once again from Rockefeller Center in New York, and Canadian TV personality Robin Ward served as the host, with Alan Kalter returning as announcer. A new theme and set were commissioned for this edition of Truth. Even though previous regulars Bill Cullen, Peggy Cass, and Kitty Carlisle made frequent appearances, there was no regular panel for this edition. The new Truth aired for one season in syndication, but it never recaptured the popularity of the original, and aired its final episode on June 12, 1981, with reruns airing until September 11, 1981.
Two games were played, and each wrong vote paid the challengers $100; $500 was paid if the entire panel had been fooled. No consolation prize was given if the entire panel correctly identified the subject.
After the second game, a new game called "One on One" was played with the four impostors from earlier. One fact had been purposely withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied. One at a time, each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from him or her and would then say whether he or she believed the fact applied to that impostor. Wrong votes still paid $100, with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained.
The 1980 edition of To Tell the Truth was a rarity in that it was still based in New York while nearly all television game show production had moved to California by this point. There was only one other game show in production during the run of this To Tell the Truth series that emanated from New York. The $50,000 Pyramid , which premiered at the midway point of the 1980-81 season, was the other; the series was taped at ABC’s Studio TV-15, the former Elysee Theater, on West 58th Street. These two would be the last non-cable productions to tape regularly in New York until 1999 when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? premiered on ABC.
To Tell the Truth returned to NBC for a run that lasted just nine months from September 3, 1990, to May 31, 1991. Unlike previous versions that originated from New York, the 1990 version was taped at NBC's The Burbank Studios in California. The show's theme music was an orchestral remix of the 1969–78 theme (minus the lyrics), and the show utilized the block-letter logo from 1973 to 1978. All episodes of this series exist and have aired on GSN in reruns.
Actor Richard Kline hosted two pilot episodes with Charlie O'Donnell as announcer; one of these was accidentally aired as the premiere episode in the Eastern and Central time zones. The first regular host was A Current Affair reporter Gordon Elliott , with Burton Richardson announcing (O'Donnell served as his substitute). After eight weeks, a dispute with Elliott's former employers in Australia temporarily forced him off American television altogether; his replacement was then-frequent panelist Lynn Swann . Swann, the first African-American host of Truth , held that job for 14 weeks, until his job as a reporter for ABC Sports at the time forced him to leave. Alex Trebek was brought in as his replacement for the remainder of the run, at the same time he was hosting Classic Concentration on NBC and Jeopardy! in syndication. Mark Goodson filled in for two episodes Trebek missed when, during a taping, his wife Jean went into labor with their son Matthew.
The celebrity panelists for To Tell the Truth during this period included several of the 1970s panel stalwarts, including Kitty Carlisle , who appeared on a majority of the shows, taking the fourth and most upstage seat. The first seat, furthest downstage, saw Ron Masak and Orson Bean alternate on the panel for 34 of the 39 weeks the series was on air. The chair next to that was occupied by rotating guests, although voice actress Dana Hill appeared in the seat most often. The third chair most often featured David Niven Jr. as a panelist, although Masak and Bean would also sit there if both were to appear on the same program. Polly Bergen and Peggy Cass , who began appearing on the original series, would appear from time to time, and other frequent panelists included Vicki Lawrence , Cindy Adams , and Betty White . The panelists were introduced in twos, with the male panelists escorting the female panelists down the staircase, followed by the host. For one week, Monty Hall (who would later replace Bob Hilton as a permanent guest host on the 1990 version of Let's Make a Deal ) sat in the first seat.
Two games were played with two sets of impostors. Any incorrect votes up to two paid $1,000. If three of the panelists had voted incorrectly, the players split $1,500. On the pilot, each incorrect vote earned $500. If the panel was fooled entirely, the players split $3,000.
After the second game, a new version of the "One on One" game from the 1980 series was played. A seventh civilian player was brought out with two stories, and a member of the studio audience was given an opportunity to win money by trying to figure out which of the two stories was true. Each panelist was given the opportunity to ask the contestant one question for each story, and after both stories had been presented the audience member chose which one he or she thought was the truth. After the choice was made, the contestant revealed the right answer and if the audience member came up with it, he or she won $500. If the contestant stumped the audience member, that player won $1,000.
Occasionally, celebrities whose faces were not well known would attempt to stump the audience during this part of the game. For example, Hank Ketcham , the creator of Dennis the Menace and a challenger on the original To Tell the Truth in May 1962, tried during the show's Christmas Day episode to convince an audience member that he was really the songwriter to " Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer " ( Johnny Marks had actually done this), but was unsuccessful in doing so.
The show then had a two-year run in syndication, starting in 2000, with John O'Hurley hosting, and Burton Richardson returning as the announcer. The series was again produced at NBC Studios in Burbank, California . Gary Stockdale supplied the music for this edition. In most markets, it was paired up with Family Feud , which was then hosted by Louie Anderson ; O'Hurley would eventually join that program in 2006 and host it until 2010, when Steve Harvey took over.
Actor Meshach Taylor was the only regular to appear on every episode of this edition, while Paula Poundstone was a regular during the first season. Panelists appearing in at least six weeks of episodes included Brooke Burns , Dave Coulier , Brad Sherwood , Traci Bingham , Kim Coles , and Cindy Margolis . The show's website touted Coles and Burns as regulars for season two in place of Poundstone, though neither panelist was featured in every show that year. Kitty Carlisle appeared as a panelist for one episode in the first season, making her the only panelist to have appeared on all incarnations of this show to that point. It was Carlisle's final appearance in the franchise before her death in 2007.
This edition of To Tell the Truth brought back the audience vote that the original series had last used. Its vote was revealed after the panel had cast their votes, just before O'Hurley asked for the subject to identify himself or herself. Each incorrect vote paid $1,000, with a maximum of $5,000 available if the challengers managed to completely fool both the panel and the audience. (A tie in the audience vote or panel disqualification counted as a wrong vote, as they had in previous versions.) In the first several weeks of shows, a game that resulted in five incorrect votes was worth $10,000 for the challengers.
According to Steve Beverly's tvgameshows.net, this edition of Truth never received a rating higher than 1.8. It was cancelled on January 28, 2002, only 96 episodes into its second season. However, repeats continued to air through March 15, 2002. Episodes of this series have aired on GSN in reruns.
ABC ordered six episodes of the show, hosted by Anthony Anderson , which taped in July 2015 and began airing on ABC on June 14, 2016. [11] Anderson is the second African-American host of the franchise; the first was Lynn Swann on the short-lived 1990 NBC daytime version.
Also appearing on the new series was Doris Day Bowman, Anderson's mother, presented as the "scorekeeper." In some cases, where a panelist knows the central character or one of the impostors, Bowman also plays on their behalf. When Anderson's family appeared on Celebrity Family Feud , the behavior of "Mama Doris" was so outrageous that the producers approached Anderson about having her on To Tell The Truth . [12] The first season also included a house band, Cheche and His Band of Liars, and David Scott as an offstage announcer.
The 2016 version of the show departed from prior versions in a number of ways. Episodes lasted 60 minutes rather than 30 minutes. Most contestants introduce themselves solely by claiming the central character's story (e.g., "I was a Bond girl " rather than "My name is ...") rather than by name; some panels have contestants of different genders. The questioning period is not split distinctly among the panelists, and Anderson and Bowman often participate in the questioning. Once in each episode, the two impostors from a single round participate in "Before You Go," a second round in which one is the central character and the other is again an impostor. Many episodes include a demonstration by one of the central characters. [13] No mention is made of financial compensation for the impostors or the central characters, as the show presents itself mainly as a competition between the panelists.
Panelists receive 10 points for correctly identifying the central character, or 20 points for the final round (1 and 2 points in earlier episodes).
At the end of the episode, the losing panelist is subjected to some sort of minor humiliation; if panelists are tied, Bowman chooses the loser. In season one, the losing panelist was subjected to "Tweet a Lie," in which Anderson posted an embarrassing tweet to that panelist's Twitter account. Losing contestants are given a "dummy" crown. Starting with the August 11, 2019, episode, panelists who earn a perfect score win the "Doris Award," a gold-colored bust of Bowman. To date, three panelists have won the Doris Award: Oliver Hudson , on September 22, 2019; Deon Cole , on June 25, 2020; and Michael Strahan , on August 6, 2020. (Bowman had to play one round on Strahan's behalf, as he knew the central characters.)
The first season featured three regular panelists: Betty White , NeNe Leakes , and Jalen Rose ; [13] White has appeared on all three broadcast network versions of the show. [14] In season two, the regular panelists were eliminated (as was the house band), although Rose still made occasional appearances. [15]
To maintain social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic , the sixth season reduced the number of panelists from four to three. [16]
To date, four panelists have made ten or more appearances on the show: Sherri Shepherd (eleven), Nikki Glaser (ten), Joel McHale (ten), and Jalen Rose (ten, including six as a season one regular). Former host Alex Trebek was a panelist in a 2018 episode, making him the first host to appear on a subsequent version as a panelist.
A board game was released by Lowell in 1957.
During the run of the 2000 version, a single-player online game was offered by the short-lived website Uproar.com, and promoted by host John O'Hurley at the end of each episode.
A video slot machine game, based on the 1969 version, was released to American casinos nationwide by Bally Gaming Systems in 2002.
|Country||Name||Host(s)||TV station||Premiere||Finale|
|Australia||Tell the Truth||George Foster||Nine Network||1959||1965|
|Mike Williamson|
|Earle Bailey||Network Ten||1971||1972|
|Brazil|| Acredite Em Quem Quiser |
("Believe Who You Want")
|Luciano Huck||Globo||2022||present|
|Canada (in English)||To Tell the Truth||Don Cameron||CTV||1962||1964|
|Chile|| Quién soy Yo |
("Who am I?")
|Enrique Bravo Menadier|| TVN |
Canal 13
| 1967 |
1970
| 1970 |
1979
| ¿Quién dice la verdad? |
("Who tells the Truth?")
|Rafael Araneda||Chilevisión||2017||present|
|Czech Republic|| S pravdou ven |
("With The Truth Out")
|Tomáš Měcháček||Prima||May 3, 2018||June 28, 2018|
|Germany|| Sag die Wahrheit |
("Tell the Truth")
| Guido Baumann |
Hans Sachs
Wolf Mittler
Hans Stotz
Bernd Stephan
Gerd Rubenbauer
Michael Antwerpes
|ARD||1959||1971|
|Bayerischer Rundfunk||1986||1995|
|SWR||2003||present|
|Greece|| Πείτε την αλήθεια |
Peíte tin alítheia
("Tell the Truth")
|Betty Livanou||YENED||1972||1982|
|Italy|| La verità |
("The Truth")
|Marco Balestri||Canale 5||1990||1991|
|Rete 4||1991||1995|
|Netherlands|| Wie van de Drie |
("Which of the Three")
| Nand Baert |
Pim Jacobs
Herman Emmink
Flip van der Schalie
Fred Oster
|AVRO||1963||1985|
|Caroline Tensen||RTL4||1991||1991|
| Rob van Hulst |
Jos Kuijer
Joop Braakhekke
|AVRO||1994||1997|
|Ron Brandsteder||Omroep MAX||2010||2013|
|Wendy van Dijk||SBS6||2020||present|
|Norway|| På ære og samvittighet |
("Of Honor")
| Kari Borg Mannsåker |
Gunnar Haarberg
|NRK||1958||1962|
|1970||1970|
|1986||1986|
|Slovakia|| S pravdou von |
("With the Truth Out")
|Juraj Tabaček||TV JOJ||January 10, 2019||March 9, 2021|
|Spain|| ¿Quién dice la verdad? |
("Who tells the Truth?")
|Juan Antonio Fernández Abajo||TVE||1965||1966|
|Thailand|| สาบานว่าพูดจริง ("Sworn Truth") |
To Tell the Truth
|Sunya Kunakon||ONE||2016||2017|
|Turkey|| Üç Yalancı |
("Three Liars")
| Cenk Koray |
Olcay Poyraz
Üstün Savcı
Göktay Alpman
|TRT||1970s||1970s|
|Channel 1|
|Ukraine|| Самозванці |
Samozvantsi
("Imposters")
|Anton Lirnyk||ICTV||September 3, 2011||March 3, 2012|
|United Kingdom||Tell the Truth||McDonald Hobley||ITV||September 17, 1957||September 6, 1961|
|David Jacobs|
|Shaw Taylor|
|Graeme Garden||Channel 4||April 17, 1983||November 22, 1985|
|Fred Dinenage||ITV||April 11, 1989||October 26, 1990|
|United States|| You Lie Like a Dog |
(Animal themed version)
|JD Roberto||Animal Planet||January 31, 2000||December 1, 2000|
- ^
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Tell_the_Truth | 114 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth | Network: CBS
Episodes: over 1,319 (half-hour)
Seasons: 12
TV show dates: December 18, 1956 — May 22, 1967
Series status: Cancelled/ended
Performers include: Bud Collyer (host), Tom Poston, Peggy Cass, Orson Bean, Kitty Carlisle, Johnny Carson, Polly Bergen, Jayne Meadows, Don Ameche, Hy Gardner, Dick Van Dyke, Hildy Parks, John Cameron Swayze, Ralph Bellamy, Betsy Palmer, and Bert Convy.
TV show description:
This classic game show involves a panel of celebrity judges who try to guess who is being truthful from a group of three contestants. The host reads a descriptive statement from the real contestant, which usually involves details of a strange job or unique experience. Then, the judges try to determine who of the three is the telling the truth.
After briefly interviewing the contestants, the judges cast their vote. A cash prize is awarded to all the contestants for each incorrect guess that the judges have made, so the better the imposters are at bluffing, the more they win. To reveal the actual contestant, the host asks the trademark question, “Will the real (contestant’s name) please stand up?”
Several versions of the show have run over the years both during daytime and primetime. Hosts over the years have included original host Bud Collyer, Garry Moore, Joe Garagiola, Robin Ward, Gordon Elliott, Lynn Swann, Alex Trebek, and John O’Hurley.
In early seasons, reoccurring celebrity judges are Kitty Carlisle, Orson Bean, Tom Poston and Peggy Cass and in later seasons Mary Ann Mobley, Betty White, Polly Bergen and Gloria Allred. More recently, judges have included Dave Coulier, Brad Sherwood, Cindy Margolis, Brooke Burns, Melody Thomas Scott, Patrick Duffy, Kermit the Frog, Richard Kind, and Greg Proops.
Many famous contestants have also appeared during the show’s runs, including Orville Redenbacher, Rosa Parks, Caroll Spinney ( Sesame Street’s Big Bird alter-ego), actress Ally Sheedy, and comic-creator Stan Lee. | https://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/to-tell-the-truth/ | 114 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | ‘To Tell the Truth’ Has Had Several Hosts Over the Years, Including This ‘Jeopardy!’ Legend | 'To Tell the Truth' first aired in 1956 and has had a slew of different presenters over the years.
Feb. 22 2022, Published 5:13 p.m. ET
Game shows hold a special place in American culture, and while some have reached greater heights of popularity than others, networks are almost always willing to revive popular premises and intellectual properties even if they've been off the air for decades. Take To Tell the Truth , which, now in its seventh season, is hosted by Anthony Anderson. Who was the show's original host?
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When the series first debuted on CBS in 1956, it was presented by Bud Collyer, a legend of early game show television. Bud began his entertainment career as a radio actor then transitioned to TV, where he was also known for his hosting duties on Beat the Clock, as well as for his voice acting in early Superman cartoons and radio broadcasts.
Bud hosted To Tell the Truth until 1968, when he was replaced by Garry Moore as the series moved into syndication in 1969. Garry's time on the show saw several replacements and temporary hosts, as he suffered from illnesses that prevented him from always conducting his presentation duties.
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Garry was ultimately replaced by Joe Garagiola, who only hosted the show until 1978, when it was cancelled. To Tell the Truth would be revived just two years later, with Robin Ward as host, but was taken off the air again after a single season.
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The show would undergo yet another revival in 1990. At that point, it featured multiple hosts : chief among them, Jeopardy! legend Alex Trebek, along with Gordon Elliott and Lynn Swann. That revival, too, only lasted a single year before it was taken off the air in 1991.
It would come back on TV from 2000 until 2002, with John O'Hurley, and would stay off the air until 2016.
Source: Twitter | @DownsJ529
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Now, in its latest revival, the series is entering its seventh season with Black-ish 's Anthony Anderson as its host.
Source: YouTube | @ABC
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Although there have been several years when the show wasn't airing, the fact that a game show has been around for so long and has resonated with at least two different generations of audiences is pretty astounding.
Source: YouTube | @ABC
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The series' seventh season starts on Feb. 22, 2022 at 10 p.m. EST on ABC. It appears that viewers of the show are big fans of Anthony, who has a seriously impressive film and TV resume.
Source: YouTube | @ABC
The actor is probably best known for his work on the sitcom Black-ish , and even though he's mostly known for his comedic characters, he had a featured role in Martin Scorsese's The Departed , and played Detective Kenneth Bernard on Law & Order , which is a role Anthony will be reprising on the revival . He's also done a ton of voice-over work for different cartoons and animated features, like Ferdinand and Blaze and the Monster Machines . | https://www.distractify.com/p/to-tell-the-truth-original-host | 114 |
who was on the original to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth | Bill Cullen Archive | Produced for daily syndication
A team of three challengers comes onstage and each challenger introduces him/herself with the same name. One challenger really is the person s/he claims to be, while the other two are imposters. The host reads an affidavit, written in the first person, explaining why the central character is significant, after which the challengers take their seats at podiums labeled with the numbers 1, 2, & 3.
Each of the four panelists, in turn, has about a minute to cross-examine the challengers by asking them questions about their field of expertise, what they did, etc. After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is.
After all four panelists have had a turn, they cast their votes as to who they think the "real person" is. After the votes had been cast, it was customary for the host to ask, "Will the real (name) please stand up?" The real challenger stands up, and the vote scores are tallied. On this particular version, the contestants split $50 for each wrong vote cast or $500 if all four panelists were wrong.
To Tell the Truth was the first series developed by legendary producer Bob Stewart after he joined Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions. It's actually fairly surprising that the series ever went into production because the mere premise seemed so preposterous to those who heard Stewart's pitch. Mark Goodson flatly rejected it, feeling that three civilians could never trick a panel largely consisting of professional actors. Gene Rayburn, a friend & former co-worker of Stewart's, told him that it could never work. A run-through where three contestants stumped a roomful of Goodson-Todman staffers turned everyone into believers, and the series debuted in 1956 on CBS. It ran until 1968.
The series was revived for first-run syndication in 1969. Orson Bean, Peggy Cass & Kitty Carlisle, regular panelists from the original series, joined the new series. Bill, who had only appeared on the original series twice, came aboard as well. Bean departed after the first season. The rest of the regulars remained for the entire series, joined each week by a guest star.
Original host Bud Collyer elected not to host this version, considering himself retired (in an eerie coincidence, Collyer died suddenly on the day that this version premiered in many cities). Goodson-Todman, needing a new host, turned to former I've Got a Secret host Garry Moore, which was surprising because Moore had also retired, having left his series in 1964. He returned for Truth and remained with the show until a bout with throat cancer sidelined him in 1976. He made a full recovery but elected not to return, saying he took his illness as a sign from above that it was time to retire.
Bill had been the "go-to" guy for guest-hosting when Garry Moore frequently took vacations, but when the time came to sign a permanent host, the decision was made to bring in Joe Garagiola as host and leave Bill on the panel. In his book What's My Line? , Gil Fates explains that "Bill's superlative gamesmanship was so missed on the panel." That's how talented Bill Cullen was, folks...he reached a level of greatness that actually cost him a job.
One subtle thing that distinguishes this series from the rest of Bill's TV work was the way that his limp was dealt with on this program. Throughout his career, Bill's shows would open with him already seated, or very close to where he needed to be, so that he only had to take a few steps. If he had to walk any more than that, the cameras would cut away. None of that applied to To Tell the Truth. Each program with Bill on the panel opened with the host walking to center stage to greet each member of the panel, one at a time. Bill would walk to center stage, shake hands with the host, then walk to the desk, in full view of the camera. Typically the camera would zoom into minimize the sight of the limp, but it was still apparent. At the end of each episode, Bill would get up and walk to center stage again for the "mill-around" as the credits rolled.
This version of the show is probably best known for its unusual "mod" set, apparently inspired by the artwork of Peter Max, as well as the rock song, penned by Goodson-Todman director Paul Alter, that served as the show's theme music ("It's a lie, lie...you're telling a lie...")
195 episodes of To Tell The Truth were produced each season, enough for 39 weeks of programming. According to a 1975 magazine article, the shows were taped on Tuesdays, five per day, from mid-September to mid-June each season.
Bill once had the hiccups when taping five To Tell The Truth shows in one day. "When the shows ran through a week, people thought I had hiccupped an entire week, and were sorry for me! More than 5000 letters came in offering sympathy and remedies, and I was very touched."
Many of the "central characters" that the panel had to identify were people who just had interesting stories, pursuits, or careers. But because of the nature of the show, To Tell the Truth was able to showcase many people who had achieved a degree of celebrity without their faces being particularly well-known. Among the contestants on this version: The Exorcist author William Peter Blatty; MAD Magazine founder William M. Gaines; ice cream tycoon Tom Carvell; and Bugs Bunny creator Bob Clampett.
Two years after this version ended, most of the same production staff worked on a new version hosted by Canadian personality Robin Ward. Cullen, Cass and Carlisle all made appearances on this one-season version, though never all at the same time.
To Tell The Truth has proven to be the most durable of the Goodson-Todman panel shows. From its original network run in the mid-fifties to the two-season remake that debuted in 2000 to the current incarnation on ABC, there have been six distinct versions and about twenty different people have filled the host's chair (probably more than for any other game show). Kitty Carlisle made a single appearance on the 2000 version, which marked her sixth decade of panel appearances on the show.
It's believed that the entire 1969-78 series still exists. It has aired on Game Show Network and Buzzr. A selection of episodes is available for viewing at the Paley Center, including episodes that haven't been rerun.
Marshall Aker's To Tell The Truth on the Web - History and info about the show, plus episode guides for a handful of seasons | https://www.billcullen.net/to-tell-the-truth | 114 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the river in U.S. state of Texas . For other uses, see San Antonio River (disambiguation) .
The San Antonio River is a major waterway that originates in central Texas in a cluster of springs in midtown San Antonio , about 4 miles north of downtown, and follows a roughly southeastern path through the state. [3] It eventually feeds into the Guadalupe River about 10 miles from San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico . The river is 240 miles long and crosses five counties: Bexar , Goliad , Karnes , Refugio , and Wilson .
The first documented record of the river was from Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca on his explorations of Texas in 1535. The river was later named after San Antonio de Padua by the first governor of Spanish Texas , Domingo Terán de los Ríos in 1691. [4]
On June 13, 1691, Governor Terán and his company camped at a rancheria on a stream called Yanaguana They renamed the stream "San Antonio" because it was Saint Anthony's Day. Father Damián Massanet accompanied Governor Terán on his trip. [5]
During the Texas Revolution , the river was host to several major conflicts. The Battle of Concepcion occurred when the Mexican forces in Bexar and Texian militia fired upon each other in a small skirmish on the mission's grounds. The Grass Fight occurred when Texian militia mistook mules carrying grass to feed horses as mules carrying supply and gold money. The siege of Bexar was the climax of all these previous events when the Texian militia surrounded Bexar and began continuous attacks into the Mexican stronghold of Bexar until the Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered.
The Goliad Campaign occurred when 50 Texian militia captured the mission at Goliad, being used as a garrison by the Mexican forces. The Battle of the Alamo occurred when 180 Texian regulars and volunteers occupied a 3-acre garrison built around an old Spanish mission . They withheld a Mexican force of around 3,000 troops for 12 days until the garrison was overrun by a Mexican assault on dawn of the 13th day.
During Fiesta every April, the Texas Cavaliers River Parade runs on the San Antonio River in downtown San Antonio. It is one of Fiesta's most popular events and ticket sales revenue goes to support children’s charities. [6]
Five major 18th-century Spanish missions are lined up along the historical course of the river in San Antonio, including Mission Espada , Mission Concepcion , Mission San José , and Mission San Juan Capistrano . The most famous mission is San Antonio de Valero, better known as the Álamo , and its complementing fortress is Presidio San Antonio de Bexar . These five missions in San Antonio are now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Presidio La Bahía and its mission, Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga in Goliad, Texas , are also located along the southern portion of the river.
The waterway is also host to the San Antonio River Walk , one of San Antonio's primary tourist destinations and the centerpiece of the city, with several river improvement projects occurring so far. The Riverwalk was extended to the north in 2009, and that section of the river is now called the Museum Reach and features attractions such as the Pearl Brewery and the San Antonio Museum of Art. [7] [8] In 2013, the Mission Reach stretch of the Riverwalk was opened in the south, which features hiking, biking, and paddling trails. [9] [10] [11]
Work was authorized to begin in 2015 by the Bexar County Commissioners Court on the restoration of the former Hot Wells hotel , spa , and bathhouse , located along the San Antonio River in the south side of the city. [12]
"San Antonio River from Mill Bridge" (postcard, circa 1907)
The river winds its way through downtown San Antonio.
The river at Floresville River Park in Floresville in Wilson County
The river crossing under Farm Road 541 between Poth and Dewees in Wilson County
The river passes through Goliad en route to the Gulf of Mexico . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_River | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River Basin | San Antonio River Authority | The San Antonio River Basin
The San Antonio River Basin is a dynamic ecosystem with rivers, creeks and streams that can quickly be impacted by rain events and other weather conditions. Human activities within the basin may also affect water conditions.
The San Antonio River Basin drains a land area of 4,180 square miles. The basin extends from Kerr and Medina counties in the Texas Hill Country southeast toward the Gulf of Mexico. It drains approximately half of Medina County to the far northwest; the majority of Bexar, Wilson and Karnes counties, which comprise the central portion of the basin; approximately one third of Goliad County to the southeast; and parts of Bandera, Kendall, Comal, Guadalupe, DeWitt, Kerr, Atascosa, Victoria and Refugio counties.
The basin’s major watersheds are:
- Medina River Watershed
- Leon Creek Watershed
- Upper San Antonio River Watershed
- Salado Creek Watershed
- Cibolo Creek Watershed
- Lower San Antonio River Watershed
The map below shows how these watersheds drain toward the Gulf of Mexico.
The San Antonio River is the basin’s major river, flowing 240 miles from its headwaters in San Antonio, Bexar County, to its confluence with the Guadalupe River in Refugio County. Approximately 11 miles downriver of the confluence, the Guadalupe drains into the San Antonio Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
- Spring water from the Edwards Aquifer in Bexar County forms the humble origin of the San Antonio River, which has been home to indigenous peoples for over 12,000 years. There are numerous springs in the headwaters area, the largest and most well-known is the Blue Hole on the University of the Incarnate Word campus north of downtown San Antonio.
- The Blue Hole is an artesian spring at approximately 670 feet above sea level fed by the Edwards Aquifer.
- The San Antonio River flows 240 miles through Bexar, Wilson, Karnes, Goliad and Refugio counties, converging with the Guadalupe River before finally flowing into San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico.
- Common mammals seen along the San Antonio River Basin riparian corridor include the common raccoon, Eastern Fox squirrels, Virginia opossums, White-tail deer, Nine-banded armadillos, Eastern Cottontail rabbits and feral hogs.
- The San Antonio River carries surface water from 2,500-foot elevations within the Texas Hill Country of Bandera and Kerr counties to less than 100-foot elevations in Refugio County.
- The San Antonio River watershed includes parts of Atascosa, Bandera, Bexar, Comal, Dewitt, Goliad, Guadalupe, Karnes, Kendall, Kerr, Medina, Refugio, Victoria and Wilson Counties.
- The San Antonio River Basin is one of 23 major basins in Texas and drains over 4,194 square miles.
- San Antonio River Basin contains over 8,800 miles of streams.
100 E. Guenther St.
San Antonio, Texas 78204
1.866.345.7272 | https://www.sariverauthority.org/education/san-antonio-river-basin | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the river in U.S. state of Texas . For other uses, see San Antonio River (disambiguation) .
The San Antonio River is a major waterway that originates in central Texas in a cluster of springs in midtown San Antonio , about 4 miles north of downtown, and follows a roughly southeastern path through the state. [3] It eventually feeds into the Guadalupe River about 10 miles from San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico . The river is 240 miles long and crosses five counties: Bexar , Goliad , Karnes , Refugio , and Wilson .
The first documented record of the river was from Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca on his explorations of Texas in 1535. The river was later named after San Antonio de Padua by the first governor of Spanish Texas , Domingo Terán de los Ríos in 1691. [4]
On June 13, 1691, Governor Terán and his company camped at a rancheria on a stream called Yanaguana They renamed the stream "San Antonio" because it was Saint Anthony's Day. Father Damián Massanet accompanied Governor Terán on his trip. [5]
During the Texas Revolution , the river was host to several major conflicts. The Battle of Concepcion occurred when the Mexican forces in Bexar and Texian militia fired upon each other in a small skirmish on the mission's grounds. The Grass Fight occurred when Texian militia mistook mules carrying grass to feed horses as mules carrying supply and gold money. The siege of Bexar was the climax of all these previous events when the Texian militia surrounded Bexar and began continuous attacks into the Mexican stronghold of Bexar until the Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered.
The Goliad Campaign occurred when 50 Texian militia captured the mission at Goliad, being used as a garrison by the Mexican forces. The Battle of the Alamo occurred when 180 Texian regulars and volunteers occupied a 3-acre garrison built around an old Spanish mission . They withheld a Mexican force of around 3,000 troops for 12 days until the garrison was overrun by a Mexican assault on dawn of the 13th day.
During Fiesta every April, the Texas Cavaliers River Parade runs on the San Antonio River in downtown San Antonio. It is one of Fiesta's most popular events and ticket sales revenue goes to support children’s charities. [6]
Five major 18th-century Spanish missions are lined up along the historical course of the river in San Antonio, including Mission Espada , Mission Concepcion , Mission San José , and Mission San Juan Capistrano . The most famous mission is San Antonio de Valero, better known as the Álamo , and its complementing fortress is Presidio San Antonio de Bexar . These five missions in San Antonio are now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Presidio La Bahía and its mission, Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga in Goliad, Texas , are also located along the southern portion of the river.
The waterway is also host to the San Antonio River Walk , one of San Antonio's primary tourist destinations and the centerpiece of the city, with several river improvement projects occurring so far. The Riverwalk was extended to the north in 2009, and that section of the river is now called the Museum Reach and features attractions such as the Pearl Brewery and the San Antonio Museum of Art. [7] [8] In 2013, the Mission Reach stretch of the Riverwalk was opened in the south, which features hiking, biking, and paddling trails. [9] [10] [11]
Work was authorized to begin in 2015 by the Bexar County Commissioners Court on the restoration of the former Hot Wells hotel , spa , and bathhouse , located along the San Antonio River in the south side of the city. [12]
"San Antonio River from Mill Bridge" (postcard, circa 1907)
The river winds its way through downtown San Antonio.
The river at Floresville River Park in Floresville in Wilson County
The river crossing under Farm Road 541 between Poth and Dewees in Wilson County
The river passes through Goliad en route to the Gulf of Mexico . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_River | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River Walk: A Complete Visitors Guide for 2023 | Last updated: . Written by Laurence Norah - 25 Comments
If you’re visiting San Antonio, you have to take some time to explore the San Antonio River Walk, also known as the Paseo del Río. This is a 15-mile-long series of walkways that run along the San Antonio River, with shopping, dining and other attractions along the route.
The River Walk is definitely one of the highlights of the city, and we loved exploring it. In this post, we’re going to share everything you need to know to visit the San Antonio riverwalk.
We’ll go through the highlights, explain what the river walk is and how to find it, as well as anything else you might need to know about visiting the San Antonio riverwalk. Let’s get started!
The San Antonio River Walk (also referred to as the riverwalk or Paseo del Río in Spanish) is a 15 mile long network of walkways which run alongside the banks of the San Antonio River. Five miles of the River Walk runs through downtown San Antonio.
The River Walk is home to attractions, shops, art, and restaurants, and is today a major San Antonio attraction in its own right.
The history of the riverwalk is fairly long, but its beginning can be traced back to a tragic flood on the San Antonio River in 1921, which killed 50 people.
Following this disaster, a means for controlling the river levels was discussed, with the end result being the San Antonio River Walk. Set one level below the main city level, the initial River Walk had around three miles of walkways and twenty bridges.
Construction of the riverwalk started in 1939. Most of the initial funding needed for the project came from the Works Progress Administration in 1939. The first restaurant, Casa Rio, opened on the River Walk in 1946. Casa Rio is still in operation today, along with many others.
Over time, the River Walk has expanded, and today there are over fifteen miles of walkways, as well as countless attractions and sights to be seen.
The River Walk now stretches from the San Antonio mission area, through downtown, and up to the major museums in the city. It’s a must-see for visitors to the city, and we’re going to share some of our favourite things to do along the San Antonio River Walk.
Here are some useful facts about the River Walk that might help you plan your trip.
The San Antonio River Walk is 15 miles long, with five miles of that flowing through downtown San Antonio.
Yes, the river walk is accessible. There are ramps and elevator access points from street level down to the river walk level. Some of the crossing points are not wheelchair accessible however.
This website has maps that shows the ramps and elevators that provide accessible entry to the San Antonio River Walk.
There are public restrooms at some locations along the river walk, such as in the Rivercenter Mall. There are also restrooms at the various bars and hotels along the River Walk.
Outside of the downtown area, there are also restrooms in some of the parks and missions in the Mission Reach area. There are also some facilities in the Museum Reach area.
The Mission Reach stretch of the River Walk has a number of water fountains, which is important as this is the longest stretch and if you are cycling or walking here it can be very hot, especially in the summer months.
In the downtown area, you will need to visit the shops or malls, or pop into a restaurant or cafe for water.
The River Walk starts around 4 miles north of the city center, where E. Hildbrand Ave crosses the River. It finishes to the south of the city, near Mission Espada.
To walk the entire River Walk from one end to the other including the downtown area would likely take five to six hours.
The River walk is open year round, 365 days a year. The majority of the River Walk, from Mulberry to Eagleland Plaza, is open 24 hours a day.
However, the River Walk that passes through Brackenridge Park in the north of the city is only open from 5am to 11pm. The Mission Reach stretch of the River Walk south of Eagleland Plaza is only open from dawn to dusk due to it being a natural area which is home to wildlife.
Yes. The water in the river is normally drained for essential maintenance every two years. This generally happens at the end of January and lasts for around 10 days. At this time there is no water in much of the river loop, and the river cruises will not be running.
The next scheduled emptying and maintenance is January 2024.
You can see the dates for future maintenance on the river maintenance page of the San Antonio city here .
Dogs are permitted on the River Walk but they must be on a leash. Many of the restaurants on the River Walk allow dogs on their patios, but do always check to be sure.
There’s a lot to do on the San Antonio River Walk. From shopping to entertainment to museums—to just taking a leisurely stroll or boat ride—the River Walk has something for everyone.
Here are some of our favourite things to do on the River Walk to give you some inspiration for your visit.
One of the most popular ways to experience the River Walk is to take a ride on one of the various River Walk barges.
There are a number of different options for these, ranging from the River Boat taxi services, which will take you from one part of the River Walk to another, through to narrated tours, private boat tours and even boats that offer a full meal as you float along!
Taking a cruise on the San Antonio River Walk is a wonderful way to experience it, and costs are not too high, with narrated tours available from around $12, and an all-day taxi pass for the downtown River Walk area also $12.
You can get tickets for the river shuttle and cruises in person at various points along the River Walk, or you can buy them online in advance here .
The GoCity San Antonio Explorer Pass also includes a Go Rio San Antonio river cruise along with many other attractions, and is a great way to save money in the city.
One of the highlights along the downtown river walk area are all the places to sit, eat, or drink, and watch the world go by.
The restaurants are adorned with wonderfully colourful umbrellas, and there’s a wide range of dining options. This can make picking a spot challenging, so take a look at our section on restaurants along the River Walk further on in the post to help you decide where to eat.
Some quick tips though would include Casa Rio, which is the oldest restaurant on the River Walk, as well as Justin’s ice cream, for excellent ice cream!
If you love shopping, the San Antonio River Walk has you covered. There are a number of shopping locations along the riverwalk, but perhaps the most well known and largest is the Shops at Rivercentre (formerly known as the Rivercenter Mall).
The Shops at Rivercentre is built around an extension of the River Walk, which is known as the Rivercentre lagoon. Around this lagoon, the Shops at Rivercentre provides shopping and dining experiences across four floors, with over 100 retailers operating here, including theatres, restaurants, a Macy’s, Starbucks, and more.
There’s also outdoor seating around the lagoon area and even hotels available – see our guide to where to stay on the River Walk below for more information on these.
Another popular shopping destination on the River Walk is the La Villita Historic Arts Village. This art community is home to several art galleries, as well as stores selling a variety of items, including souvenirs, customised jewelry, pottery and regional folk art.
We’re sure you’ll find something to love here!
The San Antonio River Walk was extended in 2009 to include an area north of the city which is home to a number of museums and other attractions, including the Pearl Brewery. This section of the riverwalk is known as the Museum Reach.
Attractions in the area include the Witte Museum, the San Antonio Zoo, the DOSeum, San Antonio Museum of Art and Pearl Brewery. This river walk runs through Brackenridge Park, which is also home to a Golf Course and Japanese Tea Garden.
If you are interested in visiting these museums and attractions, then the Museum Reach section of the River Walk is a great way to get here and get around. You can either walk, or take a river taxi to get here and around.
If you’d like to take in a show or performance whilst you’re on the San Antonio River Walk, you might want to head to the Arneson River Theater.
Designed as part of the original riverwalk by architect Robert Hugman, the theater is split across the river, with the stage on the north side and the 800 person seating area on the south side.
The outdoor theater hosts a variety of performances, from music to plays, dance recitals and opera. You can see some of the events on the official riverwalk events page here .
If you are looking for a more traditionally designed theater, then you might want to visit the Aztec Theater . Built in 1926, this actually predates the riverwalk, however it is located right next to it.
When it was built, the Aztec theater was designed to be highly decorated and opulent. As the name suggests, the style focuses on Aztec design, with columns, artwork, murals and sculpture working together to give a feel for ancient Mexican temples.
In terms of shows, the Aztec primarily hosts musical performances, however there are also other shows available. You can see the full listings here .
In 2011, the San Antonio River Walk was extended again, this time to the south of the city where you will find the San Antonio’s Missions National Historical Park.
This park consists of four Mission buildings, which along with the more famous Alamo Mission in downtown San Antonio , form a UNESCO world heritage site.
Whilst many visitors take the time to visit the Alamo, which is just a couple of minutes walk from the downtown section of the River Walk, far fewer head south to the Mission reach stretch of the River Walk.
This is a shame, as this stretch has a much more relaxed vibe, with a more natural feel and the option for cycling and kayaking.
The four missions are also well worth visiting. All four are free to visit, and by doing so you will get a fuller picture of early life in this part of the world. You can see our full guide to visiting the Alamo and San Antonio missions for more information and to help plan your visit.
Just be aware that it is quite a long walk from the downtown section of the River Walk. Instead, we would suggest either cycling, taking the bus, or doing a guided tour with transport like this .
Whilst the river taxi and river barges are a popular way to get around the downtown and Museum section of the riverwalk, they don’t go everywhere.
Another great option for getting around the River Walk, particularly for those of you who want to head down to the Mission Reach section, is to cycle the River Walk.
The cycle trails along the river, which are shared with pedestrians, are level and well maintained, and there’s a network of cycle hire points around the city and at various points along the river walk trail, so you don’t even need to bring your own bike. Bike hire is affordable, and this is a great way to get around.
One thing to be aware of is that in summer San Antonio gets very hot, and there is limited shade along the southern parts of the River Walk. So if you do decide to hire a bike, make sure to bring plenty of water and sunscreen.
The San Antonio River Walk was largely the result of the vision Robert H. H. Hugman , a San Antonio architect, who came up with the idea to create the downtown waterway surrounded by commercial development.
His plans were finally approved, and Hugman was the main project architect for the Riverwalk.
Today, you can take a self-guided walking tour of the River Walk—the Historic Hugman Tour. This historical trail includes more than 50 plaques which tell the story of the area with photos and information.
The tour is also available on smartphones—QR codes are available at each stop which you can scan for information on what you are seeing.
You can find out more about the tour and Hugman at the official Hugman Tour website .
The Mission reach section of the riverwalk, at the south of the city, is great for kayaking, and this makes for a unique way to see the river at a leisure pace. It also allows you to get close to some of the wildlife that lives in and along the river.
You can rent kayaks for unguided or guided tours . The river is calm and easy to paddle, so even beginners shouldn’t have much trouble!
San Antonio has a lot of public art, and there are many pieces on display all along the River Walk.
There’s a great website here which lists the public art in San Antonio, with a map you can use to locate pieces and their artists.
Just a 20 – 30 minute walk south from the downtown loop of the River Walk is the King William Historic district.
This area of San Antonio is home to a number of beautiful 19th century homes, which are constructed in a variety of styles, including Greek Revival, Victorian and Italianate.
Some of the properties are open for viewing, so you can visit inside them, or you can just enjoy a wander around. We can also recommend visiting the Guenther House , which is both a historic home you can tour, and a cafe/restaurant.
If you’re interested in taking a tour of the San Antonio River Walk, there are a number of options. Many of these tours also include other sights in San Antonio beyond the river walk.
- A San Antonio Ghost tour . San Antonio has it’s fair share of paranormal goings on, and a good way to learn about these is with a ghost tour of the city. There’s also a Segway ghost tour .
- A full day tour of the whole city , which includes the majority of the highlights of the city. Also available as a half day tour.
- A combination river cruise and Hop on Hop off bus ticket for the city . This two in one ticket will let you experience a lovely river cruise, plus get around the city in an open top bus. You can also purchase a ticket for the Hop on Hop off bus by itself of course, and use it to get to different parts of the river walk.
As you can see, there are a number of tour options which include the San Antonio River Walk!
Here is a Google Map which shows the general route of the San Antonio riverwalk, which you can also see on Google Maps here .
We can also recommend looking at the official San Antonio river walk map, which you can see here .
There are a lot of places to stay in San Antonio. For our guide to the riverwalk, we wanted to share some good options that are either on, or very close to, the San Antonio River Walk.
- Marriott Rivercenter – Connected to the Rivercentre mall and on the Riverwalk, this well-rated 4* property has an indoor and outdoor pool, fitness centre, variety of dining options, and all rooms are en-suite.
- Hotel Gibbs Downtown Riverwalk – This hotel is just across the street from the Alamo and a minute or so from the River Walk. It’s a mid-range hotel, and was where we stayed in San Antonio. We loved the great breakfast, friendly staff, well-sized rooms, and fantastic location
- Best Western Premier Historic Travelers Hotel – just 100 yards from the River Walk, this is one of the better value mid-range hotels in downtown San Antonio,
- The St. Anthony – a luxury pick in the historic property, the St Anthony features a heated pool with bar, 42″ TV’s in every room, and a location just 200 yards from the River Walk.
- The Westin Riverwalk San Antonio – a highly rated 4* hotel on the Riverwalk, with an on-site restaurants, 42″ TVs in ever room, coffee making facilities and on-site spa
- Drury Plaza Hotel San Antonio Riverwalk – a 3* property with direct access to the Riverwalk, with a rooftop swimming pool as well as an indoor pool. Breakfast is available, and rooms come with coffee machines, microwaves and refrigerators
- Hyatt Regency San Antonio Riverwalk – found on the Riverwalk and just 100 yards from the Alamo, this 4* hotel gets excellent reviews. Rooms have coffee makers and fridges, work areas, and there’s a pool.
- Holiday Inn San Antonio Riverwalk – a good value 3* hotel on the Riverwalk, the Holiday Inn has on-site dining, a cafe and gym. Rooms have work desks, coffee makers and refrigerators.
It’s worth being aware that this part of San Antonio is a more premium part of the city, being in the heart of downtown, so prices can be a little higher on average than other parts of the city. You can see more listings for San Antonio, which includes hotels, apartments and hostels, on booking.com here .
There aren’t many well rated properties in the budget category in the downtown area. We’d advise checking out the Days Inn by Wyndham and Motel 6 San Antonio Downtown , although do read the recent reviews before booking.
Vacation rentals are of course another option. You can see the listings for San Antonio on Vrbo here .
There are a huge number of restaurants on the San Antonio riverwalk, which can make picking one a challenge. To help you out, we’ve put together this short list of options to help you decide.
Casa Rio is the oldest restaurant on the riverwalk, making it a bit of an institution. The building is an old Spanish hacienda, and there’s indoor and outdoor seating. They serve up Tex-Mex fare, and this is an excellent place to sip a margarita whilst watching the river boats and world go by.
If you love tequila, you’ll want to head to Iron Cactus . This popular Mexican restaurant has over 100 to choose from, including a range of tequila flights if you want to try some different options.
They also do a line of tequila infused dishes if you’re feeling adventurous, as well as a range of cocktails. The food here is award winning with a wide range of Mexican dishes to choose from.
The Esquire Tavern is the oldest Riverwalk bar, and also has the distinction of being the home of the longest wooden bar top in Texas. It’s not just drinking though, as this Riverwalk location also has a good choice of bar-style meals.
If you’re looking for a fine dining experience on the Riverwalk, you’ll want to make a beeline for Biga on the Banks . With a focus on classic American dining overlooking the Riverwalk, we’re sure you’ll have a lovely meal here.
If you just want to enjoy a delicious home made ice cream, then we would highly recommend a visit to Justin’s Ice Cream . These guys started serving ice cream on the River Walk in 1981, and we very much enjoyed the ice cream we had here.
San Antonio has a great many attractions, from the famous Alamo to the Six Flags theme park just outside the city.
As well as the River Walk, some of our other favourite attractions include the Buckhorn Saloon, San Fernando Cathedral, and the Historic Market Square.
We’ve put together a detailed guide to visiting the Alamo , as well as all our favourite things to do in San Antonio , which should help you plan a trip to this lovely city.
Hopefully this guide to visiting the San Antonio River Walk has helped you prepare for your visit to one of the top attractions in Texas.
We’ve put together some other content on San Antonio to help plan your trip, and we also have a lot of other posts about the USA. We’ll also be be writing more about Texas, including our visits to Austin, Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth and Big Bend National Park, so do sign up to keep up to date with our latest posts.
In the meantime, here are some other posts we think you might find useful to help you plan trips within the USA.
And that’s it! As always, we’re happy to hear your questions, feedback and suggestions about this post. Just use the comments section below, and we’ll get back to you as soon as we can!
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where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the river in U.S. state of Texas . For other uses, see San Antonio River (disambiguation) .
The San Antonio River is a major waterway that originates in central Texas in a cluster of springs in midtown San Antonio , about 4 miles north of downtown, and follows a roughly southeastern path through the state. [3] It eventually feeds into the Guadalupe River about 10 miles from San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico . The river is 240 miles long and crosses five counties: Bexar , Goliad , Karnes , Refugio , and Wilson .
The first documented record of the river was from Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca on his explorations of Texas in 1535. The river was later named after San Antonio de Padua by the first governor of Spanish Texas , Domingo Terán de los Ríos in 1691. [4]
On June 13, 1691, Governor Terán and his company camped at a rancheria on a stream called Yanaguana They renamed the stream "San Antonio" because it was Saint Anthony's Day. Father Damián Massanet accompanied Governor Terán on his trip. [5]
During the Texas Revolution , the river was host to several major conflicts. The Battle of Concepcion occurred when the Mexican forces in Bexar and Texian militia fired upon each other in a small skirmish on the mission's grounds. The Grass Fight occurred when Texian militia mistook mules carrying grass to feed horses as mules carrying supply and gold money. The siege of Bexar was the climax of all these previous events when the Texian militia surrounded Bexar and began continuous attacks into the Mexican stronghold of Bexar until the Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered.
The Goliad Campaign occurred when 50 Texian militia captured the mission at Goliad, being used as a garrison by the Mexican forces. The Battle of the Alamo occurred when 180 Texian regulars and volunteers occupied a 3-acre garrison built around an old Spanish mission . They withheld a Mexican force of around 3,000 troops for 12 days until the garrison was overrun by a Mexican assault on dawn of the 13th day.
During Fiesta every April, the Texas Cavaliers River Parade runs on the San Antonio River in downtown San Antonio. It is one of Fiesta's most popular events and ticket sales revenue goes to support children’s charities. [6]
Five major 18th-century Spanish missions are lined up along the historical course of the river in San Antonio, including Mission Espada , Mission Concepcion , Mission San José , and Mission San Juan Capistrano . The most famous mission is San Antonio de Valero, better known as the Álamo , and its complementing fortress is Presidio San Antonio de Bexar . These five missions in San Antonio are now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Presidio La Bahía and its mission, Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga in Goliad, Texas , are also located along the southern portion of the river.
The waterway is also host to the San Antonio River Walk , one of San Antonio's primary tourist destinations and the centerpiece of the city, with several river improvement projects occurring so far. The Riverwalk was extended to the north in 2009, and that section of the river is now called the Museum Reach and features attractions such as the Pearl Brewery and the San Antonio Museum of Art. [7] [8] In 2013, the Mission Reach stretch of the Riverwalk was opened in the south, which features hiking, biking, and paddling trails. [9] [10] [11]
Work was authorized to begin in 2015 by the Bexar County Commissioners Court on the restoration of the former Hot Wells hotel , spa , and bathhouse , located along the San Antonio River in the south side of the city. [12]
"San Antonio River from Mill Bridge" (postcard, circa 1907)
The river winds its way through downtown San Antonio.
The river at Floresville River Park in Floresville in Wilson County
The river crossing under Farm Road 541 between Poth and Dewees in Wilson County
The river passes through Goliad en route to the Gulf of Mexico . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_River | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River Basin | San Antonio River Authority | The San Antonio River Basin
The San Antonio River Basin is a dynamic ecosystem with rivers, creeks and streams that can quickly be impacted by rain events and other weather conditions. Human activities within the basin may also affect water conditions.
The San Antonio River Basin drains a land area of 4,180 square miles. The basin extends from Kerr and Medina counties in the Texas Hill Country southeast toward the Gulf of Mexico. It drains approximately half of Medina County to the far northwest; the majority of Bexar, Wilson and Karnes counties, which comprise the central portion of the basin; approximately one third of Goliad County to the southeast; and parts of Bandera, Kendall, Comal, Guadalupe, DeWitt, Kerr, Atascosa, Victoria and Refugio counties.
The basin’s major watersheds are:
- Medina River Watershed
- Leon Creek Watershed
- Upper San Antonio River Watershed
- Salado Creek Watershed
- Cibolo Creek Watershed
- Lower San Antonio River Watershed
The map below shows how these watersheds drain toward the Gulf of Mexico.
The San Antonio River is the basin’s major river, flowing 240 miles from its headwaters in San Antonio, Bexar County, to its confluence with the Guadalupe River in Refugio County. Approximately 11 miles downriver of the confluence, the Guadalupe drains into the San Antonio Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
- Spring water from the Edwards Aquifer in Bexar County forms the humble origin of the San Antonio River, which has been home to indigenous peoples for over 12,000 years. There are numerous springs in the headwaters area, the largest and most well-known is the Blue Hole on the University of the Incarnate Word campus north of downtown San Antonio.
- The Blue Hole is an artesian spring at approximately 670 feet above sea level fed by the Edwards Aquifer.
- The San Antonio River flows 240 miles through Bexar, Wilson, Karnes, Goliad and Refugio counties, converging with the Guadalupe River before finally flowing into San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico.
- Common mammals seen along the San Antonio River Basin riparian corridor include the common raccoon, Eastern Fox squirrels, Virginia opossums, White-tail deer, Nine-banded armadillos, Eastern Cottontail rabbits and feral hogs.
- The San Antonio River carries surface water from 2,500-foot elevations within the Texas Hill Country of Bandera and Kerr counties to less than 100-foot elevations in Refugio County.
- The San Antonio River watershed includes parts of Atascosa, Bandera, Bexar, Comal, Dewitt, Goliad, Guadalupe, Karnes, Kendall, Kerr, Medina, Refugio, Victoria and Wilson Counties.
- The San Antonio River Basin is one of 23 major basins in Texas and drains over 4,194 square miles.
- San Antonio River Basin contains over 8,800 miles of streams.
100 E. Guenther St.
San Antonio, Texas 78204
1.866.345.7272 | https://www.sariverauthority.org/education/san-antonio-river-basin | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | Appreciating the Blue Hole, the Source of the San Antonio River | The Blue Hole is a modest place, but it’s still a must-see for people who love San Antonio. Along with other springs in the Headwaters area, the Blue Hole is traditionally considered the source of the San Antonio River, so it’s an important place for appreciating how water has shaped our city and its culture for ages. Visiting the Blue Hole is a brief, free, family-friendly excursion, and may spark curiosity about where San Antonio gets its water from and how we can conserve it for future generations.
The Blue Hole, also known as the San Antonio Spring, Ojo de Agua , or Yanaguana, is located in the Headwaters at the Incarnate Word preserve on the campus of the University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio and Alamo Heights. When the water level in the Edwards Aquifer is high enough—at least 672 feet above sea level as measured at the J-17 well —clear water surges up from cracks in the limestone and spills into a riverbed that eventually becomes the San Antonio River Walk that we know and love. For a detailed account of the science and history of the Blue Hole, see “San Antonio Springs and Brackenridge Park” by Gregg Ekhardt at the Edwards Aquifer Website .
The history of human settlement around the Blue Hole dates back approximately 12,000 years. From 1869 to 1897, the area around the Blue Hole was the estate of George W. Brackenridge , familiar to readers of this blog as the settlor of the education-focused George W. Brackenridge Foundation , until he sold the land, his house (now know as the Brackenridge Villa), and its contents to the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word .
Just to be clear—there is another Blue Hole in the region, a popular swimming hole near Wimberley. There’s also an East Texas Blue Hole .
The Headwaters at Incarnate Word are open every day of the year from dawn to dusk. Admission is free and there is no need for tickets or reservations unless you are coming with a group . The best times to go are evenings and weekends when it’s easier to find parking on the Incarnate Word campus. The Headwaters site has directions and a map showing how to reach the Headwaters trails from either the Highway 281 North frontage road or from East Hildebrand.
The Blue Hole, as you can see on the campus map , is accessible from a walking trail that winds past a sand volleyball court. A left turn into a wooded area brings you to a low stone wall encircling the spring.
When the aquifer is high enough, the water flows freely from the spring. The surface of the water is disturbed by the constant upward push of water from underground. Small fish dart around in the water, and the riverbed is a patchwork of mud and leaves.
However, when the aquifer is low due to pumping from wells, the Blue Hole is dusty and the riverbed is dry. During those dry times, recycled water keeps the San Antonio River flowing downstream.
The spring is a small and humble place compared to the river as it goes through the artsy Museum Reach , the touristy San Antonio River Walk , the naturalistic Mission Reach , and beyond . Nevertheless, the Blue Hole has a sacred feeling. There is a bench nearby inscribed with the words, “Be still and know.”
On our recent visit, my kids wanted to skip around and play, but they also took the time to sit on the bench, look out over the river, and enjoy a quiet moment in the shade.
Visiting the Blue Hole with your family is a good way to start a discussion about where San Antonio’s water comes from. The Edwards Aquifer is a remarkable thing, but the water supply is limited in times of drought, so our citizens need to practice conservation and our city needs to plan for the future by securing other supplies of water .
In addition to the Blue Hole, there are other family-friendly places to learn about water.
- No Name Creek in the Family Adventure Garden at the San Antonio Botanical Garden has water features and walls that depict aquifer structures. Also, the Botanical Garden’s amphitheater used to be a reservoir, part of a municipal water project led by George W. Brackenridge.
- In Brackenridge Park , the San Antonio Conservation Society is in the process of restoring Pump House No. 1 . Built in 1877, it is the oldest surviving industrial building in San Antonio.
- On the grounds of the Witte Museum , stone blocks mark the path of the Acequia Madre , a dam and canal that diverted water for the Alamo . On the museum’s second floor, the People of the Pecos gallery sheds light on what life was like for the first human settlers of the Headwaters area.
- The Yanaguana Garden playground at Hemisfair has sculptures by Oscar Alvarado that illustrate the Payaya origin story about the San Antonio River. Look for climbable, tile-covered statues of a cormorant, a jaguar, and a spiral representing the Blue Hole.
- Confluence Park , a project of the San Antonio River Foundation , has a large-scale map of the San Antonio river and its tributaries. From the pavilions there is easy access to the trails of the Mission Reach .
- The Science Mill in Johnson City presents the water cycle through The Story of Water , an exhibit in a refurbished silo.
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where does the san antonio river start and end | The San Antonio River | All of the dry-weather flow of the San Antonio River in the downtown area used to come from two major groupings of Edwards Aquifer springs, both with their own separate pages on this site: San Antonio Springs and another nearby grouping of springs, the San Pedro Springs .
Native American Uses and European Discovery
For over 11,000 years native American hunter-gatherers utilized the lush and varied ecosystems of the Olmos Creek basin, these springs, and the rivers they created. They were favorite meeting places and campsites. In both locations, their stone and flint tools attest to thousands of years of use, and their burials have been found in caves and rock shelters.
For over 100 years, many historians and scholars believed it likely that Cabeza de Vaca was the first European to encounter the Springs in the 1530s, but recent research has provided strong support for an opposing interpretation that most of de Vaca's escape route to Panuco was through Mexico, not Central Texas ( Chipman, 1987 and Olson et al, 1997 ) . The first Spaniards known to have visited the Springs were members of a 1691 expedition led by Domingo Teran de los Rios and Father Damian Massanet. On June 13 of that year they pitched camp alongside a group of friendly Payaya Indians at the River's headwaters. It happened to be the day of Saint Anthony of Padua, and they named the spot San Antonio de Padua.
By 1680 the Spanish had begun to fear French expansion into lands claimed by Spain, and between 1709 and 1722 several Spanish entradas , or formal expeditions, made their way across Texas. These explorers realized the gentle plain below San Antonio Springs was a strategic spot for a permanent stronghold against French incursion.
Franciscan missionary Antonio de San Buenaventuara y Olivares arrived with one of these expeditions at the San Antonio River on April 13, 1709, and was so pleased with the river site that he began a nine year campaign to build a mission on the banks. On May 1, 1718, Olivares broke ground, built a hut of brush and grapevines, offered Mass, and named his mission San Antonio de Valero. The mission later became known as the Alamo and the shrine of Texas liberty. Originally, the mission was west of San Pedro Springs, not on the San Antonio River. It was moved to the east side of the San Pedro Springs in 1719 where farmland was better, and then was moved to the location now occupied by St. Joseph's church on Commerce Street. Hurricane floods destroyed it in 1724 and the mission was then moved to its final location on the banks of the San Antonio River ( Noonan-Guerra, 1987 ) .
The Acequia Systems
When the Spanish arrived for good in 1718, they immediately began constructing a system of irrigation ditches, or acequias , to divert water from the San Antonio River and San Pedro Creek to farmlands. At first the work was carried out by the missionairies themselves and settlers, but most building was eventually carried out using forced labor of Indian converts. Eventually five mission complexes were established, linked by seven acequia systems, between the headwaters of the San Antonio River and its confluence with the Medina River. The acequias served as San Antonio's water system for almost two hundred years and were the first municipal water distribution system in North America. They were remarkable engineering feats for their time, and some are still in use.
Image from On a Mexican Mustang, Through Texas, from the Gulf to the Rio Grande , by Alex E. Sweet and J. Armoy Knox, 1883. Notice the armed Spanish guards posted to keep the Indian laborers from abandoning their duty.
A portion of the Espada acequia over Piedras Creek. There were two additional such structures in San Antonio, both now destroyed and buried. One was at the intersection of South St. Mary's and South Alamo streets, and another was near Fredericksburg Road and North Flores Street, just northwest of downtown ( Cox, 2005 ) .
A very rare early 20th century postcard showing the acequia over Piedras Creek. Mailed on January 7, 1913. Ella wrote to Miss Martha Whittier in Muscatah, Kansas:
Dear Martha - I will at last try and send you a card. I am gaming every day and am outdoors in the sun a good deal. This is the land of "cotton and cactus." Let me hear from you - Ella
This, the oldest continuously used Spanish built diversion dam in Texas, has provided irrigation water since it's construction sometime between 1731 and 1745. The dam, originally 270 feet long, is built on a natural rock foundation. A portion of the east wing is now covered by the nearby flood control levee. Despite a unique reverse buttress making an angular turn at the center of the channel, the dam has withstood many years of destructive floods with only minor repairs required to maintain its sound condition. The 8 foot tall structure diverts approximately 4500 gallons of water per minute into the 4 mile long irrigation ditch known as "Acequia de Espada". By gravity flow the acequia provides irrigation water for 400 acres of land in the vicinity of Mission San Francisco de la Espada. The mouth of the acequia may be seen on the opposite bank of the river just upstream from the dam. The dam and irrigation system was engineered by Franciscan Missionaries and constructed by Indian converts, a remarkable feat at that time.
The 1800's: Beautiful Servant
By all accounts, the San Antonio River before Edwards Aquifer wells were drilled was a large, crystal-pure, reliable stream, much unlike the murky trickle it became later on. George W. Bonnell described the situation in 1840:
The San Antonio River is formed by about one hundred large springs in a beautiful valley four miles above the city. Many of these springs would singly form a river; and when they unite in San Antonio, they form a bold and rapid stream of two hundred feet in width, and about four feet deep over the shoals.
Few cities have had such an intense love affair or such an intimate relationship with their river as San Antonio. Year round bathing in the River was a San Antonio tradition and was described by Frederick Marryat in 1843:
The temperature of the water is the same throughout the year, neither too warm nor too cold for bathing, and not a single day passes without the inhabitants indulging in the favourite and healthy exercise of swimming, which is practised by everybody, from morning till evening; and the traveller along the shores of this beautiful river will constantly see hundreds of children, of all ages and colour, swimming and diving like so many ducks.
(Image from Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper , January 15, 1859.)
By 1850, San Antonio had made a servant of its River. It powered waterworks and mills, fed irrigation ditches, provided drinking water, put out fires, and carried sewage downstream (McLemore, 1980) . In 1877 Harriet Prescott Spofford , writing for Harper's New Monthly Magazine, rode on one of the first trains to San Antonio and declared "On a more enchanting spot the eye of poet never rested. There is probably nothing like it in America." Spofford wrote:
In and out among these houses slips the San Antonio River, clear as crystal, swifter than a mill-race; now narrow and foaming along between steep banks with luxuriant semi-tropical growth, and with the tall pecans on either side meeting above them in vaulting shadows; now spreading in sunny shallows between long grassy swards starred with flowers, twisting and turning and doubling on itself, so tortuous that the three miles of the straight line from its head to the market-place it makes only in fourteen miles of caprices and surprises, rapids and eddies and falls and narrow curves, reach after reach of soft green and flickering sunshine, each more exquisitely beautiful than the other. Around every lane it takes a loop; here it is just a pebbly ford, there, although so perfectly transparent that you can see every flint in its bed, it is of a profound depth, and every where it is of a color whose loveliness is past belief. It flows by the Mexican jacal, and through the wealthy garden, around the churches, across the business streets with its delightful glimpses. You can not escape it; you think you have left it behind you, and there it is before you, hurrying along to the forests on its two hundred miles to the Gulf.
In On A Mexican Mustang, Through Texas, From the Gulf Coast to the Rio Grande , Alex E. Sweet and J. Armoy Knox provided a colorful travelogue of their 1881 journey across the state. Upon reaching San Antonio, they said:
...we stood in the hall of the Menger Hotel, and realized we were in a city that, in historic interest, romantic surroundings, and a strange, foreign aspect, has no equal in the United States.
At left, they described a sign on a bridge over the San Antonio River in three languages, and they made observations about the cultural underpinnings of each message. (click to enlarge)
This print entitled Bowen's Bend, San Antonio River was published in Rand McNally's Southern and Western Texas Guide for 1878.
This is one half of a stereoview card showing the same location as above. Even in 2D it offers a great view of what the River was like in the mid 1870s. Using the magic of Photoshop, I worked out a technique to combine the two stereoview images so you can see the effect using regular 3D glasses instead of the old-timey viewer. See it below.
San Antonio River in 3D
Get out your 3D glasses and view these San Antonio River anaglyphs, created from late 19th century stereoview cards. Click to enlarge - it's just as if you were really there.
The River's Decline and the Early Beautification Efforts
By 1890, numerous artesian wells had been drilled into the Edwards Aquifer around San Antonio and in 1891 the city began to rely on wells rather than acequias for its water supply. Flows in the River began to decline seriously. In 1896, the first geologists to accurately describe the Edwards recognized that wells were the culprits impacting springflows that were the origin of the River ( Hill & Vaughan, 1896 ) . In most years the River was just a trickle. By 1900, the bath houses were gone, swimming holes were too shallow, and there was not even enough flow to carry off garbage. Still, residents loved and protected their River. In 1904 city workers cut down two magnificent willow trees and an Express-News article on August 18th was titled "Rivercleaning Gang Ruins Beauty Spots". A public uproar resulted, and on August 20th a follow-up article entitled "Citizens Stop Ruin of Cherished River" outlined the promises of city officials to "beautify the stream and protect it in every manner possible." The city did its first riverbank landscaping shortly thereafter.
Public sentiment in favor of saving and beautifying the River continued to grow. On February 10, 1910, the Express-News headlines announced "Public Wants River to Receive First Attention". Later that year the Civic Improvement League began efforts to beautify sections of the River downtown by planting grasses, flowers, and shrubs.
In September 1911, a small group of River-loving citizens formed the San Antonio River Improvement Association, and declared that a way to revive the River must be found. Mayor Bryan Callaghan, loathe to spend any public money on the River, grudgingly approved installation of a pump on an abandoned well in Brackenridge Park to provide the River some flow. Mayor Callaghan died suddenly in office in 1912 and was succeeded by reform-minded Augustus H. Jones, who immediately established a City Plan Committee and made River beautification his top priority. A flurry of plans followed. San Antonio architect Harvey L. Page devised a plan to line the River for 13 miles with reinforced concrete slabs, add decorative concrete bridges, and have numerous benches turn the banks into "a vast park". Using city money, River Commissioner George Surkey began building a modified version of Page's plan that established a uniform width for the downtown River channel with low concrete covered rock walls dubbed "Surkey's Sea Walls". Sodding and planting followed, and Surkey sought another artesian well to double the River's flow ( Fisher, 1997 ) .
This postcard mailed in 1916 shows "Surkey's Sea Walls" and the type of beautification work that had been completed in the Great Bend section prior to the great flood of 1921. This is now the busiest section of the River Walk. The view is looking north towards the Commerce Street bridge. Today there is an arched stone bridge about where the boat is, and the Casa Rio restaurant is on the left bank.
Flood Control Comes First
Even as momentum toward River improvements was growing, six major floods occurred in the nine years between 1913-1921. Indeed, flooding was a way of life in San Antonio. The normal course of business was to scoop out the mud and try to get on with life. If a person had means to escape the flood-prone downtown area, they did. Consider the names of early subdivisions that became an alternative place to live when streetcars and automobile made them accessible: Terrell Hills, Tobin Hill, Alamo Heights. It is clear that what developers were selling was high ground.
During this time, city officials gave serious consideration to concreting over the River and turning it into a sewer. Other proposals involved deepening and straightening and removing major landmarks and all vegetation, including carefully planted cypress trees from the beautification projects.
Though many realized the danger, San Antonians also loved their River. When news leaked on March 31, 1921, that it might be destroyed it hit the citizens like a bombshell. City Hall was immediately besieged with irate visitors and contemptuous phone calls. The River was saved, but engineers warned of ruinous loss that could be caused by a 100-year flood. Such a flood occurred a few months later, before a flood prevention program was started. During the early morning hours of September 10, 1921, most of downtown was covered by 2-10 feet of water. More than 50 people lost their lives and downtown San Antonio looked like a war zone. San Antonians realized that before beautification projects could proceed much further, the city had to be made safe from its River.
Water gushes from sidewalks onto Navarro Street in this Real Photo postcard mailed by E.J.B. on Dec. 8, 1913. The sender wrote to Miss Carrie Taylor in Bedford, Massachusets:
This does not give you much of an idea of the dreadful floods in Texas but it shows a little of the water. The school was an island all morning.
Mailed on September 13, 1921, by a witness to the flooding, the back of the card says:
Dear Folks:
We are safe after water rushing through our street 2 feet deep. The business part is at a stand still. This is one of the business streets. Elmer gone all week at the washouts. I sure thought our apartment would be flooded but only up to porch.
Lovingly, Maude
Olmos Dam and the Cutoff Channel
After the great flood of 1921, it took almost three years for San Antonians to reach consensus about what should be done to control flooding. The two largest projects were construction of Olmos Dam in a narrow gorge above the River's headwaters, and creation of a "cutoff channel" so that floodwaters could bypass the Great Bend in the downtown area.
Completed in 1926, Olmos Dam was built to protect downtown San Antonio from flooding. The back of this postcard from the 40's says the dam was constructed at a cost of $1,571,000. Prior to construction, there was an archaeological site here that was probably the largest and most important in Bexar county ( see the San Antonio Springs page for more on the prehistory of the Olmos Basin.
San Antonio River, 1836 and Today
When the "cutoff channel" was proposed betwen points A and B in the graphic above, some believed it would be a waste to let it sit empty while the "Great Bend" that meanders close to the Alamo carried the River's normal flow. The Great Bend took up seven acres of prime commercial territory, and real estate promoters thought it should be filled in and the new cutoff channel allowed to carry the River's flow at all times. San Antonians once again had to come to the rescue of their River, and numerous civic clubs formed such a well-defined counter-movement that city politicians clamored over each other to roundly condemn the idea of filling the bend. Citizens also organized to defeat a roadway that would have run parallel to the River near La Villita and completely overhang the River in some locations. After the cutoff channel was finally completed in 1929, attention could once again be turned to beautification of the River, and beautiful it did become!
Robert H. H. Hugman and the San Antonio River Walk
This is Robert H. H. Hugman, visionary architect of the San Antonio River Walk. His genius and determination resulted in the transformation of what might have been a drainage culvert into an astonishing linear park. Hugman knew that if a floodgate was constructed at the north end of the Great Bend and an adjustable weir at the south end, it could be completely isolated from flooding and commercial development could proceed at River level. In 1929, at the age of 27, he offered an imaginative plan for development he called "Shops of Aragon and Romula". It was patterned after old cities in Spain, where narrow winding streets that were barred to vehicular traffic contained the best shops and restaurants.
Hugman's plan was heartily endorsed by Mayor C.M. Chambers, so he began presenting it to civic and community leaders, stressing the great commercial value it would impart to the River.
However, a prime objective of civic reformers who controlled city hall was the hiring of a professional city planning firm to develop a master plan for the entire city, including the River. The City Plan Committee hired Harland Bartholomew and Associates of St. Louis, a national leader in comprehensive city planning. Bartholomew's plan for the Great Bend area of the River was very different from Hugman's. It was to be completely natural and pastoral....a greenway with no commercial development at River level.
By the time the Bartholomew plan was finally finished and formally recommended to city commissioners, the Great Depression was in full force. No action was taken on either the Bartholomew or Hugman plan, although the city did continue to enhance the River with new plantings and flowerbeds.
In 1936, Texas celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Republic, and the Daughters of the Republic of Texas made beautifying and preserving the natural charm of the River one of their centennial projects. It sparked an affirmation of public interest in the River. During Fiesta week, Plaza Hotel manager Jack White sponsored a River boat parade and more than 10,000 people crowded the banks, demonstrating that San Antonians had not lost enthusiasm for their River. White also saw that Hugman's commercially-oriented plan presented many more business opportunities than Bartholomew's. White organized the San Antonio River Beautification Committee, which hired Hugman and Edwin P. Arneson to prepare drawings for a project to submit for Works Project Administration (WPA) funding. The plan was estimated to cost almost $400,000. The Committee collected $40,000 from businesses along the River, secured some additional funding from the City, and got WPA funding for the remainder in place by the end of 1938. In 1939, after a full decade of debate and delays, work began on Hugman's San Antonio River Walk under the Work Projects Administration.
This press photo from 1936 was taken about the time the public was affirming its interest in River preservation, as evidenced by the large crowd watching the Fiesta San Jacinto parade. The press caption on the back says:
Gondolas gaily decorated in flowers are to be seen on the winding San Antonio river this week as that city pauses to celebrate their annual fiesta de San Jacinto which this year marks the one hundredth anniversary of their freedom from Mexico. The river is lighted all through its long course through the city and boatmen sell flowers and take celebrants for rides on the river.
After work on Hugman's plan got underway, he supervised the project for less than one year before he was fired. The Great Bend of the River had always been mostly natural and pastoral, and powerful members of the Conservation Society were concerned about the new look. The fresh white limestone of the arched bridges, the concrete walkways, and the new theater stood in sharp contrast to the natural setting that existed before. Plantings had been temporarily removed and the channel drained, so there was an overall barren and disheveled appearance. In January 1940, the Society passed a resolution condemning Hugman's work as a "desecration of the beauties of San Antonio" and sent him a letter criticizing the "excessive stone work." Mayor Maury Maverick agreed with the critics and thought he would force Hugman to concentrate more on landscaping by cutting his supply of stone. When Hugman learned that materials for his project were being diverted to another WPA project, La Villita, he collected documentation and presented it to a judge who also sat on the River Project Board. Instead of supporting him, the Board unanimously dismissed him. Many of the elements Hugman intended, such as a curtain of water to screen the Arneson theater stage, were never built.
On March 13, 1941, the Works Progress Administration formally turned over the River Walk to the City of San Antonio. There were 17,000 feet of new sidewalks, 31 stairways, 3 dams, 4,000 trees, shrubs, and plants, and numerous benches of stone, cement, and cedar. An estimated 50,000 people lined the River Walk on April 21 to dedicate the project and watch the first of what became an annual parade of boats. Even so, Hugman's work was highly under-appreciated and mostly deserted for several decades. Military personnel were banned from going there, and locals believed it to be seedy and dangerous after dark. Finally, during the HemisFair in 1968, the image of the River Walk began to be transformed and it became an international sensation.
The Arneson River Theatre offers a delightful setting for many colorful events on the downtown River Walk. The audience sits on grassy terraces carved into the opposite bank. Originally, architect Robert H. H. Hugman intended there would be a water curtain in front of the stage. Hugman was fired after supervising the River Walk project for less than a year and many of his intended elements were never constructed.
The arched stone bridge and the "floating sidewalk" in front of La Mansion Del Rio are two of Hugman's most famous and distinctive features. On the opposite bank is a long row of stone arches that Hugman designed, but they were not included in the original River Walk construction. They were finally built in 1988 using Hugman's original plans. A project completed in 2006 involved digging underneath Crockett Street and opening up the arches to shops and restaurants in newly dug basements of two buildings on the other side. This created a River level entrance to the historic Aztec theatre. The flowering tree is a redbud, earliest harbinger of spring in San Antonio.
One of the longest running traditions on the River Walk is the River Art Show. This press photo was distributed by the San Antonio's Municipal Publicity Bureau for the 14th annual show in 1958. At this point I am going to admit I bought it on eBay partly because of Ms. Cain's stunning beauty. I'm a man, sue me. The text of the Publicity Bureau's press release on the back says:
TEXAS ART - Pretty Alex Cain, one of San Antonio's famed Poster Girls, previews an entry in the Alamo City's unique River Art Show - nationally famous as America's most beautiful art exhibition (the show, not shapely Alex). The 14th annual River Art Show, Oct. 4-5, features 400 artists and craftsmen in costume displaying their works on the river banks of the San Antonio River as they compete for $1,100 in cash awards.
The River Today
Today the world-famous San Antonio River Walk is the crown jewel of Texas and a major tourist attraction. Beautifully landscaped along its winding course through downtown, it is still most beloved by residents of the city.
For decades, the entire dry weather flow was derived from wells in Brackenridge Park . But in June 2000, the San Antonio Water System began augmenting the River's flow with recycled water, allowing the wells to be cut off and reducing potable Edwards Aquifer water use. Afterwards, significant water quality improvements were documented and today the River flows stronger and cleaner than it has in decades.
For example, in June of 2002 scientists from the San Antonio River Authority discovered a log perch, a darter that is highly sensitive to pollution, in the San Antonio River below Loop 410. In this area the River is almost completely water that started as raw sewage and was cleaned up at SAWS' Dos Rios Water Recycling Center. Up until the late 1980s poor treatment plant operations, poor stormwater quality, and influxes of dumped toxic materials resulted in a "dead zone" here that extended for many miles downstream. Officials said that finding a sensitive fish species such as the log perch indicates SAWS' treatment plant operations have been vastly improved and stabilized, the City's stormwater control program has been effective, and residents have done their part by ending their dumping of anti-freeze, oil, and household chemicals that kill fish. In recent years, in addition to the log perch, biologists have found other sensitive species such as stonerollers and long-eared sunfish. The River is now rated relatively highly on a scientific index that measures biotic integrity, and biologists expect the sensitive species to continue migrating toward the downtown area.
Much of the credit for the River today being vastly improved over decades past goes to the many people who have devoted their entire professional careers to it.
One of these was my friend Mike Gonzales. Before he passed away suddenly in 2012, he had worked for the San Antonio River Authority for 30 years and was instrumental in every one of their water quality and ecosystem improvement initiatives.
Mike was proud of his Native American heritage. He lived and worked by his beliefs, close to Mother Earth and Father Sun.
In the background is Ernie Moran, another longtime SARA employee who has been instrumental in San Antonio River improvements for more than three decades.
The Bacteria Issue
One water quality parameter of current concern is coliform bacteria. The Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (now the TCEQ) and others have identified high coliform bacteria counts as a water quality concern, so contact recreation is not supported in the San Antonio River ( TNRCC, 1996 ) . These bacteria live in the intestines of warm-blooded animals are are not usually in themselves harmful, but they are used as an indicator that other harmful pathogens may be present.
There are many possible sources for the bacteria, including sewer line leaks, agriculture, urban runoff, and wildlife. The regulatory levels for bacteria are based on risks to human health, but they are lower than what is often found in nature, so meeting them may not really be possible or desireable, unless we are going to get rid of all the birds and raccoons. For the San Antonio River, a primary source of bacteria was well known: the San Antonio Zoo.
For many decades the Zoo discharged up to five million gallons a day of water that first was used in exhibits or for washing enclosures. The very heart of the Clean Water Act is that every single discharge of water must be treated to acceptable standards and permitted before release, and no one has ever really been able to explain why the Zoo seemed to be the nation's only exception. When the region's famous fish farmer Ronnie Pucek did something very similar - he routed water water through fish tanks and then released it to the Medina River - the state shut him down because he didn't have a wastewater discharge permit.
In any case, a Watershed Protection Plan completed in 2006 for the San Antonio River Authority determined that treatment of the Zoo's discharge would bring most of the upper San Antonio River into compliance with state criteria, except under periods of prolonged wet weather when bacteria loads are more influenced by urban runoff ( Miertschen, et al, 2006 ) .
In June of 2014, an ultraviolet (UV) disinfection facility began to treat the Zoo’s discharge and so far it has worked very well at killing bacteria. However, data collected so far has indicated the modeling conducted for the Watershed Protection Plan was wrong - downstream of the Zoo the River continues to exceed the regulatory limits for bacteria.
In 2016, after 18 months of work by stakeholders and scientists from throughout the upper San Antonio watershed, the TCEQ approved an Implementation Plan to address the River's bacteria issues.
The Plan outlines 30 management measures that either have already been completed or will be pursued by responsible entities, ranging from things like feral hog management to specially designed boats for cleaning the River.
It is going to be a long-term process. As mentioned previously, the Zoo's ultraviolet treatment plant has not resulted in the River meeting the state regulatory criteria for bacteria. And as it turns out, most of the bacteria is from natural sources, which may not be possible or desireable to eliminate.
One approach might be to change the standard. Bacteria levels are often acceptable except during storm events when large amounts of bacteria wash in all at once. During those times, no one is really going to be in the River anyway. If the standard were revised to exclude bacteria measurements during high flow conditions, that would be a recognition the natural world is what it is and is not always a Disneyland.
Whose River is it Anyway...?
In 2001, a long-standing property dispute between the City and River Walk tenants appeared to be headed for a very interesting court battle. A portion of the funds the City uses to maintain the River Walk comes from rents charged to restaurants and bars who place tables along the walkways and kiosks near the water's edge. Several businesses, claiming that rates were too high and inequitable and that funds were not used for River Walk maintenance, had not been paying rent for as long as 12 years. Moreover, the businesses claimed they owned the land in question and they had deeds dating back to Spanish colonial times to prove it. The City claimed the businesses only owned land up to the edge of their buildings, since the walkways and kiosks weren't created until the River Walk was built in 1939. There did not appear to be any way for the businesses to win, even if they won in court, because in any event the City could simply condemn and take any land that a jury decided belonged to the restaurants. And any money the businesses might receive as compensation could be recovered by the City through even higher rents. In August 2001, just before the trial was to begin, the parties reached a deal in which the City obtained clear title to the lands, and tenants got more equitable rents, long-term leases, and seats on an advisory panel that would have a say in how revenues would be spent.
Beyond the Great Bend
Many tourists and even most local San Antonians are unaware of the River Walk's complete extent through downtown. Most think of the River Walk as just the "Great Bend" area where the floodgate has allowed hotels and restaurants to develop right along the River's banks. But the River Walk actually extends much farther. If you are visiting San Antonio or you are a local going downtown, you owe it to yourself to wander outside the Great Bend and see the rest of the River Walk. The north section extends past the floodgate up to the Pearl Brewery, past office towers and attractions like the Southwest Craft Center and the Museum of Art. The southern portion winds through the historic King William district where you can stroll past many graceful 19th century mansions. Until 2011, the River Walk ended at Guenther Street, where the offices of the San Antonio River Authority offices are located. In the spring of that year, a connection was opened to south that now extends 10 miles to Mission Espada.
This is the northern floodgate located at point "A" in the graphic above. Closing this gate and adjusting a weir at point "B" completely isolates the Great Bend area from flooding. The bypass channel is seen beyond the gate. One of San Antonio's best kept secrets is that walkers may turn right at this gate and continue along the River Walk all the way to the San Antonio Museum of Art and the Pearl Brewery. Even when the Great Bend area is wall to wall with people, the areas outside the Great Bend are usually very quiet and serene and offer a peaceful stroll.
Tourists and residents begin lining the banks of the San Antonio River for the annual Fiesta River Parade, a unique and dazzling event that only San Antonio can offer. Dozens of illuminated barges wind their way down the River past 300,000 onlookers. One of the old gondolas that used to ply the River in the 40's is shown here. They are only brought out now for special occasions. The gondolas are one reason San Antonio came to be known as the "Venice of America".
A quiet Sunday morning on the River Walk near the Casa Rio restaurant. It was opened in 1946 by Alfred Beyer and was the first commercial establishment at River level. It was inspired more by necessity than devotion to the River. Beyer had an appliance store at street level, but was losing sales to department stores. So he excavated the basement of his store, built stairs down to the River, and opened what has remained a very popular Mexican eatery. During excavation he discovered remnants of a Spanish-era home which were preserved as part of the restaurant.
The Canal That Never Was
In the 1960s, an ambitious plan was advanced by the San Antonio River Authority to turn the River into a barge canal. SARA was originally formed by the Legislature in 1937 as the San Antonio River Canal & Conservancy District, and their primary purpose was development of a navigable waterway connecting San Antonio with the Intracoastal Canal. To that end, they developed a visionary plan for a 150-mile straightened and deepened channel with a series of locks and dams. In the 1940s, floods forced SARA to adopt other priorities, and in the 1950s droughts brought into question whether the canal would have sufficient water. The plan languished until 1961, when SARA and powerful legislators like Henry B. Gonzalez became convinced that wastewater return flows were the answer. A U.S. Study Commission report in 1962 concluded that San Antonio's growing population "could justify construction of a barge navigation canal", and it projected that by 2010 San Antonio would be discharging a staggering 380,000 acre-feet of water per year, more than enough to make the project viable.
A newspaper feature on the River Canal from 1962.
By the mid 1960s, newly completed interstate highways vastly improved transportation and made the River Canal idea seem wacky. There would be little need for trucks to offload in south Bexar county and send their cargo on a slow float to the coast when they could simply keep driving and be there in two hours. The River Canal would also have been unusable during floods, and a nationwide awakening to the environmental impacts of such projects was underway. The plan was abandoned and largely forgotten. The wastewater return flows envisioned in 1962 by the Study Commission report never materialized. Because of conservation, reuse, and limits on Edwards Aquifer pumping, San Antonio's actual treatment plant production in 2010 was 148,779 acre-feet, less than half of the volume projected in the 1960s.
The San Antonio River Tunnel
Urban development in the watersheds above Olmos Dam has led to larger, more frequent floods in the Olmos basin area. With more impervious cover, stream straightening, and stream channelization, waterways are able to deliver more water downstream faster. The Olmos Dam and the "Great Bend" cutoff channel can no longer ensure that floodwaters won't threaten downtown San Antonio. The San Antonio River Tunnel is the larger and longer of two tunnels designed to protect the downtown area by diverting floodflows 150 feet underneath the City. It took ten years to build and was completed in December 1997 at a cost of $111 million. The tunnel is about three miles long and passes almost directly underneath the Alamo! The inlet shaft is 24 feet in diameter, and water enters by overflowing from the San Antonio River. The outlet shaft is 35 feet in diameter and is at a lower elevation than the inlet, so the pressure of water coming in forces water out the other end, where it reenters the San Antonio River. When not being used for flood control, water can be recirculated through the tunnel and used to augment the flow of the San Antonio River in the River Walk area.
The tunnel was put to the test during record 100-year floods in October 1998, and it functioned beautifully. After the floods subsided, divers found lots of beer cans and 5" crawfish, but no damage to the tunnel. When the River Tunnel was completed, it was thought the main channel outside the Great Bend area would be afforded enough protection from flooding that development could occur at River level, as on the Great Bend. However, the 1998 storm caused major flooding along the main channel and it became clear that new development right at River level along these stretches would probably not be possible.
The inlet structure is visible from Hwy 281 S. just before the Josephine St. exit at the southern tip of Brackenridge Park . The outlet structure is an engineering marvel that is an attraction in itself! San Antonio has a second flood control tunnel that handles floodwaters from San Pedro Creek.
A Bold Vision: The San Antonio River Improvements Project
By the late 1990s, the fabulous River Walk was almost 60 years old and in need of many structural repairs and improvements. An organized effort to revitalize the River began in 1998 when Bexar County, the City of San Antonio and the San Antonio River Authority created the San Antonio River Oversight Committee. Civic and neighborhood leaders were appointed to the Committee and given the responsibility of overseeing the planning, design, project management, construction, and funding necessary to complete improvement projects.
The Committee produced a bold new vision for the San Antonio River that proposed major improvements in three separate areas:
- Repairs and additions to the River Walk along the existing Downtown Reach
- A new "Museum Reach" - a vast expansion northward of the existing River Walk, from Lexington St. to the River's headwaters at Hildebrand Avenue
- Environmental restoration of a nine mile segment south of downtown to connect all the San Antonio missions with a linear park
Together, these three projects will create a River that is much more than a tourist attraction in the city's center. The vision is for a 15-mile long corridor that will serve residents with hiking and biking trails, natural retreats, new bank-level urban development, and new links to existing communities.
Phase I: The Downtown Reach
On January 31, 2000, a $12.5 million project to make numerous major repairs and improvements between Houston St. and Lexington Ave. was launched. Work involved installation of a reinforced concrete bottom in the River, improved access from nearby streets, flood control measures, and new lighting and landscaping. Mayor Howard Peak said "Even when this project is completed, all the work needed on the River won't be close to being done."
The photo at left, taken in February 2001, shows crews installing a temporary cofferdam at McCullough Ave. to divert flows around the section where work took place.
September 2001: The River Link Park opens
On September 30, 2001, the Civic Center Riverlink Project was dedicated, marking the opening of a new city park that connects the River Walk to the City's historic center. The site at the corner of Soledad and Commerce Streets used to be a parking lot; now it is beautifully landscaped and terraced, dropping 16 feet to River level. The park features secluded niches for retreat, each with details like weeping walls and water wheels. Engraved stone describes the historic evolution of the River. The park took nine years of planning and was financed through a $3 million 1999 bond package. Completion means that now the hotels, shops, and restaurants most often frequented by tourists in the northern River Walk area are linked to Market Square, Main Plaza, and San Fernando Cathedral.
The River Link Park shortly after completion in 2001.
March 2002: Refurbished Downtown Reach reopens
On March 18 2002, the newly renovated stretch of the River Walk between Lexington and Convent Streets reopened after 13 months of work. Major repairs were performed on cracking retaining walls and eroded banks. New benches and trees were crafted of concrete and made to look like wood by artist Carlos Cortes. New mosaic tile murals, punched copper lampposts, and new fountains flowing under walkways and into the River were also added. A new park at Augusta and Convent Street was created, with walkway patterns that adhere to the spirit of Robert Hugman's original designs. The park also has a fountain made from porous Edwards limestone.
The River Link Park shortly after completion in 2001
Phase II: The Museum Reach
In the Museum Reach, 1.3 miles of overgrown and inaccessible River bottom was transformed into a vast extension of the existing River Walk. On May 30, 2009, the Museum Reach officially opened. There are 25 new River access points along 3.4 miles of new walkways, along with four rest stop/overlook locations and numerous public art installations. It is hoped these improvements will be a catalyst for a vibrant urban renewal in an area of town that has traditionally been rather stark and industrial.
Previously, the River Walk ended near the Municipal Auditorium at Lexington Street, where the water ends in the above left photo. A structure across the River in that location is called the Hugman Dam. It was built as part of the original River Walk to create a constant water level elevation through town. In the construction photo above, the large black pipes were being used to deliver water to the downtown section while the upstream reach was drained for construction.
For decades, the Hugman Dam had been obscured by brush and silt, and no one realized its beauty and craftsmanship. As much as possible was left in place; some had to be removed for boats to pass. No one really knew that in addition to functioning to maintain the water level, it had delightful stone planters built into the top. In the background, there is a tile mural created in 1931 by Ethel Wilson Harris for the private residence of Mayor Maury Maverick. It was saved from destruction by tile historian Susan Toomey Frost when the house was demolished in 1998.
Early morning on opening day of the Museum Reach. Below this area, the new Reach was constructed using limestone materials to reflect the theme of the original River Walk built by Hugman. In this area, the construction theme transitions to reflect the brick materials used on the Museum of Art. Farther upstream, a third theme uses sandblasted concrete to reflect the industrial aesthetic of the Pearl Brewery.
I guess you have to be a true River Walk geek to realize the concrete designs used overhead in this walkway are the same motifs used by Hugman for his sidewalk pavers on the original section. Normal people will probably walk by without noticing...
One of the many new public art installations in the Museum Reach is this fantasy grotto by well-known faux concrete artist Carlos Cortes. Mr. Cortes is the third generation in his family to construct stunning public art displays out of solid concrete. Other well-know examples are a bridge in Brackenridge Park and a bus stop in Alamo Heights.
At dusk on opening night a crowd of about 300 people waited for the lights to come on inside a school of native long-eared sunfish suspended under the I-35 bridge. The art installation is called "F.I.S.H", but San Antonians will probably come up with a local name for it.
Phase III: The Mission Reach
Improvements in the Mission Reach have focused on restoring the River's natural environment and enhancing the communities along the River's banks, not on amenities for tourists. Between downtown and Loop 410, almost all of the River was straightened, denuded of all trees, and the banks lined with large boulders and rip-rap in the 1940s and 50s for flood control, so that floodwaters could quickly leave the area. For decades, the general appearance was more of a drainage channel than a natural river. Only one short section of the River escaped these "improvements" and is still in its natural condition. Nowadays, engineers and environmental scientists know that you don't really have to ruin a river to get flood control benefits, so the plan is to put the rest of it back sort of the way it was. Newly created stream meanders and new landscaping and trees will create a much more natural look and feel.
Almost all the River between downtown and Loop 410 looked like this, but the Mission Trails project is changing all that. Much work has already been accomplished...several miles of wide concrete and asphalt walkways connect the San Juan, San Jose, and Espada missions. But take special care if you try to make the walk in summer! There is little shade and the midday heat is brutal.
The same location on July 13, 2011. Work is complete and new plantings are beginning to establish themselves. It will take several decades for trees to grow to the envisioned size.
Above Loop 410, only one small section of the River has survived in its natural state. It is behind Mission San Juan and can be visited via an accessible trail that meanders from the Mission through the forest and down to the River. This section survived because instead of straightening and widening the natural channel, a flood control ditch was dug just to the west. The natural channel carries the normal baseflow and excess flows are diverted into the flood bypass.
Restoration work began on a portion of the Mission Reach in 2009, but in May it was learned that costs had been grossly underestimated, and it was unclear where funding would come from. The original price of $127 had increased to more than $233 million. In June of 2009, Bexar county commissioners announced they would use flood control funds to keep work on the Mission Reach going, with the hope that congressional representatives would eventually be able to secure adequate federal funding. By August of 2009, area congressmen had secured a total of $45 million in federal stimulus funds for the project, enough to keep work going. In the end, the county agreed to fund the entire project, with hopes that some costs could eventually be recovered from federal sources.
In the spring of 2011, the first stretches of the Mission Reach opened for public access, and it wasn’t long until a full-blown kerfuffle erupted over the issue of paddling canoes and kayaks on the River. Making the River open to paddling was part of the original design concept for improving usability and public access, but the project is first and foremost an Army Corps of Engineers flood control and ecosystem restoration project. When doing the design, the Corps was not authorized to consider recreation. Even so, SARA worked to get some chutes incorporated in the dams that were intended to allow small watercraft to pass. In June 2011, when some kayakers from the Alamo City Rivermen were invited to test them out, it became clear they, uh, didn’t work. They were too short and too steep to be navigated by a standard length canoe or kayak. Riverman Gib Hafernick said “It does not look like they were talking to the paddlng community.” Another bone of contention was the issue of having to first obtain a city permit before getting on the water. There are many places in Texas, such as Town Lake in Austin, where canoers don’t need permits. When the issue got some press coverage, the city agreed the requirement was onerous and the Parks and Recreation Department simply announced that permits were no longer needed. Fixing the chutes was more complicated, however. SARA hired a consultant to look at options to make them more paddle-friendly and by November of 2012 had built new chutes that work for small boats even at low water levels. During a test before opening them to the public, Hafernick remarked "what they have is impressive." The new chutes are gently sloped and the surrounding waters are calm, so canoers can travel in both directions, using the chutes for portage going upstream. Six new bicycle sharing stations were also opened in November 2012, adding to the River's growing suitability for many types of recreation.
When kayakers were invited to test the chutes, they were found to be too short and steep.
In the spring of 2011, the first stretches of the Mission Reach opened for public access, and it wasn’t long until a full-blown kerfuffle erupted over the issue of paddling canoes and kayaks on the River. Making the River open to paddling was part of the original design concept for improving usability and public access, but the project is first and foremost an Army Corps of Engineers flood control and ecosystem restoration project. When doing the design, the Corps was not authorized to consider recreation. Even so, SARA worked to get some chutes incorporated in the dams that were intended to allow small watercraft to pass. In June 2011, when some kayakers from the Alamo City Rivermen were invited to test them out, it became clear they, uh, didn’t work. They were too short and too steep to be navigated by a standard length canoe or kayak. Riverman Gib Hafernick said “It does not look like they were talking to the paddlng community.” Another bone of contention was the issue of having to first obtain a city permit before getting on the water. There are many places in Texas, such as Town Lake in Austin, where canoers don’t need permits.
When the issue got some press coverage, the city agreed the requirement was onerous and the Parks and Recreation Department simply announced that permits were no longer needed. Fixing the chutes was more complicated, however. SARA hired a consultant to look at options to make them more paddle-friendly and by November of 2012 had built new chutes that work for small boats even at low water levels. During a test before opening them to the public, Hafernick remarked "what they have is impressive." The new chutes are gently sloped and the surrounding waters are calm, so canoers can travel in both directions, using the chutes for portage going upstream. Six new bicycle sharing stations were also opened in November 2012, adding to the River's growing suitability for many types of recreation.
On May 25 of 2013, portions of the Mission Reach, some of which were not even open yet, suffered catastrophic damage when San Antonio received its second-highest daily rainfall total on record. More than nine inches of rain fell in the north central part of town, causing more than $3 million in damage to the public project. Damage to private property was extensive as well, with 14 homes destroyed in the Mission Espada area. Residents blamed the recent changes to the River and at public meetings afterwards were cool to buyout plans. Some have been on their land for many generations, since shortly after San Antonio was first settled by Europeans in 1718, and in public meetings afterwards they made it clear they don't relish the prospect of losing their property for future flood control. By August of 2013, the county had approved spending $5.5 million on appraisals, engineering fees, environmental assessments, and buyouts of property. The cost was expected to rise as property assessments are completed.
Repairs proceed at Mitchell Street on July 5, 2013, with placement of rock rip-rap next to an undercut sidewalk. I guess the irony is that before this segment was restored in the $200 million Mission Reach project, it was largely rock rip-rap.
A Walk on the Wild Side
South of Loop 410, the San Antonio River quickly becomes a wild and dangerous place with steep banks, thick vegetation, rapids, and endless other hazards like irrigation dams and debris. In August 2001, four visitors launched a canoe at Interstate 37 and planned on several hours of paddling to where the River crosses Loop 1604. Their canoe hit a rock and they ended up stranded on rotting logs and trash, trapped by steep bluffs, their only company being snakes and clouds of insects. Rescuers located them about 3 a.m. but the rugged terrain prevented their rescue until after daybreak.
A Problem
One of the problems on the San Antonio River in the urban reaches is....trash. Vast numbers of plastic bags and all manner of refuse dangles from tree branches after rain events and can be quite unsightly. The problem is especially evident in the Olmos Basin.
In 2014 the San Antonio River Authority secured $60,280 in grant funding to be used in researching the location and sources of trash pollution. The information gathered helped determine the feasibility of installing a trash collection system in Olmos Creek and its tributaries and it helped identify other measured that could be employed such as public education.
San Antonio River at Basse Road. Technically, this is Olmos Creek, but it's all the same drainage channel.
In March of 2016, Master Naturalist Lissa Martinez explained to an Express-News reporter that to understand the value of Olmos Creek, you have to look beyond the trash. Intact riparian ecosystems offer large benefits for water quality and urban wildlife, but Olmos Creek is largely degraded by erosion, invasive plants, and litter. There was new hope that a 14-year old plan to improve Olmos Creek might finally get underway in 2017. A stream restoration plan developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the city of San Antonio, and the San Antonio River Authority would remove and replace invasive plants, create more shade over the creek, and address erosion. The area to be upgraded reaches from the San Pedro Driving Range to the Olmos Dam. A 50-foot wide buffer of bottomland hardwood forest, which is crucial for water quality, would be added in most of the reach and would be 300 feet wide in some places.
With the results of its 2014 study in hand, the San Antonio River Authority determined it would wait until the restoration is complete before installing a trash collection system so as not to conflict with the restoration.
But Wait, There's More River...!
When most people think of the San Antonio River, they think of the River Walk and tourists. But below San Antonio, the River meanders across the Gulf Coastal Plain for over 150 additional miles. Along the way it supports diverse ecosystems, provides water for farms and ranches, and links the cities of Floresville, Falls City, and Goliad. It is one of the few rivers in Texas that has no major dams, so no large reservoirs have inundated the channel or adjacent lands.
In the upper stretch of the River just below San Antonio, the channel is mostly characterized by a nearly homogenous U-shape with a sandy bottom and sand or silt banks ( Cawthorn and Curran, 2008 ) . An exception is just above Falls City, where a five mile stretch of the River is underlain by a bedrock outcropping that creates a unique area with complex riffle sequences and picturesque waterfalls. Beginning south of Loop 410 and continuing to Goliad, the channel is deeply incised and there are steep banks as high as 40 feet. The depth of the channel in relation to surrounding land is the reason that Spanish missionaries never attempted to build irrigation aqueducts in this stretch as they did in San Antonio. South of Goliad, the River has lower banks and the gradient in land surface elevation lessens, so there are more meanders and a general widening as the River gently approaches the coast.
In any stream, flow is known as the "master" variable, because the timing and magnitude of flows affects everything, including habitats in the river and the riparian zone, the shape of the river channel, and water quality. "Base flow" is the part of the flow regime that represents normal flow conditions between rain events. Very little is known about what the natural flow conditons in the San Antonio River were like before Edwards wells were drilled. We have only a handful of narrative descriptions and no direct flow measurements. We know that in the first few decades after regular measurements began in 1928, flows in the River were characterized by perennial base flows and flashy flow conditions during large rainfall events. Some of this base flow came from San Antonio and San Pedro Springs during times when pressure in the Edwards was high enough to cause them to flow, and a great deal of the base flow volume measured in the early years also came from Edwards wells that were allowed to flow at all times. This was a typical practice in decades past. In it's 1936 Water Supply Paper 773B, the United States Geological Survey decried the large amount of waste from flowing artesian wells, and in 1951 the head geologist at the USGS in San Antonio said that 48 million gallons per day were flowing down the San Antonio River from free-flowing wells.
As San Antonio grew, springflows became non-existent in almost all years and flowing Edwards wells were controlled or plugged. Yet base flows in the River have notably increased, especially since about 1970. It is often been supposed that higher base flows have resulted from San Antonio's treatment plant discharges. It is not really necessary to speculate about this question, because there are excellent records of treatment plant discharges since San Antonio's plants were first constructed in 1930. A careful examination of the data does not really bear out the assertion that treatment plants have caused an increase in base flow. The discharge volumes are clearly insufficient to account for the observed increase. Today's treatment plant discharges have essentially replaced springflows and artesian well flows but have probably not added much additional volume beyond that. There has been a slight increase in average rainfall since 1970 but there has not been enough additional rain to explain the large increase in flows. The most likely causative factors to explain higher base flows are urbanization and range management in the watershed. Today, hundreds of square miles of concrete and impervious cover result in runoff where almost none would have occurred previously, and there are many thousands of acres where range management practices also likely contribute to additional runoff.
In addition to higher base flows, urban growth and poor land management upstream has also meant that peak flows during flood conditions are now higher. The trends toward higher base flows and higher peak flows have both led to a general widening and deepening of the stream channel and more erosion on the banks. In turn, increased erosion has led to more Large Woody Debris (LWD) in the River that is sourced from the banks during failures or high-flow events ( Bio-West, 2008 ) . Such debris is not necessarily a detriment to aquatic habitats - it can create diverse in-channel habitats for fish and other aquatic creatures.
While LWD can actually be beneficial, the increase in base flows above natural conditions may be having negative environmental impacts. With higher flows, suspended particles are always in motion and never settle to the bottom, so silt and mud layers don't have a chance to develop. These layers are very important for a large array of organisms that form the base of the aquatic food chain, including worms, mussels, snails, crayfish, and beetles. Even so, biologists believe the San Antonio River is generally faring much better than most other Texas waterways and today is ecologically sound. There has been an increase in the number of non-native species found, but the overall fish assemblage has remained relatively intact ( Bonner and Runyan, 2007 ) . The main flow-related concern for the River is extreme low-flow conditions that can occur in the summertime. As mentioned above, a large percentage of the River's flow comes from SAWS' water recycling plants, this is especially true when it is hot and dry. At times, up to 70% of all the water produced by SAWS' plants is diverted by CPS Energy for use in their electrical generation cooling lakes, and there's not much left over for the River. During these times the aquatic habitats and organisms in the River can become stressed, but so far they appear to be resilient and capable of bouncing back. Extreme stress by heat and low flows once in a while is not altogether a bad thing. Such cycles occurred naturally and the native species are adapted for it, while the undesireable non-native species that we would prefer not to have in the River are killed off.
About 10 miles above the Texas coast, the San Antonio River loses its identity when it confluences with the Guadalupe River. Near Tivoli, an inflatable dam know as the Saltwater Barrier was constructed by the Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority in 1965. When activated during low-flow conditions, the dam allows river flows to pass through but prevents salt water from encroaching upstream. The structure is essential to safeguarding water supplies for agricultural, industrial and municipal drinking water use.
Conquista Bluff overlooks a historic crossing and is located on private property about three miles southwest of Falls City. A sandstone escarpment caps a thick clay layer and rises about 80 feet above River level. Because the River bottom here is bedrock instead of alluvial deposits, flows could not create a deep incision. Instead, the River widened. The flat bedrock substrate and shallow nature of the River created an ideal place for people and goods to cross before bridges were constructed. It was used for thousands of years by native tribes and later by Spanish explorers and early settlers. Current residents report that in decades past, there was a long tradition of swimming and recreation here. The site is now closed to the public. Just upstream around a horseshoe bend, Mays Crossing was another important point for crossing the River.
Ensuring Flows for the Future
In 2001 the Texas legislature had a great idea: figure out how much water should be in the River to support a sound ecological environment.
In 2007 the Texas legislature had another great idea: figure out how much water should be in the River to support a sound ecological environment.
Although these two legislative endeavours have an identical goal, there are some key differences in their approaches, strategies, and scopes.
The first program, known as the Texas Instream Flow Program (TIFP), was created under Senate Bill 2 in the 2001 legislative session, and it is also known to river geeks as the SB2 program. The Legislature directed that state agencies would determine flows necessary for a riverine "sound ecological environment“ by conducting extensive field analysis, and that stakeholder input would be considered. It also provided zero funding for the extensive scientific analysis that would be necessary.
The second program is known as the Environmental Flows, or E-Flows program, and it was established under Senate Bill 3 in 2007, so it is also know as the SB3 program. Under this program, regional stakeholders are the primary drivers, not the state agencies. The other main difference is the SB3 program includes freshwater inflows to the bays and estuaries, not just instream flows. The Legislature directed that a Stakeholder Committee and an Expert Science Team be created for each major river basin in Texas. The scientists are charged with determining the flows necessary to support a sound ecological environment in both the rivers an bays using the best available science, thereby eliminating having to wait indefinitely for funding and extensive analysis under the SB2 Instream Flows program. They are instructed to make flow recommendations by considering the environment only, not other needs. The SB3 Stakeholder Committee is charged with examining the scientist’s recommendations, then formulating their own recommendations by balancing both human and environmental needs. Both sets of recommendations are then submitted to the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ), which engages in a rulemaking process, considers input from any interested parties, and promulgates new rules regarding environmental flows that are to applied to any new surface water rights applications. The entire E-Flows process is intended to be iterative and subject to periodic review, so that if new science becomes available under the SB2 Instream Flows program, it can be incorporated into flow recommendations and rules.
In the San Antonio/Guadalupe basin, the SB3 E-Flows process started in the fall of 2009 with the appointment of a Stakeholder Committe comprised of representatives from environmental organizations, municipalities, industries, water purveyors, and other interest groups. The Expert Science Team was appointed in the spring of 2010 and conducted an intense one-year evaluation, mostly of existing data, but which did also include much new science. They formulated flow recommendations for 16 gage locations in the San Antonio/Guadalupe basin, along with recommendations on inflows to the bays and estuary system, and submitted their report on March 1, 2011 ( get the report here ).
On September 1, 2011, The SB2 Stakeholder Committee submitted their own report, which included some adjustments to the Science Team recommendations to make allowances for planned water projects and other concerns the stakeholders had ( get the report here ). As mentioned above, the main flow-related concern for the San Antonio River is occasional extreme low flows in the summertime when vast amounts of water are being diverted for electrical generation. The recommended strategies to maintain adequate flows included voluntary set-asides, dedication of wastewater flows, and dry-year options.
The Stakeholder Committee was also directed by the Legislature to keep working after their report was submitted and develop a Work Plan for the future, a prioritized list of knowledge gaps and additional studies they felt were needed to improve and refine flow recommendations.
Before the SB3 process started, and in light of the state’s failure to fund any SB2 studies, the San Antonio River Authority (SARA) stepped up to the plate and volunteered to fund the extensive studies envisioned in the SB2 Instream Flows program. Studies like this take a number of years and involve an incredible amount of fieldwork to scientifically link flow rates and response in aquatic habitats. SARA and their contractors sampled some 12,000 fish under a variety of flow conditions, did habitat and substrate mapping, hydraulic data collection, water quality measurements, riparian zone analysis, and sediment transport studies. The draft flow recommendations and lots of useful data were available to inform the SB3 Science and Stakeholder Committees.
The good news is that almost all the SB3 regional stakeholders agreed on goals for flow in the River and strategies to ensure they occur. Amongst the committee of 25 persons, 28 votes were taken to approve recommendations on flow regimes and other matters, and 17 of these votes were unanimously in favor. In the other 11 votes, no more than 3 votes were cast against. In addition, the scientists and stakeholders generally agreed on things. In other basins where the SB3 process has occurred, there have been major disagreements between and among stakeholders and scientists.
In March of 2012, the TCEQ released draft rules which they proposed to publish for public comment in the Texas Register prior to final adoption. Stakeholders were alarmed to find that TCEQ staff had eliminated many of their recommendations. Both the Science Team and the Stakeholder Committee had recommended a full suite of flows that were based on the state’s own scientific guidance documents. These included minimum subsistence flows, a range of seasonal base flows, a tier of pulse flows that occur after rain events, and overbank flows that are important for riparian zone habitat and stream channel morphology. The Stakeholders had also recommended an environmental “set-aside” of 10% for new permit applications. The TCEQ staff proposal eliminated the set-aside, the overbank flows, and most tiers of the base and pulse flows. Changes were more dramatic on the Guadalupe River side of the basin, where the Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority has several new off-channel reservoirs planned. When the Stakeholders were struggling to formulate their recommendations in marathon all-day/half the night sessions, GBRA objected to almost everything; it seemed that if the group desired chocolate donuts, GBRA would demand glazed.
At a meeting of TCEQ Commissioners on March 28 to approve the rules for publication, Stakeholders packed the room to urge the Commissioners to instruct that staff revise the proposed rules to more closely reflect the Stakeholder recommendations. Before it was over, the Commissioners had adopted an amendment that left the door open for TCEQ staff to make revisions that would return many of the Stakeholder recommendations to the rules package.
After the March 12 hearing, a public comment period followed, and thousands of comments were submitted which mostly supported revisions that would more closely mirror the Stakeholder recommendations.
On May 25, the Stakeholder Committee completed its Work Plan and submitted it to TCEQ so it would be available during the period that rules might be revised ( download the Work Plan here ).
During this period the TCEQ was invited to one of the final Stakeholder work sessions to make a presentation regarding the proposed rules. Most Stakeholders felt that TCEQ had disregarded their recommendations without any justification, and they were hoping to hear some. They did not - they only heard a reiteration of the proposal. Stakeholders pointed out that TCEQ staff was present at all the Stakeholder meetings, and it could have at least signalled they were recommending things that had little chance of receiving TCEQ approval. TCEQ pointed out the Legislature directed that it "consider" Stakeholder recommendations, not necessarily accept them. Most Stakeholders ended up feeling like they were sort of tricked into spending a lot of time and effort doing something that TCEQ knew all along it was simply going to trash. They felt that TCEQ undermined the Legislature's intent for the process to be mostly Stakeholder driven.
After the public hearing and the comment period, the TCEQ staff declined to make any significant changes to their initial proposal. The prevailing opinion among most that are knowledgable about the workings of the water business around here is that TCEQ staff is highly intimidated by GBRA - it appeared that TCEQ simply acquiesced to pressure from that agency.
When TCEQ Commissioners met to adopt the new rules on August 8, Commissioner Carlos Rubenstein proposed an amendment to return at least one of the protections to the Guadalupe River, a seasonal high pulse flow, which the great majority of Stakeholders and public comments supported. That amendment was adopted, and the final rules became effective on August 30, 2012 ( download them here ).
In the end, the whole SB3 process left most Stakeholders dissatisfied with both the outcome and the process, questioning whether Texas really has any commitment to protect her rivers and bays.
While the State's commitment to the San Antonio River is questionable, that of San Antonio is not. In December of 2013, the San Antonio Water System applied to the State for an authorization to use 50,000 acre-feet of its treated effluent for instream flow purposes. Water would be allowed to remain in the stream, supporting aquatic habitat and uses like recreation along its 250-mile course to San Antonio Bay. It would emerge in the Bay adjacent to the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, home of the endangered Whooping Crane, thereby supporting their habitat as well. Voluntary dedications such as this are a cornerstone of the Work Plan developed by regional stakeholders to ensure flow in the River.
A Look at River Flow Science
How much water does the River need? Well, aquatic habitats are extremely complicated, especially in a place like south Texas where there is a lot of natural variability in rainfall. Flow conditions are unpredictable and constantly changing throughout the year, and no two years are ever alike. But the native plants and animals are adapted for this. In one year, conditions may favor a particular fish species, and in another year something else. What we hope for is flow conditions that keep the river functioning naturally and in a resilient way, such that species can recover and thrive after a stretch that may not have been ideal.
The flow the River needs is not a single number. It is many numbers that occur at different times, so we call it a “flow regime.” There are four components to a flow regime and each has important ecological functions:
- Subsistence flows – infrequent, seasonal periods of very low flow
- Base flows – the normal flow conditions between storm events
- Pulse flows – short-term, high-flow events after a storm that do not exceed the river channel
- Overbank flows – infrequent, very high-flow events that exceed the river channel
All flow regimes have these four components in common, but the exact flow numbers needed to support a sound ecology changes along different stretches of the river. The key to determining what the numbers should be at any particular location is understanding the link between flow and habitat. This includes the habitat of both the stream itself and the riparian zone on both sides.
Below is a “statistically perfect” instream flow regime for the San Antonio River at Elmendorf, as recommended by the SB2 Expert Science Team. In other words, if the scientists recommendations actually occurred, the flow in the river might look about like this. The red line is the subsistence flow, and there is also a base flow component, along with some small pulses that occur in each season, and a large pulse that we might expect every two years or so, and a flood that we might expect every about five years.
This is the actual output from the Science Team models that is reflected in the chart above:
As we take a look at each of these flow components in turn and discuss their ecological functions, we will also look at how the process of scientific evaluation was done, how the Stakeholders did their nature/people balancing act, and how all of it worked into the TCEQ rulemaking process.
Subsistence Flow
Starting with the red line in the chart, the subsistence flow, this is the absolute minimum flow the River can experience without incurring damage that may be permanent. We expect subsistence flows to be infrequent. This is when the River may be most at risk, but subsistence flows can have important ecological functions as well. There may be deposition of very fine particles and organic material. Non-native species that cannot tolerate very low flows and high temperatures may be killed off, which benefits the natural fish assemblage. Low flows may produce an area of restricted or isolated habitat that some species needs for reproduction. When determining a subsistence flow rate, it may be habitat availability that is the deciding factor, or a water quality factor like temperature or dissolved oxygen.
For the Elmendorf location, the Expert Science Team used historical hydrology to determine that flows could be as low as 48 cfs in the summer. Meanwhile, SARA’s preliminary SB2 studies suggested that flows had to be maintained above 80 cfs or temperatures would rise so high that native fish would die. In the summer of 2011, when very low flows actually occurred, temperatures did not rise as the SB2 studies predicted. Some additional site-specific temperature modeling led the Stakeholders to conclude that 60 cfs would be an appropriate subsistence flow number. The scientists agreed, and that number was adopted in the final Instream Flow Standards approved by TCEQ.
Base Flow
Base Flows are the “average” conditions that we expect to see in a healthy stream. They can be variable in different seasons of the year and under different hydrologic conditions. For example, the base flow during a drought is less than during a very wet year, and winter base flows can be expected to be different from summer. For the San Antonio River, the Expert Science Team selected four seasons of three months each that correspond to the normal calendar seasons. That might seem obvious, but there are certainly places that do not have well-defined seasons, so its something that has to be evaluated and agreed on before the analysis starts. They also decided to use three levels of base flow for Dry, Normal, and Wet conditions. Based on the historical record, they defined “Dry” conditions as what occurred in the driest 25% of years, “Wet” conditions in the wettest 25% of years, and “Normal” conditions the remaining 50% of years. When each season begins, the hydrologic condition is determined by looking at how much rainfall occurred in the preceding 12 months.
From an ecological perspective, base flows ensure there will be a diversity of adequate habitats to support the natural biologic community, such as deep pools, shallow riffles, and long runs. They also maintain soil moisture and the groundwater table, and provide linear connectivity along the River channel corridor. The habitat conditions are expected to vary from day to day, from season to season, and from year to year. To determine what the base flow rates should be, the Expert Science Team used models that calculated how much habitat of each type would be available under different flow conditions. SARA’s studies under the Texas Instream Flow Program involved intensive monitoring and extensive additional modeling at five locations on the River, and the results were of great use to both the Science Team and the Stakeholders. The TIFP studies produced base flow numbers that were generally higher than the models used by the Science Team, and the Stakeholders recommended the higher numbers. Because they were based on intensive science, the Science Team was ok with that. The Stakeholders retained the Science Team’s definition of seasons and hydrologic conditions. In the final rules, TCEQ did not make any changes to the Stakeholder recommendations for base flows.
San Antonio River at Elmendorf, base flow conditions
Here is the River under normal base flow conditions at the Elmendorf gage, where the River goes under Loop 1604. The flow at this time was 215 cubic feet per second, or 1,608 gallons per second.
Pulse Flows
Pulse flows are high flows of short duration that occur after storm events and are contained within the River channel. They have many ecological functions - they transport sediments, maintain channel features by providing scouring, disperse seeds, and provide fish with spawning cues. A pulse flow usually involves a peak flow rate, a total volume of flow that passes, and a duration. For example, the Science Team defined a once-per-season spring pulse for Elmendorf as being triggered when the flow reaches 830 cubic feet per second. The pulse ends when 6,210 acre-feet of water pass by, or when 14 days have passed, whichever comes first.
The number, volume, and duration of pulse flows needed for ecological maintenance also has implications for water supplies for people. This is because in Texas, it is very unlikely that any more large in-channel reservoir projects will be built - those days are over. Nowadays the focus is on constructing smaller off-channel reservoirs and diverting pulse flows to storage. So if pulse flows are going to be passed for environmental purposes, the required number and volume and duration are important in determining when diversions to storage can be made. For example, if the River needs one pulse each spring, a diverter would have to let that one pass but it could capture a second pulse if it occurs, or it could capture high flows that might still exist after the pulse conditions have been satisfied.
For the Elmendorf location, the Science Team used the historic hydrologic record to calculate two levels of pulse flows that have occurred each season, one high pulse that occurs with an expected frequency of once per year, and an even higher pulse that occurs with an expected frequency of once every two years. While the Science Team recommendations were based mostly on history, the pulse flows derived from SARA’s TIFP studies focused more on impacts in the riparian zone, sediment transport, and channel maintenance. They found that high flow pulses were only needed during certain months of the year, and they did not need to be as frequent or as large as suggested by the historical hydrology used by the Science Team, because the streamflow records used by the Science Team included large pulses caused by urban runoff which did not exist under natural conditions. The TIFP pulses are also less restrictive when it comes to diverting for water supply projects, and the Stakeholders were charged with balancing both human and environmental needs. So in the end, the Stakeholders accepted the TIFP numbers and included one extra high flow pulse recommended by the scientists. The Stakeholders also developed a Pulse Exemption Rule to apply to small diverters in cases where their diversion would not have an appreciable environmental impact. The final rules adopted by TCEQ mirrored the Stakeholder recommendations, including the Pulse Exemption Rule.
Overbank Flows
Overbank flows are infrequent events in which the River leaves its normal channel. In other words, they are floods. From an ecological perspective, these are crucial. They flush sediments and nutrients into the floodplain, connect the floodplain on both sides of the River, provide sediments and organic material to the bay, cause the River channel to move laterally, maintain riparian vegetation, provide life phase cues for organisms, and much more. Both the Science Team and Stakeholder recommendations included periodic overbank flows. But it is not exactly politically correct for the state to adopt rules that suggest floods ought to occur. So they did not – the overbank flow recommendations were not included in the final TCEQ approved flow standards.
The San Antonio River Postcard Collection
Old postcards are a valuable link to the everyday images of the past. They tell us a lot about what people enjoyed and valued, what they saw, and what they wanted to share with others. In the late 19th century and through the 1940s, sending and collecting postcards was one of America's most popular hobbies. The images of the San Antonio River below can be roughly divided into several categories:
There are a handful of postcards from before 1915 that show scenes of the River below downtown. These usually feature natural pastoral scenes and bridges, which were a novelty for people accustomed to crossing in the water itself.
Another small group of cards shows scenes downtown before any major improvements to the River. These also often feature bridges, and one scene of the Old Mill Crossing was by far the most popular.
A few postcards were produced showing the "first" (pre-Hugman) River Walk, and about this time, postcards begin to focus much more on the "built" environment of downtown, not natural scenes.
A large group of cards show scenes of the early River Walk days, and many of these picturesque scenes have remained popular until the present.
Pre-1915 scenes below downtown | https://www.edwardsaquifer.net/sariver.html | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | TSHA | San Antonio River | San Antonio River . The San Antonio River rises in a cluster of springs in north central San Antonio (in central Bexar County) approximately four miles north of downtown (at 29° 28' N, 98° 29' W). Olmos Creek empties into the river just below its head, and other springs continue to join as the river flows through the city. From San Antonio, the river flows southeast 180 miles through Wilson, Karnes, and Goliad counties and then forms the county line between Victoria and Refugio counties. It empties into the Guadalupe River four miles north of Tivoli at the intersection of the Calhoun, Refugio, and Victoria county lines (at 28° 30' N, 96° 53' W). Along its course the river traverses flat to gently rolling terrain surfaced by clay and sandy loams that support mesquite, live oak, cacti, and grasses. The spring flow of the San Antonio and its principal tributaries, the Medina River and Cibolo Creek, makes the volume of the river steadier than that of most Texas streams. The San Antonio River is dammed to form two artificial reservoirs in the San Antonio area. One near the head of the stream, impounded by Olmos Dam, has a capacity of 15,500 acre-feet and is used solely for flood control. The other reservoir, Lake Blue Wing, ten miles south of San Antonio, has a capacity of 1,000 acre-feet and is used for irrigation .
The San Antonio has been identified as one of the rivers crossed by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in his journey across Texas in 1535 and as the stream called Arroyo De León by Alonso De León on his fourth expedition into Texas in 1689. The stream was named for San Antonio de Padua on June 13, 1691, by Domingo Terán de los Ríos , who was on an inspection tour with Father Damián Massanet to the East Texas missions. At the site of present-day San Antonio they found an Indian village, which they understood the Indians to say was named Yanaguana. Father Massanet renamed the village San Antonio de Padua and offered a Mass for the soldiers and Indians gathered there. In 1709 Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares was so impressed with the location that he wanted to establish a mission there. He petitioned for permission at least as early as 1716, and on May 1, 1718, San Antonio de Valero Mission was established on the east bank of the river. On May 5, San Antonio de Bexar Presidio was set up on the opposite side of the stream. The plentiful supply of water for drinking, irrigation, and water power caused the San Antonio River rapidly to become the center of Spanish activities in the province of Texas. Other missions established in the immediate vicinity were San José y San Miguel de Aguayo and San Francisco Xavier de Náxara. In 1731 the villa of San Fernando de Bexar , which developed into the modern city of San Antonio, was founded. The same year, three missions were moved from East Texas to the San Antonio River and renamed Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción de Acuña, San Francisco de la Espada, and San Juan Capistrano. In 1749 Nuestra Señora de Loreto Presidio and the Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga Mission were moved from the Guadalupe to a site on the San Antonio River that later became the town of Goliad. Another mission, Nuestra Señora del Rosario, was established about four miles upstream in 1754. The river was likewise popular with the colonial empresarios of the Mexican period, and much of the land bordering the stream was granted to colonists in the De León and Power and Hewetson colonies . When the Texas Revolution began, the river became the scene of heroic and catastrophic engagements, including the battle of Concepción, the Grass Fight, the siege of Bexar, the Goliad Massacre, and the battle of the Alamo .
Although the San Antonio River has furnished drinking and irrigation water as well as power to turn the wheels of mills, foundries, and tanneries, in recent times it has been most significant for its beauty. In the city of San Antonio, where it is spanned by more than fifty bridges, this unhurried stream runs fifteen miles across six miles of city blocks. In 1939 a $300,000 river-beautification project, financed by a city bond issue and a Work Projects Administration grant, was inaugurated. The river was made a pedestrian thoroughfare flanked by walks from all principal downtown streets. It was deepened so it would be navigable for small craft. The project included landscaping, fountains, and the construction of an outdoor theater equipped with water curtains. The network of walkways and bridges, now known as the Paseo del Rio or Riverwalk, is one of San Antonio's principal attractions. It was enhanced and extended during HemisFair '68 . The old Spanish town known as La Villita has also been restored and has become one of the showplaces of the San Antonio River area. | https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/san-antonio-river | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the river in U.S. state of Texas . For other uses, see San Antonio River (disambiguation) .
The San Antonio River is a major waterway that originates in central Texas in a cluster of springs in midtown San Antonio , about 4 miles north of downtown, and follows a roughly southeastern path through the state. [3] It eventually feeds into the Guadalupe River about 10 miles from San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico . The river is 240 miles long and crosses five counties: Bexar , Goliad , Karnes , Refugio , and Wilson .
The first documented record of the river was from Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca on his explorations of Texas in 1535. The river was later named after San Antonio de Padua by the first governor of Spanish Texas , Domingo Terán de los Ríos in 1691. [4]
On June 13, 1691, Governor Terán and his company camped at a rancheria on a stream called Yanaguana They renamed the stream "San Antonio" because it was Saint Anthony's Day. Father Damián Massanet accompanied Governor Terán on his trip. [5]
During the Texas Revolution , the river was host to several major conflicts. The Battle of Concepcion occurred when the Mexican forces in Bexar and Texian militia fired upon each other in a small skirmish on the mission's grounds. The Grass Fight occurred when Texian militia mistook mules carrying grass to feed horses as mules carrying supply and gold money. The siege of Bexar was the climax of all these previous events when the Texian militia surrounded Bexar and began continuous attacks into the Mexican stronghold of Bexar until the Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered.
The Goliad Campaign occurred when 50 Texian militia captured the mission at Goliad, being used as a garrison by the Mexican forces. The Battle of the Alamo occurred when 180 Texian regulars and volunteers occupied a 3-acre garrison built around an old Spanish mission . They withheld a Mexican force of around 3,000 troops for 12 days until the garrison was overrun by a Mexican assault on dawn of the 13th day.
During Fiesta every April, the Texas Cavaliers River Parade runs on the San Antonio River in downtown San Antonio. It is one of Fiesta's most popular events and ticket sales revenue goes to support children’s charities. [6]
Five major 18th-century Spanish missions are lined up along the historical course of the river in San Antonio, including Mission Espada , Mission Concepcion , Mission San José , and Mission San Juan Capistrano . The most famous mission is San Antonio de Valero, better known as the Álamo , and its complementing fortress is Presidio San Antonio de Bexar . These five missions in San Antonio are now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Presidio La Bahía and its mission, Mission Nuestra Señora del Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga in Goliad, Texas , are also located along the southern portion of the river.
The waterway is also host to the San Antonio River Walk , one of San Antonio's primary tourist destinations and the centerpiece of the city, with several river improvement projects occurring so far. The Riverwalk was extended to the north in 2009, and that section of the river is now called the Museum Reach and features attractions such as the Pearl Brewery and the San Antonio Museum of Art. [7] [8] In 2013, the Mission Reach stretch of the Riverwalk was opened in the south, which features hiking, biking, and paddling trails. [9] [10] [11]
Work was authorized to begin in 2015 by the Bexar County Commissioners Court on the restoration of the former Hot Wells hotel , spa , and bathhouse , located along the San Antonio River in the south side of the city. [12]
"San Antonio River from Mill Bridge" (postcard, circa 1907)
The river winds its way through downtown San Antonio.
The river at Floresville River Park in Floresville in Wilson County
The river crossing under Farm Road 541 between Poth and Dewees in Wilson County
The river passes through Goliad en route to the Gulf of Mexico . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_River | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | The History Behind the San Antonio River | The San Antonio river is, and has always been, the lifeblood of this land and those who reside on it. Twelve thousand years ago, its earliest inhabitants witnessed a large, crystal clear, rushing body of water nearly 200 feet in width. The headwaters of the San Antonio River, located on what’s now the University of the Incarnate Word’s campus just 4 miles north of downtown, were first inhabited by Native American hunter-gatherers.
These headwaters, where the San Antonio Springs are located (and nearby, the San Pedro Springs), “were very sacred to the Native Americans because it was a portal into the underworld, which was a very important aspect of cosmology,” says Harry Shafer, Ph.D., curator of archeology at the Witte Museum. “The springs were sacred, and the springs fed the river. And the river was a source of life, a source of resources, fish, water and it also attracted game.”
These early years of life on the river were filled with a dynamic flow of Native American tribes who came and went, all living off the land. When Spanish explorers reached the area in the late 17th century, they also settled along the river’s headwaters where Native Americans still resided. They soon found an abundant water resource in the midst of a semi-arid climate—the perfect place to establish San Antonio’s five missions, which were built between 1718 to 1731.
With the Spanish came irrigation in the form of acequias, inspired by those in Southern Spain, to irrigate the farmland and service the missions. For over 150 years, this acequia system covered more than 50 miles and brought the life-giving sacred water of the river to the missions, fields, villas and jacal villages, allowing the city of San Antonio to not just thrive but also rapidly grow.
In 1890, artesian wells were drilled into the Edwards Aquifer (which feeds the San Antonio Springs), turning the city’s reliance on water toward wells rather than the river. This impacted the spring flows and greatly decreased the flow of the river, bringing it to just a trickle in some areas.
About 30 years later, in 1921, a tropical storm delivered 17 inches of rain to the upper Olmos Basin, causing the San Antonio River to rise and flood downtown buildings with up to 12 feet of water as well as flooding the San Pedro and Alazan creeks and the West Side neighborhoods surrounding them. As a result, Mayor John Tobin stimulated the first phase of modern development on the river with a proposal for a bond to pay for a dam at the Olmos Basin plus the construction of bridges and storm sewers. What started as flood control became a new season of re-imagining the river as both a vital, beautiful resource to be cared for and a place that could serve as a modern economic center.
The San Antonio River Authority was founded in 1937 to assist in flood control efforts and later create hugely successful restoration projects; architect Robert Hugman and developer Jack White, manager of the White Plaza Hotel, planned the initial downtown River Walk in March 1941; hotels and restaurants opened along the River Walk in time for the many visitors of the 1968 World’s Fair; and in 1998, the 13-mile expansion began to create the Museum and Mission Reaches. As these aspects of the river developed, tourists and locals alike gathered again to admire and enjoy the river that has stolen the hearts of so many before. | https://www.sanantoniomag.com/the-history-behind-the-san-antonio-river/ | 115 |
where does the san antonio river start and end | San Antonio River Basin | San Antonio River Authority | The San Antonio River Basin
The San Antonio River Basin is a dynamic ecosystem with rivers, creeks and streams that can quickly be impacted by rain events and other weather conditions. Human activities within the basin may also affect water conditions.
The San Antonio River Basin drains a land area of 4,180 square miles. The basin extends from Kerr and Medina counties in the Texas Hill Country southeast toward the Gulf of Mexico. It drains approximately half of Medina County to the far northwest; the majority of Bexar, Wilson and Karnes counties, which comprise the central portion of the basin; approximately one third of Goliad County to the southeast; and parts of Bandera, Kendall, Comal, Guadalupe, DeWitt, Kerr, Atascosa, Victoria and Refugio counties.
The basin’s major watersheds are:
- Medina River Watershed
- Leon Creek Watershed
- Upper San Antonio River Watershed
- Salado Creek Watershed
- Cibolo Creek Watershed
- Lower San Antonio River Watershed
The map below shows how these watersheds drain toward the Gulf of Mexico.
The San Antonio River is the basin’s major river, flowing 240 miles from its headwaters in San Antonio, Bexar County, to its confluence with the Guadalupe River in Refugio County. Approximately 11 miles downriver of the confluence, the Guadalupe drains into the San Antonio Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
- Spring water from the Edwards Aquifer in Bexar County forms the humble origin of the San Antonio River, which has been home to indigenous peoples for over 12,000 years. There are numerous springs in the headwaters area, the largest and most well-known is the Blue Hole on the University of the Incarnate Word campus north of downtown San Antonio.
- The Blue Hole is an artesian spring at approximately 670 feet above sea level fed by the Edwards Aquifer.
- The San Antonio River flows 240 miles through Bexar, Wilson, Karnes, Goliad and Refugio counties, converging with the Guadalupe River before finally flowing into San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico.
- Common mammals seen along the San Antonio River Basin riparian corridor include the common raccoon, Eastern Fox squirrels, Virginia opossums, White-tail deer, Nine-banded armadillos, Eastern Cottontail rabbits and feral hogs.
- The San Antonio River carries surface water from 2,500-foot elevations within the Texas Hill Country of Bandera and Kerr counties to less than 100-foot elevations in Refugio County.
- The San Antonio River watershed includes parts of Atascosa, Bandera, Bexar, Comal, Dewitt, Goliad, Guadalupe, Karnes, Kendall, Kerr, Medina, Refugio, Victoria and Wilson Counties.
- The San Antonio River Basin is one of 23 major basins in Texas and drains over 4,194 square miles.
- San Antonio River Basin contains over 8,800 miles of streams.
100 E. Guenther St.
San Antonio, Texas 78204
1.866.345.7272 | https://www.sariverauthority.org/education/san-antonio-river-basin | 115 |
when does preston burke come back to grey's anatomy | 'Grey's Anatomy' season 10, episode 22 preview: Burke is back | Cristina is at a crossroads in her career at Grey + Sloan Memorial Hospital. Preview how the return of Burke will affect her decision with the Grey’s Anatomy season 10, episode 22, “We Are Never Getting Back Together,” stills, synopsis, and sneak peeks.
This week fans will see the reunion they have been waiting for! On Grey’s Anatomy season 10, episode 22, “We Are Never Getting Back Together,” Preston Burke will make his return to the show during a critical time in Cristina’s career. At a point in her life where she’s unsure of where she’s at – he’ll arrive with an opportunity.
View the episode stills, synopsis, and two sneak peeks below to see what happens when the former flames come together once more.
Article Continues Below
“Cristina looks to Meredith for advice as she assesses her future at the hospital. Derek and Amelia work together on a difficult surgery involving conjoined twins. Meanwhile, Jo is spread too thin when she tries to work on several cases at once and Stephanie realizes the truth about Bailey’s bubble boy case, on “Grey’s Anatomy,” THURSDAY, MAY 1 (9:00-10:00 p.m., ET) on the ABC Television Network.
“Grey’s Anatomy” stars Ellen Pompeo as Meredith Grey, Patrick Dempsey as Derek Shepherd, Sandra Oh as Cristina Yang, Justin Chambers as Alex Karev, Chandra Wilson as Miranda Bailey, James Pickens, Jr. as Richard Webber, Sara Ramirez as Callie Torres, Kevin McKidd as Owen Hunt, Jessica Capshaw as Arizona Robbins, Jesse Williams as Jackson Avery, Sarah Drew as April Kepner, Camilla Luddington as Jo Wilson, Gaius Charles as Shane Ross, Jerrika Hinton as Stephanie Edwards and Tessa Ferrer as Leah Murphy.
Guest cast TBA.
“We Are Never Getting Back Together” was written by Joan Rater and directed by Rob Corn.”
Photo credit: ABC/Eric McCandless | https://www.hypable.com/greys-anatomy-season-10-episode-22-we-are-never-getting-back-together-preview-stills-synopsis/ | 116 |
when does preston burke come back to grey's anatomy | Preston Burke - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Preston Burke|
|Grey's Anatomy character|
|First appearance|| " A Hard Day's Night " (1.01) |
March 27, 2005
|Last appearance|| " Didn't We Almost Have It All? " (3.25) |
May 17, 2007
(as series regular)
" We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " (10.22)
May 1, 2014
(as guest star)
|Created by||Shonda Rhimes|
|Portrayed by||Isaiah Washington|
|In-universe information|
|Full name||Preston Xavier Burke|
|Title|| Chief Of Cardiothoracic Surgery (former) |
M.D.
F.A.C.S.
|Occupation|| Director of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Klausman Institute for Medical Research (former) |
Chief Of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital (former)Attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Hospital (former)
|Spouse||Edra Burke|
|Significant other||Cristina Yang (ex-fiancée)|
|Relatives|| Jane Burke (mother) |
Donald Burke (father)
Simone Burke (daughter)
Vivianna Burke (daughter)
|Religion||Christian [1]|
Preston Xavier Burke , [2] M.D. , F.A.C.S is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy , which airs on ABC in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and was portrayed by actor Isaiah Washington from 2005 to 2007. Introduced as an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Burke's romantic relationship with intern Cristina Yang formed one of the main storylines in the shows' first three seasons.
Burke made his final appearance in the third season , leaving Seattle in the aftermath of his failed wedding. In 2007, Isaiah Washington ( Preston Burke ) insulted a co-star with a homophobic slur, which resulted in the termination of Washington's Grey's Anatomy contract. On June 7, 2007, ABC announced the decision not to renew Washington's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show after an on-set incident with fellow cast members T. R. Knight and Patrick Dempsey .
While mentioned in passing throughout later seasons, Burke officially returns in the tenth season in order to conclude Cristina Yang's departure from the series. [3]
Preston Burke is the former chief cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Hospital . He completed his pre-medical studies at Tulane University where he pledged Kappa Alpha Psi , and went on to graduate first in his class from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . While in college, he met Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ), who graduated in second place after him, beginning a rivalry between them. He was once the interim chief of surgery while Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens, Jr. ) was healing from his brain surgery. In season 1, it is revealed that Richard had promised him the position but instead enticed his former student, renowned neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ), to Seattle as he felt Burke was becoming arrogant and needed competition to keep him on his toes. He began a relationship with intern Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) but broke it off because he feared it would ruin both of their reputations. Her miscarriage brought them back together. He and Cristina lived together in his perfectly kept apartment.
Towards the end of the second season, he was shot, which affected his control of his right-hand. His temporary fix to this possibly long-term problem was to work together with Cristina during every one of his surgeries so that she could take over in case he might have trouble with his hand. The arrangement fell apart after Cristina, reacting to growing stress after George O'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) caught onto their secret, went to the Chief and confessed everything. Initially, he was engaged in a cold war with Cristina, where neither of them spoke. However, after she broke the silence, he proposed to her and she accepted his proposal. Before their secret was revealed, Burke was to become the next Chief of Surgery, but he had to compete with his fellow attendings for the position. He has since recovered from the injury, after Derek operated on him. For the remainder of the season, Preston and Cristina prepared for the wedding and experienced normal stresses that result from such a process, such as meeting each other's parents.
However, in the finale of season three, on the day of their wedding, Burke told Cristina that he no longer wished to make her do anything against her will, and realized he was trying to make Cristina the woman he wanted her to be, and not accept her as the woman she is. Cristina said she "thought this was what she wanted." He wanted her to say she knew it was what she wanted, so he left her in the chapel. Cristina then returned to their apartment and discovered Burke had left, taking with him the things that meant something to only him (his trumpet, his Eugene Foote collection, his grandmother's picture, and his lucky scrub cap), leaving Cristina devastated.
In the fourth season, Preston's long-time rival and love-to-hate medic Dr. Erica Hahn replaced him as the head of cardiothoracic surgery. Before taking over the position she had tremendous respect for Burke although she would have never admitted it to his face. Hahn disliked Cristina Yang because of her relationships with Dr. Burke and Colin Marlowe. During his employment at a new hospital, he is made the recipient of 2008's Harper Avery, a highly prestigious medical award. Cristina is later hurt that he did not mention her in his article, even though Cristina helped Burke with his recovery from his hand injury.
In season ten, Preston is seen to be living in Zürich, where he runs a privately owned cardiothoracic research hospital. He invited Cristina to the hospital to give a speech on her research. Cristina is both shocked and angered by the sight of Preston, and the former couple exchange bitter sentiments. Cristina claims that the two would never have worked out because she wanted to emulate him, not be by his side. Preston then reveals his ulterior motive for bringing Cristina to Switzerland: to ask her to take over his hospital, which she accepts. He is married to an Italian woman, Edra, and has two daughters, Simone and Vivianna. They are on the verge of moving to Milán.
"In the abstract, Burke was a more awkward and self-hating guy, a little bit of a weasel, but that was before Isaiah walked into the room. Isaiah played him as someone who intensely loves his job. He brought a sense of honor to what Burke does. And with Isaiah, suddenly there was a sexiness to the role, an intelligence and a wit."
Rhimes on Washington's audition as Burke [4]
The character of Preston Burke was originally envisioned as a caucasian, to be played by Paul Adelstein , who starred in Grey's Anatomy 's spin-off Private Practice . However, due to his commitment to a film whose shooting dates changed, the actor had to drop out at the last moment and his character was rethought. [5] [6] Isaiah Washington was originally considered for the role of Derek Shepherd , which eventually went to Patrick Dempsey . [5] Washington later received a callback from Rhimes to play Burke. He commented: "I knew I could never be wrong in my heart about something so good and so genuine. Her writing just seemed very complex, very honest." [7] "I said that I would only do it if I didn't have to be like that guy on that other medical show who was always struggling with his anger." [8]
Shonda Rhimes noted Washington's commitment to his role, revealing that he learns all his surgeries before he performs them on television. [9] "I think if he stopped at an accident on the street, he'd know exactly what to do. He has pulled shifts at hospitals where he follows the surgeons around for 48 hours". At the beginning of the series, Burke is one of the three African American characters, along with Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) and Richard Webber ( James Pickens, Jr. ).
In the show's third season, Washington became a central figure in a widely reported backstage controversy. In October 2006, news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted co-star T.R. Knight with a homophobic slur. Shortly after the details of the argument became public, Knight publicly disclosed that he was gay . The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on-set." [10] The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the Golden Globes in January 2007. While being interviewed on the red carpet prior to the awards, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay." [11] After the show won Best Drama, Washington, in response to press queries as to any conflicts backstage, said, "I never called T.R. a faggot." However, in an interview with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , Knight said that "everybody heard him." After being rebuked by his studio, Touchstone Television (now ABC Studios ), Washington issued a statement apologizing at length for using the epithet in an argument with Patrick Dempsey. On January 30, 2007, a source told People magazine that Washington was scheduled to return to the Grey's Anatomy set as early on that Thursday for the first time since entering "executive counseling" after making the comments at the Golden Globes. However, on June 7, 2007, ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show. "I'm mad as hell and I'm not going to take it anymore," Washington said in a statement released by his publicist, borrowing the famous line from Network . In another report, Washington stated he was planning to "spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone , work on an independent film and avoid worrying about the show." [12] In a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that "they fired the wrong guy" (referring to Knight) and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey's Anatomy. [13] Washington, in late June 2007, began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series. [14] On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN , to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word" in reference to Knight, but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument "provoked" by Dempsey, who, he felt, was treating him like a "B-word," a "P-word," and the "F-word," which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back." [15] Washington himself said that his dismissal from Grey's Anatomy was an unfortunate misunderstanding that he was eager to move past.
On March 6, 2014, Shonda Rhimes announced that Washington would return to his role for one episode airing in May to help conclude Sandra Oh 's final storylines as Cristina Yang. Rhimes said of his return, "It's important to me that Cristina's journey unfolds exactly as it should. Burke is vital to that journey -- he gives her story that full-circle moment we need to properly say goodbye to our beloved Cristina Yang." [16]
This section needs expansion . You can help by . ( September 2012 )
Washington said of his character: "He did start out sort of stone-faced, but he's evolved into someone we see as an effective leader and someone who learns how to love and be loved." Thanks to Yang, Washington says Burke "has been able to show levels of vulnerability." [17] In an interview with Oprah Winfrey , Rhimes has described Preston as a "mama's boy", [9] and noted the shock the audience felt when discovering that side of his personality after the arrival of his parents. Isaiah Washington also noted Preston's "determination" and "commitment". [ citation needed ] Rhimes referred to Burke's relationship with Yang by the portmanteau "Burktina", citing " Losing My Religion " as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end. [18] Ann Oldenburg of USA Today called it "one of the spiciest relationships on TV right now". Drawing a comparison between the two doctors, she said Burke is "tidy" while Yang is "messy"; he is "spiritual" but she is not. [19]
Isaiah Washington has been nominated for multiple awards for his portrayal of Preston Burke. He and the Grey's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . [20] He was awarded "Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series" twice at the NAACP Image Awards , in 2006 and 2007. Washington was recognized along with the rest of the cast at the Screen Actors Guild Awards , receiving three nominations for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series" each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory. TV Guide named Isaiah Washington "TV's Sexiest Man" in 2006. [ citation needed ]
Burke's relationship with Cristina Yang was considered "one of the most interesting relationships on the show." [21] Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey's Anatomy ." [17] Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV listed Burke as the fifth most worthless TV character. [22]
Specific
- ^ Episode 12 of Season 2 "Grandma Got Run Over By a Reindeer"
- ^ Episode 26 of Season 2 "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preston_Burke | 116 |
when does preston burke come back to grey's anatomy | 'Grey's Anatomy' season 10, episode 22 preview: Burke is back | Cristina is at a crossroads in her career at Grey + Sloan Memorial Hospital. Preview how the return of Burke will affect her decision with the Grey’s Anatomy season 10, episode 22, “We Are Never Getting Back Together,” stills, synopsis, and sneak peeks.
This week fans will see the reunion they have been waiting for! On Grey’s Anatomy season 10, episode 22, “We Are Never Getting Back Together,” Preston Burke will make his return to the show during a critical time in Cristina’s career. At a point in her life where she’s unsure of where she’s at – he’ll arrive with an opportunity.
View the episode stills, synopsis, and two sneak peeks below to see what happens when the former flames come together once more.
Article Continues Below
“Cristina looks to Meredith for advice as she assesses her future at the hospital. Derek and Amelia work together on a difficult surgery involving conjoined twins. Meanwhile, Jo is spread too thin when she tries to work on several cases at once and Stephanie realizes the truth about Bailey’s bubble boy case, on “Grey’s Anatomy,” THURSDAY, MAY 1 (9:00-10:00 p.m., ET) on the ABC Television Network.
“Grey’s Anatomy” stars Ellen Pompeo as Meredith Grey, Patrick Dempsey as Derek Shepherd, Sandra Oh as Cristina Yang, Justin Chambers as Alex Karev, Chandra Wilson as Miranda Bailey, James Pickens, Jr. as Richard Webber, Sara Ramirez as Callie Torres, Kevin McKidd as Owen Hunt, Jessica Capshaw as Arizona Robbins, Jesse Williams as Jackson Avery, Sarah Drew as April Kepner, Camilla Luddington as Jo Wilson, Gaius Charles as Shane Ross, Jerrika Hinton as Stephanie Edwards and Tessa Ferrer as Leah Murphy.
Guest cast TBA.
“We Are Never Getting Back Together” was written by Joan Rater and directed by Rob Corn.”
Photo credit: ABC/Eric McCandless | https://www.hypable.com/greys-anatomy-season-10-episode-22-we-are-never-getting-back-together-preview-stills-synopsis/#:~:text=On%20Grey%E2%80%99s%20Anatomy%20season%2010%2C%20episode%2022%2C%20%E2%80%9CWe,she%E2%80%99s%20at%20%E2%80%93%20he%E2%80%99ll%20arrive%20with%20an%20opportunity. | 116 |
when does preston burke come back to grey's anatomy | Preston Burke - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Preston Burke|
|Grey's Anatomy character|
|First appearance|| " A Hard Day's Night " (1.01) |
March 27, 2005
|Last appearance|| " Didn't We Almost Have It All? " (3.25) |
May 17, 2007
(as series regular)
" We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " (10.22)
May 1, 2014
(as guest star)
|Created by||Shonda Rhimes|
|Portrayed by||Isaiah Washington|
|In-universe information|
|Full name||Preston Xavier Burke|
|Title|| Chief Of Cardiothoracic Surgery (former) |
M.D.
F.A.C.S.
|Occupation|| Director of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Klausman Institute for Medical Research (former) |
Chief Of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital (former)Attending cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Hospital (former)
|Spouse||Edra Burke|
|Significant other||Cristina Yang (ex-fiancée)|
|Relatives|| Jane Burke (mother) |
Donald Burke (father)
Simone Burke (daughter)
Vivianna Burke (daughter)
|Religion||Christian [1]|
Preston Xavier Burke , [2] M.D. , F.A.C.S is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy , which airs on ABC in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and was portrayed by actor Isaiah Washington from 2005 to 2007. Introduced as an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Burke's romantic relationship with intern Cristina Yang formed one of the main storylines in the shows' first three seasons.
Burke made his final appearance in the third season , leaving Seattle in the aftermath of his failed wedding. In 2007, Isaiah Washington ( Preston Burke ) insulted a co-star with a homophobic slur, which resulted in the termination of Washington's Grey's Anatomy contract. On June 7, 2007, ABC announced the decision not to renew Washington's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show after an on-set incident with fellow cast members T. R. Knight and Patrick Dempsey .
While mentioned in passing throughout later seasons, Burke officially returns in the tenth season in order to conclude Cristina Yang's departure from the series. [3]
Preston Burke is the former chief cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Hospital . He completed his pre-medical studies at Tulane University where he pledged Kappa Alpha Psi , and went on to graduate first in his class from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . While in college, he met Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ), who graduated in second place after him, beginning a rivalry between them. He was once the interim chief of surgery while Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens, Jr. ) was healing from his brain surgery. In season 1, it is revealed that Richard had promised him the position but instead enticed his former student, renowned neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ), to Seattle as he felt Burke was becoming arrogant and needed competition to keep him on his toes. He began a relationship with intern Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) but broke it off because he feared it would ruin both of their reputations. Her miscarriage brought them back together. He and Cristina lived together in his perfectly kept apartment.
Towards the end of the second season, he was shot, which affected his control of his right-hand. His temporary fix to this possibly long-term problem was to work together with Cristina during every one of his surgeries so that she could take over in case he might have trouble with his hand. The arrangement fell apart after Cristina, reacting to growing stress after George O'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) caught onto their secret, went to the Chief and confessed everything. Initially, he was engaged in a cold war with Cristina, where neither of them spoke. However, after she broke the silence, he proposed to her and she accepted his proposal. Before their secret was revealed, Burke was to become the next Chief of Surgery, but he had to compete with his fellow attendings for the position. He has since recovered from the injury, after Derek operated on him. For the remainder of the season, Preston and Cristina prepared for the wedding and experienced normal stresses that result from such a process, such as meeting each other's parents.
However, in the finale of season three, on the day of their wedding, Burke told Cristina that he no longer wished to make her do anything against her will, and realized he was trying to make Cristina the woman he wanted her to be, and not accept her as the woman she is. Cristina said she "thought this was what she wanted." He wanted her to say she knew it was what she wanted, so he left her in the chapel. Cristina then returned to their apartment and discovered Burke had left, taking with him the things that meant something to only him (his trumpet, his Eugene Foote collection, his grandmother's picture, and his lucky scrub cap), leaving Cristina devastated.
In the fourth season, Preston's long-time rival and love-to-hate medic Dr. Erica Hahn replaced him as the head of cardiothoracic surgery. Before taking over the position she had tremendous respect for Burke although she would have never admitted it to his face. Hahn disliked Cristina Yang because of her relationships with Dr. Burke and Colin Marlowe. During his employment at a new hospital, he is made the recipient of 2008's Harper Avery, a highly prestigious medical award. Cristina is later hurt that he did not mention her in his article, even though Cristina helped Burke with his recovery from his hand injury.
In season ten, Preston is seen to be living in Zürich, where he runs a privately owned cardiothoracic research hospital. He invited Cristina to the hospital to give a speech on her research. Cristina is both shocked and angered by the sight of Preston, and the former couple exchange bitter sentiments. Cristina claims that the two would never have worked out because she wanted to emulate him, not be by his side. Preston then reveals his ulterior motive for bringing Cristina to Switzerland: to ask her to take over his hospital, which she accepts. He is married to an Italian woman, Edra, and has two daughters, Simone and Vivianna. They are on the verge of moving to Milán.
"In the abstract, Burke was a more awkward and self-hating guy, a little bit of a weasel, but that was before Isaiah walked into the room. Isaiah played him as someone who intensely loves his job. He brought a sense of honor to what Burke does. And with Isaiah, suddenly there was a sexiness to the role, an intelligence and a wit."
Rhimes on Washington's audition as Burke [4]
The character of Preston Burke was originally envisioned as a caucasian, to be played by Paul Adelstein , who starred in Grey's Anatomy 's spin-off Private Practice . However, due to his commitment to a film whose shooting dates changed, the actor had to drop out at the last moment and his character was rethought. [5] [6] Isaiah Washington was originally considered for the role of Derek Shepherd , which eventually went to Patrick Dempsey . [5] Washington later received a callback from Rhimes to play Burke. He commented: "I knew I could never be wrong in my heart about something so good and so genuine. Her writing just seemed very complex, very honest." [7] "I said that I would only do it if I didn't have to be like that guy on that other medical show who was always struggling with his anger." [8]
Shonda Rhimes noted Washington's commitment to his role, revealing that he learns all his surgeries before he performs them on television. [9] "I think if he stopped at an accident on the street, he'd know exactly what to do. He has pulled shifts at hospitals where he follows the surgeons around for 48 hours". At the beginning of the series, Burke is one of the three African American characters, along with Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) and Richard Webber ( James Pickens, Jr. ).
In the show's third season, Washington became a central figure in a widely reported backstage controversy. In October 2006, news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted co-star T.R. Knight with a homophobic slur. Shortly after the details of the argument became public, Knight publicly disclosed that he was gay . The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on-set." [10] The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the Golden Globes in January 2007. While being interviewed on the red carpet prior to the awards, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay." [11] After the show won Best Drama, Washington, in response to press queries as to any conflicts backstage, said, "I never called T.R. a faggot." However, in an interview with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , Knight said that "everybody heard him." After being rebuked by his studio, Touchstone Television (now ABC Studios ), Washington issued a statement apologizing at length for using the epithet in an argument with Patrick Dempsey. On January 30, 2007, a source told People magazine that Washington was scheduled to return to the Grey's Anatomy set as early on that Thursday for the first time since entering "executive counseling" after making the comments at the Golden Globes. However, on June 7, 2007, ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show. "I'm mad as hell and I'm not going to take it anymore," Washington said in a statement released by his publicist, borrowing the famous line from Network . In another report, Washington stated he was planning to "spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone , work on an independent film and avoid worrying about the show." [12] In a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that "they fired the wrong guy" (referring to Knight) and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey's Anatomy. [13] Washington, in late June 2007, began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series. [14] On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN , to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word" in reference to Knight, but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument "provoked" by Dempsey, who, he felt, was treating him like a "B-word," a "P-word," and the "F-word," which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back." [15] Washington himself said that his dismissal from Grey's Anatomy was an unfortunate misunderstanding that he was eager to move past.
On March 6, 2014, Shonda Rhimes announced that Washington would return to his role for one episode airing in May to help conclude Sandra Oh 's final storylines as Cristina Yang. Rhimes said of his return, "It's important to me that Cristina's journey unfolds exactly as it should. Burke is vital to that journey -- he gives her story that full-circle moment we need to properly say goodbye to our beloved Cristina Yang." [16]
This section needs expansion . You can help by . ( September 2012 )
Washington said of his character: "He did start out sort of stone-faced, but he's evolved into someone we see as an effective leader and someone who learns how to love and be loved." Thanks to Yang, Washington says Burke "has been able to show levels of vulnerability." [17] In an interview with Oprah Winfrey , Rhimes has described Preston as a "mama's boy", [9] and noted the shock the audience felt when discovering that side of his personality after the arrival of his parents. Isaiah Washington also noted Preston's "determination" and "commitment". [ citation needed ] Rhimes referred to Burke's relationship with Yang by the portmanteau "Burktina", citing " Losing My Religion " as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end. [18] Ann Oldenburg of USA Today called it "one of the spiciest relationships on TV right now". Drawing a comparison between the two doctors, she said Burke is "tidy" while Yang is "messy"; he is "spiritual" but she is not. [19]
Isaiah Washington has been nominated for multiple awards for his portrayal of Preston Burke. He and the Grey's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . [20] He was awarded "Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series" twice at the NAACP Image Awards , in 2006 and 2007. Washington was recognized along with the rest of the cast at the Screen Actors Guild Awards , receiving three nominations for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series" each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory. TV Guide named Isaiah Washington "TV's Sexiest Man" in 2006. [ citation needed ]
Burke's relationship with Cristina Yang was considered "one of the most interesting relationships on the show." [21] Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey's Anatomy ." [17] Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV listed Burke as the fifth most worthless TV character. [22]
Specific
- ^ Episode 12 of Season 2 "Grandma Got Run Over By a Reindeer"
- ^ Episode 26 of Season 2 "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preston_Burke | 116 |
when does preston burke come back to grey's anatomy | The Real Story of Why Isaiah Washington Left 'Grey's Anatomy' and Dr. Burke Behind | A huge controversy led to Isaiah's dismissal.By Kayla Keegan
Isaiah Washington played a major role in the first three seasons of Grey's Anatomy . Dr. Preston Burke was not only the head of cardiothoracic surgery at Seattle Grace, but was engaged to the best character in the world — a.k.a. Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ). But all of that changed suddenly in 2007.
Despite his important part on the show, Isaiah landed in hot water starting in the fall of 2006. According to Entertainment Weekly , Isaiah reportedly used a homophobic slur in reference to co-star T.R. Knight (Dr. George O'Malley) while arguing on set with Patrick Dempsey (Dr. Derek Shepherd). Isaiah, to this day, has denied that it was directed at T.R.
After the press got wind of it, T.R. came out as gay. As he told Ellen DeGeneres on her show, "I think when that happened, something shifted, and it became bigger than myself."
The Washington Post reports that Isaiah apologized for the incident, but then used the same slur again backstage at the Golden Globe Awards in front of reporters in January. He then reportedly recanted that story, apologized again, and shot a PSA for the gay-rights advocacy group GLADD (which aired during a Grey 's rerun).
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Meanwhile, an executive at ABC told The New York Times that Isaiah's actions could be "considered grounds for dismissal under anti-discrimination policy." Shortly after, Isaiah was then fired from the series and was promptly written off the show.
In Isaiah's last episode as a regular character, Preston and Cristina break up on their wedding day. The next season, Dr. Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) filled his character's spot as the new head of cardiothoracic surgery.
In July 2007, after he had been dismissed, Isaiah broke his silence on the matter in an interview on Larry King Live . There, he said that he never directed the slur at T.R. Knight.
T.R. Knight (left) and Isaiah Washington (right) in Beverly Hills, California in 2005.
“He [T.R.] misrepresented himself,” Isaiah contended on CNN. “He has been very disappointed in playing the character he has been playing. He told me that.” In the same interview, he also insisted that he was "not homophobic — in no way, shape, or form."
Almost a year after being let go, Isaiah filed a complaint with the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) over ABC's use of his picture in a season 4 episode of Grey 's. Preston's face was printed in a newspaper article after he received a surgeon's award.
Nearly seven years after the controversy, Isaiah returned to the Shonda Rhimes' drama to reprise his role — just as the series was getting ready to bid farewell to Sandra (by 2014, T.R. had already left the show).
Despite the backlash Shonda received for inviting Isaiah back, she insisted that his return was crucial to the storyline.
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"It's important to me that Cristina's journey unfolds exactly as it should," Shonda said in a statement . "Burke is vital to that journey — he gives her story that full-circle moment we need to properly say goodbye to our beloved Cristina Yang."
Since his last appearance in season 10 of Grey's , Isaiah has appeared in Bull , Blue Bloods , Survivor's Remorse , and, most recently, Tales .
This content is imported from poll. You may be able to find the same content in another format, or you may be able to find more information, at their web site. | https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/entertainment/a27347296/why-did-isaiah-washington-leave-greys-anatomy-dr-burke/ | 116 |
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