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[ [ "Economy of the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Czech Republic''' is a developed export-oriented social market economy based in services, manufacturing, and innovation that maintains a high-income welfare state and the European social model.", "The Czech Republic participates in the European Single Market as a member of the European Union, and is therefore a part of the economy of the European Union.", "It uses its own currency, the Czech koruna, instead of the euro.", "It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).", "The Czech Republic ranks 16th in inequality-adjusted human development and 24th in World Bank Human Capital Index, ahead of countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom or France.", "It was described by ''The Guardian'' as \"one of Europe's most flourishing economies\".The industry sector accounts for 37% of the economy, while services account for 61% and agriculture for 2%.", "The principal industries are high tech engineering, electronics and machine-building, steel production, transportation equipment (automotive, rail and aerospace industry), chemicals, advanced materials and pharmaceuticals.", "The major services are research and development, ICT and software development, nanotechnology and life sciences.", "Its main agricultural products are cereals, vegetable oils and hops.", "the Czech GDP per capita at purchasing power parity is $50,961 and 698,706 Czech crowns ($31,368) at nominal value.", "the unemployment rate in the Czech Republic was the lowest in the EU at 2.6%, and the poverty rate is the second lowest of OECD members, following Denmark.", "The Czech Republic ranks 21st in the Index of Economic Freedom (ranked behind Chile), 30th in the Global Innovation Index (ranked behind UAE), 32nd in the Global Competitiveness Report, 41st in the ease of doing business index and 25th in the Global Enabling Trade Report (ranked behind Canada).", "The largest trading partner for both export and import is Germany, followed by other members of the EU.", "The Czech Republic has a highly diverse economy that ranks 7th in the 2019 Economic Complexity Index." ], [ "History", "===Pre–1989===The Czech lands were among the first industrialized countries in continental Europe during the German Confederation era.", "The Czech industrial tradition dates back to the 19th century, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were the economic and industrial heartland of the Austrian Empire and later the Austrian side of Austria-Hungary.", "The Czech lands produced a majority (about 70%) of all industrial goods in the Empire, some of which were almost monopolistic.", "The Czechoslovak crown was introduced in April 1919.Introduced at a 1:1 ratio to the Austro-Hungarian currency, it became one of the most stable currencies in Europe.", "The First Republic became one of the 10 most developed countries of the world (behind the U.S., Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Argentina, Britain, France, Sweden and Belgium).The consequences of the 1938 Munich Agreement and subsequent occupation were disastrous for the economy.", "After the occupation and forced subordination of the economy to German economic interests, the crown was officially pegged to the mark at a ratio of 1:10, even though the unofficial exchange rate was 1 to 6-7 and Germans immediately started buying Czech goods in large quantities.In accordance with Stalin's development policy of planned interdependence, all the economies of the socialist countries were tightly linked to that of the Soviet Union.", "Czechoslovakia was the most prosperous country in the Eastern Bloc, however it continued to lag further behind the rest of the developed world.", "With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in 1991, Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries in the east.Today, this heritage is both an asset and a liability.", "The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a densely developed infrastructure.Czech National Bank headquarters in PragueHeavy industry such as steelmaking is a traditional part of the Czech economy.Transportation equipment, machinery manufacturing and engineering are essential for the Czech economy.===1989–1995===The \"Velvet Revolution\" in 1989, offered a chance for profound and sustained political and economic reform.", "Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) labelled the \"''big bang''\" of January 1991.Since then, consistent liberalization and astute economic management has led to the removal of 95% of all price controls, low unemployment, a positive balance of payments position, a stable exchange rate, a shift of exports from former communist economic bloc markets to Western Europe, and relatively low foreign debt.", "Inflation has been higher than in some other countries – mostly in the 10% range – and the government has run consistent modest budget deficits.Two government priorities have been strict fiscal policies and creating a good climate for incoming investment in the republic.", "Following a series of currency devaluations, the crown has remained stable in relation to the US dollar.", "The Czech crown became fully convertible for most business purposes in late 1995.In order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing investment.", "With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country, till that point highly dependent on exports to the USSR, had to make a radical shift in economic outlook: away from the East, and towards the West.", "This necessitated the restructuring of existing banking and telecommunications facilities, as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards.", "Further minimizing reliance on a single major partner, successive Czech governments have welcomed U.S. investment (amongst others) as a counterbalance to the strong economic influence of Western European partners, especially of their powerful neighbour, Germany.", "Although foreign direct investment (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the Netherlands.The country boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has privatized most state-owned heavy industries through the voucher privatization system.", "Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company.", "The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, increasing the capital base of the chosen company, and creating a nation of citizen share-holders.", "This is in contrast to Russian privatization, which consisted of sales of communal assets to private companies rather than share-transfer to citizens.", "The effect of this policy has been dramatic.", "Under communism, state ownership of businesses was estimated to be 97%.", "Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992.By 1998, more than 80% of enterprises were in private hands.", "Now completed, the program has made Czechs, who own shares of each of the Czech companies, one of the highest per-capita share owners in the world.", "===1995–2000===Škoda Auto is the largest automobile manufacturer in the Czech Republic.The country's economic transformation was far from complete.", "Political and financial crises in 1997 shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states.", "Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May.", "The formerly pegged currency was forced into a floating system as investors sold their Korunas faster than the government could buy them.", "This followed a worldwide trend to divest from developing countries that year.", "Investors also worried the republic's economic transformation was far from complete.", "Another complicating factor was the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of GDP.In response to the crisis, two austerity packages were introduced later in the spring (called vernacularly \"The Packages\"), which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP.", "Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, −2.3% in 1998, and −0.5% in 1999.The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program – to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies.", "Key priorities included accelerating legislative convergence with EU norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatising banks and utilities.", "The economy, fueled by increased export growth and investment, was expected to recover by 2000.===2000–2005===Growth in 2000–05 was supported by exports to the EU, primarily to Germany, and a strong recovery of foreign and domestic investment.", "Domestic demand is playing an ever more important role in underpinning growth as interest rates drop and the availability of credit cards and mortgages increases.", "Current account deficits of around 5% of GDP are beginning to decline as demand for Czech products in the European Union increases.", "Inflation is under control.", "Recent accession to the EU gives further impetus and direction to structural reform.", "In early 2004 the government passed increases in the Value Added Tax (VAT) and tightened eligibility for social benefits with the intention to bring the public finance gap down to 4% of GDP by 2006, but more difficult pension and healthcare reforms will have to wait until after the next elections.", "Privatization of the state-owned telecommunications firm Český Telecom took place in 2005.Intensified restructuring among large enterprises, improvements in the financial sector, and effective use of available EU funds should strengthen output growth.===2005–2010===Growth continued in the first years of the EU membership.", "The credit portion of the Financial crisis of 2007–2010 did not affect the Czech Republic much, mostly due to its stable banking sector which has learned its lessons during a smaller crisis in the late 1990s and became much more cautious.", "As a fraction of the GDP, the Czech public debt is among the smallest ones in Central and Eastern Europe.", "Moreover, unlike many other post-communist countries, an overwhelming majority of the household debt – over 99% – is denominated in the local Czech currency.", "That's why the country wasn't affected by the shrunken money supply in the U.S. dollars.However, as a large exporter, the economy was sensitive to the decrease of the demand in Germany and other trading partners.", "In the middle of 2009, the annual drop of the GDP for 2009 was estimated around 3% or 4.3%, a relatively modest decrease.", "The impact of the economic crisis may have been limited by the existence of the national currency that temporarily weakened in H1 of 2009, simplifying the life of the exporters.===2010–2015===Smartwings is the major Czech airline holding company with subsidies including the Czech Airlines.From the financial crisis of 2007–2010, Czech Republic is in stagnation or decreasing of GDP.", "Some commenters and economists criticising fiscally conservative policy of Petr Nečas' right-wing government, especially criticising ex-minister of finance, Miroslav Kalousek.", "Miroslav Kalousek in a 2008 interview, as minister of finance in the center-right government of Mirek Topolánek, said \"Czech Republic will not suffer by financial crisis\".", "In September 2008, Miroslav Kalousek formed state budget with projection of 5% GDP increase in 2009.In 2009 and 2010, Czech Republic suffered strong economical crisis and GDP decreased by 4,5%.", "From 2009 to 2012, Czech Republic suffered highest state budget deficits in history of independent Czech Republic.", "From 2008 to 2012, the public debt of Czech Republic increased by 18,9%.", "Most decrease of industrial output was in construction industry (-25% in 2009, -15,5% in 2013).", "From 4Q 2009 to 1Q 2013, GDP decreased by 7,8%.In 2012, Czech government increased VAT.", "Basic VAT was increased from 20% in 2012 to 21% in 2013 and reduced VAT increased from 14% to 15% in 2013.Small enterprises sales decreased by 21% from 2012 to 2013 as result of increasing VAT.", "Patria.cz predicting sales stagnation and mild increase in 2013.Another problem is foreign trade.", "The Czech Republic is considered an export economy (the Czech Republic has strong machinery and automobile industries), however in 2013, foreign trade rapidly decreased which led to many other problems and increase of state budget deficit.", "In 2013, Czech National Bank, central bank, implemented controversial monetary step.", "To increase export and employment, CNB wilfully deflated Czech Crown (CZK), which inflation increased from 0.2% in November 2013, to 1.3% in 1Q 2014.In 2014, GDP in the Czech Republic increased by 2% and is predicted to increase by 2.7% in 2015.In 2015, Czech Republic's economy grew by 4,2% and it's the fastest growing economy in the European Union.", "On 29 May 2015, it was announced that growth of the Czech economy has increased from calculated 3,9% to 4,2%.===2015–present===Cybersecurity software company Avast had its IPO on the Prague Stock Exchange and the London Stock Exchange in 2018.The information and communications technology (ICT) and software development is a major sector of the Czech economy.In August 2015, Czech GDP growth was 4.4%, making the Czech economy the highest growing in Europe.", "On 9 November 2015, unemployment in the Czech Republic was at 5.9%, the lowest number since February 2009.Dividends worth CZK 289 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in 2016." ], [ "European Union", "Since its accession to the European Union in 2004, the Czech Republic has adopted the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union and it is bound by the Treaty of Accession 2003 to adopt the Euro currency in the future.The Czech Republic also receives €24.2bn between 2014 and 2020 from the European Structural and Investment Funds, however, this sum does not outweigh the amount of capital outflow of profits of foreign owned firms from the Czech Republic into other EU members, at which the funds are aimed to compensate for." ], [ "Public policy", "Ministry of Industry and TradeAs of 2016, the Czech Republic has the second lowest poverty rate of OECD members only behind Denmark.", "The Czech healthcare system ranks 13th in the 2016 Euro health consumer index." ], [ "Energy" ], [ "Statistical indicators", "Real GPD per capita development the Czech Republic 1970 to 2018Percentage of GDP growth in the Czech Republic 1997–2019Credit ratings by Standard & Poor'sAverage gross wage in the Czech Republic (1990–2015)EU by GNI per capita, PPP (current international $).", "World Bank 2016===Development of main indicators===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation under 2% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP (in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)2015340.632,318209.15.3 %0.3 %5.0 %40.0 %2016353.933,529229.62.6 %0.7 %3.9 %36.8 %2017375.735,512208.94.3 %2.4 %2.9 %34.7 %2018397.737,547211.73.5 %2.3 %3.0 %32.9 %2019418.739,478209.43.0 %2.0 %3.2 %31.3 %2020437.741,220188.02.5 %2.0 %3.4 %29.4 %===Background===''From the CIA World Factbook 2017'''''GDP (pp.", "):''' $353.9 billion (2016)'''GDP (nom.", "):''' $195.3 billion (2016)'''GDP Growth:''' 2.6% (2016)'''GDP per capita (pp.", "):''' $33,500 (2016)'''GDP per capita (nom.", "):''' $18,487 (2016)'''GDP by sector:'''''Agriculture:'' 2.5%''Industry:'' 37.5%''Services:'' 60% (2016)'''Inflation:''' 0.7% (2016)'''Labour Force:''' 5.427 million (2017)'''Unemployment:''' 2,3% (September 2018)'''Industrial production growth rate:''' 3.5% (2016)'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' (2015)*''lowest 10%:'' 4.1%*''highest 10%:'' 21.7%'''Public Debt:''' 34.2% GDP (2018)===Trade and finance==='''Exports:''' $136.1 billion''Export goods:'' machinery and transport equipment, raw materials, fuel, chemicals (2018)'''Imports:''' $122.8 billion''Import goods:'' machinery and transport equipment, raw materials and fuels, chemicals (2018)'''Current Account balance:''' $2.216 billion (2018)'''Export partners:''' Germany 32.4%, Slovakia 8.4%, Poland 5.8%, UK 5.2%, France 5.2%, Italy 4.3%, Austria 4.2% (2016)'''Import partners:''' Germany 30.6%, Poland 9.6%, China 7.5%, Slovakia 6.3%, Netherlands 5.3%, Italy 4.1% (2016)'''Reserves:''' $85.73 billion (31 December 2016)'''Foreign Direct Investment:''' $139.6 billion (31 December 2016)'''Czech Investment Abroad:''' $43.09 billion (31 December 2016)'''External debt:''' $138 billion (31 December 2016)'''Value of Publicly Traded Shares:''' $44.5 billion (31 December 2016)'''Exchange rates:'''* ''koruny (Kč) per US$1'' – 21.82 Kč (September 2018), 18.75 (December 2010), 18.277 (2007), 23.957 (2005), 25.7 (2004), 28.2 (2003), 32.7 (2002), 38.0 (2001), 38.6 (2001), 34.6 (1999), 32.3 (1998), 31.7 (1997), 27.1 (1996), 26.5 (1995)* ''koruny (Kč) per EUR€1'' – 27.33 (May 2015), 25.06 (December 2010)===IT and Telecommunications==='''Households with access to fixed and mobile telephone access'''* ''landline telephone'' – 25% (2009)** according to the Czech Statistical Office: 55,2% (2005); 31,1% (2008); 27,6% (2009); 24,2% (2010); 23,4% (2011); 21,8% (2012)* ''mobile telephone'' – 94% (2009)** according to the Czech Statistical Office: 81,2% (2005); 92,4% (2008); 94,6% (2009); 95,6% (2010); 96,2% (2011); 97,0% (2012)'''Individuals with mobile telephone access'''* according to the Czech Statistical Office: 75,8% (2005); 90,6% (2009); 93,9% (2011); 96,0% (2012); 96,0% (2013)'''Broadband penetration rate'''* ''fixed broadband'' – 19.1% (2010)* ''mobile broadband'' – 3.5% (2010)'''Individuals using computer and internet'''* ''computer'' – 67% (2009)**according to the Czech Statistical Office: 42,0% (2005); 59,2% (2009); 64,1% (2010); 67,1% (2011); 69,5% (2012); 70,2% (2013)* ''internet'' – 80.9% (2019)**according to the Czech Statistical Office: 32,1% (2005); 55,9% (2009); 61,8% (2010); 65,5% (2011); 69,5% (2012); 70,4% (2013)===Companies===In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Czech Republic is Services with 295,538 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Wholesale Trade with 189,308 and 95,142 companies respectively." ], [ "International rankings", "=== Society and quality of life===Index of Economic Freedom 2018* 27th in Human Development Index (2019)* 13th in inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (2019)* 7th in Henley Passport Index (2019)* 24th in Human Capital Index (2018)* 16th in Quality of Nationality Index (Henley & Partners, 2018)* 27th in Legatum Prosperity Index (2019)* 22nd in Social Progress Index (2019)=== Macroeconomics ===* 41st in Ease of doing business index (2019)* 7th in Economic Complexity Index (2018)* 26th in Global Competitiveness Report (2022)* 25th in Global Enabling Trade Report (2016)* 24th in Global Innovation Index (2019)* 21st in Index of Economic Freedom (2018)" ], [ "See also", "*List of Czech regions by GDP*Czech National Bank* CzechInvest and CzechStartups.org* International rankings of the Czech Republic* Prague Stock Exchange* Tourism in the Czech Republic* Transport in the Czech Republic" ], [ "Resources", "* ''Statistická ročenka České republiky'' (''Statistical Yearbook of the Czech Republic'') by the Czech Statistical Office.", "The current line is published annually since 1957.Recent yearbooks can be read online (in Czech and English).", "* Czechoslovakia published its first statistical yearbook in 1920.Historically used names: ''Statistická příručka Republiky československé'', ''Statistická ročenka Protektorátu Čechy a Morava'' (during the occupation) and ''Statistická ročenka Československé socialistické republiky''.", "* Statistics about the Czech lands in Austria-Hungary were collected by ''Zemský statistický úřad Království českého'' (''Provincial Statistical Office of the Czech Kingdom'') founded in 1897.Two detailed books (in Czech and German) were published in 1909 and 1913.", "* Benacek, Vladimir: economics of alliances and (dis)integration, an alternative interpretation of transition illustrated on Czech economic history (June 2002) - 25 p.* Horvath, Julius: the Czech currency crisis of 1997 - En: Dabrovski, Marek: currency crises in emerging markets - New York: Springer, 2003 - p. 221-234* OECD: economic surveys, Czech republic, 1991-2018 (OECD iLibrary)* Zidek, Libor: from central planning to the market, the transformation of the Czech economy 1989-2004 Budapest: CEU press, 2017" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* OECD Economic Survey of the Czech Republic* Czech economic indicators Latest indicators collected by Czech national bank* OECD's Czech Republic country Web site* * Current economic data* * Maldonado, Carlos Gustavo: República checa, transición del socialismo de Estado a la economía de mercado - En: economía de posguerra, blog de historia económica global* Economy of the Czech Republic – Annual Trends* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Czech Republic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "There are telecommunications in the Czech Republic." ], [ "Office", "There is a Czech Telecommunication Office (Czech: Český Telekomunikační Úřad) called CTU." ], [ "Companies", "Telecom companies have included České Radiokomunikace, O2 Czech Republic (formerly Telefonica O2 Czech Republic), Vodafone Czech Republic (formerly Oskar Mobil a.s.), CETIN, CS Link, Eurotel, Skylink and Telekom Austria Czech Republic." ], [ "Telephones", "The number of main line telephones in use was 3,741,492 in 1998, 3.869 million in 2000, 3.626 million in 2003, 2.888 million in 2006, and 1,294,806 in 2021.The number of mobile cellular phones was 965,476 in 1998, 4.346 million in 2000, 9.708 million in 2003, and 13.075 million in 2007.Copper subscriber systems have been improved with Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) equipment to accommodate Internet and other digital signals.", "Trunk systems include fibre-optic cable and microwave radio relay." ], [ "Television", "There were 3,428,817 televisions in December 1999 and 3,405,834 televisions in December 2000.There were 150 television broadcast stations and 1,434 repeaters in 2000." ], [ "Radio", "There were 3,173,856 radios in December 1999, and 3,159,134 radios in December 2000.In 2000, the radio broadcast stations were AM 31, FM 304 and shortwave 17.In 1999, they were AM 21, FM 199 and shortwave 1." ], [ "Internet", "The number of internet users was 2.69 million in 2001, 5.1 million in 2005, 4.4 million in 2007 and 7.6 million in 2012.There were 35 Internet Service Providers in 1999, and more than three hundred in 2000.The internet country code is .cz." ], [ "References", "*Lubos Lauer.", "Regulation in Telecommunications in the Czech Republic.", "Lap Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH KG.", "2012.Google*F Hesoun.", "Liberalisation, Regulation and Telecommunication Market in the Czech Republic.", "Mimeo, Praha.", "1994.", "*Kirsten Rodine-Hardy.", "Global Markets and Government Regulation in Telecommunications.", "Cambridge University Press.", "2013.Pages 8, 26, 37 to 40, 79 to 82, 84, 86 to 88, 90, 91, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106, 108, 112, 119, 124, 125, 166, 171, 179 to 181, 184 and 189.", "*Karl-Ernst Schenk, Jörn Kruse and Jürgen Müller.", "Telecommunications Take-off in Transition Countries.", "Avebury.", "1997.Google*Robert Bruce, Ioannis Kessides and Lothar Kneifel.", "\"Overview of Telecommunications Developments in the Czech Republic\".", "Overcoming Obstacles to Liberalization of the Telecom Sector in Estonia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, and Hungary.", "World Bank Technical Paper 440.Chapter 5.Pages 25 to 29.", "*\"Background Report on Regulatory Reform in the Telecommunications Industry\".", "Regulatory Reform in the Czech Republic.", "OECD.", "Page 311 et seq." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "Pendolino 680 in Prague Main railway station'''Transport in the Czech Republic''' relies on several main modes, including transport by road, rail, water and air." ], [ "Railways", "Map of the Czech railway nerworkThe Czech Republic has a total railway length of which makes it a country with the second highest rail density in the world.", "The vast majority () is standard gauge.", "Electrified railways generally have voltages of 3 kV DC or 25 kV AC.", "of track is narrow gauge.", "The most prominent Czech railway company is the state-owned České dráhy (ČD) (English: ''Czech Railways'').", "Prague has an underground rapid transit system, the Prague Metro.", "In addition, the cities of Brno, Liberec, Most, Olomouc, Ostrava, Plzeň, and Prague have tram systems." ], [ "Roads", "Map of the Czech motorway network (2023)Lovosice junction (km 45)The Czech Republic has, in total, of roads.", "It has of motorways.", "In the 1980s and 1990s there was a significant increase in passenger transport on the roads in the Czech Republic, which was associated with a sharp increase in the accident rate.", "Between 2007 and 2013, the death rate fell in every year, with a record low of 583 deaths in 2013, compared with the 1994 high of 1,473 casualties.", "Despite this however, the fatality rate per head of population is moderately high, comparable to the United States.===Highways===There are 2 main categories of roads forming the main network: Motorways and Highways.", "These roads are managed by the state-owned Directorate of Highways and Motorways of the Czech Republic – ŘSD, established in 1997.Among the first modern motorways in the Czech Republic was the motorway from Prague to the Slovak border through Brno whose construction was started on May 2, 1939.Motorways are dual carriageways with tolls and a speed limit of 130 km/h.Highways can be single and dual carriageway with a speed limit of 90 km/h (dual carriageways are commonly signposted as Roads for motorcars with a speed limit of 110 km/h).ŘSD currently manages and maintains 1,369 km of motorways (''dálnice'')." ], [ "Waterways", "The Vltava is the country's longest river, at 430 km.", "358 km of the Elbe (Labe), which totals 1154 km, is also present in the country.", "An artificial waterway, nowadays used for recreation, is the Baťa Canal." ], [ "Ports and harbors", "Děčín, Mělník, Prague, Ústí nad Labem, Moldauhafen in Hamburg (no longer operational, will be handed over to Germany in 2028)" ], [ "Airports", "Václav Havel Airport PragueBrno-Tuřany AirportIn 2006, the Czech Republic had a total 121 airports.", "46 of these airports had paved runways while 75 had unpaved runways.", "The largest and busiest airport in the Czech Republic is Václav Havel Airport Prague, opened in 1937.Other international airports include Brno–Tuřany Airport, Karlovy Vary Airport, Ostrava Leoš Janáček Airport, Pardubice Airport, Kunovice Airport and Public domestic and private international airport is for example Hradec Králové Airport.", ";Airports with paved runways Total: 46 (2007) * Over 3,047 m: 2 * 2,438 to 3,047 m: 10 * 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 * 914 to 1,523 m: 2 * Under 914 m: 19 ;Airports with unpaved runways Total: 75 (2007) * 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 * 914 to 1,523 m: 25 * Under 914 m: 49" ], [ "Heliports", "2 (2006)" ], [ "See also", "*Czech Republic*List of airports in the Czech Republic*Road signs in the Czech Republic*European driving licence" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Czech Transport* idos.cz - public transport on-line timetables and trip planner (sponsored by the government)* Transport in the Czech Republic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Army of the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Army of the Czech Republic''' (, AČR), also known as the '''Czech Army''', is the military service responsible for the defence of the Czech Republic as part of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic () alongside the Military Office of the President of the Republic and the Castle Guard.", "The Army consists of the General Staff, the Land Forces, the Air Force and support units.Czech Army's main historical legacy and inspiration stems from the 15th century Hussite militia, which is credited with numerous warfare advancements, including introduction of firearms to field battles as well as wagon fort strategy.", "Modern history precedes the 1918 Czechoslovak declaration of independence with formal establishment of the Czechoslovak Legion fighting on the side of the Entente powers during the WW1.Following the Munich Agreement, the country was occupied by Nazi Germany and the Army was reconstituted in exile, fighting on the side of Allies of World War II in the European as well as Mediterranean and Middle East theatre.", "After the 1948 Communist Coup, the Czechoslovak People's Army with over 200,000 active personnel and some 4,500 tanks formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance.", "Following the Velvet Revolution and dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999.The conscription was abolished in 2004, leading to transformation into a modern professional army inspired mostly by the British Armed Forces and USMC example.", "Today, the Czech Army has 27.000 professional personnel and 4.000 members of active reserves.", "Additionally, any citizen can voluntarily join a five week basic training without becoming a soldier or join advanced shooting training with their privately owned firearms and become civilian reservist.A law adopted in June 2023 stipulates that the military expenditures shall not be lower than 2% of country's GDP, starting from 2024." ], [ "History", "=== Czech lands ===Battle between Protestant Hussites and Catholic Crusaders; Jena Codex, 15th centuryThe military history of the Czech people dates back to the Middle Ages and the creation of the Duchy of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "During the Hussite Wars, Jan Žižka became a military leader of such skill and eminence that the Hussite legacy became an important and lasting part of the Czech military traditions.Official military names since 1918: 1918–1950 - Czechoslovak Armed Forces (this official name was given to the Czechoslovak Army on March 19, 1920 on the basis of the Armed Forces Act)1950–1954 - Czechoslovak Army1954–1989 - Czechoslovak People's Army1990–1992 - Czechoslovak Armysince 1993 - Army of the Czech Republic (ACR)=== Czechoslovakia ===The Czechoslovak Armed Forces were originally formed on 30 June 1918 when 6,000 members of the Czechoslovak Legion in France, which had been established in 1914, took oath and received a battle banner in Darney, France, thus preceding the official declaration of Czechoslovak independence by four months.", "There were also 50 000 legion soldiers in Russia at that time.", "The military achievements of the Czechoslovak legions on the French, Italian and especially Russian front became one of the main arguments that the Czechoslovak pro-independence leaders, especially for T. G. Masaryk in America, could use to gain the support for the country's independence by the Allies of World War I.In 1938, servicemen of the Czechoslovak Army and the State Defense Guard fought in an undeclared border war against the German-backed Sudetendeutsches Freikorps as well as Polish and Hungarian paramilitary forces.", "As a result of the Munich Agreement, areas heavily populated by ethnic German speaking people were incorporated into the Third Reich and military-aged men living there were subject to being drafted into the Wehrmacht.", "In 1939, after the Slovak State proclaimed its independence and the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary, the German occupation of the Czech Lands followed and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed after the negotiations with Emil Hácha.", "The Protectorate's government possessed its own armed force, the Government Army (6,500 men), tasked with public security and rearguard duties.", "On the other side of the conflict, a number of Czechoslovak units and formations served with the Polish Army (Czechoslovak Legion), the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army (the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade), and the Red Army (I Corps).", "Four Czech and Slovak-manned RAF squadrons were transferred to Czechoslovak control in late 1945.Croatian Army soldier discusses patrol routes with a Czech Army soldier (left)From 1954 until 1989, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak People's Army (ČSLA).", "Although the ČSLA, as formed in 1945, included both Soviet- and British-equipped/trained expatriate troops, the \"Western\" soldiers had been purged from the ČSLA after 1948 when the communists took power.", "The ČSLA offered no resistance to the invasion mounted by the Soviets in 1968 in reaction to the \"Prague Spring\", and was extensively reorganized by the Soviets following the re-imposition of communist rule in Prague.Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on active duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent, served in the ground forces (commonly referred to as the army).", "About 100,000 of these were conscripts.", "There were two military districts, Western and Eastern.", "A 1989 listing of forces shows two Czechoslovak armies in the west, the 1st Army at Příbram with one tank division and three motor rifle divisions, the 4th Army at Písek with two tank divisions and two motor rifle divisions.", "In the Eastern Military District, there were two tank divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country.During the Cold War, the ČSLA was equipped primarily with Soviet arms, although certain arms like the OT-64 SKOT armored personnel carrier, the L-29 ''Delfín'' and L-39 ''Albatros'' aircraft, the P-27 ''Pancéřovka'' antitank rocket launcher, the vz.", "58 assault rifle or the Uk vz.", "59 machine gun were of Czechoslovak design.", "After the fall of communism during the Velvet Revolution in 1989, the Czechoslovak People's Army was renamed back to the Czechoslovak Army and was completely transformed as well.===After 1992 (dissolution of Czechoslovakia)===BVP-2 firing in AfghanistanCzech Army Soldiers to participate in exercise Combined Resolve at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, GermanyThe Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 31 December 1992 peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia.", "Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993.They were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999, and to 35,000 in 2005.At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture.", "In 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished.", "The Army maintains an active reserve.", "The Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "In March 1999, the Czech Republic joined NATO.", "Since 1990, the ACR and the Czech Armed Forces have contributed to numerous peacekeeping and humanitarian operations, including IFOR, SFOR, and EUFOR Althea in Bosnia, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Afghanistan, Kosovo, Albania, Turkey, Pakistan and with the Coalition forces in Iraq.Current deployments (2019):*Lithuania: NATO Operation (NATO Enhanced Forward Presence) - 230 soldiers*Latvia: NATO Operation (NATO Enhanced Forward Presence) - 60 soldiers*Afghanistan: NATO Operation (Resolute Support Mission) - 390 soldiers*Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania: NATO Operation (Baltic Air Policing) - 95 soldiers, 5x Jas 39 Gripen*Kosovo: NATO Operation (KFOR) - 9 soldiers*Mali: EU military training mission (EUTM Mali) - 120 soldiers*Mali: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSMA) - 5 soldiers*Somalia: EU Operation Atalanta (NAVFOR) - 3 soldiers*Sinai: International peacekeeping force (MFO) - 18 soldiers*Iraq: Military intervention against the Islamic State (OIR) - 31 soldiers (air advisory team), 12 soldiers (chemical unit)*Mediterranean Sea: EU military operation (EU Navfor Med) - 5 soldiers*Bosnia and Herzegovina: Military deployment to oversee the military implementation of the Dayton Agreement (European Union Force Althea) - 2 soldiers*Golan Heights: UN peacekeeping mission (UNDOF) - 3 soldiers*DR Congo: UN peacekeeping mission (MONUC) - 2 military observers*Mali: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSMA) - 2 military observers*Kosovo: UN peacekeeping mission (UNMIK) - 2 military observers*Central African Republic: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSCA) - 3 military observers" ], [ "Structure", "Many of the duties of the President of the Czech Republic can be said to be ceremonial to one degree or another, especially since the President has relatively few powers independent of the will of the Prime Minister.", "One of those is the status as commander in chief of the military; no part of these duties can take place but through the assent of the Prime Minister.", "In matters of war, he is in every sense merely a figurehead, since the Constitution gives all substantive constitutional authority over the use of the armed forces to the Parliament.", "In fact, the only specific thing the constitution allows the President to do with respect to the military is to appoint its generalsbut even this must be done with the signature of the Prime Minister.Czech Armed Forces Organization 2023.Click to expand.Structure of the Czech Armed Forces consists of two main parts and other commands:* General Staff of Czech Armed Forces (Praha)** 30px Czech Land Forces (Olomouc)** 30px Czech Air Force (Praha)**Special Forces Command(Praha)**Cyber Forces Command (Brno)**Territorial Command (Tábor)**Training Command - Military Academy (Vyškov)===Active reserves==='''Active Reserve''' (in Czech ''Aktivní záloha'') is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic.", "This service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military.A volunteer needs either to have completed the compulsory military service (which ended in 2004) or to attend 6 week training.", "Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to serve two weeks during a non-military crisis.", "They are not intended to serve abroad, but individuals may volunteer to do so.", "The Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show.Each of the active duty brigades or regiments have their own active reserve subordinate units that train with the same equipment as the professional soldiers and is part of the organisational structure usually as a 4th company in a battalion.The Territorial Command is responsible for the active reserves and have direct control of the 14 infantry companies that belong to regional military commands in each of the 13 regions and capital city Prague." ], [ "Equipment", "The Army of the Czech Republic, to a large extent, currently uses equipment dating back to the times of the Warsaw Pact.", "During the Cold War, Czechoslovakia was a major supplier of tanks, armoured personnel carriers, military trucks and trainer aircraft – the bulk of military exports went to its Comecon partners.", "Replacement of aging or obsolete equipment, or making it at least compliant with NATO standards, is urgently required.", "Modernization plans include acquisition of new multi-role helicopters, transport aircraft, infantry fighting vehicles, air defence radars and missiles.", "If possible, the Czech Ministry of Defence selects products that are manufactured or co-produced in the Czech Republic.", "This includes firearms of the Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod, namely the CZ 75 pistol, CZ Scorpion Evo 3 submachine gun, and CZ 805 BREN and BREN 2 assault rifles.", "Moreover, the Czech Army is equipped with about 3,000 T810 and T815 vehicles of various modifications produced by the Czech Tatra Trucks company.", "Tatra Defence Vehicle factory ensures licensed production of Pandur II and Titus armoured vehicles.", "Aircraft such as the Aero L-39 Albatros, Aero L-159 Alca and Let L-410 Turbolet have been produced domestically as well.At the beginning of 2019, the Czech Ministry of Defence announced its modernization program, consisting of acquiring 210 new modern IFVs as a replacement for the aging BVP-2.MoD approached four manufacturers: BAE Systems (CV90), GDELS (ASCOD), Rheinmetall (Lynx) and PSM (Puma).", "The cost of the program is expected to exceed 50 billion CZK.In May 2022 the Czech Ministry of Defence announced it will get 15 Leopards 2A4 from Germany as an exchange for Czech tanks that will be given to Ukraine to help defend against Russian invasion and will purchase up to 50 modern 2A7+ variants later.File:Střelecká příprava.jpg|Soldiers with CZ-805 BREN assault riflesFile:Areál čs.", "opevnění v Darkovičkách - akce.jpg|Czech modernizedT-72M4CZFile:BVP-2 military parade Prague.jpg|Czech BVP-2 at 2008 Prague military paradethumbFile:KBV-PZLOK.JPG|Czech Pandur II 8x8 wheeled IFVFile:Tatra T-810 Czech Army 01.jpg|Tatra 810 medium truckFile:131121-A-KH850-004 (11045794563).jpg|ShKH-77 Dana: 152mm Self-propelled cannon howitzerFile:Czech Mi-24 CIAF.JPG|Czech Air Force modernized Mi-24V helicopter gunshipFile:PZL W-3 Sokół of Czech Air Forces.jpg|Czech Air Force W-3AFile:Saab.jas39c.gripen.taxi.arp.jpg|Czech Air Force JAS 39 GripenFile:L-159 ALCA Czech Air Force.jpg|Czech Air Force L-159 light combat aircraft" ], [ "Uniforms", "Different types of Czech Army uniforms:Image:Czech ISAF (6).jpg|Commando soldier from ÚSO VP SOG in desert camouflage uniform in AfghanistanImage:Czech KFOR (1).jpg|Standard VZ.95 pattern camouflage uniformImage:Aktivni_zalohy_ACR.jpg|Members of the Active Reserve during exerciseImage:Posadkova hudba Olomouc.jpg|Czech military band in OlomoucImage:Posadkova hudba Olomouc 2.jpg|Czech military band in OlomoucImage:Czechguards.jpg|Soldier of Prague Castle guard holding ceremonial Vz.", "52 rifle" ], [ "Commanding officers", "*Chief of the General Staff: Lieutenant General Karel Řehka*First Deputy Chief of the General Staff: Major General Ivo Střecha*Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the AČR-Chief of Staff: Lieutenant General Miroslav Hlaváč*Deputy Chief of the General Staff - Inspector of the AČR: Major General Milan Schulc" ], [ "Current and historic military ranks" ], [ "See also", "*Czechoslovakian naval forces*Government Army" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Stephane Lefebvre, 'The Army of the Czech Republic: A Status Report,' Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol.", "8, No.", "4, December 1995, pp.", "718–751* Tomáš Weiss, 'Fighting Wars or Controlling Crowds?", "The Case of the Czech Military Forces and the Possible Blurring of Police and Military Functions, ''Armed Forces & Society,'' Vol.", "39, No.", "3, pp.", "450-466" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic* Information Center about NATO* Training Command – Military Academy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "Embassies (not consulates) of the Czech Republic in the world.The '''Czech Republic''' is a Central European country, a member of the European Union, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the United Nations (and all of its main specialized agencies and boards).", "It entertains diplomatic relations with 191 countries of the world, around half of which maintain a resident embassy in the Czech capital city, Prague.During the years 1948–1989, the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia had followed that of the Soviet Union.", "Since the revolution and the subsequent mutually-agreed peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the Czechs have made reintegration with Western institutions their chief foreign policy objective.", "This goal was rapidly met with great success, as the nation joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, and held the Presidency of the European Union during the first half of 2009." ], [ "International disputes", "===Liechtenstein===Throughout the past decades, Liechtenstein continuously claimed restitution for , or an area roughly ten times the size of Liechtenstein, of land currently located in the Czech Republic.", "The land was partially confiscated from the Liechtenstein family in 1918 with the rest of the property being confiscated in 1945 after the expulsion of Germans and confiscation of German property.", "The Czech Republic insisted that it could not acknowledge or be responsible for claims going back to before February 1948, when the Communists had seized power.As a result, Liechtenstein did not diplomatically recognize the existence of the Czech Republic as a new state (and, for that matter, also that of the Slovak Republic) until 2009.In July 2009, the Prince of Liechtenstein announced he was resigning to the previous unsuccessful claims to property located in the Czech Republic, and on 13 July 2009, after politically recognizing one another, the Czech Republic and Liechtenstein formally established diplomatic relations." ], [ "Placement of US National Missile Defense base", "In February 2007, the US started formal negotiations with Czech Republic and Poland concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-based Midcourse Defense System.", "Government of the Czech Republic agrees (while 67% Czechs disagree and only about 22% support it) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland.", "The objective is reportedly to protect another parts of US National Missile Defense from long-range missile strikes from Iran and North Korea, but Czech PM Mirek Topolánek said the main reason is to avoid Russian influence and strengthen ties to US.The main government supporter Alexandr Vondra, Deputy Prime Minister for European affairs, used to be an ambassador to the USA.", "More problematic is that between 2004 and 2006 he was an executive director of a lobbying company Dutko Worldwide Prague.", "Dutko's and its strategic partner AMI Communications (PR company) customers are Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Nortrop Grumman, which are largest contractors for NMD development.", "AMI Communications also received (without a formal selection procedure) a government contract to persuade Czechs to support US radar base." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which the Czech Republic maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12345678910—1112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134—135—136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186——187188189190191192==Bilateral relations== ===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Czech Republic in the European Union Czech Republic joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.Czech Republic joined NATO as a full member on 12 March 1999.===Africa=== Country Formal relations began NotesCzech Republic is represented in Cape-Verde by its embassy in Lisbon, Portugaland an honorary consulate in Praia.", "* Ethiopia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Prague.1973*Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1973 (with Czechoslovakia) and in 1993.", "*Czech Republic is represented in Guinea-Bissau by its embassy in Accra, Ghana.See Czech Republic–Kenya relations* Czech Republic has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in The Hague, Netherlands.1993See Czech Republic–Libya relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1993.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has a consulate in Prague.===Americas=== Country Formal relations began Notes*The Czech Republic is represented in Belize through its embassy in Mexico City and has an honorary consulate.", "*Belize has an honorary consulate in Prague.1918See Brazil–Czech Republic relations* Brazil has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.See Canada–Czech Republic relations*Canada has an embassy in Prague*The Czech Republic has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Toronto and an honorary consulate in Calgary.See Colombia–Czech Republic relations* Colombia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Bogotá and 3 consulates (in Barranquilla, Cartagena and Medellín).1922See Czech Republic–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations between Czechoslovakia and Mexico were established in 1922.Mexico re-recognized Czech independence in 1993 after its separation with Slovakia.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Mexico City and honorary consulates in Monterrey, Guadalajara and Tijuana.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Prague.", "Relations were broken in 1957, but reestablished in 1969.See Czech Republic–United States relationsU.S.", "President Woodrow Wilson and the United States played a major role in the establishment of Czechoslovakia on 28 October 1918.", "*The Czech Republic has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Chicago, Los Angeles and New York.", "*The United States has an embassy in Prague.See Czech Republic–Uruguay relations* The Czech Republic is accredited to Uruguay from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "* Uruguay is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.===Asia=== Country Formal relations began Notes29 January 1993*The Czech Republic recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 8 January 1992.", "*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Baku.", "*Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).6 October 1949See China–Czech Republic relations* Czech Republic has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Chengdu, Hong Kong and Shanghai.", "* China has an embassy in Prague.", "* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgia has an embassy in Prague since 2006.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign relations about the relation with the Czech Republic See Czech Republic–India relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* Consulate of Czech Republic in India at Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata.", "* India has an embassy in Prague.See Czech Republic–Indonesia relationsSee Czech Republic–Iran relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Prague.1993See Czech Republic–Iraq relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Baghdad.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Prague.", "* The Czech Republic was part of the Multinational force in Iraq between 2003 and 4 December 2008.See Czech Republic–Israel relationsThe government of Czechoslovakia recognised independence of Israel five days after its declaration on 19 May 1948.Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 3 July 1948.Czechoslovakia supported with military aircraft and weapons newly created Israeli state for several months, however then-new communist government ceased this support and in few years even the diplomatic relations were broken.", "Communist regime did spread anti-Israeli propaganda, like all then socialist countries.", "After the Velvet revolution, the relations were renewed.", "The Czech Republic has an embassy in Tel Aviv and 4 honorary consulates (in Eilat, Haifa, Jerusalem and Ramat Gan).", "Israel has an embassy in Prague.In December 2008 the Czech Air Force wanted to train in desert conditions for the upcoming mission in Afghanistan.", "No country agreed to help, except Israel.", "Israel saw it as an opportunity to thank the Czechs for training Israeli pilots when the country was first established.There are 3,000 Jews living in the Czech Republic (see also History of the Jews in the Czech Republic).1919See Czech Republic–Japan relations* Japan's first Minister Plenipotentiary to Czechoslovakia was Harukazu Nagaoka* Relations between Czechoslovakia and Japan were broken off in 1939, and not re-established until 1957* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Tokyo and an honorary consulate in Kobe.", "* Japan has an embassy in Prague.See Czech Republic–Kazakhstan relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and a branch office of the embassy in Almaty.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Prague and an honorary consulate in Jaroměř.See Czech Republic–Malaysia relations* Czech Republic has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Prague.", "* Following the establishment of relations with the Soviet Union in 1968, Malaysia also expanded its relations with Czech Republic and other Eastern European countries.", "1992See Czech Republic–Mongolia relations* After the 1992 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Mongolia reaffirmed its relations with the newly formed Czech Republic in 1993.", "* The Embassy of the Czech Republic in Ulaanbaatar was formally reopened in 1999.", "* According to reporting in ''Deník N'', the Security Information Service expelled a North Korean diplomat who was attempting to circumvent the sanctions against North Korea.", "* North Korea has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Pyongyang.See Pakistan-Czech Republic relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Islamabad and two honorary consulates in Lahore and Karachi.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Prague.", "* On 20 September 2008 the Czech Republic's ambassador to Pakistan, Ivo Žďárek, was killed in a blast at the Marriott Hotel in Islamabad.", "See Czech Republic–Philippines relations* The current diplomatic relationship of the Czech Republic and the Philippines has its roots to the friendship of Filipino national hero José Rizal and Ferdinand Blumentritt even neither countries existed yet back in the 19th century.", "Rizal visited Blumentritt in the city of Litomerice, Bohemia (present day Czech Republic) in 1887.According to Filipino Foreign secretary Albert del Rosario, the friendship between the two men served as the foundation of the current bilateral ties between the two countries.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines has an embassy in Prague.", "See Czech Republic–South Korea relations* The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Czech Republic and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) began on 22 March 1990.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Prague since 1990.", "* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Seoul since 1991.", "* There is also the Czech Info Center in Seoul.", "* The Czech Republic has a Working Holiday Program Agreement with South Korea It was at the first time with a country of the Asia.", "See Czech Republic–Taiwan relations*Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in Prague*Czech Economic and Cultural Representative Office in Taipei1924See Czech Republic–Turkey relations* Czech Republic has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has en embassy in Prague.", "*Both are members of NATO See Czech Republic–Vietnam relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Hanoi.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Prague.===Europe=== Country Formal relations began NotesSee Albania–Czech Republic relationsThe multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.All member countries, with the exception of the People's Republic of Albania and the Socialist Republic of Romania participated in the invasion.", "Albania formally withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 over the matter.", "* Albania has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Tirana.See Austria–Czech Republic relations* Austria has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Vienna.Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "They share of common border, which can be crossed anywhere without border control due to the Schengen Agreement.See Belarus–Czech Republic relations* Belarus has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Minsk.See Bulgaria–Czech Republic relationsDiplomatic relations between Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia were established on 27 September 1920, they were severed on 1 June 1939 and were restored on 10 October 1945.On 23 December 1992 Bulgaria recognised the Czech Republic and established diplomatic relations with it at the level of embassies as of 1 January 1993.", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Czech Republic relations* Croatia has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Cyprus–Czech Republic relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Czech Republic–Denmark relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Copenhagen and an honorary consulate in Højbjerg.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.s* Both countries restored their diplomatic relation on 9 September 1991.On 1 January 1993 diplomatic relations were automatically transferred to the successor states of Czechoslovakia.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Estonia Ministry of Foreign affairs about relations with the Czech Republic* Finland recognised the independence of the Czech Republic on 1 January 1993.", "* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Helsinki.", "Finland has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Czech Republic supports Finland's NATO membership.", "* Embassy of the Czech Republic in Helsinki* Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about relations with the Czech RepublicSee Czech Republic–France relations* The first diplomatic contacts date back from the Middle Ages.", "France has been the first country to recognize Czechoslovakia on 28 October 1918.", "* The two countries concluded a treaty of Alliance on 25 January 1924.", "* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Paris and four honorary consulates (in Lille, Lyon, Nancy, and Nantes).", "* France has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "Since 1999, Czech Republic is an observer in the Francophonie.", "* French Foreign Ministry about relations with the Czech Republic<!--Start date" ], [ "Multilateral relations", "*Foreign relations of the European Union*Foreign relations of NATO" ], [ "See also", "*List of diplomatic missions in the Czech Republic*Visa policy of the Schengen Area*Visa requirements for Czech citizens*Visa (document)#Visa restrictions" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Concept of foreign policy of the Czech Republic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Climbing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Climbing''' is the activity of using one's hands, feet, or other parts of the body to ascend a steep topographical object that can range from the world's tallest mountains (e.g.", "the eight thousanders) to small boulders.", "Climbing is done for locomotion, sporting recreation, for competition, and is also done in trades that rely on ascension, such as rescue and military operations.", "Climbing is done indoors and outdoors, on natural surfaces (e.g.", "rock climbing and ice climbing), and on artificial surfaces (e.g.", "climbing walls and climbing gyms)The sport of climbing has evolved by climbers making first ascents of new types of climbing routes, using new climbing techniques, at ever-increasing grades of difficulty, with ever-improving pieces of climbing equipment.", "Mountain guides were an important element in developing the popularity of the sport in the natural environment.", "Early pioneers included Walter Bonatti, Riccardo Cassin, Hermann Buhl, and Gaston Rébuffat, who were followed by and Reinhold Messner and Doug Scott, and laterly by Mick Fowler and Marko Prezelj, and Ueli Steck.", "Since the 1980s, the development of the safer format of bolted sport climbing, the wider availability of artificial climbing walls and climbing gyms, and the development of competition climbing, increased the popularity of rock climbing as a sport, and led to the emergence of professional rock climbers, such as Wolfgang Güllich, Alexander Huber, Chris Sharma, Adam Ondra, Lynn Hill, Catherine Destivelle, and Janja Garnbret.Climbing became an Olympic sport for the first time in the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo (see Sport climbing at the 2020 Summer Olympics) in that format that included competition lead climbing, competition bouldering, and competition speed climbing disciplines; competition ice climbing is not yet an Olympic sport." ], [ "Rock-based", "Rock climbing can trace its origins to the late 19th-century, and has since developed into several main sub-disciplines.", "Single-pitch and multi-pitch (and big wall) climbing, can be performed in varying styles (including aid, sport, traditional, free solo, and top-roping), while the standalone discipline of bouldering (or boulder climbing) is by definition performed in a free solo format.", "* Single pitch climbing means ascending climbs that are a single rope-length (up to 50-metres) while multi-pitch climbing (and big wall climbing) means ascending routes that are many rope-lengths (even up to 1,000-metres).", "These two rock climbing sub-disciplines can be conducted in one of several ways: :* Aid climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses artificial aids such as aiders, pitons, and other mechanical devices to assist in ascending a route.", "Much of rock climbing began as aid climbing, and even by the 1970s, many big wall routes required aid (e.g.", "''The Nose'' and the ''Salathé Wall'').", ":* Sport climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (which is known as free climbing), but does rely on permanent fixed bolts (or pitons), for use as protection while climbing (but not as aid); was started in the 1980s in France and now makes up the world's hardest climbs (e.g.", "''Silence'').", ":* Traditional climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus also free climbing) but unlike sport climbing, the climbers place removable protection such as SCLDs and nuts while ascending that are removed by the second climber; has many famous routes (e.g.", "''Indian Face'', ''Cobra Crack'').", ":* Free soloing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus also free climbing) and where the climber uses no protection (neither sport nor traditional); thus any fall while free soloing could be fatal; deep-water soloing is a form of free soloing where a fall will result in landing into safe water.", "The 2017 free solo of ''Freerider'' became the Oscar-winning film, ''Free Solo''.", ":* Top rope climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids but as the sole form of protection, uses a pre-fixed rope secured to the top of the route (i.e.", "is used on single-pitches), and thus should the climber fall, they simply hang off the rope with no risk of any injury; it is not regarded as free climbing but is a popular and safe way to introduce people to free climbing (and common on climbing walls).", "* Bouldering: means ascending boulders or small outcrops with no artificial aids (free climbing) and due to the lower height, with no protection (making bouldering a form of free soloing); very tall boulders where a fall could be serious (i.e.", "up to 10-metres) are known as highball bouldering.", "Many milestones in bouldering (e.g.", "''Midnight Lightning'', ''Dreamtime'' and ''Burden of Dreams'') were created by practitioners of bouldering and free climbing.===Competition-based===Competition climbing (sometimes confusingly called \"sport climbing\"), is a regulated sport of competitive rock climbing that originated in the 1980s, and which is usually done as indoor climbing on artificial climbing walls.", "The International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) is the official governing body for competition rock-climbing worldwide and is recognized by the IOC and GAISF and is a member of the International World Games Association (IWGA).", "The UIAA is the official governing body for competition ice climbing worldwide.", "Competition climbing has three major disciplines:* Competition lead climbing is a form of competitive lead climbing performed on an artificial bolted sport climbing route.", "* Competition bouldering is a form of competitive bouldering performed on a selection of artificial bouldering routes.", "* Competition speed climbing is a form of competitive speed climbing performed on a standardized artificial wall with a top rope." ], [ "Mountain-based", "* Alpine climbing: Ascending large routes that require rock, ice, and mixed climbing skills but with minimal equipment and no outside support.", "* Ice climbing: Ascending ice or hard snow using equipment such as ice axes and crampons, and includes competition ice climbing.", "* Mixed climbing: Ascending routes using ice climbing equipment where there is both rock and ice (called dry-tooling if there is no ice).", "* Mountaineering: Ascending mountains, which can involve some rock or ice climbing, but unlike alpine climbing can involve support and fixed ropes.", "* Via ferrata: Ascending mountain routes using previously installed fixed steel cables, metal rungs, and ladders for protection and aid.", "* Scrambling: Climbing rocky faces and ridges, which can include basic rock climbing, but is considered part of hillwalking.", "* Solo climbing: Ascending routes alone; can involve ropes (roped solo climbing) and artificial aid; where no protection or aid is used, it is free soloing." ], [ "Other recreational-based", "* Buildering: Ascending the exterior skeletons of buildings, typically without protective equipment (e.g.", "as free solo climbing by Alain Robert).", "* Canyoneering: Climbing along canyons for sport or recreation.", "* Crane climbing: An illicit act of climbing up mechanical cranes, which is a form of buildering.", "* Grass climbing: An older form of climbing when climbing steep but grassy mountainsides, often requiring ropes, was undertaken.", "* Mallakhamba: A traditional Indian sport that combines climbing a pole or rope with the performance of aerial yoga and gymnastics.", "* Parkour: A sport based around smooth movement, including climbing, around urban landscapes.", "* Pole climbing: Climbing poles and masts without equipment.", "* Rope climbing: Climbing a short, thick rope for speed; not to be confused with ''roped climbing'', as used in rock or ice climbing.", "* Stair climbing: ascending elevation via stairs.", "* Tree climbing: Recreationally ascending trees using ropes and other protective equipment." ], [ "Commercial-based", "* Rope access: Industrial climbing, usually abseiling, as an alternative to scaffolding for short works on exposed structures.", "* A tower climber is a professional who climbs broadcasting or telecommunication towers or masts for maintenance or repair." ], [ "In film", "Climbing has been the subject of both narrative and documentary films.", "Notable climbing films include ''Touching the Void'' (2003), ''Everest'' (2015), ''Meru'' (2015), ''The Dawn Wall'' (2015), ''Free Solo'' (2018), ''14 Peaks: Nothing Is Impossible'' (2021), and ''The Alpinist'' (2021).", "The Reel Rock Film Tour is a traveling film festival that exclusively screens climbing and adventure films, and includes the ''Reel Rock'' climbing film series." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Robi-Bosh-Alain-Robert.jpg|Free solo climbing in the Verdon GorgeFile:Midnight Lightning yosemite.jpg|Bouldering on ''Midnight Lightning'' in YosemiteFile:Crack climbing in Indian Creek, Utah.jpg|Traditional climbing on a crack in Indian CreekFile:Ainhize Belar eskalatzen.jpg |Sport climbing on a bolted route in SpainFile:Craig DeMartino on Zodiac on El Capitan.jpg |Big wall climbing on ''Zodiac'' on El CapitanFile:Climbing World Championships 2018 Lead Final Schubert 08.jpg|Competition climbing at the 2018 World FinalsFile:Herbert Hellmuth Summit on mt.", "Manaslu.jpg|Mountaineering on the summit ridge of the eight-thousander, ManasluFile:Hinterstoisserquergang.JPG|Alpine climbing on the north face of the EigerFile:Xaver Bongard in der Breitwangflue.jpg |Ice climbing on ''Crack Baby'' in SwitzerlandFile:Piratescove.jpg|Mixed climbing in Glenwood, ColoradoFile:Buildering On Doran Bridge.jpg |Buildering on the Doran Memorial Bridge" ], [ "See also", "* List of climbers and mountaineers* Glossary of climbing terms" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===***" ], [ "External links", "* Rock climbing: from ancient practice to Olympic sport, ''National Geographic'' (March 2019)* Rock climbing - history & factfile, ''BBC'' (2022)" ] ]
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[ [ "Continuity Irish Republican Army" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Continuity Irish Republican Army''' ('''Continuity IRA''' or '''CIRA'''), styling itself as the '''Irish Republican Army''' (), is an Irish republican paramilitary group that aims to bring about a united Ireland.", "It claims to be a direct continuation of the original Irish Republican Army and the national army of the Irish Republic that was proclaimed in 1916.It emerged from a split in the Provisional IRA in 1986 but did not become active until the Provisional IRA ceasefire of 1994.It is an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and is designated a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom, New Zealand and the United States.", "It has links with the political party Republican Sinn Féin (RSF).Since 1994, the CIRA has waged a campaign in Northern Ireland against the British Army and the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI), formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary.", "This is part of a wider campaign against the British security forces by dissident republican paramilitaries.", "It has targeted the security forces in gun attacks and bombings, as well as with grenades, mortars and rockets.", "The CIRA has also carried out bombings with the goal of causing economic harm and/or disruption, as well as many punishment attacks on alleged criminals.To date, it has been responsible for the death of one PSNI officer.", "The CIRA was smaller and less active than the now-defunct Real IRA, and there have been a number of splits within the organisation since the mid-2000s." ], [ "Origins", "The Continuity IRA has its origins in a split in the Provisional IRA.", "In September 1986, the Provisional IRA held a General Army Convention (GAC), the organisation's supreme decision-making body.", "It was the first GAC in 16 years.", "The meeting, which like all such meetings was secret, was convened to discuss among other resolutions, the articles of the Provisional IRA constitution which dealt with abstentionism, specifically its opposition to the taking of seats in Dáil Éireann (the parliament of the Republic of Ireland).", "The GAC passed motions (by the necessary two-thirds majority) allowing members of the Provisional IRA to discuss and debate the taking of parliamentary seats, and the removal of the ban on members of the organisation from supporting any successful republican candidate who took their seat in Dáil Éireann.The Provisional IRA convention delegates opposed to the change in the constitution claimed that the convention was gerrymandered \"by the creation of new IRA organisational structures for the convention, including the combinations of Sligo-Roscommon-Longford and Wicklow-Wexford-Waterford.\"", "The only IRA body that supported this viewpoint was the outgoing IRA Executive.", "Those members of the outgoing Executive who opposed the change comprised a quorum.", "They met, dismissed those in favour of the change, and set up a new Executive.", "They contacted Tom Maguire, who was a commander in the old IRA and had supported the Provisionals against the Official IRA (see Irish republican legitimatism), and asked him for support.", "Maguire had also been contacted by supporters of Gerry Adams, then president of Sinn Féin, and a supporter of the change in the Provisional IRA constitution.Maguire rejected Adams' supporters, supported the IRA Executive members opposed to the change, and named the new organisers the Continuity Army Council.", "In a 1986 statement, he rejected \"the legitimacy of an Army Council styling itself the Council of the Irish Republican Army which lends support to any person or organisation styling itself as Sinn Féin and prepared to enter the partition parliament of Leinster House.\"", "In 1987, Maguire described the \"Continuity Executive\" as the \"lawful Executive of the Irish Republican Army.\"" ], [ "Campaign", "Initially, the Continuity IRA did not reveal its existence, either in the form of press statements or paramilitary activity.", "Although the Garda Síochána had suspicions that the organisation existed, they were unsure of its name, labelling it the \"Irish National Republican Army\".", "On 21 January 1994, on the 75th anniversary of the First Dáil Éireann, a group of men in paramilitary dress offered a \"final salute\" to Tom Maguire by firing over his grave.", "A public statement headed \"Irish Republican Publicity Bureau\" signed \"B Ó Ruairc, ''Rúnaí'' Secretary\" identifying the firing party as \"Volunteers of Óglaigh na hÉireann-the Irish Republican Army\", and two accompanying photos were published in ''Saoirse Irish Freedom''.", "Garda Special Branch detectives raided the headquarters of Republican Sinn Féin at Arran Quay, Dublin, two days after the graveside volley, seizing files and questioning staff.", "In February 1994 it was reported that in previous months Gardaí had found arms dumps along the Cooley Peninsula in County Louth that did not belong to the Provisional IRA, and forensics tests determined had been used for firing practice recently.It was only after the Provisional IRA declared a ceasefire in 1994 that the Continuity IRA became active, announcing its intention to continue the campaign against British rule.", "The CIRA continues to oppose the Good Friday Agreement and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the Real IRA in 1998), the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning—nor is there any evidence that it will.", "In the 18th Independent Monitoring Commission's report, the RIRA, the CIRA and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were deemed a potential future threat.", "The CIRA was labelled \"active, dangerous and committed and... capable of a greater level of violent and other crime\".", "Like the RIRA and RIRA splinter group Óglaigh na hÉireann, it too sought funds for expansion.", "It is also known to have worked with the INLA.The CIRA has been involved in a number of bombing and shooting incidents.", "Targets of the CIRA have included the British military, the Northern Ireland police (both the Royal Ulster Constabulary and its successor the Police Service of Northern Ireland).", "Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 the CIRA, along with other paramilitaries opposing the ceasefire, have been involved with a countless number of punishment shootings and beatings.", "By 2005 the CIRA was believed to be an established presence on the island of Great Britain with the capability of launching attacks.", "A bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed to have been the work of the CIRA.", "In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC) blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings.", "The IMC also blamed the CIRA for the killings of two former CIRA members in Belfast, who had stolen CIRA weapons and established a rival organisation.The CIRA continued to be active in both planning and undertaking attacks on the PSNI.", "The IMC said they tried to lure police into ambushes, while they have also taken to stoning and using petrol bombs.", "In addition, other assaults, robbery, tiger kidnapping, extortion, fuel laundering and smuggling were undertaken by the group.", "The CIRA also actively took part in recruiting and training members, including disgruntled former Provisional IRA members.", "As a result of this continued activity the IMC said the group remained \"a very serious threat\".On 10 March 2009 the CIRA claimed responsibility for the fatal shooting of a PSNI officer in Craigavon, County Armagh—the first police fatality in Northern Ireland since 1998.The officer was fatally shot by a sniper as he and a colleague investigated \"suspicious activity\" at a house nearby when a window was smashed by youths causing the occupant to phone the police.", "The PSNI officers responded to the emergency call, giving a CIRA sniper the chance to shoot and kill officer Stephen Carroll.", "Carroll was killed two days after the Real IRA's 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting at Massereene Barracks in Antrim.", "In a press interview with Republican Sinn Féin some days later, regarded by some to be the political wing of the Continuity IRA, Richard Walsh described the attacks as \"acts of war\".In 2013, the Continuity IRA's 'South Down Brigade' threatened a Traveller family in Newry and published a statement in the local newspaper.", "There were negotiations with community representatives and the CIRA announced the threat was lifted.", "It was believed the threat was issued after a Traveller feud which resulted in a pipe bomb attack in Bessbrook, near Newry.", "The Continuity IRA is believed to be strongest in the County Fermanagh – North County Armagh area (Craigavon, Armagh and Lurgan).", "It is believed to be behind a number of attacks such as pipe bombings, rocket attacks, gun attacks, and the PSNI claimed it orchestrated riots a number of times to lure police officers into areas such as Kilwilkie in Lurgan and Drumbeg in Craigavon in order to attack them.", "It also claimed the group orchestrated a riot during a security alert in Lurgan.", "The alert turned out to be a hoax.On Easter 2016, the Continuity IRA marched in paramilitary uniforms through North Lurgan, Co Armagh, without any hindrance from the PSNI who monitored the parade from a police helicopter.In July and August 2019 the CIRA carried out attempted bomb attacks on the PSNI in Craigavon, County Armagh and Wattlebridge, County Fermanagh.On 5 February 2020, a bomb planted by the CIRA was found by the PSNI in a lorry in Lurgan.", "The CIRA believed the lorry was going to be put on a North Channel ferry to Scotland in January 2020." ], [ "Claim to legitimacy", " Similar to the claim put forward by the Provisional IRA after its split from the Official IRA in 1969, the Continuity IRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the original Irish Republican Army or ''Óglaigh na hÉireann''.", "This argument is based on the view that the surviving anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil delegated their \"authority\" to the IRA Army Council in 1938.As further justification for this claim, Tom Maguire, one of those anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil, issued a statement in favour of the Continuity IRA, just as he had done in 1969 in favour of the Provisionals.", "J. Bowyer Bell, in his ''The Irish Troubles'', describes Maguire's opinion in 1986: \"abstentionism was a basic tenet of republicanism, a moral issue of principle.", "Abstentionism gave the movement legitimacy, the right to wage war, to speak for a Republic all but established in the hearts of the people\".", "Maguire's stature was such that a delegation from Gerry Adams sought his support in 1986, but was rejected." ], [ "Relationship to other organisations", "These changes within the IRA were accompanied by changes on the political side and at the 1986 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (party conference), which followed the IRA Convention, the party's policy of abstentionism, which forbade Sinn Féin elected representatives from taking seats in the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Republic, was dropped.", "On 2 November, the 628 delegates present cast their votes, the result being 429 to 161.The traditionalists, having lost at both conventions, walked out of the Mansion House, met that evening at the West County Hotel, and reformed as Republican Sinn Féin (RSF).According to a report in the ''Cork Examiner'', the Continuity IRA's first chief of staff was Dáithí Ó Conaill, who also served as the first chairman of RSF from 1986 to 1987.The Continuity IRA and RSF perceive themselves as forming a \"true\" Republican Movement." ], [ "Structure and status", "The leadership of the Continuity IRA is believed to be based in the provinces of Munster and Ulster.", "It was alleged that its chief of staff was a Limerick man and that a number of other key members were from that county, until their expulsion.", "Dáithí Ó Conaill was the first chief of staff until 1991.In 2004 the United States (US) government believed the Continuity IRA consisted of fewer than fifty hardcore activists.", "In 2005, Irish Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell told Dáil Éireann that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members.The CIRA is an illegal organisation under UK (section 11(1) of the Terrorism Act 2000) and ROI law due to the use of 'IRA' in the group's name, in a situation analogous to that of the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA).", "Membership of the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law.", "On 31 May 2001 Dermot Gannon became the first person to be convicted of membership of the CIRA solely on the word of a Garda Síochána chief superintendent.", "On 13 July 2004, the US government designated the CIRA as a 'Foreign Terrorist Organization'.", "This made it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the CIRA, requires US financial institutions to block the group's assets and denies alleged CIRA members visas into the US." ], [ "External aid and arsenal", "The US government suspects the Continuity IRA of having received funds and arms from supporters in the United States.", "Security sources in Ireland have expressed the suspicion that, in co-operation with the RIRA, the Continuity IRA may have acquired arms and materiel from the Balkans.", "They also suspect that the Continuity IRA arsenal contains some weapons that were taken from Provisional IRA arms dumps, including a few dozen rifles, machine guns, and pistols; a small amount of the explosive Semtex; and a few dozen detonators." ], [ "Internal tension and splits", "Graffito in Dublin in support of the Continuity IRAIn 2005, several members of the CIRA, who were serving prison sentences in Portlaoise Prison for paramilitary activity, left the organisation.", "Some transferred to the INLA landing of the prison, but the majority of those who left are now independent and on E4 landing.", "The remaining CIRA prisoners have moved to D Wing.", "Supporters of the Continuity IRA leadership claim that this resulted from an internal disagreement, which although brought to a conclusion, was followed by some people leaving the organisation anyway.", "Supporters of the disaffected members established the Concerned Group for Republican Prisoners.", "Most of those who had left went back to the CIRA, or dissociated themselves from the CGRP, which is now defunct.In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission claimed in a report on paramilitary activity that two groups, styling themselves as \"Óglaigh na hÉireann\" and \"Saoirse na hÉireann\", had been formed after a split in the Continuity IRA either in early 2006 or late 2005.The Óglaigh na hÉireann group was responsible for a number of pipe bomb attacks on the PSNI, bomb hoaxes, and robberies, the IMC also claimed the organisation was responsible for the killing of Andrew Burns on 12 February 2008 and was seeking to recruit former members of the RIRA.", "The Saoirse na hÉireann (SNH) group was composed of \"disaffected and largely young republicans\" and was responsible for a number of bomb hoaxes, two of which took place in September 2006.It was thought to have operated largely in republican areas of Belfast .", "The groups had apparently ceased operations by early 2009.In 2007, the Continuity IRA was responsible for shooting dead two of its members who had left and attempted to create their own organisation.", "Upon leaving the CIRA, they had allegedly taken a number of guns with them.", "The Continuity IRA is believed by Gardaí to have been involved in a number of gangland killings in Dublin and Limerick.In July 2010, members of a \"militant Northern-based faction within the CIRA\" led by a well-known member from south Londonderry claimed to have overthrown the leadership of the organisation.", "They also claimed that an Army Convention representing \"95 per cent of volunteers\" had unanimously elected a new 12-member Army Executive, which in turn appointed a new seven-member Army Council.", "The moves came as a result of dissatisfication with the southern-based leadership and the apparent winding-down of military operations.", "A senior source from RSF said: \"We would see them the purported new leadership as just another splinter group that has broken away.\"", "This organisation is referred to as the Real CIRA.In June 2011 CIRA member Liam Kenny was murdered, allegedly by drug dealers, at his home in Clondalkin, West Dublin.", "On 28 November 2011 an innocent man was mistakenly shot dead in retaliation for the murder of Liam Kenny.", "Limerick Real IRA volunteer Rose Lynch pleaded guilty to this murder at the Special Criminal Court and was sentenced to life imprisonment.In July 2012 the CIRA announced it had a new leadership after expelling members who had been working against the organisation.In April 2014 a former leading member of the Belfast Continuity IRA who had been expelled from the organisation, Tommy Crossan, was shot dead." ], [ "In popular culture", "The CIRA are depicted in RTÉ's TV series crime drama ''Love/Hate''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Congo" ], [ "Introduction", " The Congo River forms much of the border between these two countries.", "The Congo Basin comes from the river.", "'''Congo''' may refer to:* Congo River, in central Africa* Congo Basin, the sedimentary basin of the river* Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, sometimes referred to as \"Congo-Kinshasa\"* Republic of the Congo, the smaller country to the northwest, sometimes referred to as \"Congo-Brazzaville\"" ], [ "Places {{anchor|Country}}", "=== Africa ===* Congo Canyon, a submarine canyon* Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)* Kingdom of Kakongo (15th century–1885)* Congo Free State (1885–1908)* Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) or Congo-Léopoldville (1960–1971)* People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1992)* Kongo, Ghana, town in Ghana* Kongo, Liberia, small town in Liberia====Former colonies====* Belgian Congo (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo)* French Congo (modern-day Republic of the Congo)* Portuguese Congo (modern-day Kabinda, Angola)=== United States ===* Congo, Alabama* Congo, Missouri* Congo, Pennsylvania* Congo, West Virginia* Congo Cay, United States Virgin Islands=== Elsewhere ===* Congo, New South Wales, Australia* Congo, Paraíba, Brazil* Congo River (disambiguation), a list of rivers with the name* Congo Town, a village in Andros Island, Bahamas* Congo Volcano or Congo Mountain, in Costa Rica" ], [ "Languages and ethnic groups", "* Niger–Congo languages** Kongo languages*** Kongo language, a Bantu language* Kongo people, a Bantu ethnic group" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "=== Music ===* The Congos, a reggae vocal group from Jamaica** ''Congo'' (album), 1979 * \"Congo\" (song), by Genesis, 1997* Kongos (band), a South African American band===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Congo'' (novel), a 1980 novel by Michael Crichton** ''Congo'' (film), a 1995 film based on the novel* Congo (chess variant), using a 7×7 gameboard* ''Congo'' (pinball), a 1995 pinball machine* ''Congo'' (TV series), a 2001 nature documentary* ''Congo – A Political Tragedy'', a 2018 documentary film* ''Congo: The Epic History of a People'', a 2010 book by David van Reybrouck* ''Kongo'' (1932 film), an American film" ], [ "People", "* Edwin Congo (born 1976), Colombian footballer * Louis Congo (fl.", "1725), emancipated slave appointed public executioner of French Louisiana* Richard Congo (born 1961), American basketball player* Cheick Kongo (born 1975), French mixed martial arts fighter and kickboxer* John Kongos (born 1945), South African singer and songwriter* Kongo Kong, wrestling ring name of Steven Wilson (born 1979)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Congo (chimpanzee), a chimpanzee who learned how to draw and paint* Congo (loa), a voodoo spirit * Congo Airways, the flag carrier of the Democratic Republic of the Congo* Congo Airlines, a former airline* , a Royal Navy ship* Conference of NGOs (CoNGO), a membership association of non-governmental organizations* Kongo University, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo* Congo Brands, the manufacturer of Prime (drink)" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * Conga (disambiguation)* Congolese (disambiguation)* King Kong (disambiguation)* Kongo (disambiguation)* Kongō (disambiguation)* Kongolo (disambiguation)* Congoid, an outdated historical grouping of various people* Kakongo, former kingdom" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Copenhagen interpretation" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Copenhagen interpretation''' is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, stemming from the work of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and others.", "The term \"Copenhagen interpretation\" was apparently coined by Heisenberg during the 1950s to refer to ideas developed in the 1925–1927 period, glossing over his disagreements with Bohr.", "Consequently, there is no definitive historical statement of what the interpretation entails.", "Features common across versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously.", "Moreover, the act of \"observing\" or \"measuring\" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object except according to the results of its measurement (that is, the Copenhagen interpretation rejects counterfactual definiteness).", "Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of physicists' personal beliefs and other arbitrary mental factors.Over the years, there have been many objections to aspects of Copenhagen-type interpretations, including the discontinuous and stochastic nature of the \"observation\" or \"measurement\" process, the apparent subjectivity of requiring an observer, the difficulty of defining what might count as a measuring device, and the seeming reliance upon classical physics in describing such devices.", "Still, including all the variations, the interpretation remains one of the most commonly taught." ], [ "Background", "Starting in 1900, investigations into atomic and subatomic phenomena forced a revision to the basic concepts of classical physics.", "However, it was not until a quarter-century had elapsed that the revision reached the status of a coherent theory.", "During the intervening period, now known as the time of the \"old quantum theory\", physicists worked with approximations and heuristic corrections to classical physics.", "Notable results from this period include Max Planck's calculation of the blackbody radiation spectrum, Albert Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein and Peter Debye's work on the specific heat of solids, Niels Bohr and Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen's proof that classical physics cannot account for diamagnetism, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom and Arnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include relativistic effects.", "From 1922 through 1925, this method of heuristic corrections encountered increasing difficulties; for example, the Bohr–Sommerfeld model could not be extended from hydrogen to the next simplest case, the helium atom.The transition from the old quantum theory to full-fledged quantum physics began in 1925, when Werner Heisenberg presented a treatment of electron behavior based on discussing only \"observable\" quantities, meaning to Heisenberg the frequencies of light that atoms absorbed and emitted.", "Max Born then realized that in Heisenberg's theory, the classical variables of position and momentum would instead be represented by matrices, mathematical objects that can be multiplied together like numbers with the crucial difference that the order of multiplication matters.", "Erwin Schrödinger presented an equation that treated the electron as a wave, and Born discovered that the way to successfully interpret the wave function that appeared in the Schrödinger equation was as a tool for calculating probabilities.Quantum mechanics cannot easily be reconciled with everyday language and observation, and has often seemed counter-intuitive to physicists, including its inventors.", "The ideas grouped together as the Copenhagen interpretation suggest a way to think about how the mathematics of quantum theory relates to physical reality." ], [ "Origin and use of the term", "The Niels Bohr Institute in CopenhagenThe term refers to the city of Copenhagen in Denmark, and was apparently coined during the 1950s.", "Earlier, during the mid-1920s, Heisenberg had been an assistant to Bohr at his institute in Copenhagen, where they helped originate quantum mechanical theory.", "At the 1927 Solvay Conference, a dual talk by Max Born and Heisenberg declared \"we consider quantum mechanics to be a closed theory, whose fundamental physical and mathematical assumptions are no longer susceptible of any modification.\"", "In 1929, Heisenberg gave a series of invited lectures at the University of Chicago explaining the new field of quantum mechanics.", "The lectures then served as the basis for his textbook, ''The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory'', published in 1930.In the book's preface, Heisenberg wrote:On the whole, the book contains nothing that is not to be found in previous publications, particularly in the investigations of Bohr.", "The purpose of the book seems to me to be fulfilled if it contributes somewhat to the diffusion of that 'Kopenhagener Geist der Quantentheorie' Copenhagen spirit of quantum theory if I may so express myself, which has directed the entire development of modern atomic physics.The term 'Copenhagen interpretation' suggests something more than just a spirit, such as some definite set of rules for interpreting the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, presumably dating back to the 1920s.", "However, no such text exists, and the writings of Bohr and Heisenberg contradict each other on several important issues.", "It appears that the particular term, with its more definite sense, was coined by Heisenberg around 1955, while criticizing alternative \"interpretations\" (e.g., David Bohm's) that had been developed.", "Lectures with the titles 'The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory' and 'Criticisms and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation', that Heisenberg delivered in 1955, are reprinted in the collection ''Physics and Philosophy''.", "Before the book was released for sale, Heisenberg privately expressed regret for having used the term, due to its suggestion of the existence of other interpretations, that he considered to be \"nonsense\".", "In a 1960 review of Heisenberg's book, Bohr's close collaborator Léon Rosenfeld called the term an \"ambiguous expression\" and suggested it be discarded.", "However, this did not come to pass, and the term entered widespread use." ], [ "Principles", "There is no uniquely definitive statement of the Copenhagen interpretation.", "The term encompasses the views developed by a number of scientists and philosophers during the second quarter of the 20th century.", "This lack of a single, authoritative source that establishes the Copenhagen interpretation is one difficulty with discussing it; another complication is that the philosophical background familiar to Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, and contemporaries is much less so to physicists and even philosophers of physics in more recent times.", "Bohr and Heisenberg never totally agreed on how to understand the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, and Bohr distanced himself from what he considered Heisenberg's more subjective interpretation.", "Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer, or measurement, or collapse; instead, an \"irreversible\" or effectively irreversible process causes the decay of quantum coherence which imparts the classical behavior of \"observation\" or \"measurement\".Different commentators and researchers have associated various ideas with the term.", "Asher Peres remarked that very different, sometimes opposite, views are presented as \"the Copenhagen interpretation\" by different authors.", "N. David Mermin coined the phrase \"Shut up and calculate!\"", "to summarize Copenhagen-type views, a saying often misattributed to Richard Feynman and which Mermin later found insufficiently nuanced.", "Mermin described the Copenhagen interpretation as coming in different \"versions\", \"varieties\", or \"flavors\".Some basic principles generally accepted as part of the interpretation include the following:# Quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic.# The correspondence principle: in the appropriate limit, quantum theory comes to resemble classical physics and reproduces the classical predictions.# The Born rule: the wave function of a system yields probabilities for the outcomes of measurements upon that system.# Complementarity: certain properties cannot be jointly defined for the same system at the same time.", "In order to talk about a specific property of a system, that system must be considered within the context of a specific laboratory arrangement.", "Observable quantities corresponding to mutually exclusive laboratory arrangements cannot be predicted together, but considering multiple such mutually exclusive experiments is necessary to characterize a system.Hans Primas and Roland Omnès give a more detailed breakdown that, in addition to the above, includes the following:# Quantum physics applies to individual objects.", "The probabilities computed by the Born rule do not require an ensemble or collection of \"identically prepared\" systems to understand.# The results provided by measuring devices are essentially classical, and should be described in ordinary language.", "This was particularly emphasized by Bohr, and was accepted by Heisenberg.# Per the above point, the device used to observe a system must be described in classical language, while the system under observation is treated in quantum terms.", "This is a particularly subtle issue for which Bohr and Heisenberg came to differing conclusions.", "According to Heisenberg, the boundary between classical and quantum can be shifted in either direction at the observer's discretion.", "That is, the observer has the freedom to move what would become known as the \"Heisenberg cut\" without changing any physically meaningful predictions.", "On the other hand, Bohr argued both systems are quantum in principle, and the object-instrument distinction (the \"cut\") is dictated by the experimental arrangement.", "For Bohr, the \"cut\" was not a change in the dynamical laws that govern the systems in question, but a change in the language applied to them.# During an observation, the system must interact with a laboratory device.", "When that device makes a measurement, the wave function of the system collapses, irreversibly reducing to an eigenstate of the observable that is registered.", "The result of this process is a tangible record of the event, made by a potentiality becoming an actuality.# Statements about measurements that are not actually made do not have meaning.", "For example, there is no meaning to the statement that a photon traversed the upper path of a Mach–Zehnder interferometer unless the interferometer were actually built in such a way that the path taken by the photon is detected and registered.# Wave functions are objective, in that they do not depend upon personal opinions of individual physicists or other such arbitrary influences.There are some fundamental agreements and disagreements between the views of Bohr and Heisenberg.", "For example, Heisenberg emphasized a sharp \"cut\" between the observer (or the instrument) and the system being observed, while Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer or measurement or collapse, which relies on an \"irreversible\" or effectively irreversible process, which could take place within the quantum system.Another issue of importance where Bohr and Heisenberg disagreed is wave–particle duality.", "Bohr maintained that the distinction between a wave view and a particle view was defined by a distinction between experimental setups, whereas Heisenberg held that it was defined by the possibility of viewing the mathematical formulas as referring to waves or particles.", "Bohr thought that a particular experimental setup would display either a wave picture or a particle picture, but not both.", "Heisenberg thought that every mathematical formulation was capable of both wave and particle interpretations." ], [ "Nature of the wave function", "A wave function is a mathematical entity that provides a probability distribution for the outcomes of each possible measurement on a system.", "Knowledge of the wave function together with the rules for the system's evolution in time exhausts all that can be predicted about the system's behavior.", "Generally, Copenhagen-type interpretations deny that the wave function provides a directly apprehensible image of an ordinary material body or a discernible component of some such, or anything more than a theoretical concept.=== Probabilities via the Born rule ===The Born rule is essential to the Copenhagen interpretation.", "Formulated by Max Born in 1926, it gives the probability that a measurement of a quantum system will yield a given result.", "In its simplest form, it states that the probability density of finding a particle at a given point, when measured, is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the particle's wave function at that point.=== Collapse ===The concept of wave function collapse postulates that the wave function of a system can change suddenly and discontinuously upon measurement.", "Prior to a measurement, a wave function involves the various probabilities for the different potential outcomes of that measurement.", "But when the apparatus registers one of those outcomes, no traces of the others linger.", "Since Bohr did not view the wavefunction as something physical, he never talks about \"collapse\".", "Nevertheless, many physicists and philosophers associate collapse with the Copenhagen interpretation.Heisenberg spoke of the wave function as representing available knowledge of a system, and did not use the term \"collapse\", but instead termed it \"reduction\" of the wave function to a new state representing the change in available knowledge which occurs once a particular phenomenon is registered by the apparatus.", "===Role of the observer===Because they assert that the existence of an observed value depends upon the intercession of the observer, Copenhagen-type interpretations are sometimes called \"subjective\".", "This term is rejected by many Copenhagenists because the process of observation is mechanical and does not depend on the individuality of the observer.", "Wolfgang Pauli, for example, insisted that measurement results could be obtained and recorded by \"objective registering apparatus\".", "As Heisenberg wrote,In the 1970s and 1980s, the theory of decoherence helped to explain the appearance of quasi-classical realities emerging from quantum theory, but was insufficient to provide a technical explanation for the apparent wave function collapse.=== Completion by hidden variables?", "===In metaphysical terms, the Copenhagen interpretation views quantum mechanics as providing knowledge of phenomena, but not as pointing to 'really existing objects', which it regards as residues of ordinary intuition.", "This makes it an epistemic theory.", "This may be contrasted with Einstein's view, that physics should look for 'really existing objects', making itself an ontic theory.The metaphysical question is sometimes asked: \"Could quantum mechanics be extended by adding so-called \"hidden variables\" to the mathematical formalism, to convert it from an epistemic to an ontic theory?\"", "The Copenhagen interpretation answers this with a strong 'No'.", "It is sometimes alleged, for example by J.S.", "Bell, that Einstein opposed the Copenhagen interpretation because he believed that the answer to that question of \"hidden variables\" was \"yes\".", "By contrast, Max Jammer writes \"Einstein never proposed a hidden variable theory.\"", "Einstein explored the possibility of a hidden variable theory, and wrote a paper describing his exploration, but withdrew it from publication because he felt it was faulty." ], [ "Acceptance among physicists", "During the 1930s and 1940s, views about quantum mechanics attributed to Bohr and emphasizing complementarity became commonplace among physicists.", "Textbooks of the time generally maintained the principle that the numerical value of a physical quantity is not meaningful or does not exist until it is measured.", "Prominent physicists associated with Copenhagen-type interpretations have included Lev Landau, Wolfgang Pauli, Rudolf Peierls, Asher Peres, Léon Rosenfeld, and Ray Streater.Throughout much of the 20th century, the Copenhagen tradition had overwhelming acceptance among physicists.", "According to a very informal poll (some people voted for multiple interpretations) conducted at a quantum mechanics conference in 1997, the Copenhagen interpretation remained the most widely accepted label that physicists applied to their own views.", "A similar result was found in a poll conducted in 2011." ], [ "Consequences", "The nature of the Copenhagen interpretation is exposed by considering a number of experiments and paradoxes.=== Schrödinger's cat ===This thought experiment highlights the implications that accepting uncertainty at the microscopic level has on macroscopic objects.", "A cat is put in a sealed box, with its life or death made dependent on the state of a subatomic particle.", "Thus a description of the cat during the course of the experiment—having been entangled with the state of a subatomic particle—becomes a \"blur\" of \"living and dead cat.\"", "But this cannot be accurate because it implies the cat is actually both dead and alive until the box is opened to check on it.", "But the cat, if it survives, will only remember being alive.", "Schrödinger resists \"so naively accepting as valid a 'blurred model' for representing reality.\"", "''How can the cat be both alive and dead?", "''In Copenhagen-type views, the wave function reflects our knowledge of the system.", "The wave function means that, once the cat is observed, there is a 50% chance it will be dead, and 50% chance it will be alive.", "(Some versions of the Copenhagen interpretation reject the idea that a wave function can be assigned to a physical system that meets the everyday definition of \"cat\"; in this view, the correct quantum-mechanical description of the cat-and-particle system must include a superselection rule.", ")=== Wigner's friend ===\"Wigner's friend\" is a thought experiment intended to make that of Schrödinger's cat more striking by involving two conscious beings, traditionally known as Wigner and his friend.", "(In more recent literature, they may also be known as Alice and Bob, per the convention of describing protocols in information theory.)", "Wigner puts his friend in with the cat.", "The external observer believes the system is in state .", "However, his friend is convinced that the cat is alive, i.e.", "for him, the cat is in the state .", "''How can Wigner and his friend see different wave functions?", "''In a Heisenbergian view, the answer depends on the positioning of Heisenberg cut, which can be placed arbitrarily (at least according to Heisenberg, though not to Bohr).", "If Wigner's friend is positioned on the same side of the cut as the external observer, his measurements collapse the wave function for both observers.", "If he is positioned on the cat's side, his interaction with the cat is not considered a measurement.", "Different Copenhagen-type interpretations take different positions as to whether observers can be placed on the quantum side of the cut.=== Double-slit experiment ===In the basic version of this experiment, a light source, such as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate.", "The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles.", "However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves); the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen.", "Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detected photon passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave).", "Such experiments demonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through.According to Bohr's complementarity principle, light is neither a wave nor a stream of particles.", "A particular experiment can demonstrate particle behavior (passing through a definite slit) or wave behavior (interference), but not both at the same time.The same experiment has been performed for light, electrons, atoms, and molecules.", "The extremely small de Broglie wavelength of objects with larger mass makes experiments increasingly difficult, but in general quantum mechanics considers all matter as possessing both particle and wave behaviors.=== Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox ===This thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what later authors would refer to as an entangled state.", "In a 1935 paper, Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted.", "If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted.", "They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity.", "They invoked a principle, later known as the \"Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) criterion of reality\", positing that, \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity\".", "From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of position and of momentum prior to either being measured.Bohr's response to the EPR paper was published in the ''Physical Review'' later that same year.", "He argued that EPR had reasoned fallaciously.", "Because measurements of position and of momentum are complementary, making the choice to measure one excludes the possibility of measuring the other.", "Consequently, a fact deduced regarding one arrangement of laboratory apparatus could not be combined with a fact deduced by means of the other, and so, the inference of predetermined position and momentum values for the second particle was not valid.", "Bohr concluded that EPR's \"arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete.\"" ], [ "Criticism", "===Incompleteness and indeterminism===Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein, pictured here at Paul Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925), had a long-running collegial dispute about what quantum mechanics implied for the nature of reality.Einstein was an early and persistent supporter of objective reality.", "Bohr and Heisenberg advanced the position that no physical property could be understood without an act of measurement, while Einstein refused to accept this.", "Abraham Pais recalled a walk with Einstein when the two discussed quantum mechanics: \"Einstein suddenly stopped, turned to me and asked whether I really believed that the moon exists only when I look at it.\"", "While Einstein did not doubt that quantum mechanics was a correct physical theory in that it gave correct predictions, he maintained that it could not be a ''complete'' theory.", "The most famous product of his efforts to argue the incompleteness of quantum theory is the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen thought experiment, which was intended to show that physical properties like position and momentum have values even if not measured.", "The argument of EPR was not generally persuasive to other physicists.Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, while participating in a colloquium at Cambridge, denied that the Copenhagen interpretation asserted \"What cannot be observed does not exist\".", "Instead, he suggested that the Copenhagen interpretation follows the principle \"What is observed certainly exists; about what is not observed we are still free to make suitable assumptions.", "We use that freedom to avoid paradoxes.", "\"Einstein was likewise dissatisfied with the indeterminism of quantum theory.", "Regarding the possibility of randomness in nature, Einstein said that he was \"convinced that He God does not throw dice.\"", "Bohr, in response, reputedly said that \"it cannot be for us to tell God, how he is to run the world\".===The Heisenberg cut===Much criticism of Copenhagen-type interpretations has focused on the need for a classical domain where observers or measuring devices can reside, and the imprecision of how the boundary between quantum and classical might be defined.", "This boundary came to be termed the Heisenberg cut (while John Bell derisively called it the \"shifty split\").", "As typically portrayed, Copenhagen-type interpretations involve two different kinds of time evolution for wave functions, the deterministic flow according to the Schrödinger equation and the probabilistic jump during measurement, without a clear criterion for when each kind applies.", "Why should these two different processes exist, when physicists and laboratory equipment are made of the same matter as the rest of the universe?", "And if there is somehow a split, where should it be placed?", "Steven Weinberg writes that the traditional presentation gives \"no way to locate the boundary between the realms in which ... quantum mechanics does or does not apply.", "\"The problem of thinking in terms of classical measurements of a quantum system becomes particularly acute in the field of quantum cosmology, where the quantum system is the universe.", "How does an observer stand outside the universe in order to measure it, and who was there to observe the universe in its earliest stages?", "Advocates of Copenhagen-type interpretations have disputed the seriousness of these objections.", "Rudolf Peierls noted that \"the observer does not have to be contemporaneous with the event\"; for example, we study the early universe through the cosmic microwave background, and we can apply quantum mechanics to that just as well as to any electromagnetic field.", "Likewise, Asher Peres argued that physicists ''are'', conceptually, outside those degrees of freedom that cosmology studies, and applying quantum mechanics to the radius of the universe while neglecting the physicists in it is no different from quantizing the electric current in a superconductor while neglecting the atomic-level details." ], [ "Alternatives", "A large number of alternative interpretations have appeared, sharing some aspects of the Copenhagen interpretation while providing alternatives to other aspects.", "The ensemble interpretation is similar; it offers an interpretation of the wave function, but not for single particles.", "The consistent histories interpretation advertises itself as \"Copenhagen done right\".", "More recently, interpretations inspired by quantum information theory like QBism and relational quantum mechanics have appeared.", "Experts on quantum foundational issues continue to favor the Copenhagen interpretation over other alternatives.", "Physicists who have suggested that the Copenhagen tradition needs to be built upon or extended include Rudolf Haag and Anton Zeilinger.Under realism and determinism, if the wave function is regarded as ontologically real, and collapse is entirely rejected, a many-worlds interpretation results.", "If wave function collapse is regarded as ontologically real as well, an objective collapse theory is obtained.", "Bohmian mechanics shows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal.", "It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation.", "The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function.", "The transactional interpretation is also explicitly nonlocal.Some physicists espoused views in the \"Copenhagen spirit\" and then went on to advocate other interpretations.", "For example, David Bohm and Alfred Landé both wrote textbooks that put forth ideas in the Bohr–Heisenberg tradition, and later promoted nonlocal hidden variables and an ensemble interpretation respectively.", "John Archibald Wheeler began his career as an \"apostle of Niels Bohr\"; he then supervised the PhD thesis of Hugh Everett that proposed the many-worlds interpretation.", "After supporting Everett's work for several years, he began to distance himself from the many-worlds interpretation in the 1970s.", "Late in life, he wrote that while the Copenhagen interpretation might fairly be called \"the fog from the north\", it \"remains the best interpretation of the quantum that we have\".Other physicists, while influenced by the Copenhagen tradition, have expressed frustration at how it took the mathematical formalism of quantum theory as given, rather than trying to understand how it might arise from something more fundamental.", "(E. T. Jaynes described the mathematical formalism of quantum physics as \"a peculiar mixture describing in part realities of Nature, in part incomplete human information about Nature—all scrambled up together by Heisenberg and Bohr into an omelette that nobody has seen how to unscramble\".)", "This dissatisfaction has motivated new interpretative variants as well as technical work in quantum foundations." ], [ "See also", "*Bohr–Einstein debates*Einstein's thought experiments*Fifth Solvay Conference*Philosophical interpretation of classical physics*Physical ontology*Popper's experiment*Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Customs union" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''customs union''' is generally defined as a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff.Customs unions are established through trade pacts where the participant countries set up common external trade policy (in some cases they use different import quotas).", "Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid ''competition deficiency''.Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries.", "It is the third stage of economic integration.Every economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union includes a customs union." ], [ "WTO definition", "The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, part of the World Trade Organization framework defines a customs union in the following way:" ], [ "Historical background", "The German Customs Union, the Zollverein, which was established in 1834, and gradually developed and expanded, was a customs union organization that appeared earlier and played a role in promoting German economic development and political unification at that time.", "Before the establishment of the unified German Empire in the 1870s, there were checkpoints between and within the German states, which hindered the development of industry and commerce.", "In 1818, Prussia took the lead in abolishing the customs duties in the mainland; it was followed by the establishment of the North German Customs Union in 1826.Two years later, two customs unions were established in the states of South Germany.In 1834, 18 states joined together to form the German Customs Union with Prussia as the main leader.", "Thereafter, this alliance was further expanded to all German-speaking regions and became the All-German Customs Union.", "The contents of the alliance convention included: abolishing internal tariffs, unifying external tariffs, raising import tax rates, and allocating tariff income to all states in the alliance in proportion.", "In addition, there is a customs union between France and Monaco, which was established in 1865.A customs union was established by Switzerland and Liechtenstein in 1924, by Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1948, by the countries of the European Economic Community in 1958, and by the Economic Community of Central African States in 1964.At that time, the European Free Trade Association was different from the European Economic Community Customs Union.", "Free trade within the former was limited to industrial products, and no uniform tariffs were imposed on countries outside the Union.It was brought into action by the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.", "Pre- modern conditions ( 30+ currencies, trade barriers etc.)", "were viewed as an obstacle as obstacles to o economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital." ], [ "Main feature", "The main feature of the Customs Union is that the member countries have not only eliminated trade barriers and implemented free trade, but also established a common external tariff.", "In other words, in addition to agreeing to eliminate each other 's trade barriers, members of the Customs Union also adopt common external tariff and trade policies.", "GATT stipulates that if the customs union is not established immediately, but is gradually completed over a period of time, it should be completed within a reasonable period, which generally does not exceed 10 years." ], [ "Protect measures", "The exclusive protection measures of the Customs Union mainly include the following:* Reduce tariffs until the tariffs within the union are cancelled.", "In order to achieve this goal, the alliance often stipulates that the member countries must transition from their current external tariff rates to the unified tariff rates stipulated by the alliance in stages within a certain period of time, until finally canceling tariff.", "* Formulate a unified foreign trade policy and foreign tariff rates.", "In terms of foreign affairs, allied members must increase or decrease their original foreign tariff rates within the prescribed time, and eventually establish a common external tariff rate; and gradually unify their foreign trade policies, such as foreign discrimination policies and import quantities.", "* For goods imported from outside the alliance, common different tariffs are levied, such as preferential tax rates, agreed national tax rates, most-favored nation tax rates, ordinary preferential tax rates, and ordinary tax rates, according to the types of commodities and the provider countries.", "* Formulate unified protective measures, such as import quotas, health and epidemic prevention standards, etc." ], [ "Meaning", "* It avoids the problem that the free trade zone needs to be supplemented by the principle of origin to maintain the normal flow of commodities.", "Here, instead of the principle of origin, a common 'foreign barrier' is built.", "In this sense, the customs union is more exclusive than the free trade zone.", "* It makes the 'national sovereignty' of the member countries to be transferred to the economic integration organization to a greater extent, so that once a country joins a customs union, it loses its right to autonomous tariffs.", "In reality, the more typical customs union is the European Economic Community established in 1958." ], [ "Economic effects", "Economic effects of customs unions can generally be grouped into ''static effects'' and ''dynamic effects''.=== Static effects ===There are trade creation effects and trade diversion effects.", "The trade creation effect refers to the benefits generated by products from domestic production with higher production costs to the production of customs union countries with lower costs.", "The trade diversion effect refers to the loss incurred when a product is imported from a non-member country with lower production costs to a member country with a higher cost.", "This is the price of joining the customs union.", "When the trade creation effect is greater than the transfer effect, the combined effect of joining the Customs Union on the member countries is net profit, which means an increase in the economic welfare level of the member countries; otherwise, it is a net loss and a decline in the economic welfare level.The trade creation effect is usually regarded as a positive effect.", "This is because the domestic production cost of country A is higher than the production cost of country A 's imports from country B.", "The Customs Union made Country A give up the domestic production of some commodities and change it to Country B to produce these commodities.", "From a worldwide perspective, this kind of production conversion improves the efficiency of resource allocation.=== Dynamic effects ===The customs union will not only bring static effects to member states, but also bring some dynamic effects to them.", "Sometimes, this dynamic effect is more important than its static effect, which has an important impact on the economic growth of member countries.# The first dynamic effect of the customs union is the large market effect (or economies of scale effect).", "After the establishment of the customs union, good conditions have been created for the mutual export of products between member countries.", "This expansion of the market has promoted the development of enterprise production, allowing producers to continuously expand production scale, reduce costs, enjoy the benefits of economies of scale, and can further enhance the externality of enterprises within the alliance, especially for non-member companies competitive power.", "Therefore, the large market effect created by the Customs Union has triggered the realization of economies of scale.# The establishment of the Customs Union has promoted competition among enterprises among member countries.", "Before the member states formed a customs union, many sectors had formed domestic monopolies, and several enterprises had occupied the domestic market for a long time and obtained excessive monopoly profits.", "Therefore, it is not conducive to the resource allocation and technological progress of various countries.", "After the formation of the customs union, due to the mutual openness of the markets of various countries, enterprises of various countries face competition from similar enterprises in other member countries.", "As a result, in order to gain a favorable position in the competition, enterprises will inevitably increase research and development investment and continuously reduce production costs, thereby creating a strong competitive atmosphere within the alliance, improving economic efficiency, and promoting technological progress.# The establishment of a customs union helps to attract external investment.", "The establishment of a customs union implies the exclusion of products from non-members.", "In order to counteract such adverse effects, countries outside the alliance may transfer enterprises to some countries within the customs union to directly produce and sell locally in order to bypass uniform tariff and non-tariff barriers.", "This objectively generates capital inflows that accompany the transfer of production, attracting large amounts of foreign direct investment." ], [ "Lists of customs unions", "=== Current === AgreementDate (in force)Recent reference Andean Community (CAN)1988-05-25L/6737 Caribbean Community (CARICOM)1991-01-01 Central American Common Market (CACM) 2004-10-06 WT/REG93/R/B/2 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)2005-01-01 East African Community (EAC)2005-01-01 WT/COMTD/N/14 Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC)1999-06-01 Eurasian Customs Union (EACU) 2010-07-01 European Union Customs Union (EUCU; EU–Monaco) 1958  '''∟''' EU–Andorra Customs Union1991-07-01 WT/REG53/M/3 '''∟''' EU–San Marino Customs Union 2002-04-01 '''∟''' EU–Turkey Customs Union1996-01-01 WT/REG22/M/4 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)2015-01-01 Israel–Palestinian Authority1994 Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)1991-11-29 WT/COMTD/1/Add.17Southern African Customs Union (SACU)1910 WT/REG231/3 Switzerland–Liechtenstein (CH-FL)1924West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) 1994-01-10 WT/COMTD/N/11/Add.1 United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union (UK-CD)2018-11-26 UK CD CUAdditionally, the autonomous and dependent territories such as some of the EU member state special territories are sometimes treated as separate customs territories from their mainland states or have varying arrangements of formal or de facto customs union, common market and currency union (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries through the trade pacts signed by the mainland state.The European Union is a customs union and therefore sets a common external tariff.=== Proposed ===*2010 Southern African Development Community (SADC)*2011 Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)*2015 Arab Customs Union (ACU)*2023 African Economic Community (AEC)=== Defunct ===*The ''Zollverein'' in the German states (1834-1919) – Remained in effect after German unification and not dissolved until superseded by the Weimar Constitution of 1919*Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) – superseded by CEMAC* 1925 French Customs Union over occupied Territory of the Saar Basin* Steuerverein or ''Tax Union'' in north-west Germany* Custom Union between Lebanon and Syria*Czechia and Slovakia from the dissolution of Czechoslovakia on 1 January 1993 until superseded by both countries' accession to the European Union on 1 May 2004." ], [ "Further reading", "* The McGill University Faculty of Law runs a Regional Trade Agreements Database that contains the text of almost all preferential and regional trade agreements in the world.", "ptas.mcgill.ca* Michael T. Florinsky.", "1934.The Saar Struggle.", "New York: The Macmillan Company." ], [ "See also", "* European Customs Information Portal (ECIP)* List of international trade topics* Trade creation* Trade diversion* Open Balkan* Craiovia Group* CEFTA" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Agreements Notified to the GATT/WTO and in Force" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Council of Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Council of Europe''' ('''CoE'''; , ) is an international organisation with the goal of upholding human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe.", "Founded in 1949, it brings together 46 member states with a population of approximately 675 million ; it operates with an annual budget of approximately 500 million euros.The organisation is distinct from the European Union (EU), although people sometimes confuse the two organisations – partly because the EU has adopted the original European flag, designed for the Council of Europe in 1955, as well as the European anthem.", "No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe.", "The Council of Europe is an official United Nations Observer.As an international organisation, the Council of Europe cannot make laws, but it does have the ability to push for the enforcement of select international agreements reached by member states on various topics.", "The best-known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which functions on the basis of the European Convention on Human Rights of 1953.The council's two statutory bodies are the Committee of Ministers, which comprises the foreign ministers of each member state, and the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), which is composed of members of the national parliaments of each member state.", "The Commissioner for Human Rights is an institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of and respect for human rights within the member states.", "The secretary general presides over the secretariat of the organisation.", "Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM) and the European Audiovisual Observatory.The headquarters of the Council of Europe, as well as its Court of Human Rights, are situated in Strasbourg, France.", "The Council uses English and French as its two official languages.", "The Committee of Ministers, the PACE, and the Congress of the Council of Europe also use German and Italian for some of their work." ], [ "History", "Strasbourg University=== Founding ===In a speech in 1929, French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand floated the idea of an organisation which would gather European nations together in a \"federal union\" to resolve common problems.", "The United Kingdom's wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill first publicly suggested the creation of a \"Council of Europe\" in a BBC radio broadcast on 21 March 1943, while the Second World War was still raging.", "In his own words, he tried to \"peer through the mists of the future to the end of the war\", and think about how to rebuild and maintain peace on a shattered continent.", "Given that Europe had been at the origin of two world wars, the creation of such a body would be, he suggested, \"a stupendous business\".", "He returned to the idea during a well-known speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, throwing the full weight of his considerable post-war prestige behind it.Additionally, there were also many other statesmen and politicians across the continent, many of them members of the European Movement, who were quietly working towards the creation of the council.", "Some regarded it as a guarantee that the horrors of war – or the human rights violations of the Nazi regime – could never again be visited on the continent, others came to see it as a \"club of democracies\", built around a set of common values that could stand as a bulwark against totalitarian states belonging to the Eastern Bloc.", "Others again saw it as a nascent \"United States of Europe\", the resonant phrase that Churchill had reached for at Zurich in 1946.House of Europe in Strasbourg in 1967.Willy Brandt, German Minister for Foreign Affairs, is speaking.The future structure of the Council of Europe was discussed at the Congress of Europe, which brought together several hundred leading politicians, government representatives and members of civil society in The Hague, Netherlands, in 1948.Responding to the conclusions of the Congress of Europe, the Consultative Council of the Treaty of Brussels convened a Committee for the Study of European Unity, which met eight times from November 1948 to January 1949 to draw up the blueprint of a new broad-based European organisation.There were two competing schools of thought: some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, while others preferred a political forum with parliamentarians.", "Both approaches were finally combined through the creation of a Committee of Ministers (in which governments were represented) and a Consultative Assembly (in which parliaments were represented), the two main bodies mentioned in the Statute of the Council of Europe.", "This dual intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary structure was later copied for the European Communities, NATO and OSCE.The Council of Europe was signed into existence on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London, the organisation's founding Statute which set out the three basic values that should guide its work: democracy, human rights and the rule of law.", "It was signed in London on that day by ten states: Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, though Turkey and Greece joined three months later.", "On 10 August 1949, 100 members of the council's Consultative Assembly, parliamentarians drawn from the twelve member nations, met in Strasbourg for its first plenary session, held over 18 sittings and lasting nearly a month.", "They debated how to reconcile and reconstruct a continent still reeling from war, yet already facing a new East–West divide, launched the radical concept of a trans-national court to protect the basic human rights of every citizen, and took the first steps in a process that would eventually lead to the creation of an offshoot organisation, the European Union.In August 1949, Paul-Henri Spaak resigned as Belgium's foreign minister in order to be elected as the first president of the assembly.", "Behind the scenes, he too had been quietly working towards the creation of the council, and played a key role in steering its early work.", "However, in December 1951, after nearly three years in the role, Spaak resigned in disappointment after the Assembly rejected proposals for a \"European political authority\".", "Convinced that the Council of Europe was never going to be in a position to achieve his long-term goal of a unified Europe, he soon tried again in a new and more promising format, based this time on economic integration, becoming one of the founders of the European Union.=== Early years ===There was huge enthusiasm for the Council of Europe in its early years, as its pioneers set about drafting what was to become the European Convention on Human Rights, a charter of individual rights which – it was hoped – no member government could ever again violate.", "They drew, in part, on the tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed only a few months earlier in Paris.", "But crucially, where the Universal Declaration was essentially aspirational, the European Convention from the beginning featured an enforcement mechanism – an international Court – which was to adjudicate on alleged violations of its articles and to hold governments to account, a dramatic leap forward for international justice.", "Today, this is the European Court of Human Rights, whose rulings are binding on 46 European nations, the most far-reaching system of international justice anywhere in the world.One of the council's first acts was to welcome West Germany into its fold on 2 May 1951, setting a pattern of post-war reconciliation that was to become a hallmark of the council, and beginning a long process of \"enlargement\" which was to see the organisation grow from its original ten founding member states to the 46 nations that make up the Council of Europe today.", "Iceland had already joined in 1950, followed in 1956 by Austria, Cyprus in 1961, Switzerland in 1963 and Malta in 1965.=== Historic speeches at the Council of Europe ===Winston Churchill's inaugural speech of the Council of Europe in The HagueIn 2018, an archive of all speeches made to the PACE by heads of state or government since the Council of Europe's creation in 1949 appeared online, the fruit of a two-year project entitled \"Voices of Europe\".", "At the time of its launch, the archive comprised 263 speeches delivered over a 70-year period by some 216 presidents, prime ministers, monarchs and religious leaders from 45 countries – though it continues to expand, as new speeches are added every few months.Some very early speeches by individuals considered to be \"founding figures\" of the European institutions, even if they were not heads of state or government at the time, are also included (such as Sir Winston Churchill or Robert Schuman).", "Addresses by eight monarchs appear in the list (such as King Juan Carlos I of Spain, King Albert II of Belgium and Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg) as well as the speeches given by religious figures (such as Pope John Paul II, and Pope Francis) and several leaders from countries in the Middle East and North Africa (such as Shimon Peres, Yasser Arafat, Hosni Mubarak, Léopold Sédar Senghor or King Hussein of Jordan).The full text of the speeches is given in both English and French, regardless of the original language used.", "The archive is searchable by country, by name, and chronologically." ], [ "Aims and achievement", "Article 1(a) of the Statute states that \"The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress.\"", "Membership is open to all European states who seek harmony, cooperation, good governance and human rights, accepting the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms.Whereas the member states of the European Union transfer part of their national legislative and executive powers to the European Commission and the European Parliament, Council of Europe member states maintain their sovereignty but commit themselves through conventions/treaties (international law) and co-operate on the basis of common values and common political decisions.", "Those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe.", "Both organisations function as concentric circles around the common foundations for European cooperation and harmony, with the Council of Europe being the geographically wider circle.", "The European Union could be seen as the smaller circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level.", "\"The Council of Europe and the European Union: different roles, shared values.\"", "Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe.The Council of Europe's most famous achievement is the European Convention on Human Rights, which was adopted in 1950 following a report by the PACE, and followed on from the United Nations 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights' (UDHR).", "The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.", "The Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court.", "It is to this court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights and freedoms.The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website.", "The Council of Europe works in the following areas:* Protection of the rule of law and fostering legal co-operation through some 200 conventions and other treaties, including such leading instruments as the Convention on Cybercrime, the Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, Conventions against Corruption and Organised Crime, the Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, and the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine.", "* CODEXTER, designed to co-ordinate counter-terrorism measures* The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ)* Protection of human rights, notably through:** the European Convention on Human Rights** the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture** the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance** the Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings** the Convention for the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data** the Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse** The Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence.", "** social rights under the European Social Charter** European Charter of Local Self-Government guaranteeing the political, administrative and financial independence of local authorities.", "** linguistic rights under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages** minority rights under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities** Media freedom under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Transfrontier Television* Protection of democracy through parliamentary scrutiny and election monitoring by its Parliamentary Assembly as well as assistance in democratic reforms, in particular by the Venice Commission.", "* Promotion of cultural cooperation and diversity under the Council of Europe's Cultural Convention of 1954 and several conventions on the protection of cultural heritage as well as through its Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, Austria, and its North-South Centre in Lisbon, Portugal.", "* Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas (see also Bologna Process and Lisbon Recognition Convention).", "* Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention* Promotion of European youth exchanges and cooperation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Hungary.", "* Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia.", "*Support for intercultural integration through the Intercultural Cities (ICC) program.", "This program offers information and advice for local authorities on the integration of minorities and the prevention of discrimination." ], [ "Institutions", "The institutions of the Council of Europe are:* The Secretary General, who is elected for a term of five years by the PACE and heads the Secretariat of the Council of Europe.", "Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway, was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe on 29 September 2009.In June 2014, he became the first Secretary General to be re-elected, commencing his second term in office on 1 October 2014.", "* The Committee of Ministers, comprising the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of all 46 member states who are represented by their Permanent Representatives and Ambassadors accredited to the Council of Europe.", "Committee of Ministers' presidencies are held in alphabetical order for six months following the English alphabet: Turkey 11/2010-05/2011, Ukraine 05/2011-11/2011, the United Kingdom 11/2011-05/2012, Albania 05/2012-11/2012, Andorra 11/2012-05/2013, Armenia 05/2013-11/2013, Austria 11/2013-05/2014, and so on.Parliamentary Assembly hemicycle* The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), which comprises national parliamentarians from all member states.", "Adopting resolutions and recommendations to governments, the Assembly holds a dialogue with its governmental counterpart, the Committee of Ministers, and is often regarded as the \"motor\" of the organisation.", "The national parliamentary delegations to the Assembly must reflect the political spectrum of their national parliament, i.e.", "comprise government and opposition parties.", "The Assembly appoints members as rapporteurs with the mandate to prepare parliamentary reports on specific subjects.", "The British MP Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe was rapporteur for the drafting of the European Convention on Human Rights.", "Dick Marty's reports on secret CIA detentions and rendition flights in Europe became quite famous in 2006 and 2007.Other Assembly reports were instrumental in, for example, the abolition of the death penalty in Europe, highlighting the political and human rights situation in Chechnya, identifying who was responsible for disappeared persons in Belarus, chronicling threats to freedom of expression in the media and many other subjects.", "* The Congress of the Council of Europe (Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe), which was created in 1994 and comprises political representatives from local and regional authorities in all member states.", "The most influential instruments of the Council of Europe in this field are the European Charter of Local Self-Government of 1985 and the European Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between Territorial Communities or Authorities of 1980.", "* The European Court of Human Rights, created under the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950, is composed of a judge from each member state elected for a single, non-renewable term of nine years by the PACE and is headed by the elected president of the court.", "The current president of the court is Guido Raimondi from Italy.", "Under the recent Protocol No.", "14 to the European Convention on Human Rights, the Court's case processing was reformed and streamlined.", "Ratification of Protocol No.", "14 was delayed by Russia for a number of years, but won support to be passed in January 2010.", "* The Commissioner for Human Rights is elected by the PACE for a non-renewable term of six years since the creation of this position in 1999.Since April 2018, this position has been held by Dunja Mijatović from Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "* The Conference of INGOs.", "NGOs can participate in the INGOs Conference of the Council of Europe.", "Since the Resolution (2003)8 adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 19 November 2003, they are given a \"participatory status\".", "* The Joint Council on Youth of the Council of Europe.", "The European Steering Committee (CDEJ) on Youth and the Advisory Council on Youth (CCJ) of the Council of Europe form together the Joint Council on Youth (CMJ).", "The CDEJ brings together representatives of ministries or bodies responsible for youth matters from the 50 States Parties to the European Cultural Convention.", "The CDEJ fosters cooperation between governments in the youth sector and provides a framework for comparing national youth policies, exchanging best practices and drafting standard-setting texts.", "The Advisory Council on Youth comprises 30 representatives of non-governmental youth organisations and networks.", "It provides opinions and input from youth NGOs on all youth sector activities and ensures that young people are involved in the council's other activities.", "* Information Offices of the Council of Europe in many member states.European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines.The CoE system also includes a number of semi-autonomous structures known as \"Partial Agreements\", some of which are also open to non-member states:* The Council of Europe Development Bank in Paris* The European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines with its European Pharmacopoeia* The European Audiovisual Observatory* The European Support Fund ''Eurimages'' for the co-production and distribution of films.", "* The Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural Routes, which awards the certification \"Cultural Route of the Council of Europe\" to transnational networks promoting European heritage and intercultural dialogue (Luxembourg)* The Pompidou Group – Cooperation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs.", "* The European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the Venice Commission* The Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO)* The European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Agreement (EUR-OPA) which is a platform for cooperation between European and Southern Mediterranean countries in the field of major natural and technological disasters.", "* The Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport, which is open to accession by states and sports associations.", "* The North-South Centre of the Council of Europe in Lisbon (Portugal)* The Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz (Austria)=== Summits ===Occasionally the Council of Europe organizes summits of the heads of state and government of its member states.", "Four summits have been held to date with the fourth concluding on 17 May 2023.+Overview of Council of Europe summits Date Host country Host city 8–9 October 1993 Vienna 10–11 October 1997 Strasbourg 16–17 May 2005 Warsaw 16–17 May 2023 Reykjavik=== Headquarters and buildings ===Palais de l'Europe in StrasbourgCouncil of Europe's Agora buildingThe seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France.", "First meetings were held in Strasbourg's University Palace in 1949, but the Council of Europe soon moved into its own buildings.", "The Council of Europe's eight main buildings are situated in the ''Quartier européen'', an area in the northeast of Strasbourg spread over the three districts of Le Wacken, La Robertsau and Quartier de l'Orangerie, where are also located the four buildings of the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the Arte headquarters and the seat of the International Institute of Human Rights.Building in the area started in 1949 with the predecessor of the Palais de l'Europe, the House of Europe (demolished in 1977), and came to a provisional end in 2007 with the opening of the New General Office Building, later named \"Agora\", in 2008.The Palais de l'Europe (Palace of Europe) and the Art Nouveau Villa Schutzenberger (seat of the European Audiovisual Observatory) are in the Orangerie district, and the European Court of Human Rights, the EDQM and the Agora Building are in the Robertsau district.", "The Agora building has been voted \"best international business centre real estate project of 2007\" on 13 March 2008, at the MIPIM 2008.The European Youth Centre is located in the Wacken district.Besides its headquarters in Strasbourg, the Council of Europe is also present in other cities and countries.", "The Council of Europe Development Bank has its seat in Paris, the North-South Centre of the Council of Europe is established in Lisbon, Portugal, and the Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz, Austria.", "There are European Youth Centres in Budapest, Hungary, and in Strasbourg.", "The European Wergeland Centre, a new Resource Centre on education for intercultural dialogue, human rights and democratic citizenship, operated in cooperation with the Norwegian Government, opened in Oslo, Norway, in February 2009.The Council of Europe has external offices all over the European continent and beyond.", "There are four 'Programme Offices', namely in Ankara, Podgorica, Skopje, and Venice.", "There are also 'Council of Europe Offices' in Baku, Belgrade, Chisinau, Kyiv, Paris, Pristina, Sarajevo, Tbilisi, Tirana, and Yerevan.", "Bucharest has a Council of Europe Office on Cybercrime.", "There are also Council of Europe Offices in non-European capital cities like Rabat and Tunis.Additionally, there are 4 \"Council of Europe Liaison Offices\", this includes:* Council of Europe Liaison Office in Brussels: The office is in charge of liaison with the European Union* Council of Europe Office in Geneva:  Permanent Delegation of the Council of Europe to the United Nations Office and other international organisations in Geneva* Council of Europe Office in Vienna: The office is in charge of liaison with the OSCE, United Nations Office, and other international organisations in Vienna* Council of Europe Office in Warsaw: The office is in charge of liaison with other international organisations and institutions in Warsaw, in particular, the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR)" ], [ "Member states, observers, partners", "=== Eligibility ===There are two main criteria for membership: geographic (Article 4 of the Council of Europe Statute specifies that membership is open to any \"European\" State) and political (Article 3 of the Statute states applying for membership must accept democratic values—\"Every member of the Council of Europe must accept the principles of the rule of law and the enjoyment by all persons within its jurisdiction of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and collaborate sincerely and effectively in the realisation of the aim of the Council as specified in Chapter I\").Since \"Europe\" is not defined in international law, the definition of \"Europe\" has been a question that has recurred during the CoE's history.", "Turkey was admitted in 1950, although it is a transcontinental state that lies mostly in Asia, with a smaller portion in Europe.", "In 1994, the PACE adopted Recommendation 1247, which said that admission to the CoE should be \"in principle open only to states whose national territory lies wholly or partly in Europe\"; later, however, the Assembly extended eligibility to apply and be admitted to Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.=== Member states and observers ===Postage stamp marks Finland as a member of the Council of Europe 1989The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom.", "Greece and Turkey joined three months later.", "Iceland, West Germany and Saar Protectorate joined the Council of Europe as associate members in 1950.West Germany became a full member in 1951, and the Saar withdrew its application after it joined West Germany following the 1955 Saar Statute referendum.", "Joining later were Austria (1956), Cyprus (1961), Switzerland (1963), Malta (1965), and Portugal (1976).", "Spain joined in 1977, two years after the death of its dictator Francisco Franco and the Spanish transition to democracy.", "Next to join were Liechtenstein (1978), San Marino (1988) and Finland (1989).", "After the fall of Communism with the Revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the following countries in Europe joined: Hungary (1990), Poland (1991), Bulgaria (1992), Estonia (1993), Lithuania (1993), Slovenia (1993), the Czech Republic (1993), Slovakia (1993), Romania (1993), Andorra (1994), Latvia (1995), Moldova (1995), Albania (1995), Ukraine (1995), the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1995) (later renamed North Macedonia), Russia (1996, expelled 2022), Croatia (1996), Georgia (1999), Armenia (2001), Azerbaijan (2001), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2002), Serbia and Montenegro (later Serbia) (2003) and Monaco (2004).", "The council now has 46 member states, with Montenegro (2007) being the latest to join.Although most Council members are predominantly Christian in heritage, there are four Muslim-majority member states: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Albania, and Azerbaijan.The CoE has granted some countries a status that allows them to participate in CoE activities without being full members.", "There are three types of nonmember status: ''associate member'', ''special guest'' and ''observer''.", "Associate member status was created for former Axis states which had not yet regained their sovereignty since their defeat in the Second World War; as such, it is no longer used, although there have been proposals to reactivate it to permit enhanced participation by the current observer states.", "\"Special guest\" status was used as a transitional status for post-Soviet countries that wished to join the council after the fall of the Berlin Wall and is no longer commonly used.", "\"Observer\" status is for non-European nations who accept democracy, rule of law, and human rights, and wish to participate in Council initiatives.", "The United States became an observer state in 1995.Currently, Canada, the Holy See, Japan, Mexico, and the United States are observer states, while Israel is an observer to the PACE.=== Withdrawal, suspension, and expulsion ===The Statute of the Council of Europe provides for the voluntary suspension, involuntary suspension, and exclusion of members.", "Article 8 of the Statute provides that any member who has \"seriously violated\" Article 3 may be suspended from its rights of representation, and that the Committee of Ministers may request that such a member withdraws from the Council under Article 7.", "(The Statute does not define the \"serious violation\" phrase.", "Under Article 8 of the Statute, if a member state fails to withdraw upon request, the Committee may terminate its membership, in consultation with the PACE.The Council suspended Greece in 1967, after a military coup d'état, and the Greek junta withdrew from the CoE.", "Greece was readmitted to the council in 1974.==== Suspension and exclusion of Russia ====Russia became a member of the Council of Europe in 1996.In 2014, after Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine and supported separatists in eastern Ukraine, precipitating a conflict, the Council stripped Russia of its voting rights in the PACE.", "In response, Russia began to boycott the Assembly in 2016, and beginning from 2017 ceased paying its annual membership dues of 32.6 million euros (US$37.1 million) to the Council placing the institution under financial strain.Russia stated that its suspension by the council was unfair, and demanded the restoration of its voting rights.", "Russia had threatened to withdraw from the Council unless its voting rights were restored in time for the election of a new secretary general.", "European Council secretary-general Thorbjørn Jagland organized a special committee to find a compromise with Russia in early 2018, a move that was criticized by some as giving in to alleged Russian pressure by Council members and academic observers, especially if voting sanctions were lifted.", "In June 2019, an approximately two-thirds majority of the Council voted (on a 118–62 vote, with 10 abstentions) to restore Russia's voting rights in the council.", "Opponents of lifting the suspension included Ukraine and other post-Soviet countries, such as the Baltic states, who argued that readmission amounted to normalizing Russia's malign activity.", "Supporters of restoring Russia's council rights included France and Germany, which argued that a Russian withdrawal from the council would be harmful because it would deprive Russian citizens of their ability to initiate cases in the European Court of Human Rights.On 3 March 2022, after Russia launched a full-scale military invasion of Ukraine, the council suspended Russia for violations of the council's statute and the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).", "The suspension blocked Russia from participation in the council's ministerial council, the PACE, and the Council of the Baltic Sea States, but still left Russia obligated to follow the ECHR.", "On 15 March 2022, hours before the vote to expel the country, Russia initiated a voluntary withdrawal procedure from the council.", "The Russian delegation planned to deliver its formal withdrawal on 31 December 2022, and announced its intent to denounce the ECHR.", "However, on the same day, the council's Committee of Ministers decided Russia's membership in the council would be terminated immediately, and determined that Russia had been excluded from the Council instead under its exclusion mechanism rather than the withdrawal mechanism.", "After being excluded from the Council of Europe, Russia's former president and prime minister Dmitry Medvedev endorsed restoring the death penalty in Russia." ], [ "Co-operation", "===Conventions: European Treaty Series===The Council of Europe works mainly through international treaties, usually called conventions in its system.", "By drafting conventions or international treaties, common legal standards are set for its member states.", "The conventions are collected in the '''European Treaty Series'''.=== Non-member states ===Several conventions have also been opened for signature to non-member states.", "Important examples are the Convention on Cybercrime (signed for example, by Canada, Japan, South Africa and the United States), the Lisbon Recognition Convention on the recognition of study periods and degrees (signed for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada, the Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, New Zealand and the United States), the Anti-doping Convention (signed, for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada and Tunisia) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (signed for example, by Burkina Faso, Morocco, Tunisia and Senegal as well as the European Community).", "Non-member states also participate in several partial agreements, such as the Venice Commission, the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO), the European Pharmacopoeia Commission and the North-South Centre.Invitations to sign and ratify relevant conventions of the Council of Europe on a case-by-case basis are sent to three groups of non-member entities:* Non-European states: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritius, Morocco, New Zealand, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uruguay, Venezuela and the observers Canada, Israel, Japan, Mexico, United States.", "* European states: Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Russia and the observer Holy See.", "* The European Community and later the European Union after its legal personality was established by the ratification of the EU's Lisbon Treaty.=== European Union ===The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the Council of the European Union (the \"Council of Ministers\") or the European Council.", "These belong to the European Union, which is separate from the Council of Europe, although they have shared the same European flag and anthem since the 1980s since they both work for European integration.", "Nor is the Council of Europe to be confused with the European Union itself.The Council of Europe is an entirely separate body from the European Union.", "It is not controlled by it.Cooperation between the European Union and the Council of Europe was reinforced in the mid-2000s, notably on culture and education as well as on the international enforcement of justice and Human Rights.The European Union is expected to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights (the convention).", "There are also concerns about consistency in case law – the European Court of Justice (the EU's court in Luxembourg) is treating the convention as part of the legal system of all EU member states in order to prevent conflict between its judgements and those of the European Court of Human Rights (the court in Strasbourg interpreting the convention).", "Protocol No.", "14 of the convention is designed to allow the EU to accede to it and the EU Treaty of Lisbon contains a protocol binding the EU to join.", "The EU would thus be subject to its human rights law and external monitoring as its member states currently are.=== Schools of Political Studies ===The Council of Europe ''Schools of Political Studies'' were established to train future generations of political, economic, social and cultural leaders in countries in transition.", "With the participation of national and international experts, they run annual series of seminars and conferences on topics such as European integration, democracy, human rights, the rule of law and globalisation.", "The first School of Political Studies was created in Moscow in 1992.By 2020, 20 other schools had been set up along the same lines, forming an association; a network covering the whole of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, as well as some countries in the Southern Mediterranean region.", "The schools are part of the Education Department, which is part of the Directorate of Democratic Participation within the Directorate General of Democracy (\"DGII\") of the Council of Europe.=== United Nations ===Cooperation between the CoE and the UN started with the agreement signed by the Secretariats of these institutions on 15 December 1951.On 17 October 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved a resolution on granting observer status to the Council of Europe which was proposed by several member states of the CoE.", "Currently, the Council of Europe holds observer status with the United Nations and is regularly represented in the UN General Assembly.", "It has organised the regional UN conferences against racism and on women.", "It co-operates with the United Nations at many levels, in particular in the areas of human rights, minorities, migration and counter-terrorism.", "In November 2016, the UN General Assembly adopted by consensus Resolution (A/Res/71/17) on Cooperation between the United Nations and the Council of Europe whereby it acknowledged the contribution of the Council of Europe to the protection and strengthening of human rights and fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law, welcomed the ongoing co-operation in a variety of fields.=== Non-governmental organisations ===Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can participate in the INGOs Conference of the Council of Europe and become observers to inter-governmental committees of experts.", "The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in 1986, which sets the legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe.", "Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs.", "The rules for consultative status for INGOs appended to the resolution (93)38 \"On relation between the Council of Europe and non-governmental organisations\", adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 18 October 1993 at the 500th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies.", "On 19 November 2003, the Committee of Ministers changed the consultative status into a participatory status, \"considering that it is indispensable that the rules governing the relations between the Council of Europe and NGOs evolve to reflect the active participation of international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) in the Organisation's policy and work programme\".=== Others ===On 30 May 2018, the Council of Europe signed a memorandum of understanding with the European football confederation UEFA.The Council of Europe also signed an agreement with FIFA in which the two agreed to strengthen future cooperation in areas of common interests.", "The deal which included cooperation between member states in the sport of football and safety and security at football matches was finalized in October 2018." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Privileges and immunities ===The General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe grants the organisation certain privileges and immunities.The working conditions of staff are governed by the council's staff regulations, which are public.", "Salaries and emoluments paid by the Council of Europe to its officials are tax-exempt on the basis of Article 18 of the General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe.=== Symbol and anthem ===The Council of Europe created, and has since 1955 used as its official symbol, the European Flag with 12 golden stars arranged in a circle on a blue background.Its musical anthem since 1972, the \"European anthem\", is based on the \"Ode to Joy\" theme from Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony.On 5 May 1964, the 15th anniversary of its founding, the Council of Europe established 5 May as Europe Day.The wide private and public use of the European Flag is encouraged to symbolise a European dimension.", "To avoid confusion with the European Union which subsequently adopted the same flag in the 1980s, as well as other European institutions, the Council of Europe often uses a modified version with a lower-case \"e\" surrounding the stars which are referred to as the \"Council of Europe Logo\"." ], [ "Criticism and controversies", "The Council of Europe has been accused of not having any meaningful purpose, being superfluous in its aims to other pan-European bodies, including the European Union and OSCE.", "In 2013 ''The Economist'' agreed, saying that the \"Council of Europe's credibility is on the line\".", "Both Human Rights Watch and the European Stability Initiative have called on the Council of Europe to undertake concrete actions to show that it is willing and able to return to its \"original mission to protect and ensure human rights\".In October 2022, a new and different Pan-European meeting of 44 states was held, as the \"inaugural summit of the European Political Community\", a new forum largely organized by French President Emmanuel Macron.", "The Council of Europe, sidelined, reportedly was \"perplexed\" with this development, with a spokesperson stating \"In the field of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, such a pan-European community already exists: it is the Council of Europe.\"", "A feature of the new forum is that Russia and Belarus are deliberately excluded, which was not seen as explaining the need for a different entity, given that at the time, Russia was no longer a member of the Council of Europe and Belarus only participated partially, as a non-member.=== \"Caviar diplomacy\" scandal ===After Azerbaijan joined the CoE in 2001, both the Council and its Parliamentary Assembly were criticized for having a weak response to election rigging and human rights violations in Azerbaijan.", "The Human Rights Watch criticized the Council of Europe in 2014 for allowing Azerbaijan to assume the six-month rotating chairmanship of the council's Committee of Ministers, writing that the Azeri government's repression of human rights defenders, dissidents, and journalists \"shows sheer contempt for its commitments to the Council of Europe\".", "An internal inquiry was set up in 2017 amid allegations of bribery by Azerbaijan government officials and criticism of \"caviar diplomacy at the Council.", "A 219-page report was issued in 2018 after a ten-month investigation.", "It concluded that several members of the Parliamentary Assembly broke CoE ethical rules and were \"strongly suspected\" of corruption; it strongly criticized former Parliamentary Assembly president Pedro Agramunt and suggested that he had engaged in \"corruptive activities\" before his resignation under pressure in 2017.The inquiry also named Italian member Luca Volontè as a suspect in \"activities of a corruptive nature\".", "Volontè was investigated by Italian police and accused by Italian prosecutors in 2017 of receiving over 2.39 million euros in bribes in exchange for working for Azerbaijan in the parliamentary assembly, and that in 2013 he played a key role in orchestrating the defeat of a highly critical report on the abuse of political prisoners in Azerbaijan.", "In 2021, Volontè was convicted of accepting bribes from Azerbaijani officials to water down critiques of the nation's human rights record, and he was sentenced by a court in Milan to four years in prison." ], [ "See also", "* CAHDI* Common European Framework of Reference for Languages* Conference of Specialised Ministers* Council of Europe Archives* The Europe Prize* European Anti-fraud Office* Film Award of the Council of Europe* Moneyval* International organisations in Europe, and co-ordinated organisations* List of Council of Europe treaties* List of linguistic rights in European constitutions* North–South Centre of the Council of Europe" ], [ "Notes", "=== Footnotes ====== References ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Dinan, Desmond.", "''Europe Recast: A History of European Union'' (2nd ed.", "2004).", "excerpt ; the excerpt covers the historiography* Gillingham, John.", "''Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945–1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community'' (Cambridge UP, 2004).", "* * Kopf, Susanne.", "''Debating the European Union Transnationally: Wikipedians' Construction of the EU on a Wikipedia Talk Page (2001–2015)''.", "(PhD dissertation Lancaster University, 2018) online.", "* Moravcsik, Andrew.", "''The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht'' (Cornell UP, 1998).", ".", ".", "* Stone, Dan.", "''Goodbye to All That?", ": The Story of Europe Since 1945'' (Oxford UP, 2014).", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe, Paris, 2 September 1949" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Council of the European Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Council of the European Union''', often referred to in the treaties and other official documents simply as the '''Council''', and informally known as the '''Council of Ministers''', is the third of the seven Institutions of the European Union (EU) as listed in the Treaty on European Union.", "It is one of two legislative bodies and together with the European Parliament serves to amend and approve or veto the proposals of the European Commission, which holds the right of initiative.The Council of the European Union and the European Council are the only EU institutions that are explicitly intergovernmental, that is, forums whose attendees express and represent the position of their Member State's executive, be they ambassadors, ministers or heads of state/government.The Council meets in 10 different configurations of national ministers (one per state).", "The precise membership of these configurations varies according to the topic under consideration; for example, when discussing agricultural policy the Council is formed by the national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area (with the related European Commissioners contributing but not voting)." ], [ "Composition", "The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among the governments of EU member states, with the relevant ministers of the respective country holding the Presidency at any given time ensuring the smooth running of the meetings and setting the daily agenda.", "The continuity between presidencies is provided by an arrangement under which three successive presidencies, known as ''Presidency trios'', share common political programmes.", "The Foreign Affairs Council (national foreign ministers) is however chaired by the Union's High Representative.Its decisions are made by qualified majority voting in most areas, unanimity in others, or just simple majority for procedural issues.", "Usually where it operates unanimously, it only needs to consult the Parliament.", "However, in most areas the ordinary legislative procedure applies meaning both Council and Parliament share legislative and budgetary powers equally, meaning both have to agree for a proposal to pass.", "In a few limited areas the Council may initiate new EU law itself.The General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, also known as ''Council Secretariat'', assists the Council of the European Union, the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, the European Council and the President of the European Council.", "The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union.", "The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general." ], [ "History", "The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as the \"Special Council of Ministers\", set up to counterbalance the High Authority (the supranational executive, now the Commission).", "The original Council had limited powers: issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority's domain, and the Council's consent was only required on decisions outside coal and steel.", "As a whole, the Council only scrutinised the High Authority (the executive).", "In 1957, the Treaties of Rome established two new communities, and with them two new Councils: the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) and the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC).", "However, due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority, their Councils had more powers; the new executive bodies were known as \"Commissions\".In 1965, the Council was hit by the \"empty chair crisis\".", "Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission's agriculture proposals, among other things, France boycotted all meetings of the Council.", "This halted the Council's work until the impasse was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise.", "Although initiated by a gamble of the President of the Commission, Walter Hallstein, who later on lost the Presidency, the crisis exposed flaws in the Council's workings.Under the Merger Treaty of 1967, the ECSC's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC (together with their other independent institutions) were merged into the '''Council of the European Communities''', which would act as a single Council for all three institutions.", "In 1993, the Council adopted the name 'Council of the European Union', following the establishment of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty.", "That treaty strengthened the Council, with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system.", "However, at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar, curtailing the ability of the Council to act independently.The Treaty of Lisbon abolished the pillar system and gave further powers to Parliament.", "It also merged the Council's High Representative with the Commission's foreign policy head, with this new figure chairing the foreign affairs Council rather than the rotating presidency.", "The European Council was declared a separate institution from the Council, also chaired by a permanent president, and the different Council configurations were mentioned in the treaties for the first time.The development of the Council has been characterised by the rise in power of the Parliament, with which the Council has had to share its legislative powers.", "The Parliament has often provided opposition to the Council's wishes.", "This has in some cases led to clashes between both bodies with the Council's system of intergovernmentalism contradicting the developing parliamentary system and supranational principles." ], [ "Powers and functions", "The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of two vetoing bodies of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the European Parliament.", "Together they serve to amend, approve or disapprove the proposals of the European Commission, which has the sole power to propose laws.", "Jointly with the Parliament, the Council holds the budgetary power of the Union and has greater control than the Parliament over the more intergovernmental areas of the EU, such as foreign policy and macroeconomic co-ordination.", "Finally, before the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, it formally held the executive power of the EU which it conferred upon the European Commission.", "It is considered by some to be equivalent to an upper house of the EU legislature, although it is not described as such in the treaties.", "The Council represents the executive governments of the EU's member states and is based in the Europa building in Brussels.=== Legislative procedure ===Simplified illustration of the voting rules that apply within the ordinary legislative procedure.", "The actual procedure involves various stages of consultations aimed at achieving compromise between the positions of the two legislative chambers.The EU's legislative authority is divided between the Council, the Parliament and the Commission.", "As the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed, various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws.", "In early times, the ''avis facultatif'' maxim was: \"The Commission proposes, and the Council disposes\"; but now the vast majority of laws are subject to the ordinary legislative procedure, which works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted.Under this procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council.", "Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments.", "If the Council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved.", "If it does not then it adopts a \"common position\" and submits that new version to the Parliament.", "At its second reading, if the Parliament approves the text or does not act, the text is adopted, otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council's proposal.", "It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs.", "If the Council still does not approve the Parliament's position, then the text is taken to a \"Conciliation Committee\" composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs.", "If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text, it then has to be approved in a third reading by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned.The few other areas that operate the ''special legislative procedures'' are justice & home affairs, budget and taxation and certain aspects of other policy areas: such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy.", "In these areas, the Council or Parliament decide law alone.", "The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used.", "The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety.", "Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve, but they do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them.", "A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable.", "Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding declarations.The Council votes in one of three ways; unanimity, simple majority, or qualified majority.", "In most cases, the Council votes on issues by qualified majority voting, meaning that there must be a minimum of 55% of member states agreeing (at least 15) who together represent at least 65% of the EU population.", "A 'blocking minority' can only be formed by at least 4 member states representing at least 35% of the EU population.===Resolutions===Council resolutions have no legal effect.", "Usually the Council's intention is to set out future work foreseen in a specific policy area or to invite action by the Commission.", "If a resolution covers a policy area which is not entirely within an area of EU competency, the resolution will be issued as a \"resolution of the Council and the representatives of the governments of the member states\".", "Examples are the Council Resolution of 26 September 1989 on the development of subcontracting in the Community and the Council Resolution of 26 November 2001 on consumer credit and indebtedness.=== Foreign affairs ===The legal instruments used by the Council for the Common Foreign and Security Policy are different from the legislative acts.", "Under the CFSP they consist of \"common positions\", \"joint actions\", and \"common strategies\".", "Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third-country such as the promotion of human rights and democracy in Myanmar, a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes, or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court.", "A common position, once agreed, is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy, which is regularly revised.", "A joint action refers to a co-ordinated action of the states to deploy resources to achieve an objective, for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms.", "Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years.=== Budgetary authority ===The legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority.", "The EU's budget (which is around 155 billion euro) is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget (prior to 2009, its influence was limited to certain areas) on an equal footing with the Council.", "If there is a disagreement between them, it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals.", "But if the joint conciliation text is not approved, the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively.", "In addition to the budget, the Council coordinates the economic policy of members." ], [ "Organisation", "The Council's rules of procedure contain the provisions necessary for its organisation and functioning.=== Presidency ===The Presidency of the Council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government.", "Every six months the presidency rotates among the states, in an order predefined by the Council's members, allowing each state to preside over the body.", "From 2007, every three member states co-operate for their combined eighteen months on a common agenda, although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six-month period.", "For example, the President for the second half of 2007, Portugal, was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co-operating.", "The Council meets in various configurations (as outlined below) so its membership changes depending upon the issue.", "The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency.", "A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested.", "The exception however is the foreign affairs council, which has been chaired by the High Representative since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty.The role of the Presidency is administrative and political.", "On the administrative side it is responsible for procedures and organising the work of the Council during its term.", "This includes summoning the Council for meetings along with directing the work of COREPER and other committees and working groups.", "The political element is the role of successfully dealing with issues and mediating in the Council.", "In particular this includes setting the agenda of the council, hence giving the Presidency substantial influence in the work of the Council during its term.", "The Presidency also plays a major role in representing the Council within the EU and representing the EU internationally, for example at the United Nations.=== Configurations ===Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity (this means that technically any Council configuration can adopt decisions that fall within the remit of any other Council configuration) but it is in practice divided into several different council configurations (or ‘(con)formations’).", "Article 16(6) of the Treaty on European Union provides:Each council configuration deals with a different functional area, for example agriculture and fisheries.", "In this formation, the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area: the agriculture and fisheries ministers.", "The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency (see section above).", "Similarly, the Economic and Financial Affairs Council is composed of national finance ministers, and they are still one per state and the chair is held by the member coming from the presiding country.", "The Councils meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations (top three below) which meet once a month.", ", there are ten formations:;General Affairs (GAC): General affairs co-ordinates the work of the Council, prepares for European Council meetings and deals with issues crossing various council formations.", ";Foreign Affairs (FAC): Chaired by the High Representative, rather than the Presidency, it manages the CFSP, CSDP, trade and development co-operation.", "It sometimes meets in a '''defence configuration'''.Since 2017, the Europa building, seen here, has been the seat of the Council.", ";Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin): Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states.", "It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers.", ";Agriculture and Fisheries (Agrifish): Composed of the agriculture and fisheries ministers of the member states.", "It considers matters concerning the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, forestry, organic farming, food and feed safety, seeds, pesticides, and fisheries.", ";Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States.", "Includes civil protection.", ";Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs (EPSCO): Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers.", ";Competitiveness (COMPET): Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research).", "Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs, industry, tourism and scientific research.", "With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the EU acquired competence in space matters, and space policy has been attributed to the Competitiveness Council.", ";Transport, Telecommunications and Energy (TTE): Created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda.", "This formation meets approximately once every two months.", ";Environment (ENV): Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year.", ";Education, Youth, Culture and Sport (EYC): Composed of education, culture, youth, communications and sport ministers, who meet around three or four times a year.", "Includes audiovisual issues.Complementing these, the Political and Security Committee (PSC) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the CSDP, particularly in crises.", "The European Council is similar to a configuration of the Council and operates in a similar way, but is composed of the national leaders (heads of government or state) and has its own President, since 2019, Charles Michel.", "The body's purpose is to define the general \"impetus\" of the Union.", "The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body's meetings.Ecofin's Eurozone component, the Euro group, is also a formal group with its own President.", "Its European Council counterpart is the Euro summit formalized in 2011 and the TSCG.Following the entry into force of a framework agreement between the EU and ESA there is a '''Space Council''' configuration—a joint and concomitant meeting of the EU Council and of the ESA Council at ministerial level dealing with the implementation of the ESP adopted by both organisations.=== Administration ===The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the Council, carrying out preparation for meetings, draft reports, translation, records, documents, agendas and assisting the presidency.", "The Secretary General of the Council is head of the Secretariat.", "The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general.The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) is a body composed of representatives from the states (ambassadors, civil servants etc.)", "who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council.", "It monitors and co-ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co-decision legislation.", "It is divided into two groups of the representatives (Coreper II) and their deputies (Coreper I).", "Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture (SCA).", "The numerous working groups submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA." ], [ "Governments represented in the Council", "The Treaty of Lisbon mandated a change in voting system from 1 November 2014 for most cases to double majority Qualified Majority Voting, replacing the voting weights system.", "Decisions made by the council have to be taken by 55% of member states representing at least 65% of the EU's population.Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are members of a European-level political party.", "However the Council is composed to represent the Member States rather than political parties and the nature of coalition governments in a number of states means that party breakdown at different configuration of the Council vary depending on which domestic party was assigned the portfolio.", "However, the broad ideological alignment of the government in each state does influence the nature of the law the Council produces and the extent to which the link between domestic parties puts pressure on the members in the European Parliament to vote a certain way." ], [ "Location", "By a decision of the European Council at Edinburgh in December 1992, the Council has its seat in Brussels but in April, June, and October, it holds its meetings in Luxembourg City.", "Between 1952 and 1967, the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg City meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d’Armes.", "Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city.", "In 1957, with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils, discretion on location was given to the current Presidency.", "In practice this was to be in the Château of Val-Duchesse until the autumn of 1958, at which point it moved to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels.The 1965 agreement (finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties) on the location of the newly merged institutions, the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg City during April, June, and October.", "The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg City to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels.", "In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building, next to the Commission's Berlaymont, but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II/Jozef II-straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens, Frère Orban, and Guimard buildings.In 1995, the Council moved into the Justus Lipsius building, across the road from Charlemagne.", "However, its staff was still increasing, so it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions.", "Staff continued to increase and the Council rented, in addition to owning Justus Lipsius, the Kortenberg, Froissart, Espace Rolin, and Woluwe Heights buildings.", "Since acquiring the Lex building in 2008, the three aforementioned buildings are no longer in use by the Council services.When the Council is meeting in Luxembourg City, it meets in the Kirchberg Conference Centre, and its offices are based at the European Centre on the plateau du Kirchberg.", "The Council has also met occasionally in Strasbourg, in various other cities, and also outside the Union: for example in 1974 when it met in Tokyo and Washington, D. C. while trade and energy talks were taking place.", "Under the Council's present rules of procedures the Council can, in extraordinary circumstances, hold one of its meetings outside Brussels and Luxembourg.From 2017, both the Council of the European Union and the European Council adopted the purpose built Europa building as their official headquarters, although they continue to utilise the facilities afforded by the adjacent Justus Lipsius building.", "The focal point of the new building, the distinctive multi-storey \"lantern\" shaped structure in which the main meeting room is located, is utilised in both EU institutions' new official logos." ], [ "See also", "* Comparisons with other institutions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Council website – Europa** About the Council** Council configurations** Live broadcast** PRADO – The Council of the European Union Public Register of Authentic Travel and ID Documents Online* Access to documents of the EU Council on EUR-Lex* Council of the European Union – European NAvigator* Archival material concerning the Council of the European Union can be consulted at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Continental Europe" ], [ "Introduction", "Extent of the contiguous mainland of Europe, continental Europe'''Continental Europe''' or '''mainland Europe''' is the contiguous mainland of Europe, excluding its surrounding islands.", "It can also be referred to ambiguously as the '''European continent''', – which can conversely mean the whole of Europe – and, by some, simply as '''the Continent'''.", "When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Europe is treated both as a continent and subcontinent." ], [ "Usage", "The continental territory of the historical Carolingian Empire was one of the many old cultural concepts used for mainland Europe.", "This was consciously invoked in the 1950s as one of the basis for the prospective European integration (see also multi-speed Europe)The most common definition of mainland Europe excludes these continental islands: the Greek islands, Cyprus, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Great Britain and Ireland and surrounding islands, Novaya Zemlya and the Nordic archipelago, as well as nearby oceanic islands, including the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Svalbard.The Scandinavian Peninsula is sometimes also excluded as, even though it is a part of \"mainland Europe\", the ''de facto'' connections to the rest of the continent are across the Baltic Sea or North Sea (rather than via the lengthy land route that involves travelling to the north of the peninsula where it meets Finland, and then south through northeast Europe).Europa Regina'' map (Sebastian Munster, 1570), excluding the greater part of Fennoscandia, but including Great Britain and Ireland, ''Bulgaria, Scythia, Moscovia'' and ''Tartaria''; Sicily is clasped by Europe in the form of a ''globus cruciger''.===Great Britain and Ireland===In both Great Britain and Ireland, ''the Continent'' is widely and generally used to refer to the mainland of Europe.", "An amusing British newspaper headline supposedly once read, \"Fog in Channel; Continent Cut Off\".", "It has also been claimed that this was a regular weather forecast in Britain in the 1930s.", "In addition, the word ''Europe'' itself is also regularly used to mean Europe excluding the islands of Great Britain, Iceland, and Ireland (although the term is often used to refer to the European Union).", "The term ''mainland Europe'' is also sometimes used.", "Usage of these terms may reflect political or cultural allegiances, for example it has been observed that there is a correlation between whether a British citizen considers themselves \"British\" or \"European\" and whether they live in an area which primarily supported Brexit.Derivatively, the adjective ''continental'' refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe.", "Examples include breakfast, topless sunbathing and, historically, long-range driving (before Britain had motorways) often known as ''Grand Touring''.", "Differences include electrical plugs, time zones for the most part, the use of left-hand traffic, and for the United Kingdom, currency and the continued use of certain imperial units alongside the metric units which have long since displaced customary units in continental Europe.Britain is physically connected to continental Europe through the undersea Channel Tunnel (the longest undersea tunnel in the world), which accommodates both the Eurotunnel Shuttle (passenger and vehicle use – vehicle required) and Eurostar (passenger use only) services.", "These services were established to transport passengers and vehicles through the tunnel on a 24/7 basis between England and continental Europe, while still maintaining passport and immigration control measures on both sides of the tunnel.", "This route is popular with refugees and migrants seeking to enter the UK.===Scandinavia===Map of the Scandiae islands by Nicolaus Germanus for a 1467 publication of ''Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei Alexandrini''Especially in Germanic studies, ''continental'' refers to the European continent excluding the Scandinavian Peninsula, Britain, Ireland, and Iceland.", "The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is attached to continental Europe, and accessible via a land route along the 66th parallel north, it is usually reached by sea.", "(\"the Continent\") is a vernacular Swedish expression that refers to an area excluding Sweden, Norway, and Finland but including Denmark (even the Danish Archipelago which is technically not a part of continental Europe) and the rest of continental Europe.", "In Norway, similarly, one speaks about as a separate entity.", "In Denmark, Jutland is referred to as the mainland and thereby a part of continental Europe.The Scandinavian Peninsula is now connected to the Danish mainland (the Jutland Peninsula) by several bridges and tunnels." ], [ "Mediterranean and Atlantic islands", "''The Continent'' may sometimes refer to the continental part of France (excluding Corsica and overseas France), the continental part of Greece (excluding the Aegean Islands, Crete, and the Ionian Islands), the continental part of Italy (excluding Sardinia, Sicily, etc.", "), the continental part of Portugal (excluding the Azores and Madeira), and the continental part of Spain (excluding the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, the plazas de soberanía, etc.).", "The term is used from the perspective of the island residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent (or mainland) as a whole.Continental France is also known as ''l'Hexagone'', \"the Hexagon\", referring to its approximate shape on a map.", "Continental Spain is referred to as peninsular Spain." ], [ "See also", "* Contiguous United States* Continental philosophy* Geographical midpoint of Europe* Hajnal line* Mainland** Mainland Australia** Mainland China** Mainland Finland** Mainland Tanzania* Regions of Europe" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Category theory" ], [ "Introduction", "Schematic representation of a category with objects ''X'', ''Y'', ''Z'' and morphisms ''f'', ''g'', .", "(The category's three identity morphisms 1''X'', 1''Y'' and 1''Z'', if explicitly represented, would appear as three arrows, from the letters ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' to themselves, respectively.", ")'''Category theory''' is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations that was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology.", "Category theory is used in almost all areas of mathematics.", "In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories.", "Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality.Many areas of computer science also rely on category theory, such as functional programming and semantics.A category is formed by two sorts of objects: the objects of the category, and the morphisms, which relate two objects called the ''source'' and the ''target'' of the morphism.", "One often says that a morphism is an ''arrow'' that ''maps'' its source to its target.", "Morphisms can be ''composed'' if the target of the first morphism equals the source of the second one, and morphism composition has similar properties as function composition (associativity and existence of identity morphisms).", "Morphisms are often some sort of function, but this is not always the case.", "For example, a monoid may be viewed as a category with a single object, whose morphisms are the elements of the monoid.The second fundamental concept of category theory is the concept of a functor, which plays the role of a morphism between two categories ''C''1 and ''C''2: it maps objects of ''C''1 to objects of ''C''2 and morphisms of ''C''1 to morphisms of ''C''2 in such a way that sources are mapped to sources, and targets are mapped to targets (or, in the case of a contravariant functor, sources are mapped to targets and ''vice-versa'').", "A third fundamental concept is a natural transformation that may be viewed as a morphism of functors." ], [ "Categories, objects, and morphisms", "=== Categories ===A ''category'' ''C'' consists of the following three mathematical entities:* A class ob(''C''), whose elements are called ''objects'';* A class hom(''C''), whose elements are called morphisms or maps or ''arrows''.", "Each morphism '''''f''''' has a ''source object '''a''''' and ''target object '''b'''''.", "The expression , would be verbally stated as \"''f'' is a morphism from ''a'' to ''b''\".The expression – alternatively expressed as , , or – denotes the ''hom-class'' of all morphisms from ''a'' to ''b''.", "* A binary operation ∘, called ''composition of morphisms'', such that for any three objects ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'', we have :: .", ": The composition of and is written as or ''gf'', governed by two axioms::: 1.Associativity: If , , and then::: :: 2.Identity: For every object ''x'', there exists a morphism (also denoted as ) called the ''identity morphism for x'', such that ::: for every morphism , we have ::: :: From the axioms, it can be proved that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object.=== Morphisms ===Relations among morphisms (such as ) are often depicted using commutative diagrams, with \"points\" (corners) representing objects and \"arrows\" representing morphisms.Morphisms can have any of the following properties.", "A morphism is a:* monomorphism (or ''monic'') if implies for all morphisms .", "* epimorphism (or ''epic'') if implies for all morphisms .", "* ''bimorphism'' if ''f'' is both epic and monic.", "* isomorphism if there exists a morphism such that .", "* endomorphism if .", "end(''a'') denotes the class of endomorphisms of ''a''.", "* automorphism if ''f'' is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism.", "aut(''a'') denotes the class of automorphisms of ''a''.", "* retraction if a right inverse of ''f'' exists, i.e.", "if there exists a morphism with .", "* section if a left inverse of ''f'' exists, i.e.", "if there exists a morphism with .Every retraction is an epimorphism, and every section is a monomorphism.", "Furthermore, the following three statements are equivalent:* ''f'' is a monomorphism and a retraction;* ''f'' is an epimorphism and a section;* ''f'' is an isomorphism." ], [ "Functors", "Functors are structure-preserving maps between categories.", "They can be thought of as morphisms in the category of all (small) categories.A ('''covariant''') functor ''F'' from a category ''C'' to a category ''D'', written , consists of:* for each object ''x'' in ''C'', an object ''F''(''x'') in ''D''; and* for each morphism in ''C'', a morphism in ''D'',such that the following two properties hold:* For every object ''x'' in ''C'', ;* For all morphisms and , .A '''contravariant''' functor is like a covariant functor, except that it \"turns morphisms around\" (\"reverses all the arrows\").", "More specifically, every morphism in ''C'' must be assigned to a morphism in ''D''.", "In other words, a contravariant functor acts as a covariant functor from the opposite category ''C''op to ''D''." ], [ "Natural transformations", "A ''natural transformation'' is a relation between two functors.", "Functors often describe \"natural constructions\" and natural transformations then describe \"natural homomorphisms\" between two such constructions.", "Sometimes two quite different constructions yield \"the same\" result; this is expressed by a natural isomorphism between the two functors.If ''F'' and ''G'' are (covariant) functors between the categories ''C'' and ''D'', then a natural transformation ''η'' from ''F'' to ''G'' associates to every object ''X'' in ''C'' a morphism in ''D'' such that for every morphism in ''C'', we have ; this means that the following diagram is commutative:Commutative diagram defining natural transformationsThe two functors ''F'' and ''G'' are called ''naturally isomorphic'' if there exists a natural transformation from ''F'' to ''G'' such that ''η''''X'' is an isomorphism for every object ''X'' in ''C''." ], [ "Other concepts", "=== Universal constructions, limits, and colimits ===Using the language of category theory, many areas of mathematical study can be categorized.", "Categories include sets, groups and topologies.Each category is distinguished by properties that all its objects have in common, such as the empty set or the product of two topologies, yet in the definition of a category, objects are considered atomic, i.e., we ''do not know'' whether an object ''A'' is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept.", "Hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of those objects.", "To define the empty set without referring to elements, or the product topology without referring to open sets, one can characterize these objects in terms of their relations to other objects, as given by the morphisms of the respective categories.", "Thus, the task is to find ''universal properties'' that uniquely determine the objects of interest.Numerous important constructions can be described in a purely categorical way if the ''category limit'' can be developed and dualized to yield the notion of a ''colimit''.=== Equivalent categories ===It is a natural question to ask: under which conditions can two categories be considered ''essentially the same'', in the sense that theorems about one category can readily be transformed into theorems about the other category?", "The major tool one employs to describe such a situation is called ''equivalence of categories'', which is given by appropriate functors between two categories.", "Categorical equivalence has found numerous applications in mathematics.=== Further concepts and results ===The definitions of categories and functors provide only the very basics of categorical algebra; additional important topics are listed below.", "Although there are strong interrelations between all of these topics, the given order can be considered as a guideline for further reading.", "* The functor category ''D''''C'' has as objects the functors from ''C'' to ''D'' and as morphisms the natural transformations of such functors.", "The Yoneda lemma is one of the most famous basic results of category theory; it describes representable functors in functor categories.", "* Duality: Every statement, theorem, or definition in category theory has a ''dual'' which is essentially obtained by \"reversing all the arrows\".", "If one statement is true in a category ''C'' then its dual is true in the dual category ''C''op.", "This duality, which is transparent at the level of category theory, is often obscured in applications and can lead to surprising relationships.", "* Adjoint functors: A functor can be left (or right) adjoint to another functor that maps in the opposite direction.", "Such a pair of adjoint functors typically arises from a construction defined by a universal property; this can be seen as a more abstract and powerful view on universal properties.=== Higher-dimensional categories ===Many of the above concepts, especially equivalence of categories, adjoint functor pairs, and functor categories, can be situated into the context of ''higher-dimensional categories''.", "Briefly, if we consider a morphism between two objects as a \"process taking us from one object to another\", then higher-dimensional categories allow us to profitably generalize this by considering \"higher-dimensional processes\".For example, a (strict) 2-category is a category together with \"morphisms between morphisms\", i.e., processes which allow us to transform one morphism into another.", "We can then \"compose\" these \"bimorphisms\" both horizontally and vertically, and we require a 2-dimensional \"exchange law\" to hold, relating the two composition laws.", "In this context, the standard example is '''Cat''', the 2-category of all (small) categories, and in this example, bimorphisms of morphisms are simply natural transformations of morphisms in the usual sense.", "Another basic example is to consider a 2-category with a single object; these are essentially monoidal categories.", "Bicategories are a weaker notion of 2-dimensional categories in which the composition of morphisms is not strictly associative, but only associative \"up to\" an isomorphism.This process can be extended for all natural numbers ''n'', and these are called ''n''-categories.", "There is even a notion of ''ω-category'' corresponding to the ordinal number ω.Higher-dimensional categories are part of the broader mathematical field of higher-dimensional algebra, a concept introduced by Ronald Brown.", "For a conversational introduction to these ideas, see John Baez, 'A Tale of ''n''-categories' (1996)." ], [ "Historical notes", "Whilst specific examples of functors and natural transformations had been given by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in a 1942 paper on group theory, these concepts were introduced in a more general sense, together with the additional notion of categories, in a 1945 paper by the same authors (who discussed applications of category theory to the field of algebraic topology).", "Their work was an important part of the transition from intuitive and geometric homology to homological algebra, Eilenberg and Mac Lane later writing that their goal was to understand natural transformations, which first required the definition of functors, then categories.Stanislaw Ulam, and some writing on his behalf, have claimed that related ideas were current in the late 1930s in Poland.", "Eilenberg was Polish, and studied mathematics in Poland in the 1930s.", "Category theory is also, in some sense, a continuation of the work of Emmy Noether (one of Mac Lane's teachers) in formalizing abstract processes; Noether realized that understanding a type of mathematical structure requires understanding the processes that preserve that structure (homomorphisms).", "Eilenberg and Mac Lane introduced categories for understanding and formalizing the processes (functors) that relate topological structures to algebraic structures (topological invariants) that characterize them.Category theory was originally introduced for the need of homological algebra, and widely extended for the need of modern algebraic geometry (scheme theory).", "Category theory may be viewed as an extension of universal algebra, as the latter studies algebraic structures, and the former applies to any kind of mathematical structure and studies also the relationships between structures of different nature.", "For this reason, it is used throughout mathematics.", "Applications to mathematical logic and semantics (categorical abstract machine) came later.Certain categories called topoi (singular ''topos'') can even serve as an alternative to axiomatic set theory as a foundation of mathematics.", "A topos can also be considered as a specific type of category with two additional topos axioms.", "These foundational applications of category theory have been worked out in fair detail as a basis for, and justification of, constructive mathematics.", "Topos theory is a form of abstract sheaf theory, with geometric origins, and leads to ideas such as pointless topology.Categorical logic is now a well-defined field based on type theory for intuitionistic logics, with applications in functional programming and domain theory, where a cartesian closed category is taken as a non-syntactic description of a lambda calculus.", "At the very least, category theoretic language clarifies what exactly these related areas have in common (in some abstract sense).Category theory has been applied in other fields as well, see applied category theory.", "For example, John Baez has shown a link between Feynman diagrams in physics and monoidal categories.", "Another application of category theory, more specifically: topos theory, has been made in mathematical music theory, see for example the book ''The Topos of Music, Geometric Logic of Concepts, Theory, and Performance'' by Guerino Mazzola.More recent efforts to introduce undergraduates to categories as a foundation for mathematics include those of William Lawvere and Rosebrugh (2003) and Lawvere and Stephen Schanuel (1997) and Mirroslav Yotov (2012)." ], [ "See also", "* Domain theory* Enriched category theory* Glossary of category theory* Group theory* Higher category theory* Higher-dimensional algebra* Important publications in category theory* Lambda calculus* Outline of category theory* Timeline of category theory and related mathematics* Applied category theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * .", "* .", "* * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Notes for a course offered as part of the MSc.", "in Mathematical Logic, Manchester University.", "* .", "* , draft of a book.", "* * Based on ." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Theory and Application of Categories, an electronic journal of category theory, full text, free, since 1995.", "* nLab, a wiki project on mathematics, physics and philosophy with emphasis on the ''n''-categorical point of view.", "* The n-Category Café, essentially a colloquium on topics in category theory.", "* Category Theory, a web page of links to lecture notes and freely available books on category theory.", "* , a formal introduction to category theory.", "* * , with an extensive bibliography.", "* List of academic conferences on category theory* — An informal introduction to higher order categories.", "* WildCats is a category theory package for Mathematica.", "Manipulation and visualization of objects, morphisms, categories, functors, natural transformations, universal properties.", "* , a channel about category theory.", "* .", "* Video archive of recorded talks relevant to categories, logic and the foundations of physics.", "* Interactive Web page which generates examples of categorical constructions in the category of finite sets.", "* Category Theory for the Sciences, an instruction on category theory as a tool throughout the sciences.", "* Category Theory for Programmers A book in blog form explaining category theory for computer programmers.", "* Introduction to category theory." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Bradycardia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bradycardia''' is a medical term used to describe a resting heart rate under 60 beats per minute (BPM).", "While bradycardia can result from a variety of pathologic processes, it is commonly a physiologic response to cardiovascular conditioning, or due to asymptomatic type 1 atrioventricular block.", "Resting heart rates less than 50 BPM are often normal during sleep in young and healthy adults, and in athletes.", "In large population studies of adults without underlying heart disease, resting heart rates of 45-50 BPM appear to be the lower limits of normal, dependent on age and sex.", "Bradycardia is most likely to be discovered in the elderly, as both age and underlying cardiac disease progression contribute to its development.Bradycardia may be associated with symptoms of fatigue, dyspnea, dizziness, confusion, and frank syncope due to reduced forward blood flow to the brain, lungs, and skeletal muscle.", "The types of symptoms often depend on the etiology of the slow heart rate, classified by the anatomic location of a dysfunction within the cardiac conduction system.", "Generally, these classifications involve the broad categories of sinus node dysfunction (SND), atrioventricular block, and other conduction tissue disease.", "However, bradycardia can also result without dysfunction of the native conduction system, arising secondary to medications including beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, antiarrythmics, and other cholinergic drugs.", "Excess vagus nerve activity or carotid sinus hypersensitivity are neurological causes of transient symptomatic bradycardia.", "Hypothyroidism and metabolic derangements are other common extrinsic causes of bradycardia.The management of a bradycardia is generally reserved for patients with symptoms, regardless of minimum heart rate during sleep or the presence of concomitant heart rhythm abnormalities (See: Sinus pause), which are common with this condition.", "Untreated SND has been shown to increase the future risk of heart failure and syncope, sometimes warranting definitive treatment with an implanted pacemaker.", "In atrioventricular causes of bradycardia, permanent pacemaker implantation is often required when no reversible causes of disease are found.", "In both SND and atrioventricular blocks, there is little role for medical therapy unless a patient is hemodynamically unstable, which may require the use of medications such as atropine, isoproterenol, and interventions such as transcutaenous pacing, until such time that an appropriate workup can be undertaken and long term treatment selected.", "While asymptomatic bradycardias rarely require treatment, consultation with a physician is recommended, especially in the elderly.The term \"relative bradycardia\" can refer to a heart rate lower than that expected in a particular disease state, often a febrile illness.", "\"Chronotropic incompetence\" (CI) refers to an inadequate rise in heart rate during periods of increased demand, often due to exercise, and is an important sign of SND and indication for pacemaker implantation.The word \"bradycardia\" is from the Greek βραδύς ''bradys'' \"slow\", and καρδία ''kardia'' \"heart\"." ], [ "Normal cardiac conduction", "The heart is a type of specialized muscle containing repeating units of cardiomyocytes, or heart muscle cells.", "Like most cells, cardiomyocytes maintain a highly regulated negative voltage at rest, and are capable of propagating action potentials, much like neurons.", "While at rest, the negative cellular voltage of a cardiomyocyte can be raised above a certain threshold (so called depolarization) by an incoming action potential, causing the myocyte to contract.", "When these contractions occur in a coordinated fashion, the atria and ventricles of the heart will pump, delivering blood to the rest of the body.Normally, the origination of the action potential causing cardiomyocyte contraction originates from the sinoatrial node (SA node).", "This collection of specialized conduction tissue is located in the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava.", "The SA node contains pacemaker cells that demonstrate \"automaticity\" and are capable of generating impulses that travel through the heart and create a steady heart beat.In the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the SA node generates an electrical action potential which spreads across the right and left atria, causing the atrial contraction of the cardiac cycle.", "This electrical impulse carries on to the atrioventricular node (AV node), another specialized grouping of cells located in the base of the right atrium, which is the only anatomically normal electrical connection between the atria and ventricles.", "Impulses coursing through the AV node are slowed before carrying on to the ventricles, allowing for appropriate filling of the ventricles before contraction.", "The SA and AV nodes are both closely regulated by fibers of the autonomic nervous system, allowing for adjustment of cardiac output by the central nervous system in times of increased metabolic demand.Following slowed conduction through the atrioventricular node, the action potential originally produced at the SA node now flows through the His-purkinje system.", "The bundle of His originates in the AV node and rapidly splits into a left and right branch, each destined for a different ventricle.", "Finally, these bundle branches terminate in the small Purkinje fibers that innervate myocardial tissue.", "The His-purkinje system conducts action potentials much faster than can be propagated between myocardial cells, which allows the entire ventricular myocardium to contract in a smaller length of time, improving pump function." ], [ "Classification", "Illustration comparing the ECGs of a healthy person (''top'') and a person with bradycardia (''bottom''): The points on the heart where the ECG signals are measured are also shown.Most pathological causes of bradycardia result from damage to this normal cardiac conduction system at various levels: the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node, or from damage to conduction tissue between or after these nodes.=== Sinus node ===Bradycardia caused by the alterations of sinus node activity is divided into three types.==== Sinus bradycardia ====Sinus is a sinus rhythm of less than 50 BPM.", "Cardiac action potentials are generated from the SA node, propagated through an otherwise normal conduction system, but occur at a slow rate.", "It is a common condition found in both healthy individuals and those considered well-conditioned athletes.", "Studies have found that 50–85% of conditioned athletes have benign sinus bradycardia, as compared to 23% of the general population studied.", "The heart muscle of athletes has a higher stroke volume, and so requires fewer contractions to circulate the same volume of blood.", "Asymptomatic sinus bradycardia decreases in prevalence with age.==== Sinus arrhythmia ====Sinus arrhythmias are heart rhythm abnormalities characterized by variations in the cardiac cycle length in excess of 120 milliseconds (longest cycle - shortest cycle).", "These are the most common type of arrhythmia in the general population, and are usually without significant consequence.", "They typically occur in the young, athletes, or after administration of medications such as morphine.", "The types of sinus arrhythmia are separated into the respiratory and non-respiratory categories.===== Respiratory sinus arrhythmia =====Respiratory sinus arrhythmia refers to the physiologically normal variation in heart rate due to breathing.", "During inspiration, vagus nerve activity decreases, reducing parasympathetic innervation of the sinoatrial node, causing an increase in heart rate.", "During expiration, heart rates fall due to the converse occurring.===== Non-respiratory sinus arrhythmia =====Non-respiratory causes of sinus arrhythmia include sinus pause, sinus arrest, and sinoatrial exit block.", "Sinus pause and arrest involve slowing or arrest of automatic impulse generation from the sinus node.", "This can lead to asystole, or cardiac arrest, if ventricular escape rhythms do not engage to create backup sources of cardiac action potentials.Sinoatrial exit block is a similar non-respiratory phenomenon of temporarily lost sinoatrial impulses.", "However, in contrast to a sinus pause, the action potential is still generated at the SA node, but is either unable to leave or delayed from leaving the node, preventing or delaying atrial depolariziation and subsequent ventricular systole.", "Therefore, the length of the pause in heart beats is usually a multiple of the P-P interval as seen on electrocardiography.", "Like a sinus pause, sinoatrial exit block can be symptomatic, especially with prolonged pause length.==== Sinus node dysfunction ====A syndrome of intrinsic disease of the sinus node, referred to as sick sinus syndrome or sinus node dysfunction, covers conditions that include symptomatic sinus bradycardia or persistent chronotropic incompetence, sinoatrial block, sinus arrest, and tachycardia-bradycardia syndrome.", "These conditions can be caused by damage to the native sinus node itself, and are frequently accompanied by damaged AV node conduction and reduced backup pacemaker activity.", "The condition can also be caused dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system that regulates the node, and is commonly exacerbated by medications.===Atrioventricular node===Bradycardia can also result to due to inhibition of the flow of action potentials through the atrioventricular (AV) node.", "While this can be normal in young patients due to excessive vagus nerve tone, symptomatic bradycardia due to AV node dysfunction in older people is commonly due to structural heart disease, myocardial ischemia, or age related fibrosis.Characteristic ECGs of atrioventricular blocks, organized by degree.==== Atrioventricular block ====Atrioventricular blocks are divided into 3 categories, ranked by severity.", "AV block is diagnosed via surface ECG, which is usually sufficient to locate the causal lesion of the block, without the need of an invasive electrophysiology study.In 1st degree AV block, electrical impulses originating in the SA node (or other ectopic focus above the ventricles) are conducted with significant delay through the AV node.", "This condition is diagnosed via ECG, with PR intervals in excess of 200 milliseconds.", "The PR interval represents the length of time between the start of atrial depolarization and start of ventricular depolarization, representing the flow of electrical impulses between the SA and AV nodes.", "Despite the term \"block\", no impulses are actually fully lost in this conduction, but are merely delayed.", "The location of the causal lesion can be anywhere between the AV node and the His-Purkinje system, but is most commonly found in the AV node itself.", "Generally, isolated PR prolongation in 1st degree AV block is not associated with increased mortality or hospitalization.2nd degree AV block is characterized by intermittently lost conduction of impulses between the SA node and the ventricles.", "2nd degree block, is classified into two types.", "Mobitz type 1 block, otherwise known by the eponym Wenckebach, classically demonstrates grouped patterns of heart beats on ECG.", "Over the course of the group, the PR interval gradually lengthens, until there is a dropped conduction, resulting in no QRS complex seen on surface ECG following the last P wave.", "After a delay, the grouping repeats, with the PR interval shortening again to baseline.", "Type 1 2nd degree AV block due to disease in the AV node (as opposed to in the His-purkinje system) rarely needs intervention with pacemaker implantation.2nd degree, Mobitz type 2 AV block is another phenomenon of intermittently dropped QRS complexes after characteristic groupings of beats seen on surface ECG.", "In this condition, the PR and RR intervals are consistent, followed by a sudden AV block and dropped QRS complex.", "Because type 2 blocks are typically due to lesions below the AV node, the ability for ventricular escape rhythms to maintain cardiac output is compromised.", "Permanent pacemaker implantation is often required.==== Junctional rhythms ====An AV-junctional rhythm, or atrioventricular nodal bradycardia, is usually caused by the absence of the electrical impulse from the sinus node.", "This usually appears on an electrocardiogram with a normal QRS complex accompanied with an inverted P wave either before, during, or after the QRS complex.An AV-junctional escape beat is a delayed heartbeat originating from an ectopic focus somewhere in the AV junction.", "It occurs when the rate of depolarization of the SA node falls below the rate of the AV node.", "This dysrhythmia also may occur when the electrical impulses from the SA node fail to reach the AV node because of SA or AV block.", "This is a protective mechanism for the heart to compensate for an SA node that is no longer handling the pacemaking activity and is one of a series of backup sites that can take over pacemaker function when the SA node fails to do so.", "This would present with a longer PR interval.", "An AV-junctional escape complex is a normal response that may result from excessive vagal tone on the SA node.", "Pathological causes include sinus bradycardia, sinus arrest, sinus exit block, or AV block.===Ventricular===Idioventricular rhythm, also known as atrioventricular bradycardia or ventricular escape rhythm, is a heart rate of less than 50 BPM.", "This is a safety mechanism when a lack of electrical impulse or stimuli from the atrium occurs.", "Impulses originating within or below the bundle of His in the AV node will produce a wide QRS complex with heart rates between 20 and 40 BPM.", "Those above the bundle of His, also known as junctional, will typically range between 40 and 60 BPM with a narrow QRS complex.", "In a third-degree heart block, about 61% take place at the bundle branch-Purkinje system, 21% at the AV node, and 15% at the bundle of His.", "AV block may be ruled out with an ECG indicating \"a 1:1 relationship between P waves and QRS complexes.\"", "Ventricular bradycardias occurs with sinus bradycardia, sinus arrest, and AV block.", "Treatment often consists of the administration of atropine and cardiac pacing.===Infantile===For infants, bradycardia is defined as a heart rate less than 100 BPM (normal is around 120–160 BPM).", "Premature babies are more likely than full-term babies to have apnea and bradycardia spells; their cause is not clearly understood.", "The spells may be related to centers inside the brain that regulate breathing which may not be fully developed.", "Touching the baby gently or rocking the incubator slightly will almost always get the baby to start breathing again, which increasing the heart rate.", "Neonatal intensive-care unit standard practice is to electronically monitor the heart and lungs." ], [ "Causes", "Bradycardia arrhythmia may have many causes, both cardiac and non-cardiac.Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary, and can involve recreational drug use or abuse, metabolic or endocrine issues, especially hypothyroidism, an electrolyte imbalance, neurological factors, autonomic reflexes, situational factors, such as prolonged bed rest, and autoimmunity.", "At rest, although tachycardia is more commonly seen in fatty acid oxidation disorders, more rarely acute bradycardia can occur.Cardiac causes include acute or chronic ischemic heart disease, vascular heart disease, valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease.", "Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms.In general, two types of problems result in bradycardias: disorders of the SA node, and disorders of the AV node.With SA node dysfunction (sometimes called sick sinus syndrome), there may be disordered automaticity or impaired conduction of the impulse from the SA node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an \"exit block\").", "Second-degree sinoatrial blocks can be detected only by use of a 12-lead ECG.", "It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent pacemaker.AV conduction disturbances (AV block; primary AV block, secondary type I AV block, secondary type II AV block, tertiary AV block) may result from impaired conduction in the AV node, or anywhere below it, such as in the bundle of His.", "The clinical relevance pertaining to AV blocks is greater than that of SA blocks.Beta blocker medicines also can slow the heart rate and decrease how forcefully the heart contracts.", "Beta-blockers may slow the heart rate to a dangerous level if prescribed with calcium channel blocker-type medications.", "Bradycardia is also part of the mammalian diving reflex." ], [ "Diagnosis", "A diagnosis of bradycardia in adults is based on a heart rate less than 60 BPM, although some studies use a heart rate of less than 50 BPM.", "This is determined usually either by palpation or ECG.", "If symptoms occur, a determination of electrolytes may be helpful in determining the underlying cause." ], [ "Management", "The treatment of bradycardia is dependent on whether or not the person is stable or unstable.===Stable===Emergency treatment is not needed if the person is asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic.===Unstable===If a person is unstable, the initial recommended treatment is intravenous atropine.", "Doses less than 0.5 mg should not be used, as this may further decrease the rate.", "If this is not effective, intravenous inotrope infusion (dopamine, epinephrine) or transcutaneous pacing should be used.", "Transvenous pacing may be required if the cause of the bradycardia is not rapidly reversible.In children, giving oxygen, supporting their breathing, and chest compressions are recommended." ], [ "Epidemiology", "In clinical practice, elderly people over age 65 and young athletes of both sexes may have sinus bradycardia.", "The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported in 2011 that 15.2% of adult males and 6.9% of adult females had clinically-defined bradycardia (a resting pulse rate below 60 BPM)." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Records===* Daniel Green holds the world record for the slowest heartbeat in a healthy human, with a heart rate measured in 2014 of 26 BPM.", "* Martin Brady holds the Guinness world record for the slowest heart rate with a certified rate over a minute duration of 27 BPM.", "* Professional cyclist Miguel Indurain had, during his career, a resting heart rate of 28 BPM." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Canada Day" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Canada Day''' (, ), formerly known as '''Dominion Day''' (), is the national day of Canada.", "A federal statutory holiday, it celebrates the anniversary of Canadian Confederation which occurred on July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act, 1867, when the three separate colonies of the United Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into a single dominion within the British Empire called Canada.Originally called Dominion Day (), the holiday was renamed in 1982, the same year that the Canadian constitution was patriated by the Canada Act, 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.", "Canada Day celebrations take place throughout the country, as well as in various locations around the world attended by Canadians living abroad.Since 2017, Canada Day has attracted criticism from some indigenous peoples in Canada and their sympathizers, who feel that it is a celebration of the colonization of indigenous land by the British." ], [ "Commemoration", "Canada Day is often informally referred to as \"Canada's birthday\", particularly in the popular press.", "However, the term \"birthday\" can be seen as an oversimplification, as Canada Day is the anniversary of only one important national milestone on the way to the country's full sovereignty, namely the joining on July 1, 1867, of the colonies of Canada (divided into Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a wider British federation of four provinces.", "Canada became a \"kingdom in its own right\" within the British Empire, commonly known as the ''Dominion of Canada''.Although a British dominion, Canada gained an increased level of political control and governance over its own affairs, the British parliament and cabinet maintaining political control over certain areas, such as foreign affairs, national defence, and constitutional changes.", "Canada gradually gained increasing sovereignty over the years—notably with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931—until finally becoming completely sovereign with the passing of the Constitution Act, 1982, which served to fully patriate the Canadian constitution.Under the federal Holidays Act, Canada Day is observed on July 1, unless that date falls on a Sunday, in which case July 2 is the statutory holiday.", "Celebratory events will generally still take place on July 1, even though it is not the legal holiday.", "If it falls on a weekend, businesses normally closed that day will usually dedicate the following Monday as a day off." ], [ "History", "A crowd in Vancouver celebrates Dominion Day in 1917, the golden jubilee of ConfederationThe enactment of the British North America Act, 1867 (today called the Constitution Act, 1867), which confederated Canada, was celebrated on July 1, 1867, with the ringing of the bells at the Cathedral Church of St James in Toronto and \"bonfires, fireworks, and illuminations, excursions, military displays, and musical and other entertainments\", as described in contemporary accounts.", "On June 20 of the following year, Governor General the Viscount Monck issued a royal proclamation asking for Canadians to celebrate the anniversary of Confederation, However, the holiday was not established statutorily until May 15, 1879, when it was designated as ''Dominion Day'', alluding to the reference in the British North America Act to the country as a dominion.", "The holiday was initially not dominant in the national calendar; any celebrations were mounted by local communities and the governor general hosted a party at Rideau Hall.", "No larger celebrations were held until 1917, and then none again for a further decade—the gold and diamond anniversaries of Confederation, respectively.In 1946, Philéas Côté, a Quebec member of the House of Commons, introduced a private member's bill to rename Dominion Day as ''Canada Day''.", "The bill was passed quickly by the lower chamber but was stalled by the Senate, which returned it to the commons with the recommendation that the holiday be renamed ''The National Holiday of Canada'', an amendment that effectively killed the bill.The Canadian government began in 1958 to orchestrate Dominion Day celebrations.", "That year, then-Prime Minister John Diefenbaker requested that Secretary of State Ellen Fairclough organize appropriate events, with a budget of $14,000.Parliament was traditionally in session on July 1, but Fairclough persuaded Diefenbaker and the rest of the federal cabinet to attend.", "Official celebrations thereafter consisted usually of trooping the colour ceremonies on Parliament Hill in the afternoon and evening, followed by a mass band concert and fireworks display.", "Fairclough, who became Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, later expanded the bills to include performing folk and ethnic groups.", "The day also became more casual and family oriented.Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, with her cabinet, including Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, in the ballroom of Rideau Hall, Ottawa, on Dominion Day, 1967, the centennial of ConfederationCanada's centennial in 1967 is often seen as an important milestone in the history of Canadian nationalism and in Canada's maturing as a distinct, independent country, after which Dominion Day became more popular with average Canadians.", "Into the late 1960s, nationally televised, multi-cultural concerts held in Ottawa were added and the fête became known as ''Festival Canada''.", "After 1980, the Canadian government began to promote celebrating Dominion Day beyond the national capital, giving grants and aid to cities across the country to help fund local activities.Some Canadians were, by the early 1980s, informally referring to the holiday as ''Canada Day'', a practice that caused some controversy: Proponents argued that the name ''Dominion Day'' was a holdover from the colonial era—an argument given some impetus by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982—and others asserted that an alternative was needed as the term does not translate well into French.", "Conversely, numerous politicians, journalists, and authors, such as Robertson Davies, decried the change at the time and some continue to maintain that it was illegitimate and an unnecessary break with tradition.", "Others claimed ''dominion'' was widely misunderstood and conservatively inclined commenters saw the change as part of a much larger attempt by Liberals to \"re-brand\" or re-define Canadian history.", "Columnist Andrew Cohen called ''Canada Day'' a term of \"crushing banality\" and criticized it as \"a renunciation of the past and a misreading of history, laden with political correctness and historical ignorance\".The holiday was officially renamed as a result of a private member's bill that was passed through the House of Commons on July 9, 1982, two years after its first reading.", "Only 12 members of parliament were present when the bill was taken up again, 8 fewer than the necessary quorum; however, according to parliamentary rules, the quorum is enforceable only at the start of a sitting or when a member calls attention to it.", "The group passed the bill in five minutes, without debate, inspiring \"grumblings about the underhandedness of the process\".", "It met with stronger resistance in the Senate.", "Ernest Manning argued that the rationale for the change was based on a misperception of the name and George McIlraith did not agree with the manner in which the bill was passed, urging the government to proceed in a more \"dignified way\".", "However, the Senate did eventually pass the bill, regardless.", "With the granting of royal assent, the holiday's name was officially changed to Canada Day on October 27, 1982, and first celebrated under that name July 1, 1983.The Sovereign's seal of the Order of Canada, a state order inaugurated on July 1, 1967As the anniversary of Confederation, Dominion Day, and later Canada Day, was the date set for a number of important events, such as the first national radio network hookup by the Canadian National Railway (1927); the inauguration of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's cross-country television broadcast, with Governor General Vincent Massey's Dominion Day speech from Parliament Hill (1958); the flooding of the Saint Lawrence Seaway (1958); the first colour television transmission in Canada (1966); the inauguration of the Order of Canada (1967); and the establishment of \"O Canada\" as the country's national anthem (1980).", "During the Canada's sesquicentennial in 2017, the Bank of Canada released a commemorative $10 banknote, which was expected to be broadly available by Canada Day.The COVID-19 pandemic led to the cancellation in 2020 of all in-person Canada Day festivities nationwide, due to social distancing and restrictions on public gatherings.", "Some were converted to virtual events.", "The same cancellations occurred the following year; though, some also for political reasons.", "In-person festivities in Ottawa returned in 2022, being re-located from Parliament Hill to LeBreton Flats due to construction associated with the Parliament Hill Rehabilitation project.Other events fell on the same day coincidentally, such as the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916—shortly after which Newfoundland recognized July 1 as Memorial Day to commemorate the Newfoundland Regiment's heavy losses during the battle—and the enactment of the Chinese Immigration Act in 1923, leading Chinese-Canadians to refer to July 1 as ''Humiliation Day'' () and boycott Dominion Day celebrations with shop closures, flying the Canadian flag on half-mast, or hanging wreaths in front of home and shop entrances until the act was repealed in 1947.Canada Day also coincides with Quebec's Moving Day, when many fixed-lease apartment rental terms expire.", "The bill changing the province's moving day from May 1 to July 1 was introduced by a federalist member of the Quebec National Assembly, Jérôme Choquette, in 1973, in order not to affect children still in school in the month of May." ], [ "Activities", "The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge at the official Canada Day celebration in Ottawa, 2011Most communities across the country host organized celebrations for Canada Day, typically outdoor public events, such as parades, carnivals, festivals, barbecues, air and maritime shows, fireworks, and free musical concerts, as well as citizenship ceremonies.", "There is no standard mode of celebration for Canada Day; Jennifer Welsh, a professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford, said about this: \"Canada Day, like the country, is endlessly decentralized.", "There doesn't seem to be a central recipe for how to celebrate it—chalk it up to the nature of the federation.", "\"In the national capital of Ottawa, concerts and cultural displays are held on the front lawn of Parliament Hill, as organized by Canadian Heritage, which include the main \"noon show\" and an evening programme.", "The event traditionally begins with the singing of \"God Save the King\" and \"O Canada\" in English and French followed by a flyover by the Snowbirds.", "Typically the governor general and prime minister officiate, though the monarch or another member of the royal family may also attend or take the governor general's place.", "Smaller events are mounted in other parks around the city and in neighbouring Gatineau, Quebec.", "In provincial capitals, official celebrations are often held at the provincial legislative building, usually in the presence of the lieutenant-governor and/or premier of the province.===International celebrations===Trafalgar Square during Canada Day in London, England, 2013Canadian expatriates will often organize Canada Day activities in their local area on or near the date of the holiday.", "Examples include ''Canada D'eh'', an annual celebration that takes place on June 30 at ''Lan Kwai Fong'', in Hong Kong; Canadian Forces' events on bases in Afghanistan; at Trafalgar Square outside Canada House in London, England; in Mexico, at the Royal Canadian Legion in Chapala, and at the Canadian Club in Ajijic.", "In China, Canada Day celebrations are held at the Bund Beach by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai and at Canadian International School in Beijing, sponsored by the Canada China Business Council." ], [ "Criticism and protest", "Given the federal nature of the anniversary, celebrating Canada Day can be a cause of friction in the province of Quebec, where the holiday is overshadowed by the province's Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day (''Fête nationale''), on June 24.For example, the federal government funds Canada Day events at the Old Port of Montreal—an area run by a federal Crown corporation—while the ''Fête nationale'' parade is a grassroots effort that has faced difficulties in operating due to limited funding from the federal government and a lack of corporate sponsors.Protesters at an Idle No More rally in Toronto, Ontario, on Canada Day, 2022Canada Day has attracted a negative stigma among some indigenous peoples in Canada and their sympathizers, who feel that it is a celebration of the colonization of indigenous land by the British.", "Criticism of Canada Day celebrations were particularly prominent during Canada's sesquicentennial in 2017, with allegations that the commemorations downplayed the role of indigenous peoples in the country's history and the hardships they face in the present day.The same grievances were aired four years later, after possible unmarked graves of indigenous children were found in late-June 2021, at the site of an Indian residential school in British Columbia.", "If not already cancelled or modified due to restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, Canada Day festivities were cancelled in various communities in British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Northern Saskatchewan, while indigenous protest group Idle No More announced its intent to organize peaceful rallies in multiple major cities.", "Some politicians supported the cancellations, while others expressed concern that activists were attacking \"the very idea of Canada itself\" and hampering progress toward reconciliation." ], [ "See also", "* Anthems and nationalistic songs of Canada* Culture of Canada* National Flag of Canada Day*National symbols of Canada* Public holidays in Canada" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Government of Canada: Canada Day in the Capital Region* Government of Canada: History of Canada Day* Encyclopaedia Britannica: Canada Day* The Canadian Queen's Dominion Day Message 1959" ] ]
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[ [ "Claudine (book series)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Claudine''''' series consists of four early novels by French authors Colette and Henry Gauthier-Villars, published 1900–1904.Written in diary form, they describe the growth to maturity of a young girl, Claudine.", "Aged fifteen at the beginning of the first book, ''Claudine à l'école'', the series describes her education and experiences as she grows up.", "All the books are written in first-person with the first three having Claudine herself as the narrator.", "The last in the series, ''Claudine s'en va'', introduces a new narrator, Annie.The novels were written in the late 19th century in collaboration with Colette's first husband, the writer Henry Gauthier-Villars, better known by his pen name \"Willy\".", "There has been much speculation over the degree of involvement of both Colette and Willy in the writing of the Claudine novels, particularly as Willy was known for often using ghostwriters.", "Consequently, although the novels were originally attributed to Willy only and published under his name alone, they were later published under both names.", "After the death of Willy, Colette went to court to challenge her former husband's involvement in any of the writing, and subsequently had his name removed from the books.", "This decision however was overturned after her death, as Willy's son from a prior relationship, Jacques Gauthier-Villars, successfully sued to have his father's name restored.The ''Claudine'' novels are thought to be roughly autobiographical.", "* ''Claudine à l'école'' (1900) – Claudine at School* ''Claudine à Paris'' (1901) – Claudine in Paris* ''Claudine en ménage'' (1902) – Claudine Married* ''Claudine s'en va'' (1903) – Claudine and Annie" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Coronary artery disease" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Coronary artery disease''' ('''CAD'''), also called '''coronary heart disease''' ('''CHD'''), '''ischemic heart disease''' ('''IHD'''), '''myocardial ischemia''', or simply '''heart disease''', involves the reduction of blood flow to the heart muscle due to build-up of atherosclerotic plaque in the arteries of the heart.", "It is the most common of the cardiovascular diseases.", "Types include stable angina, unstable angina, and myocardial infarction.A common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw.", "Occasionally it may feel like heartburn.", "Usually symptoms occur with exercise or emotional stress, last less than a few minutes, and improve with rest.", "Shortness of breath may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present.", "In many cases, the first sign is a heart attack.", "Other complications include heart failure or an abnormal heartbeat.Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, and excessive alcohol consumption.", "A number of tests may help with diagnoses including: electrocardiogram, cardiac stress testing, coronary computed tomographic angiography, biomarkers (High-sensitivity cardiac troponins) and coronary angiogram, among others.Ways to reduce CAD risk include eating a healthy diet, regularly exercising, maintaining a healthy weight, and not smoking.", "Medications for diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure are sometimes used.", "There is limited evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms.", "Treatment involves the same measures as prevention.", "Additional medications such as antiplatelets (including aspirin), beta blockers, or nitroglycerin may be recommended.", "Procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) may be used in severe disease.", "In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improves life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk.In 2015, CAD affected 110 million people and resulted in 8.9 million deaths.", "It makes up 15.6% of all deaths, making it the most common cause of death globally.", "The risk of death from CAD for a given age decreased between 1980 and 2010, especially in developed countries.", "The number of cases of CAD for a given age also decreased between 1990 and 2010.In the United States in 2010, about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45; rates were higher among males than females of a given age.", "Clogged artery" ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort that occurs regularly with activity, after eating, or at other predictable times; this phenomenon is termed stable angina and is associated with narrowing of the arteries of the heart.", "Angina also includes chest tightness, heaviness, pressure, numbness, fullness, or squeezing.", "Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable.", "Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction.", "In adults who go to the emergency department with an unclear cause of pain, about 30% have pain due to coronary artery disease.", "Angina, shortness of breath, sweating, nausea or vomiting, and lightheadedness are signs of a heart attack, or myocardial infarction, and immediate emergency medical services are crucial.With advanced disease, the narrowing of coronary arteries reduces the supply of oxygen-rich blood flowing to the heart, which becomes more pronounced during strenuous activities during which the heart beats faster and has an increased oyxgen demand.", "For some, this causes severe symptoms, while others experience no symptoms at all.=== Symptoms in females ===Symptoms in females can differ from those in males, and the most common symptom reported by females of all races is shortness of breath.", "Other symptoms more commonly reported by females than males are extreme fatigue, sleep disturbances, indigestion, and anxiety.", "However, some females do experience irregular heartbeat, dizziness, sweating, and nausea.", "Burning, pain, or pressure in the chest or upper abdomen that can travel to the arm or jaw can also be experienced in females, but it is less commonly reported by females than males.", "On average, females experience symptoms 10 years later than males.", "Females are less likely to recognize symptoms and seek treatment." ], [ "Risk factors", "Coronary artery disease is characterized by heart problems that result from atherosclerosis.", "Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis which is the \"chronic inflammation of the arteries which causes them to harden and accumulate cholesterol plaques (atheromatous plaques) on the artery walls\".", "CAD has a number of well determined risk factors that contribute to atherosclerosis.", "These risk factors for CAD include \"smoking, diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), abnormal (high) amounts of cholesterol and other fat in the blood (dyslipidemia), type 2 diabetes and being overweight or obese (having excess body fat)\" due to lack of exercise and a poor diet.", "Some other risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, family history, psychological stress and excessive alcohol.", "About half of cases are linked to genetics.", "Smoking and obesity are associated with about 36% and 20% of cases, respectively.", "Smoking just one cigarette per day about doubles the risk of CAD.", "Lack of exercise has been linked to 7–12% of cases.", "Exposure to the herbicide Agent Orange may increase risk.", "Rheumatologic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, and psoriatic arthritis are independent risk factors as well.Job stress appears to play a minor role accounting for about 3% of cases.", "In one study, females who were free of stress from work life saw an increase in the diameter of their blood vessels, leading to decreased progression of atherosclerosis.", "In contrast, females who had high levels of work-related stress experienced a decrease in the diameter of their blood vessels and significantly increased disease progression.", "Having a type A behavior pattern, a group of personality characteristics including time urgency, competitiveness, hostility, and impatience, is linked to an increased risk of coronary disease.===Blood fats===The consumption of different types of fats including trans unsaturated, saturated and trans in a diet \"influences the level of cholesterol that is present in the bloodstream\".", "Unsaturated fats originate from plant sources (such as oils).", "There are two types of unsaturated fats, cis and trans isomers.", "Cis unsaturated fats are bent in molecular structure and trans are linear in structure.", "Saturated fats originate from animal sources (such as animal fats) and are also molecularly linear in structure.", "The linear configurations of unsaturated trans and saturated fats allow them to easily accumulate and stack at the arterial walls when consumed in high amounts (and other positive measures towards physical health are not met).", "*Fats and cholesterol are insoluble in blood and thus are amalgamated with proteins to form lipoproteins for transport.", "Low density lipoproteins (LDL) transport cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body and therefore raise blood cholesterol levels.", "The consumption of \"saturated fats increases LDL levels within the body, thus raising blood cholesterol levels\".", "*High density lipoproteins (HDL) are considered 'good' lipoproteins as they search for excess cholesterol in the body and transport it back to the liver for disposal.", "Trans fats also \"increase LDL levels whilst decreasing HDL levels within the body, significantly raising blood cholesterol levels\".High levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream lead to atherosclerosis.", "With increased levels of LDL in the bloodstream, \"LDL particles will form deposits and accumulate within the arterial walls, which will lead to the development of plaques, restricting blood flow\".", "The resultant reduction in the heart's blood supply due to atherosclerosis in coronary arteries \"causes shortness of breath, angina pectoris (chest pains that are usually relieved by rest), and potentially fatal heart attacks (myocardial infarctions)\".===Genetics===The heritability of coronary artery disease has been estimated between 40% and 60%.", "Genome-wide association studies have identified over 160 genetic susceptibility loci for coronary artery disease.===Transcriptome===Transcripts associated with CAD (TRACs) - FoxP1, ICOSLG, IKZF4/Eos, SMYD3, TRIM28, and TCF3/E2A that are likely markers of regulatory T cells (Treg), consistent with known reductions in Tregs in CAD.Schematic representation of Treg-related TRACs identified by RNAseq.", "The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified by RNAseq were curated by automated and manual analysis to identify the molecular pathways involved.", "The resulting pattern points to changes in the 'immune synapse', which involves both endocytic pathways of T cell receptor (TCR)-containing vesicles, as well as ciliary protrusions that couple to intracellular signaling pathways.The RNA changes are mostly related to ciliary and endocytic transcripts, which in the circulating immune system would be related to the immune synapse.", "The immune synapse is the contact-dependent mode of communication between T cells and B cells, on one side, and a variety of antigen-presenting and immunomodulating cells on the other side.", "One of the most differentially expressed genes, fibromodulin (FMOD, increased 2.8-fold in CAD).", "Several other regulated transcripts encode for proteins related to the structure and function of the immune synapse.", "Nebulette, the most down-regulated transcript (2.4-fold), is an important 'cytolinker' that connects actin and desmin to facilitate cytoskeletal function and vesicular movement.", "The endocytic pathway is further modulated by changes in tubulin, which is a key microtubule protein, and fidgetin, which is a tubulin-severing enzyme that is a GWAS marker for cardiovascular risk.", "Protein recycling would be modulated by changes in the proteasomal regulator SIAH3, and the ubiquitin ligase MARCHF10.On the ciliary aspect of the immune synapse, several of the modulated transcripts are related to ciliary length and function.", "Steriocilin (STRC) has been studied principally in outer sensory hair cells, and mutations lead to deafness.", "Steriocilin is a partner to mesothelin (MSN), a related super-helical protein, whose transcript is also modulated in CAD.", "Likewise, DCDC2, a double-cortin protein, is a known modulator of ciliary length.", "In the signaling pathways of the immune synapse, there were numerous transcripts that related directly to T cell function and the control of differentiation.", "Butyrophilin (BTN1A1) is a known co-regulator for T cell activation.", "Fibromodulin is a well-known modulator of the TGF-beta signaling pathway, which is a primary determinant of Tre differentiation.", "Further impact on the TGF-beta pathway is reflected in concurrent changes in the BMP receptor 1B RNA (BMPR1B), because the bone morphogenic proteins are members of the TGF-beta superfamily, and likewise impact Treg differentiation.", "As noted, several of the transcripts (TMEM98, NRCAM, SFRP5, SHISA2) are known elements of the Wnt signaling pathway, which is major determinant of Treg differentiation.===Other===* Endometriosis in females under the age of 40.", "* Depression and hostility appear to be risks.", "* The number of categories of adverse childhood experiences (psychological, physical, or sexual abuse; violence against mother; or living with household members who used substances, mentally ill, suicidal, or incarcerated) showed a graded correlation with the presence of adult diseases including coronary artery (ischemic heart) disease.", "* Hemostatic factors: High levels of fibrinogen and coagulation factor VII are associated with an increased risk of CAD.", "* Low hemoglobin.", "* In the Asian population, the b fibrinogen gene G-455A polymorphism was associated with the risk of CAD.", "* Patient-specific vessel ageing or remodelling determines endothelial cell behaviour and thus disease growth and progression.", "Such 'hemodynamic markers' are thus patient-specific risk surrogates." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "Micrograph of a coronary artery with the most common form of coronary artery disease (atherosclerosis) and marked luminal narrowing.", "Masson's trichrome.Illustration depicting coronary artery diseaseLimitation of blood flow to the heart causes ischemia (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the heart's muscle cells.", "The heart's muscle cells may die from lack of oxygen and this is called a myocardial infarction (commonly referred to as a heart attack).", "It leads to damage, death, and eventual scarring of the heart muscle without regrowth of heart muscle cells.", "Chronic high-grade narrowing of the coronary arteries can induce transient ischemia which leads to the induction of a ventricular arrhythmia, which may terminate into a dangerous heart rhythm known as ventricular fibrillation, which often leads to death.Typically, coronary artery disease occurs when part of the smooth, elastic lining inside a coronary artery (the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle) develops atherosclerosis.", "With atherosclerosis, the artery's lining becomes hardened, stiffened, and accumulates deposits of calcium, fatty lipids, and abnormal inflammatory cells – to form a plaque.", "Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) deposits in the muscular layer of the blood vessels appear to play a significant role in stiffening the arteries and inducing the early phase of coronary arteriosclerosis.", "This can be seen in a so-called metastatic mechanism of calciphylaxis as it occurs in chronic kidney disease and hemodialysis.", "Although these people have kidney dysfunction, almost fifty percent of them die due to coronary artery disease.", "Plaques can be thought of as large \"pimples\" that protrude into the channel of an artery, causing partial obstruction to blood flow.", "People with coronary artery disease might have just one or two plaques, or might have dozens distributed throughout their coronary arteries.", "A more severe form is ''chronic total occlusion'' (CTO) when a coronary artery is completely obstructed for more than 3 months.Microvascular angina is a type of angina pectoris in which chest pain and chest discomfort occur without signs of blockages in the larger coronary arteries of their hearts when an angiogram (coronary angiogram) is being performed.The exact cause of microvascular angina is unknown.", "Explanations include microvascular dysfunction or epicardial atherosclerosis.", "For reasons that are not well understood, females are more likely than males to have it; however, hormones and other risk factors unique to females may play a role." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Coronary angiogram of a maleCoronary angiogram of a femaleThe diagnosis of CAD depends largely on the nature of the symptoms.", "The first investigation when CAD is suspected is an electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG), both for stable angina and acute coronary syndrome.", "An X-ray of the chest, blood tests and resting echocardiography may be performed.For stable patient but who are symptomatic there are several non-invasive tests to diagnose CAD depending on pre assessment of the risk profile.", "Non invasive imaging include; Computed tomography angiography (CTA) (anatomical imaging, best test in patients with low risk profile-to \"rule out\" the disease), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/nuclear stress test/myocardial scintigraphy and stress echocardiography (the three latter can be summarized as functional non invasive methods and are typically better to \"rule in\").", "Exercise ECG or stress test is inferior to non-invasive imaging methods due to risk of both false negative and false positive test results.", "The use of non-invasive imaging is not recommended on individuals who are exhibiting no symptoms and are otherwise at low risk for developing coronary disease.Invasive testing with coronary angiography (ICA) can be used when non-invasive testing is inconclusive or show a high event risk.The diagnosis of microvascular angina (previously known as ''cardiac syndrome X'' – the rare coronary artery disease that is more common in females, as mentioned, is a diagnosis of exclusion.", "Therefore, usually, the same tests are used as in any person with the suspected of having coronary artery disease:* Intravascular ultrasound* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)===Stable angina===Stable angina is the most common form of ischemic heart disease, and is associated with reduced quality of life and increased mortality.", "It is caused by epicardial coronary stenosis which results in reduced blood flow and oxygen supply to the myocardium.", "Stable angina is characterized as short-term chest pain during physical exertion caused by an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and metabolic oxygen demand.", "Various forms of cardiac stress tests may be used to induce both symptoms and detect changes by way of electrocardiography (using an ECG), echocardiography (using ultrasound of the heart) or scintigraphy (using uptake of radionuclide by the heart muscle).", "If part of the heart seems to receive an insufficient blood supply, coronary angiography may be used to identify stenosis of the coronary arteries and suitability for angioplasty or bypass surgery.In minor to moderate cases, nitroglycerine may be used to alleviate acute symptoms of stable angina or may be used immediately prior to exertion to prevent the onset of angina.", "Sublingual nitroglycerine is most commonly used to provide rapid relief for acute angina attacks and as a complement to anti-anginal treatments in patients with refractory and recurrent angina.", "When nitroglycerine enters the bloodstream, it forms free radical nitric oxide, or NO, which activates guanylate cyclase and in turn stimulates the release of cyclic GMP.", "This molecular signaling stimulates smooth muscle relaxation, ultimately resulting in vasodilation and consequently improved blood flow to regions of the heart affected by atherosclerotic plaque.Stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) is also often called stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD).", "A 2015 monograph explains that \"Regardless of the nomenclature, stable angina is the chief manifestation of SIHD or SCAD.\"", "There are U.S. and European clinical practice guidelines for SIHD/SCAD.", "In patients with non-severe asymptomatic aortic valve stenosis and no overt coronary artery disease, the increased troponin T (above 14 pg/mL) was found associated with an increased 5-year event rate of ischemic cardiac events (myocardial infarction, percutaneous coronary intervention, or coronary artery bypass surgery).===Acute coronary syndrome===Diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome generally takes place in the emergency department, where ECGs may be performed sequentially to identify \"evolving changes\" (indicating ongoing damage to the heart muscle).", "Diagnosis is clear-cut if ECGs show elevation of the \"ST segment\", which in the context of severe typical chest pain is strongly indicative of an acute myocardial infarction (MI); this is termed a STEMI (ST-elevation MI) and is treated as an emergency with either urgent coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention (angioplasty with or without stent insertion) or with thrombolysis (\"clot buster\" medication), whichever is available.", "In the absence of ST-segment elevation, heart damage is detected by cardiac markers (blood tests that identify heart muscle damage).", "If there is evidence of damage (infarction), the chest pain is attributed to a \"non-ST elevation MI\" (NSTEMI).", "If there is no evidence of damage, the term \"unstable angina\" is used.", "This process usually necessitates hospital admission and close observation on a coronary care unit for possible complications (such as cardiac arrhythmias – irregularities in the heart rate).", "Depending on the risk assessment, stress testing or angiography may be used to identify and treat coronary artery disease in patients who have had an NSTEMI or unstable angina.===Risk assessment===There are various risk assessment systems for determining the risk of coronary artery disease, with various emphasis on different variables above.", "A notable example is Framingham Score, used in the Framingham Heart Study.", "It is mainly based on age, gender, diabetes, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, tobacco smoking, and systolic blood pressure.", "When it comes to predicting risk in younger adults (18–39 years old), Framingham Risk Score remains below 10-12% for all deciles of baseline-predicted risk.Polygenic score is another way of risk assessment.", "In one study the relative risk of incident coronary events was 91% higher among participants at high genetic risk than among those at low genetic risk." ], [ "Prevention", "Up to 90% of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided.", "Prevention involves adequate physical exercise, decreasing obesity, treating high blood pressure, eating a healthy diet, decreasing cholesterol levels, and stopping smoking.", "Medications and exercise are roughly equally effective.", "High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of coronary artery disease by about 25%.", "Life's Essential 8 are the key measures for improving and maintaining cardiovascular health, as defined by the American Heart Association.", "AHA added sleep as a factor influencing heart health in 2022.Most guidelines recommend combining these preventive strategies.", "A 2015 Cochrane Review found some evidence that counseling and education to bring about behavioral change might help in high-risk groups.", "However, there was insufficient evidence to show an effect on mortality or actual cardiovascular events.In diabetes mellitus, there is little evidence that very tight blood sugar control improves cardiac risk although improved sugar control appears to decrease other problems such as kidney failure and blindness.===Diet===A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death.", "Vegetarians have a lower risk of heart disease, possibly due to their greater consumption of fruits and vegetables.", "Evidence also suggests that the Mediterranean diet and a high fiber diet lower the risk.The consumption of trans fat (commonly found in hydrogenated products such as margarine) has been shown to cause a precursor to atherosclerosis and increase the risk of coronary artery disease.Evidence does not support a beneficial role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death).", "There is tentative evidence that intake of menaquinone (Vitamin K2), but not phylloquinone (Vitamin K1), may reduce the risk of CAD mortality.===Secondary prevention===Secondary prevention is preventing further sequelae of already established disease.", "Effective lifestyle changes include:* Weight control* Smoking cessation* Avoiding the consumption of trans fats (in partially hydrogenated oils)* Decreasing psychosocial stress* ExerciseAerobic exercise, like walking, jogging, or swimming, can reduce the risk of mortality from coronary artery disease.", "Aerobic exercise can help decrease blood pressure and the amount of blood cholesterol (LDL) over time.", "It also increases HDL cholesterol.Although exercise is beneficial, it is unclear whether doctors should spend time counseling patients to exercise.", "The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force found \"insufficient evidence\" to recommend that doctors counsel patients on exercise but \"it did not review the evidence for the effectiveness of physical activity to reduce chronic disease, morbidity, and mortality\", only the effectiveness of counseling itself.", "The American Heart Association, based on a non-systematic review, recommends that doctors counsel patients on exercise.Psychological symptoms are common in people with CHD, and while many psychological treatments may be offered following cardiac events, there is no evidence that they change mortality, the risk of revascularization procedures, or the rate of non-fatal myocardial infarction.", "'''Antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease'''Antibiotics may help patients with coronary disease to reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes.", "However, the latest evidence suggests that antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease are harmful with increased mortality and occurrence of stroke.", "So, the use of antibiotics is not currently supported for preventing secondary coronary heart disease.===Neuropsychological Assessment===A thorough systematic review found that indeed there is a link between a CHD condition and brain dysfunction in females.", "Consequently, since research is showing that cardiovascular diseases, like CHD, can play a role as a precursor for dementia, like Alzheimer's disease, individuals with CHD should have a neuropsychological assessment." ], [ "Treatment", "There are a number of treatment options for coronary artery disease:* Lifestyle changes* Medical treatment – commonly prescribed drugs (e.g., cholesterol lowering medications, beta-blockers, nitroglycerin, calcium channel blockers, etc.", ");* Coronary interventions as angioplasty and coronary stent;* Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)===Medications===* Statins, which reduce cholesterol, reduce the risk of coronary artery disease* Nitroglycerin* Calcium channel blockers and/or beta-blockers* Antiplatelet drugs such as aspirinIt is recommended that blood pressure typically be reduced to less than 140/90 mmHg.", "The diastolic blood pressure however should not be lower than 60 mmHg.", "Beta blockers are recommended first line for this use.====Aspirin====In those with no previous history of heart disease, aspirin decreases the risk of a myocardial infarction but does not change the overall risk of death.", "Aspirin therapy to prevent heart disease is thus recommended only in adults who are at increased risk for cardiovascular events, which may include postmenopausal females, males above 40, and younger people with risk factors for coronary heart disease, including high blood pressure, a family history of heart disease, or diabetes.", "The benefits outweigh the harms most favorably in people at high risk for a cardiovascular event, where high risk is defined as at least a 3% chance over a five-year period, but others with lower risk may still find the potential benefits worth the associated risks.====Anti-platelet therapy====Clopidogrel plus aspirin (dual anti-platelet therapy) reduces cardiovascular events more than aspirin alone in those with a STEMI.", "In others at high risk but not having an acute event, the evidence is weak.", "Specifically, its use does not change the risk of death in this group.", "In those who have had a stent, more than 12 months of clopidogrel plus aspirin does not affect the risk of death.===Surgery===Revascularization for acute coronary syndrome has a mortality benefit.", "Percutaneous revascularization for ''stable'' ischaemic heart disease does not appear to have benefits over medical therapy alone.", "In those with disease in more than one artery, coronary artery bypass grafts appear better than percutaneous coronary interventions.", "Newer \"anaortic\" or no-touch off-pump coronary artery revascularization techniques have shown reduced postoperative stroke rates comparable to percutaneous coronary intervention.", "Hybrid coronary revascularization has also been shown to be a safe and feasible procedure that may offer some advantages over conventional CABG though it is more expensive." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Deaths due to ischaemic heart disease per million persons in 2012 Disability-adjusted life year for ischaemic heart disease per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.As of 2010, CAD was the leading cause of death globally resulting in over 7 million deaths.", "This increased from 5.2 million deaths from CAD worldwide in 1990.It may affect individuals at any age but becomes dramatically more common at progressively older ages, with approximately a tripling with each decade of life.", "Males are affected more often than females.It is estimated that 60% of the world's cardiovascular disease burden will occur in the South Asian subcontinent despite only accounting for 20% of the world's population.", "This may be secondary to a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors.", "Organizations such as the Indian Heart Association are working with the World Heart Federation to raise awareness about this issue.Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death for both males and females and accounts for approximately 600,000 deaths in the United States every year.", "According to present trends in the United States, half of healthy 40-year-old males will develop CAD in the future, and one in three healthy 40-year-old females.", "It is the most common reason for death of males and females over 20 years of age in the United States.After analysing data from 2 111 882 patients, the recent meta-analysis revealed that the incidence of coronary artery diseases in breast cancer survicors was 4.29 (95% CI 3.09-5.94) per 1000 person-years." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Names===Other terms sometimes used for this condition are \"hardening of the arteries\" and \"narrowing of the arteries\".", "In Latin it is known as ''morbus ischaemicus cordis'' (''MIC'').===Support groups===The Infarct Combat Project (ICP) is an international nonprofit organization founded in 1998 which tries to decrease ischemic heart diseases through education and research.===Industry influence on research===In 2016 research into the archives of the Sugar Association, the trade association for the sugar industry in the US, had sponsored an influential literature review published in 1965 in the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' that downplayed early findings about the role of a diet heavy in sugar in the development of CAD and emphasized the role of fat; that review influenced decades of research funding and guidance on healthy eating." ], [ "Research", "Research efforts are focused on new angiogenic treatment modalities and various (adult) stem-cell therapies.", "A region on chromosome 17 was confined to families with multiple cases of myocardial infarction.", "Other genome-wide studies have identified a firm risk variant on chromosome 9 (9p21.3).", "However, these and other loci are found in intergenic segments and need further research in understanding how the phenotype is affected.A more controversial link is that between ''Chlamydophila pneumoniae'' infection and atherosclerosis.", "While this intracellular organism has been demonstrated in atherosclerotic plaques, evidence is inconclusive as to whether it can be considered a causative factor.", "Treatment with antibiotics in patients with proven atherosclerosis has not demonstrated a decreased risk of heart attacks or other coronary vascular diseases.Myeloperoxidase has been proposed as a biomarker.Plant-based nutrition has been suggested as a way to reverse coronary artery disease, but strong evidence is still lacking for claims of potential benefits.Several immunosuppressive drugs targeting the chronic inflammation in coronary artery disease have been tested." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Risk Assessment of having a heart attack or dying of coronary artery disease, from the American Heart Association.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Caesium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Caesium''' (IUPAC spelling; '''cesium''' in American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Cs''' and atomic number 55.It is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with a melting point of , which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or near room temperature.", "Caesium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium.", "It is pyrophoric and reacts with water even at .", "It is the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale.", "It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133.Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite.", "Caesium-137, a fission product, is extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.", "It has the largest atomic radius of all elements whose radii have been measured or calculated, at about 260 picometers.The German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy.", "The first small-scale applications for caesium were as a \"getter\" in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells.", "In 1967, acting on Einstein's proof that the speed of light is the most-constant dimension in the universe, the International System of Units used two specific wave counts from an emission spectrum of caesium-133 to co-define the second and the metre.", "Since then, caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks.Since the 1990s, the largest application of the element has been as caesium formate for drilling fluids, but it has a range of applications in the production of electricity, in electronics, and in chemistry.", "The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in medical applications, industrial gauges, and hydrology.", "Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, but the pure metal's tendency to react explosively with water means that caesium is considered a hazardous material, and the radioisotopes present a significant health and environmental hazard." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===High-purity caesium-133 stored in alt=Y-shaped yellowish crystal in glass ampoule, looking like the branch of a pine treeOf all elements that are solid at room temperature, caesium is the softest: it has a hardness of 0.2 Mohs.", "It is a very ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen.", "When in the presence of mineral oil (where it is best kept during transport), it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller, grey appearance.", "It has a melting point of , making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature.", "Mercury is the only stable elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium.", "In addition, the metal has a rather low boiling point, , the lowest of all metals other than mercury.", "Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour.Caesium crystals (golden) compared to rubidium crystals (silvery)Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gold, and mercury (amalgams).", "At temperatures below , it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum, or tungsten.", "It forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive.", "It mixes with all the other alkali metals (except lithium); the alloy with a molar distribution of 41% caesium, 47% potassium, and 12% sodium has the lowest melting point of any known metal alloy, at .", "A few amalgams have been studied: is black with a purple metallic lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured, also with a metallic lustre.The golden colour of caesium comes from the decreasing frequency of light required to excite electrons of the alkali metals as the group is descended.", "For lithium through rubidium this frequency is in the ultraviolet, but for caesium it enters the blue–violet end of the spectrum; in other words, the plasmonic frequency of the alkali metals becomes lower from lithium to caesium.", "Thus caesium transmits and partially absorbs violet light preferentially while other colours (having lower frequency) are reflected; hence it appears yellowish.=== Allotropes ===Caesium exists in the form of different allotropes, One of which is a dimer called dicaesium.===Chemical properties===alt=A person adds a small amount of metal to a petri dish with cold water which produces a small explosion.Caesium metal is highly reactive and pyrophoric.", "It ignites spontaneously in air, and reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures, more so than the other alkali metals.", "It reacts with ice at temperatures as low as .", "Because of this high reactivity, caesium metal is classified as a hazardous material.", "It is stored and shipped in dry, saturated hydrocarbons such as mineral oil.", "It can be handled only under inert gas, such as argon.", "However, a caesium-water explosion is often less powerful than a sodium-water explosion with a similar amount of sodium.", "This is because caesium explodes instantly upon contact with water, leaving little time for hydrogen to accumulate.", "Caesium can be stored in vacuum-sealed borosilicate glass ampoules.", "In quantities of more than about , caesium is shipped in hermetically sealed, stainless steel containers.The chemistry of caesium is similar to that of other alkali metals, in particular rubidium, the element above caesium in the periodic table.", "As expected for an alkali metal, the only common oxidation state is +1.Some slight differences arise from the fact that it has a higher atomic mass and is more electropositive than other (nonradioactive) alkali metals.", "Caesium is the most electropositive chemical element.", "The caesium ion is also larger and less \"hard\" than those of the lighter alkali metals.===Compounds=== alt=27 small grey spheres in 3 evenly spaced layers of nine.", "8 spheres form a regular cube and 8 of those cubes form a larger cube.", "The grey spheres represent the caesium atoms.", "The center of each small cube is occupied by a small green sphere representing a chlorine atom.", "Thus, every chlorine is in the middle of a cube formed by caesium atoms and every caesium is in the middle of a cube formed by chlorine.Most caesium compounds contain the element as the cation , which binds ionically to a wide variety of anions.", "One noteworthy exception is the caeside anion (), and others are the several suboxides (see section on oxides below).", "More recently, caesium is predicted to behave as a p-block element and capable of forming higher fluorides with higher oxidation states (i.e., CsFn with n > 1) under high pressure.", "This prediction needs to be validated by further experiments.Salts of Cs+ are usually colourless unless the anion itself is coloured.", "Many of the simple salts are hygroscopic, but less so than the corresponding salts of lighter alkali metals.", "The phosphate, acetate, carbonate, halides, oxide, nitrate, and sulfate salts are water-soluble.", "Its double salts are often less soluble, and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in refining Cs from ores.", "The double salts with antimony (such as ), bismuth, cadmium, copper, iron, and lead are also poorly soluble.Caesium hydroxide (CsOH) is hygroscopic and strongly basic.", "It rapidly etches the surface of semiconductors such as silicon.", "CsOH has been previously regarded by chemists as the \"strongest base\", reflecting the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs+ ion and OH−; it is indeed the strongest Arrhenius base; however, a number of compounds such as ''n''-butyllithium, sodium amide, sodium hydride, caesium hydride, etc., which cannot be dissolved in water as reacting violently with it but rather only used in some anhydrous polar aprotic solvents, are far more basic on the basis of the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.A stoichiometric mixture of caesium and gold will react to form yellow caesium auride (Cs+Au−) upon heating.", "The auride anion here behaves as a pseudohalogen.", "The compound reacts violently with water, yielding caesium hydroxide, metallic gold, and hydrogen gas; in liquid ammonia it can be reacted with a caesium-specific ion exchange resin to produce tetramethylammonium auride.", "The analogous platinum compound, red caesium platinide (), contains the platinide ion that behaves as a .====Complexes====Like all metal cations, Cs+ forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution.", "Because of its large size, Cs+ usually adopts coordination numbers greater than 6, the number typical for the smaller alkali metal cations.", "This difference is apparent in the 8-coordination of CsCl.", "This high coordination number and softness (tendency to form covalent bonds) are properties exploited in separating Cs+ from other cations in the remediation of nuclear wastes, where 137Cs+ must be separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K+.====Halides====Monatomic caesium halide wires grown inside double-wall carbon nanotubes (TEM image).Caesium fluoride (CsF) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of fluoride anions.", "Caesium fluoride has the halite structure, which means that the Cs+ and F− pack in a cubic closest packed array as do Na+ and Cl− in sodium chloride.", "Notably, caesium and fluorine have the lowest and highest electronegativities, respectively, among all the known elements.Caesium chloride (CsCl) crystallizes in the simple cubic crystal system.", "Also called the \"caesium chloride structure\", this structural motif is composed of a primitive cubic lattice with a two-atom basis, each with an eightfold coordination; the chloride atoms lie upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube, while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the centre of the cubes.", "This structure is shared with CsBr and CsI, and many other compounds that do not contain Cs.", "In contrast, most other alkaline halides have the sodium chloride (NaCl) structure.", "The CsCl structure is preferred because Cs+ has an ionic radius of 174 pm and 181 pm.====Oxides====alt=The stick and ball diagram shows three regular octahedra, which are connected to the next one by one surface and the last one shares one surface with the first.", "All three have one edge in common.", "All eleven vertices are purple spheres representing caesium, and at the center of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen.More so than the other alkali metals, caesium forms numerous binary compounds with oxygen.", "When caesium burns in air, the superoxide is the main product.", "The \"normal\" caesium oxide () forms yellow-orange hexagonal crystals, and is the only oxide of the anti- type.", "It vaporizes at , and decomposes to caesium metal and the peroxide at temperatures above .", "In addition to the superoxide and the ozonide , several brightly coloured suboxides have also been studied.", "These include , , , (dark-green), CsO, , as well as .", "The latter may be heated in a vacuum to generate .", "Binary compounds with sulfur, selenium, and tellurium also exist.===Isotopes===Caesium has 40 known isotopes, ranging in mass number (i.e.", "number of nucleons in the nucleus) from 112 to 151.Several of these are synthesized from lighter elements by the slow neutron capture process (S-process) inside old stars and by the R-process in supernova explosions.", "The only stable caesium isotope is 133Cs, with 78 neutrons.", "Although it has a large nuclear spin (+), nuclear magnetic resonance studies can use this isotope at a resonating frequency of 11.7 MHz.alt=A graph showing the energetics of caesium-137 (nuclear spin: I=+, half-life of about 30 years) decay.", "With a 94.6% probability, it decays by a 512 keV beta emission into barium-137m (I=11/2-, t=2.55min); this further decays by a 662 keV gamma emission with an 85.1% probability into barium-137 (I=+).", "Alternatively, caesium-137 may decay directly into barium-137 by a 0.4% probability beta emission.The radioactive 135Cs has a very long half-life of about 2.3 million years, the longest of all radioactive isotopes of caesium.", "137Cs and 134Cs have half-lives of 30 and two years, respectively.", "137Cs decomposes to a short-lived 137mBa by beta decay, and then to nonradioactive barium, while 134Cs transforms into 134Ba directly.", "The isotopes with mass numbers of 129, 131, 132 and 136, have half-lives between a day and two weeks, while most of the other isotopes have half-lives from a few seconds to fractions of a second.", "At least 21 metastable nuclear isomers exist.", "Other than 134mCs (with a half-life of just under 3 hours), all are very unstable and decay with half-lives of a few minutes or less.The isotope 135Cs is one of the long-lived fission products of uranium produced in nuclear reactors.", "However, this fission product yield is reduced in most reactors because the predecessor, 135Xe, is a potent neutron poison and frequently transmutes to stable 136Xe before it can decay to 135Cs.The beta decay from 137Cs to 137mBa results in gamma radiation as the 137mBa relaxes to ground state 137Ba, with the emitted photons having an energy of 0.6617 MeV.", "137Cs and 90Sr are the principal medium-lived products of nuclear fission, and the prime sources of radioactivity from spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, lasting several hundred years.", "Those two isotopes are the largest source of residual radioactivity in the area of the Chernobyl disaster.", "Because of the low capture rate, disposing of 137Cs through neutron capture is not feasible and the only current solution is to allow it to decay over time.Almost all caesium produced from nuclear fission comes from the beta decay of originally more neutron-rich fission products, passing through various isotopes of iodine and xenon.", "Because iodine and xenon are volatile and can diffuse through nuclear fuel or air, radioactive caesium is often created far from the original site of fission.", "With nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s through the 1980s, 137Cs was released into the atmosphere and returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout.", "It is a ready marker of the movement of soil and sediment from those times.===Occurrence===alt=A white mineral, from which white and pale pink crystals protrudeCaesium is a relatively rare element, estimated to average 3 parts per million in the Earth's crust.", "It is the 45th most abundant element and the 36th among the metals.", "Nevertheless, it is more abundant than such elements as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten, and two orders of magnitude more abundant than mercury and silver; it is 3.3% as abundant as rubidium, with which it is closely associated, chemically.Due to its large ionic radius, caesium is one of the \"incompatible elements\".", "During magma crystallization, caesium is concentrated in the liquid phase and crystallizes last.", "Therefore, the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process.", "Because caesium does not substitute for potassium as readily as rubidium does, the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite (KCl) and carnallite () may contain only 0.002% caesium.", "Consequently, caesium is found in few minerals.", "Percentage amounts of caesium may be found in beryl () and avogadrite (), up to 15 wt% Cs2O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite (), up to 8.4 wt% Cs2O in the rare mineral londonite (), and less in the more widespread rhodizite.", "The only economically important ore for caesium is pollucite , which is found in a few places around the world in zoned pegmatites, associated with the more commercially important lithium minerals, lepidolite and petalite.", "Within the pegmatites, the large grain size and the strong separation of the minerals results in high-grade ore for mining.The world's most significant and richest known source of caesium is the Tanco Mine at Bernic Lake in Manitoba, Canada, estimated to contain 350,000 metric tons of pollucite ore, representing more than two-thirds of the world's reserve base.", "Although the stoichiometric content of caesium in pollucite is 42.6%, pure pollucite samples from this deposit contain only about 34% caesium, while the average content is 24 wt%.", "Commercial pollucite contains more than 19% caesium.", "The Bikita pegmatite deposit in Zimbabwe is mined for its petalite, but it also contains a significant amount of pollucite.", "Another notable source of pollucite is in the Karibib Desert, Namibia.", "At the present rate of world mine production of 5 to 10 metric tons per year, reserves will last for thousands of years." ], [ "Production", "Mining and refining pollucite ore is a selective process and is conducted on a smaller scale than for most other metals.", "The ore is crushed, hand-sorted, but not usually concentrated, and then ground.", "Caesium is then extracted from pollucite primarily by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction.In the acid digestion, the silicate pollucite rock is dissolved with strong acids, such as hydrochloric (HCl), sulfuric (), hydrobromic (HBr), or hydrofluoric (HF) acids.", "With hydrochloric acid, a mixture of soluble chlorides is produced, and the insoluble chloride double salts of caesium are precipitated as caesium antimony chloride (), caesium iodine chloride (), or caesium hexachlorocerate ().", "After separation, the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed, and pure CsCl is precipitated by evaporating the water.The sulfuric acid method yields the insoluble double salt directly as caesium alum ().", "The aluminium sulfate component is converted to insoluble aluminium oxide by roasting the alum with carbon, and the resulting product is leached with water to yield a solution.Roasting pollucite with calcium carbonate and calcium chloride yields insoluble calcium silicates and soluble caesium chloride.", "Leaching with water or dilute ammonia () yields a dilute chloride (CsCl) solution.", "This solution can be evaporated to produce caesium chloride or transformed into caesium alum or caesium carbonate.", "Though not commercially feasible, the ore can be directly reduced with potassium, sodium, or calcium in vacuum to produce caesium metal directly.Most of the mined caesium (as salts) is directly converted into caesium formate (HCOO−Cs+) for applications such as oil drilling.", "To supply the developing market, Cabot Corporation built a production plant in 1997 at the Tanco mine near Bernic Lake in Manitoba, with a capacity of per year of caesium formate solution.", "The primary smaller-scale commercial compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and nitrate.Alternatively, caesium metal may be obtained from the purified compounds derived from the ore. Caesium chloride and the other caesium halides can be reduced at with calcium or barium, and caesium metal distilled from the result.", "In the same way, the aluminate, carbonate, or hydroxide may be reduced by magnesium.The metal can also be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium cyanide (CsCN).", "Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be produced by thermal decomposition of caesium azide , which can be produced from aqueous caesium sulfate and barium azide.", "In vacuum applications, caesium dichromate can be reacted with zirconium to produce pure caesium metal without other gaseous products.", ": + 2 → 2 + 2 + The price of 99.8% pure caesium (metal basis) in 2009 was about , but the compounds are significantly cheaper." ], [ "History", "Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (centre) discovered caesium with their newly invented spectroscope.| alt=Three middle-aged men, with the one in the middle sitting down.", "All wear long jackets, and the shorter man on the left has a beard.In 1860, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in the mineral water from Dürkheim, Germany.", "Because of the bright blue lines in the emission spectrum, they derived the name from the Latin word , meaning .", "Caesium was the first element to be discovered with a spectroscope, which had been invented by Bunsen and Kirchhoff only a year previously.To obtain a pure sample of caesium, of mineral water had to be evaporated to yield of concentrated salt solution.", "The alkaline earth metals were precipitated either as sulfates or oxalates, leaving the alkali metal in the solution.", "After conversion to the nitrates and extraction with ethanol, a sodium-free mixture was obtained.", "From this mixture, the lithium was precipitated by ammonium carbonate.", "Potassium, rubidium, and caesium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid, but these salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water, and the less-soluble caesium and rubidium hexachloroplatinate () were obtained by fractional crystallization.", "After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen, caesium and rubidium were separated by the difference in solubility of their carbonates in alcohol.", "The process yielded of rubidium chloride and of caesium chloride from the initial 44,000 litres of mineral water.From the caesium chloride, the two scientists estimated the atomic weight of the new element at 123.35 (compared to the currently accepted one of 132.9).", "They tried to generate elemental caesium by electrolysis of molten caesium chloride, but instead of a metal, they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which \"neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metallic substance\"; as a result, they assigned it as a subchloride ().", "In reality, the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and caesium chloride.", "The electrolysis of the aqueous solution of chloride with a mercury cathode produced a caesium amalgam which readily decomposed under the aqueous conditions.", "The pure metal was eventually isolated by the Swedish chemist Carl Setterberg while working on his doctorate with Kekulé and Bunsen.", "In 1882, he produced caesium metal by electrolysing caesium cyanide, avoiding the problems with the chloride.Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical fields.", "Very few applications existed for caesium until the 1920s, when it came into use in radio vacuum tubes, where it had two functions; as a getter, it removed excess oxygen after manufacture, and as a coating on the heated cathode, it increased the electrical conductivity.", "Caesium was not recognized as a high-performance industrial metal until the 1950s.", "Applications for nonradioactive caesium included photoelectric cells, photomultiplier tubes, optical components of infrared spectrophotometers, catalysts for several organic reactions, crystals for scintillation counters, and in magnetohydrodynamic power generators.", "Caesium is also used as a source of positive ions in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS).Since 1967, the International System of Measurements has based the primary unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium.", "The International System of Units (SI) defines the second as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles at the microwave frequency of the spectral line corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of caesium-133.The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 defined a second as: \"the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesium-133 atoms in their ground state undisturbed by external fields\"." ], [ "Applications", "===Petroleum exploration===The largest present-day use of nonradioactive caesium is in caesium formate drilling fluids for the extractive oil industry.", "Aqueous solutions of caesium formate (HCOO−Cs+)—made by reacting caesium hydroxide with formic acid—were developed in the mid-1990s for use as oil well drilling and completion fluids.", "The function of a drilling fluid is to lubricate drill bits, to bring rock cuttings to the surface, and to maintain pressure on the formation during drilling of the well.", "Completion fluids assist the emplacement of control hardware after drilling but prior to production by maintaining the pressure.The high density of the caesium formate brine (up to 2.3 g/cm3, or 19.2 pounds per gallon), coupled with the relatively benign nature of most caesium compounds, reduces the requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid—a significant technological, engineering and environmental advantage.", "Unlike the components of many other heavy liquids, caesium formate is relatively environment-friendly.", "Caesium formate brine can be blended with potassium and sodium formates to decrease the density of the fluids to that of water (1.0 g/cm3, or 8.3 pounds per gallon).", "Furthermore, it is biodegradable and may be recycled, which is important in view of its high cost (about $4,000 per barrel in 2001).", "Alkali formates are safe to handle and do not damage the producing formation or downhole metals as corrosive alternative, high-density brines (such as zinc bromide solutions) sometimes do; they also require less cleanup and reduce disposal costs.===Atomic clocks===alt=A room with a black box in the foreground and six control cabinets with space for five to six racks each.", "Most, but not all, of the cabinets are filled with white boxes.Caesium-based atomic clocks use the electromagnetic transitions in the hyperfine structure of caesium-133 atoms as a reference point.", "The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK.", "Caesium clocks have improved over the past half-century and are regarded as \"the most accurate realization of a unit that mankind has yet achieved.\"", "These clocks measure frequency with an error of 2 to 3 parts in 1014, which corresponds to an accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day, or one second in 1.4 million years.", "The latest versions are more accurate than 1 part in 1015, about 1 second in 20 million years.", "The caesium standard is the primary standard for standards-compliant time and frequency measurements.", "Caesium clocks regulate the timing of cell phone networks and the Internet.====Definition of the second====The second, symbol ''s'', is the SI unit of time.", "The BIPM restated its definition at its 26th conference in 2018: \"The second is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency , the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1.", "\"===Electric power and electronics===Caesium vapour thermionic generators are low-power devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy.", "In the two-electrode vacuum tube converter, caesium neutralizes the space charge near the cathode and enhances the current flow.Caesium is also important for its photoemissive properties, converting light to electron flow.", "It is used in photoelectric cells because caesium-based cathodes, such as the intermetallic compound , have a low threshold voltage for emission of electrons.", "The range of photoemissive devices using caesium include optical character recognition devices, photomultiplier tubes, and video camera tubes.", "Nevertheless, germanium, rubidium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, and several other elements can be substituted for caesium in photosensitive materials.Caesium iodide (CsI), bromide (CsBr) and fluoride (CsF) crystals are employed for scintillators in scintillation counters widely used in mineral exploration and particle physics research to detect gamma and X-ray radiation.", "Being a heavy element, caesium provides good stopping power with better detection.", "Caesium compounds may provide a faster response (CsF) and be less hygroscopic (CsI).Caesium vapour is used in many common magnetometers.The element is used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry.", "Like other alkali metals, caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a \"getter\" in vacuum tubes.", "Other uses of the metal include high-energy lasers, vapour glow lamps, and vapour rectifiers.===Centrifugation fluids===The high density of the caesium ion makes solutions of caesium chloride, caesium sulfate, and caesium trifluoroacetate () useful in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation.", "This technology is used primarily in the isolation of viral particles, subcellular organelles and fractions, and nucleic acids from biological samples.===Chemical and medical use===Caesium chloride powderRelatively few chemical applications use caesium.", "Doping with caesium compounds enhances the effectiveness of several metal-ion catalysts for chemical synthesis, such as acrylic acid, anthraquinone, ethylene oxide, methanol, phthalic anhydride, styrene, methyl methacrylate monomers, and various olefins.", "It is also used in the catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the production of sulfuric acid.", "Caesium fluoride enjoys a niche use in organic chemistry as a base and as an anhydrous source of fluoride ion.", "Caesium salts sometimes replace potassium or sodium salts in organic synthesis, such as cyclization, esterification, and polymerization.", "Caesium has also been used in thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): When exposed to radiation, it acquires crystal defects that, when heated, revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose.", "Thus, measuring the light pulse with a photomultiplier tube can allow the accumulated radiation dose to be quantified.===Nuclear and isotope applications===Caesium-137 is a radioisotope commonly used as a gamma-emitter in industrial applications.", "Its advantages include a half-life of roughly 30 years, its availability from the nuclear fuel cycle, and having 137Ba as a stable end product.", "The high water solubility is a disadvantage which makes it incompatible with large pool irradiators for food and medical supplies.", "It has been used in agriculture, cancer treatment, and the sterilization of food, sewage sludge, and surgical equipment.", "Radioactive isotopes of caesium in radiation devices were used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer, but emergence of better alternatives and the use of water-soluble caesium chloride in the sources, which could create wide-ranging contamination, gradually put some of these caesium sources out of use.", "Caesium-137 has been employed in a variety of industrial measurement gauges, including moisture, density, levelling, and thickness gauges.", "It has also been used in well logging devices for measuring the electron density of the rock formations, which is analogous to the bulk density of the formations.Caesium-137 has been used in hydrologic studies analogous to those with tritium.", "As a daughter product of fission bomb testing from the 1950s through the mid-1980s, caesium-137 was released into the atmosphere, where it was absorbed readily into solution.", "Known year-to-year variation within that period allows correlation with soil and sediment layers.", "Caesium-134, and to a lesser extent caesium-135, have also been used in hydrology to measure the caesium output by the nuclear power industry.", "While they are less prevalent than either caesium-133 or caesium-137, these bellwether isotopes are produced solely from anthropogenic sources.===Other uses===alt=Electrons beamed from an electron gun hit and ionize neutral fuel atoms; in a chamber surrounded by magnets, the positive ions are directed toward a negative grid that accelerates them.", "The force of the engine is created by expelling the ions from the rear at high velocity.", "On exiting, the positive ions are neutralized from another electron gun, ensuring that neither the ship nor the exhaust is electrically charged and are not attracted.Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions.", "The fuel was ionized by contact with a charged tungsten electrode.", "But corrosion by caesium on spacecraft components has pushed development in the direction of inert gas propellants, such as xenon, which are easier to handle in ground-based tests and do less potential damage to the spacecraft.", "Xenon was used in the experimental spacecraft Deep Space 1 launched in 1998.Nevertheless, field-emission electric propulsion thrusters that accelerate liquid metal ions such as caesium have been built.Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares, such as the LUU-19 flare, because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum.", "Caesium compounds may have been used as fuel additives to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in the Lockheed A-12 CIA reconnaissance aircraft.", "Caesium and rubidium have been added as a carbonate to glass because they reduce electrical conductivity and improve stability and durability of fibre optics and night vision devices.", "Caesium fluoride or caesium aluminium fluoride are used in fluxes formulated for brazing aluminium alloys that contain magnesium.Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power-generating systems were researched, but failed to gain widespread acceptance.", "Caesium metal has also been considered as the working fluid in high-temperature Rankine cycle turboelectric generators.Caesium salts have been evaluated as antishock reagents following the administration of arsenical drugs.", "Because of their effect on heart rhythms, however, they are less likely to be used than potassium or rubidium salts.", "They have also been used to treat epilepsy.Caesium-133 can be laser cooled and used to probe fundamental and technological problems in quantum physics.", "It has a particularly convenient Feshbach spectrum to enable studies of ultracold atoms requiring tunable interactions." ], [ "Health and safety hazards", "The portion of the total radiation dose (in air) contributed by each isotope plotted against time after the Chernobyl disaster.", "Caesium-137 became the primary source of radiation about 200 days after the accident.Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant environmental hazard.", "Because biochemical processes can confuse and substitute caesium with potassium, excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrhythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources.The median lethal dose (LD50) for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride.", "The principal use of nonradioactive caesium is as caesium formate in petroleum drilling fluids because it is much less toxic than alternatives, though it is more costly.Caesium metal is one of the most reactive elements and is highly explosive in the presence of water.", "The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time, causing ignition and a violent explosion.", "This can occur with other alkali metals, but caesium is so potent that this explosive reaction can be triggered even by cold water.It is highly pyrophoric: the autoignition temperature of caesium is , and it ignites explosively in air to form caesium hydroxide and various oxides.", "Caesium hydroxide is a very strong base, and will rapidly corrode glass.The isotopes 134 and 137 are present in the biosphere in small amounts from human activities, differing by location.", "Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as readily as other fission products (such as radioiodine and radiostrontium).", "About 10% of absorbed radiocaesium washes out of the body relatively quickly in sweat and urine.", "The remaining 90% has a biological half-life between 50 and 150 days.", "Radiocaesium follows potassium and tends to accumulate in plant tissues, including fruits and vegetables.", "Plants vary widely in the absorption of caesium, sometimes displaying great resistance to it.", "It is also well-documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium (caesium-137) in the fungal sporocarps.", "Accumulation of caesium-137 in lakes has been a great concern after the Chernobyl disaster.", "Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3.8 millicuries (140 MBq, 4.1 μg of caesium-137) per kilogram is lethal within three weeks; smaller amounts may cause infertility and cancer.", "The International Atomic Energy Agency and other sources have warned that radioactive materials, such as caesium-137, could be used in radiological dispersion devices, or \"dirty bombs\"." ], [ "See also", "* * Acerinox accident, a caesium-137 contamination accident in 1998* Goiânia accident, a major radioactive contamination incident in 1987 involving caesium-137* Kramatorsk radiological accident, a 137Cs lost-source incident between 1980 and 1989" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Caesium or Cesium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* View the reaction of Caesium (most reactive metal in the periodic table) with Fluorine (most reactive non-metal) courtesy of The Royal Institution.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Century" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''century''' is a period of 100 years.", "Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages.", "The word ''century'' comes from the Latin ''centum'', meaning ''one hundred''.", "''Century'' is sometimes abbreviated as '''c.", "'''A centennial or centenary is a hundredth anniversary, or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier.A century from now will be , (UTC time)." ], [ "Start and end of centuries", "Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries.", "One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perception.", "According to the strict construction, the 1st century AD began with AD 1 and ended with AD 100, the 2nd century spanning the years 101 to 200, with the same pattern continuing onward.", "In this model, the ''n''-th century starts with the year that ends with \"01\", and ends with the year that ends with \"00\"; for example, the 20th century comprises the years '''1901''' to '''2000''' in strict usage.In popular perception and practice, centuries are structured by grouping years based on sharing the 'hundreds' digit(s).", "In this model, the ''n''-th century starts with the year that ends in \"00\" and ends with the year ending in \"99\"; for example, the years '''1900''' to '''1999''', in popular culture, constitute the 20th century.", "(This is similar to the grouping of \"0-to-9 decades\" which share the 'tens' digit.)", "To facilitate calendrical calculations by computer, the astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, with the astronomical year 0 corresponding to the year 1 BCE, the astronomical year -1 corresponding to 2 BCE, and so on.+ Strict vs Popular usage Year 2 BC 1 BC 1 2 ... 99 100 101 102 ... 199 200 201 202 ... 1899 1900 1901 1902 ... 1999 2000 2001 2002 ...2024 ... 2099 2100 2101 2102 ...", "Strict 1st century BC 1st century 2nd century 3rd century ... 19th century 20th century 21st century 22nd century ... Popular 1st century BC 1st century 2nd century 3rd century ... 19th century 20th century 21st century 22nd century ..." ], [ "Alternative naming systems", "Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year.", "In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the ''nineteen hundreds'' (''1900s'').", "Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Finnish and Hungarian.", "The Swedish (or ), Danish (or ), Norwegian (or ), Finnish (or ) and Hungarian (or ) refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999.In Swedish, however, a century is in more rare cases referred to as (\"the n-th century\") rather than , i.e.", "the 17th century is (in rare cases) referred to as ''17:(d)e seklet''/''sjuttonde seklet'' rather than ''1600-talet'', and the years 1501 to 1600 is (according to Svenska Akademiens ordbok) referred to as ''sextonde århundradet'' (\"the sixteenth century\") and also distinctly separated from ''femtonhundratalet'' (\"the 1500s\"; the years 1500 to 1599).Italian also has a similar system, but it only expresses the hundreds and omits the word for 'thousand'.", "This system mainly functions from the 11th to the 20th century: : (that is 'the four hundred', the 15th century): (that is 'the five hundred', the 16th century).", "These terms are often used in other languages when referring to the history of Italy." ], [ "Similar dating units in other calendar systems", "While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner.", "The Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52." ], [ "See also", "* Age of Discovery* Ancient history* Before Christ* Common Era* Decade* List of decades, centuries, and millennia* Lustrum* Middle Ages* Millennium* Modern era* Saeculum* Year" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''The Battle of the Centuries'', Ruth Freitag, U.S. Government Printing Office.", "Available from the Superintendent of Documents, P.O.", "Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250- 7954.Cite stock no.", "030-001-00153-9.Retrieved 3 March 2019." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cardiff" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cardiff''' (; ) is the capital and largest city of Wales.", "Cardiff had a population of 362,310 in 2021 and forms a principal area officially known as the '''City and County of Cardiff''' ().", "The city is the eleventh largest in the United Kingdom.", "Located in the southeast of Wales and in the Cardiff Capital Region, Cardiff is the county town of the historic county of Glamorgan and in 1974–1996 of South Glamorgan.", "It belongs to the Eurocities network of the largest European cities.", "A small town until the early 19th century, its prominence as a port for coal when mining began in the region helped its expansion.", "In 1905, it was ranked as a city and in 1955 proclaimed capital of Wales.", "Cardiff Built-up Area covers a larger area outside the county boundary, including the towns of Dinas Powys and Penarth.Cardiff is the main commercial centre of Wales as well as the base for the Senedd, the Welsh Parliament.", "At the 2021 census, the unitary authority area population was put at 362,400.The population of the wider urban area in 2011 was 479,000.In 2011, it ranked sixth in the world in a ''National Geographic'' magazine list of alternative tourist destinations.", "It is the most popular destination in Wales with 21.3 million visitors in 2017.Cardiff is a major centre for television and film production (such as the 2005 revival of ''Doctor Who'', ''Torchwood'' and ''Sherlock'') and is the Welsh base for the main national broadcasters.Cardiff Bay contains the Senedd building and the Wales Millennium Centre arts complex.", "Work continues at Cardiff Bay and in the centre on projects such as Cardiff International Sports Village, BBC drama village, and a new business district." ], [ "Etymology", " (the Welsh name of the city) derives from the Middle Welsh .", "The change from to shows the colloquial alteration of Welsh ''f'' and ''dd'' and was perhaps also driven by folk etymology.", "This sound change probably first occurred in the Middle Ages; both forms were current in the Tudor period.", "has its origins in post-Roman Brythonic words meaning \"the fort of the Taff\".", "The fort probably refers to that established by the Romans.", "is Welsh for ''fort'' and is in effect a form of (Taff), the river which flows by Cardiff Castle, with the showing consonant mutation to and the vowel showing affection as a result of a (lost) genitive case ending.The anglicised ''Cardiff'' is derived from , with the Welsh ''f'' borrowed as ''ff'' , as also happens in ''Taff'' (from Welsh ) and ''Llandaff'' (from Welsh ).The antiquarian William Camden (1551–1623) suggested that the name Cardiff may derive from * (\"the Fort of Didius\"), a name supposedly given in honour of , governor of a nearby province at the time when the Roman fort was established.", "Although some sources repeat this theory, it has been rejected on linguistic grounds by modern scholars such as Professor Pierce." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Archaeological evidence from sites in and around Cardiff show that people had settled in the area by at least around 6000 BC, during the early Neolithic; about 1,500 years before either Stonehenge or the Great Pyramid of Giza was completed.", "These include the St Lythans burial chamber near Wenvoe, (approximately west of Cardiff city centre); the Tinkinswood burial chamber, near St. Nicholas (about west of Cardiff city centre), the Cae'rarfau Chambered Tomb, Creigiau (about northwest of Cardiff city centre) and the Gwern y Cleppa long barrow, near Coedkernew, Newport (about northeast of Cardiff city centre).", "A group of five Bronze Age tumuli is at the summit of the Garth, within the county's northern boundary.", "Four Iron Age hill fort and enclosure sites have been identified within Cardiff's county boundaries, including Caerau Hillfort, an enclosed area of .Front wall of Cardiff Castlepart of the original Roman fort beneath the red stonesUntil the Roman conquest of Britain, Cardiff was part of the territory of the Silures – a Celtic British tribe that flourished in the Iron Age – whose territory included the areas that would become known as Breconshire, Monmouthshire and Glamorgan.", "The fort established by the Romans near the mouth of the River Taff in AD 75, in what would become the north western boundary of the centre of Cardiff, was built over an extensive settlement that had been established by the Romans in the 50s AD.", "The fort was one of a series of military outposts associated with ''Isca Augusta'' (Caerleon) that acted as border defences.", "The fort may have been abandoned in the early 2nd century as the area had been subdued.", "However, by this time a civilian settlement, or ''vicus'', was established.", "It was likely made up of traders who made a living from the fort, ex-soldiers and their families.", "A Roman villa has been discovered at Ely.", "Contemporary with the Saxon Shore forts of the 3rd and 4th centuries, a stone fortress was established at Cardiff.", "Similar to the shore forts, the fortress was built to protect Britannia from raiders.", "Coins from the reign of Gratian indicate that Cardiff was inhabited until at least the 4th century; the fort was abandoned towards the end of the 4th century, as the last Roman legions left the province of Britannia with Magnus Maximus.Little is known of the fort and civilian settlement in the period between the Roman departure from Britain and the Norman Conquest.", "The settlement probably shrank in size and may even have been abandoned.", "In the absence of Roman rule, Wales was divided into small kingdoms; early on, Meurig ap Tewdrig emerged as the local king in Glywysing (which later became Glamorgan).", "The area passed through his family until the advent of the Normans in the 11th century.===Norman occupation and Middle Ages===The Norman keepIn 1081 William I, King of England, began work on the castle keep within the walls of the old Roman fort.", "Cardiff Castle has been at the heart of the city ever since.", "The castle was substantially altered and extended during the Victorian period by John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute, and the architect William Burges.", "Original Roman work can, however, still be distinguished in the wall facings.A town grew up under the castle, consisting mainly of settlers from England.", "Cardiff had a population of between 1,500 and 2,000 in the Middle Ages – a normal size for a Welsh town in the period.", "It was the centre of the Norman Marcher Lordship of Glamorgan.", "By the end of the 13th century, Cardiff was the only town in Wales with a population exceeding 2,000, although it remained relatively small compared with notable towns in England and continued to be contained within its walls, which were begun as a wooden palisade in the early 12th century.", "It was of sufficient size and importance to receive a series of charters, notably in 1331 from William La Zouche, Lord of Glamorgan through marriage with the de Clare family, Edward III in 1359, then Henry IV in 1400, and later Henry VI.In 1404, Owain Glyndŵr burned Cardiff and took possession of the Castle.", "As many of the buildings were made of timber and tightly packed within the town walls, much of Cardiff was destroyed.", "The settlement was soon rebuilt on the same street plan and began to flourish again.", "(Glyndŵr's statue was erected in Cardiff Town Hall in the early 20th century, reflecting the complex, often conflicting cultural identity of Cardiff as capital of Wales.)", "Besides serving an important political role in the governance of the fertile south Glamorgan coastal plain, Cardiff was a busy port in the Middle Ages and declared a staple port in 1327.===County town of Glamorganshire===View of Caerdiffe CastleCardiff old town hall (1860)In 1536, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 led to the creation of Glamorganshire and Cardiff was made the county town, it also became part of Kibbor hundred, around the same time the Herberts became the most powerful family in the area.", "In 1538, Henry VIII closed Cardiff's Dominican and Franciscan friaries, whose remains were used as building materials.", "A writer in this period noted: \"The River Taff runs under the walls of his honours castle and from the north part of the town to the south part where there is a fair quay and a safe harbour for shipping.", "\"Cardiff became a borough in 1542 and further Royal Charters were granted to it by Elizabeth I in 1600 and James I in 1608.In 1573, it was made a head port for collection of customs duties.", "Pembrokeshire historian George Owen described Cardiff in 1602 as \"the fayrest towne in Wales yett not the welthiest\".", "It gained a second Royal Charter in 1608.John Speed's map of Cardiff from 1610A disastrous flood in the Bristol Channel on 30 January 1607 (now believed to have been a tidal wave) changed the course of the River Taff and ruined St Mary's Parish Church, which was replaced by a chapel of ease dedicated to St John the Baptist.During the Second English Civil War St Fagans, just to the west of the town, the Battle of St Fagans, between Royalist rebels and a New Model Army detachment, was a decisive victory for the Parliamentarians that allowed Oliver Cromwell to conquer Wales.", "It was the last major battle in Wales, with about 200, mostly Royalist soldiers killed.Cardiff was at peace throughout the ensuing century.", "In 1766, John Stuart, 1st Marquess of Bute married into the Herbert family and was later created Baron Cardiff.", "In 1778, he began renovating Cardiff Castle.", "A racecourse, printing press, bank and coffee house opened in the 1790s and Cardiff gained a stagecoach service to London.", "Despite these improvements, Cardiff's position in the Welsh urban hierarchy declined over the 18th century.", "Iolo Morganwg called it \"an obscure and inconsiderable place\" and the 1801 census found a population of only 1,870, making it only the 25th largest town in Wales, well behind Merthyr and Swansea.===Building the docks===In 1793, John Crichton-Stuart, 2nd Marquess of Bute was born.", "He spent his life building the Cardiff docks and was later hailed as \"the creator of modern Cardiff\".", "A twice-weekly boat service between Cardiff and Bristol opened in 1815, and in 1821, the Cardiff Gas Works was established.After the Napoleonic Wars Cardiff suffered some social and industrial unrest, starting with the trial and hanging of Dic Penderyn in 1831.Jubilee dock, Cardiff, from the eastern side (1849)The town grew rapidly from the 1830s onwards, when the Marquess of Bute built a dock, which eventually linked to the Taff Vale Railway.", "Cardiff became the main port for coal exports from the Cynon, Rhondda, and Rhymney valleys, and grew in population at a rate of nearly 80 per cent per decade between 1840 and 1870.Much of this was due to migration from within and outside Wales: in 1841, a quarter of Cardiff's population were English-born and more than 10 per cent born in Ireland.", "By the 1881 census, Cardiff had overtaken Merthyr and Swansea to become the largest town in Wales.", "Cardiff's status as the premier town in South Wales was confirmed when it was chosen as the site for the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire in 1883.A permanent military presence was established with the completion of Maindy Barracks in 1877.Cardiff faced a challenge in the 1880s when David Davies of Llandinam and the Barry Railway Company promoted rival docks at Barry.", "These had the advantage of being accessible in all tides: David Davies claimed his venture would cause \"grass to grow in the streets of Cardiff\".", "From 1901 coal exports from Barry surpassed those from Cardiff, but the administration of the coal trade remained centred on Cardiff, in particular its Coal Exchange, where the price of coal on the British market was determined and the first million-pound deal was struck in 1907.The city also strengthened its industrial base when the owners of the Dowlais Ironworks in Merthyr (who would later form part of Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds) built a steelworks close to the docks at East Moors, which Lord Bute opened on 4 February 1891.===County Borough of Cardiff===Cardiff became a county borough on 1 April 1889 under the Local Government Act 1888.The town had grown rapidly and had a population of over 123,000.It retained its county borough status until 1974.===City and capital city status===National Museum of Wales, CardiffKing Edward VII granted Cardiff city status on 28 October 1905.It acquired a Roman Catholic cathedral in 1916.Later, more national institutions came to the city, including the National Museum of Wales, the Welsh National War Memorial, and the University of Wales Registry Building, but it was denied the National Library of Wales, partly because the library's founder, Sir John Williams, considered Cardiff to have \"a non-Welsh population\".After a brief post-war boom, Cardiff docks entered a prolonged decline in the interwar period.", "By 1936, trade was at less than half its value in 1913, reflecting the slump in demand for Welsh coal.", "Bomb damage in the Cardiff Blitz of World War II included the devastation of Llandaff Cathedral, and in the immediate postwar years, the city's link with the Bute family came to an end.The city was recognised as the capital city of Wales on 20 December 1955, in a written reply by the Home Secretary, Gwilym Lloyd George.", "Caernarfon had also vied for the title.", "Welsh local authorities had been divided: only 76 out of 161 chose Cardiff in a 1924 poll organised by the ''South Wales Daily News''.", "The subject was not debated again until 1950, and meanwhile Cardiff took steps to promote its \"Welshness\".", "The stalemate between Cardiff and cities such as Caernarfon and Aberystwyth was not broken until Cardiganshire County Council decided to support Cardiff; and in a new local authority vote, 134 out of 161 voted for Cardiff.Cardiff therefore celebrated two important anniversaries in 2005.The Encyclopedia of Wales notes that the decision to recognise the city as the capital of Wales \"had more to do with the fact that it contained marginal Conservative constituencies than any reasoned view of what functions a Welsh capital should have.\"", "Although the city hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1958, Cardiff only became a centre of national administration with the establishment of the Welsh Office in 1964, which later prompted the creation of various other public bodies such as the Arts Council of Wales and the Welsh Development Agency, most of which were based in Cardiff.Redevelopment in the city's historic Cardiff Bay areaThe East Moors Steelworks closed in 1978 and Cardiff lost population in the 1980s, consistent with a wider pattern of counter-urbanisation in Britain.", "However, it recovered to become one of the few cities outside London where population grew in the 1990s.", "During this period the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation was promoting the redevelopment of south Cardiff; an evaluation of the regeneration of Cardiff Bay published in 2004 concluded that the project had \"reinforced the competitive position of Cardiff\" and \"contributed to a massive improvement in the quality of the built environment, although it had \"failed \"to attract the major inward investors originally anticipated\".In the 1997 Welsh devolution referendum, Cardiff voters rejected the establishment of the National Assembly for Wales by 55.4% to 44.2% on a 47% turnout, which Denis Balsom partly ascribed to a general preference in Cardiff and some other parts of Wales for a British rather than exclusively Welsh identity.", "The relative lack of local support for the Assembly and difficulties between the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council in acquiring the originally preferred venue, Cardiff City Hall, encouraged other local authorities to bid to house the Assembly.", "However, the Assembly was eventually located at Tŷ Hywel in Cardiff Bay in 1999.In 2005, a new debating chamber on an adjacent site, designed by Richard Rogers, was opened." ], [ "Government", "The Senedd (Welsh Parliament; ) has been based in Cardiff Bay since its formation in 1999 as the \"National Assembly for Wales\".", "The Senedd building was opened on 1 March 2006 by The Queen.", "The Members of the Senedd (MSs), the Senedd Commission and ministerial support staff are based in Cardiff Bay.", "Cardiff elects four constituency Members of the Senedd to the Senedd; the constituencies for the Senedd are the same as for the UK Parliament.", "All of the city's electors have an extra vote for the South Wales Central regional members; this system increases proportionality to the Senedd.", "The most recent Senedd general election was held on 6 May 2021.In the Senedd, Cardiff is represented by Jenny Rathbone (Labour) in Cardiff Central, Julie Morgan (Labour) in Cardiff North, Vaughan Gething (Labour) in Cardiff South and Penarth and First Minister of Wales Mark Drakeford (Labour) in Cardiff West.At Westminster, Cardiff is represented by four Labour MPs: Jo Stevens in Cardiff Central, Anna McMorrin in Cardiff North, Stephen Doughty in Cardiff South and Penarth, and Kevin Brennan in Cardiff West.The Welsh Government is headquartered in Cardiff's Cathays Park, where most of its civil servants are based, with smaller numbers in other central locations: Cathays, Canton, and Cardiff Bay.", "There are other Welsh Government offices in other parts of Wales, such as Llandudno and Aberystwyth, and there are international offices.===Local government===Between 1889 and 1974 Cardiff was a county borough governed by Cardiff County Borough Council (known as Cardiff City Council after 1905).", "Between 1974 and 1996, Cardiff was governed by Cardiff City Council, a district council of South Glamorgan.", "Since local government reorganisation in 1996, Cardiff has been governed by the City and County Council of Cardiff, based at County Hall in Atlantic Wharf, Cardiff Bay.", "Voters elect 75 councillors every four years.Between the 2004 and 2012 local elections, no individual political party held a majority on Cardiff County Council.", "The Liberal Democrats held the largest number of seats and Cllr Rodney Berman was Leader of the council.", "The Liberal Democrats and Plaid Cymru formed a partnership administration.", "In the 2012 elections the Labour Party achieved an outright majority, after gaining an additional 33 seats across the city.Cardiff is divided into communities, several with their own community council and the rest governed directly by Cardiff City Council.", "Elections are held every five years.", "The last contested elections would have been held at the same time as the 2017 Cardiff Council election had there been more candidates standing than available seats.", "Those with community councils are:*Lisvane (10 seats)*Old St. Mellons (9 seats)*Pentyrch (13 seats)*Radyr & Morganstown (13 seats)*Tongwynlais (9 seats)*St Fagans (9 seats)" ], [ "Geography", "The centre of Cardiff is relatively flat and bounded by hills to the east, north and west.", "Its location influenced its development as the world's largest coal port, notably its proximity and easy access to the coalfields of the South Wales Valleys.", "The highest point in the local authority area is Garth Hill, above sea level.Cardiff is built on reclaimed marshland on a bed of Triassic stones.", "This reclaimed marshland stretches from Chepstow to the Ely Estuary, which is the natural boundary of Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan.", "Triassic landscapes of this part of the world are usually shallow and low-lying, consistent with the flatness of the centre of Cardiff.", "The classic Triassic marl, sand and conglomerate rocks are used predominantly throughout Cardiff as building materials.", "Many of these Triassic rocks are purplish, especially the coastal marl found near Penarth.", "One of the Triassic rocks used in Cardiff is \"Radyr Stone\", a freestone which as its name suggests is quarried in the Radyr district.", "Cardiff has also imported some materials for buildings: Devonian sandstones (the Old Red Sandstone) from the Brecon Beacons has been used.", "Most famously, the buildings of Cathays Park, the civic centre in the centre of the city, are built of Portland stone from Dorset.", "A widely used building stone in Cardiff is the yellow-grey Liassic limestone rock of the Vale of Glamorgan, including the rare \"Sutton Stone\", a conglomerate of lias limestone and carboniferous limestone.Cardiff is bordered to the west by the rural district of the Vale of Glamorgan, also known as the Garden of Cardiff, to the east by the city of Newport; to the north by the South Wales Valleys, and to the south by the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel.", "The River Taff winds through the city centre and together with the River Ely flows into the freshwater Cardiff Bay.", "A third river, the Rhymney, flows through the east of the city directly into the Severn Estuary.Cardiff lies near the Glamorgan Heritage Coast, stretching westward from Penarth and Barry – commuter towns of Cardiff – with striped yellow-blue Jurassic limestone cliffs.", "The Glamorgan coast is the only part of the Celtic Sea with exposed Jurassic (blue lias) geology.", "This stretch of coast with its reefs, sandbanks and serrated cliffs was a ship graveyard; many ships sailing to Cardiff during the industrial era were wrecked on this hostile coastline during west/south-westerly gales.", "Smuggling, deliberate shipwrecking and attacks on ships were also common." ], [ "Cityscape", "Overlooking Cardiff Bay, viewed from PenarthCathays LibraryThe dock feeder canalAtlantic Wharf\"Inner Cardiff\" consists of the wards of Plasnewydd, Gabalfa, Roath, Cathays, Adamsdown and Splott ward on the north and east of the city centre, and Butetown, Grangetown, Riverside and Canton to the south and west.", "The inner-city areas to the south of the A4161 road, known as the \"Southern Arc\", are with the exception of Cardiff Bay some of the poorest districts of Wales, with low levels of economic activity.", "On the other hand, Gabalfa, Plasnewydd and Cathays north of the 'arc' have large student populations, and Pontcanna (north of Riverside and alongside Canton) is a favourite for students and young professionals.", "Penylan, to the north east of Roath Park, is an affluent area popular with older parents and the retired.To the west lie Ely and Caerau, which have some of the largest housing estates in the United Kingdom.", "With the exception of some outlying privately built estates at Michaelston-super-Ely, this is an economically disadvantaged area with high numbers of unemployed households.", "Culverhouse Cross is a more affluent western area of the city.", "Fairwater, Heath, Birchgrove, Gabalfa, Mynachdy, Llandaff North, Llandaff, Llanishen, Radyr, Whitchurch & Tongwynlais, Rhiwbina, Thornhill, Lisvane and Cyncoed lie in an arc from the north-west to the north-east of the centre.", "Lisvane, Cyncoed, Radyr and Rhiwbina contain some of the most expensive housing in Wales.Further east lie the wards of Pontprennau and Old St Mellons, Rumney, Pentwyn, Llanrumney, Llanedeyrn and Trowbridge.", "The last four are largely public housing stock, although much new private housing is being built in Trowbridge.", "Pontprennau is the newest \"suburb\" of Cardiff, while Old St Mellons has a history going back to the 11th-century Norman Conquest.", "The region that may be called \"Rural Cardiff\" contains the villages of St Fagans, Creigiau, Pentyrch, Tongwynlais and Gwaelod-y-garth.", "In 2017, plans were approved for a new suburb of 7,000 homes between Radyr and St Fagans, known as Plasdŵr.", "St Fagans, home to the Museum of Welsh Life, is protected from further development.Since 2000, there has been a marked change of scale and building height in Cardiff, with the development of the city centre's first purpose-built high-rise apartments.", "Tall buildings have been built in the city centre and Cardiff Bay, and more are planned." ], [ "Climate", "Cardiff, in the north temperate zone, has a maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb) marked by mild weather that is often cloudy, wet and windy.", "Summers tend to be warm and sunny, with average maxima between .", "Winters are fairly wet, but excessive rainfall as well as frost are rare.", "Spring and autumn feel similar and the temperatures tend to stay above – also the average annual daytime temperature.", "Rain is unpredictable at any time of year, although showers tend to be shorter in summer.The northern part of the county, being higher and inland, tends to be cooler and wetter than the city centre.Cardiff's maximum and minimum monthly temperatures average (July) and (February).For Wales, the temperatures average (July) and (February).Cardiff has 1,518 hours of sunshine in an average year (Wales 1,388.7 hours).", "Cardiff is sunniest in July, with an average 203.4 hours during the month (Wales 183.3 hours), and least sunny in December with 44.6 hours (Wales 38.5 hours).Cardiff experiences less rainfall than average for Wales.", "It falls on 146 days in an average year, with total annual rainfall of .", "Monthly rainfall patterns show that from October to January, average monthly rainfall in Cardiff exceeds each month, the wettest month being December with and the driest from April to June, with average monthly rainfall fairly consistent between ." ], [ "Demography", "After a period of decline in the 1970s and 1980s, Cardiff's population is growing again.", "It reached 362,400 in the 2021 census, compared to a 2011 census figure of 346,100.Between mid-2007 and mid-2008, Cardiff was the fastest-growing local authority in Wales, with growth of 1.2%.", "According to 2001 census data, Cardiff was the 21st largest urban area.", "The Cardiff Larger Urban Zone (a Eurostat definition including the Vale of Glamorgan and a number of local authorities in the Valleys) has 841,600 people, the 10th largest LUZ in the UK.", "The Cardiff and South Wales Valleys metropolitan area has a population of nearly 1.1 million.Residential areas of northern CardiffOfficial census estimates of the city's total population have been disputed.", "The city council published two articles arguing that the 2001 census seriously under-reported the population of Cardiff, and in particular the ethnic minority population of some inner city areas.The Welsh Government's official mid-year estimate of the population of the Cardiff local authority area in 2019 was 366,903.At the 2011, census the official population of the Cardiff Built Up Area (BUA) was put at 447,287.The BUA is not contiguous with the local authority boundary and aggregates data at a lower level; for Cardiff this includes the urban part of Cardiff, Penarth/Dinas Powys, Caerphilly and Pontypridd.Cardiff has an ethnically diverse population due to past trading connections, post-war immigration and large numbers of foreign students who attend university in the city.", "The ethnic make-up of Cardiff's population at the 2011 census was: 84.7% White, 1.6% mixed White and Black African/Caribbean, 0.7% mixed White and Asian, 0.6% mixed other, 8.1% Asian, 2.4% Black, 1.4% Arab and 0.6% other ethnic groups.", "This means almost 53,000 people from a non-white ethnic group reside in the city.", "This diversity, especially that of the city's long-established African and Arab communities, has been recorded in cultural exhibitions and events, along with books published on this subject.===Health===University Hospital of WalesThere are seven NHS hospitals in the city, the largest being the University Hospital of Wales, which is the third largest hospital in the UK and deals with most accidents and emergencies.", "The University Dental Hospital, which provides emergency treatment, is also located on this site.", "Llandough Hospital is located in the south of the city.St.", "David's Hospital, the city's newest hospital, built behind the former building, is located in Canton and provides services for the elderly and children.", "Cardiff Royal Infirmary is on Newport Road, near the city centre.", "The majority of this hospital was closed in 1999, but the west wing remained open for clinic services, genitourinary medicine and rehabilitation treatment.", "Rookwood Hospital and the Velindre Cancer Centre are also located within Cardiff.", "They are administered by the Cardiff and Vale University Health Board, with the exception of Velindre, which is run by a separate trust.", "Spire Healthcare, a private hospital, is in Pontprennau.===Language===Bilingual signs are commonplace in Cardiff.Cardiff has a chequered linguistic history with Welsh, English, Latin, Norse and Norman French preponderant at different times.", "Welsh was the majority language in Cardiff from the 13th century until the city's explosive growth in the Victorian era.", "As late as 1850, five of the 12 Anglican churches within the current city boundaries conducted their services exclusively in Welsh, while only two worshipped exclusively in English.", "By 1891, the percentage of Welsh speakers had fallen to 27.9% and only Lisvane, Llanedeyrn and Creigiau remained as majority Welsh-speaking communities.", "The Welsh language became grouped around a small cluster of chapels and churches, the most notable of which is Tabernacl in the city centre, one of four UK churches chosen to hold official services to commemorate the new millennium.The city's first Welsh-language school (Ysgol Gymraeg Bryntaf) was established in the 1950s.", "Welsh has since regained ground.", "Aided by Welsh-medium education and migration from other parts of Wales, there are now many more Welsh speakers: their numbers doubled between the 1991 and 2011 censuses, from 18,071 (6.6%) to 36,735 (11.1%) residents aged three years and above.", "The LSOA (Lower Layer Super Output Area) with the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in the city centre is found in Canton, at 25.5%.", "The LSOA with the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in the whole of Cardiff is Whitchurch, at 26%.Cardiff City Council adopted a five-year Welsh-language strategy in 2017, aimed at increasing the number of Welsh speakers (aged 3+) in Cardiff by 15.9%, from 36,735 in 2011 to 42,584 residents by the 2021 Census.", "The ONS estimated that in December 2020, 89,900 (24.8%) of Cardiff's population could speak Welsh.In addition to English and Welsh, the diversity of Cardiff's population (including foreign students) means that many other languages are spoken.", "One study has found that Cardiff has speakers of at least 94 languages, with Somali, Urdu, Bengali and Arabic being the most commonly spoken foreign ones.The modern Cardiff accent is distinct from that of nearby South Wales Valleys.", "It is marked primarily by:*Substitution of by *''here'' hiːə pronounced as in the broader form*The vowel of ''start'' may be realised as or even , so that ''Cardiff'' is pronounced .====Language schools====Due to its diversity and large student population, more people now come to the city to learn English.", "Foreign students from Arab states and other European countries are a common sight on the streets of Cardiff.", "The British Council has an office in the city centre and there are six accredited schools in the area.===Religion===Since 1922, Cardiff has included Llandaff within its boundary, along with the Anglican Llandaff Cathedral, the parish church of Llandaff and the seat of the Bishop of Llandaff, head of the Church in Wales and the Diocese of Llandaff.There is a Roman Catholic cathedral in the city.", "Since 1916, Cardiff has been the seat of a Catholic archbishop, but there appears to have been a fall in the estimated Catholic population, with numbers in 2006 around 25,000 fewer than in 1980.Likewise, the Jewish population appears to have fallen – there are two synagogues in Cardiff, one in Cyncoed and one in Moira Terrace, as opposed to seven at the turn of the 20th century.", "There are several nonconformist chapels, an early 20th century Greek Orthodox church and 11 mosques.", "In the 2001 census, 66.9% of Cardiff's population described itself as Christian, a percentage point below the Welsh and UK averages.The oldest of the non-Christian communities in Wales is Judaism.", "Jews were not permitted to live in England and Wales between the 1290 Edict of Expulsion and the 17th century.", "A Welsh Jewish community was re-established in the 18th century.", "There was once a fairly substantial Jewish population in South Wales, most of which has disappeared.", "The Orthodox Jewish community congregations are consolidated in the Cardiff United Synagogue in Cyncoed, which was dedicated by Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks in 2003.The Cardiff Reform Synagogue is in Adamsdown.Cardiff's Muslim population is much above the Welsh average and the longest established in the UK, being started by Yemeni and Somali sailors settling in the 19th century.", "Cardiff now has over 11,000 Muslims with various national affiliations – nearly 52 per cent of the Muslim population in Wales.The proportion of Cardiff residents declaring themselves Hindu, Sikh and Jewish were all considerably higher than the Welsh averages, but lower than the UK figures.", "The city has had a Hindu community since Indian immigrants settled in the 1950s and 1960s.", "The first Hindu temple in the city was opened in Grangetown on 6 April 1979 on the site of an abandoned synagogue.", "The 25th anniversary of the founding was celebrated in September 2007 with a parade of over 3,000 people through the city centre, including Hindus from across the United Kingdom and members of Cardiff's other religious communities.", "There are over 2,000 Hindus in Cardiff, worshiping at three temples.In the 2001 census 18.8% of the city's population stated they had no religion, while 8.6% did not state a religion." ], [ "Economy", "The Coal ExchangeAs the capital city of Wales, Cardiff is the main engine of growth in the Welsh economy.", "Though the population of Cardiff is about 10% of the Welsh population, the economy of Cardiff makes up nearly 20% of Welsh GDP and 40% of the city's workforce are daily in-commuters from the surrounding South Wales area.Industry has played a major part in Cardiff's development for many centuries.", "The main catalyst for its transformation from a small town into a big city was the demand for coal required in making iron and later steel, brought to sea by packhorse from Merthyr Tydfil.", "This was first achieved by building a canal from Merthyr ( above sea level) to the Taff Estuary at Cardiff.", "Eventually the Taff Vale Railway replaced the canal barges and massive marshalling yards sprang up as new docks were developed in Cardiff – all prompted by the soaring worldwide demand for coal from the South Wales valleys.", "At its peak, Cardiff's port area, known as Tiger Bay, became the busiest port in the world and – for some time – the world's most important coal port.", "In the years leading up to the First World War, more than 10 million tonnes of coal was exported annually from Cardiff Docks.", "In 1907, Cardiff's Coal Exchange was the first host to a business deal for a million pounds Sterling.", "The high demand for Welsh coal and specifically Welsh artificial fuel, named Patent Fuel, is shown by the numerous factories producing this fuel, with the same recipe, in the region of Cardiff.", "Most well known factories were the Star Patent fuel Co., the Crown Patent fuel, the Cardiff Patent fuel etc.", "After a period of decline, due to low demand on coal, Cardiff's port has started to grow again – over 3 million tonnes of cargo passed through the docks in 2007.The 26-storey Bridge Street Exchange at in height, is the tallest building in Cardiff.Cardiff today is the main finance and business services centre in Wales, with strong representation of finance and business services in the local economy.", "This sector, combined with the public administration, education and health sectors, have accounted for about 75% of Cardiff's economic growth since 1991.The city was recently placed seventh overall in the top 50 European cities in the fDI 2008 Cities of the Future list published by the fDi magazine, and ranked seventh in terms of attracting foreign investment.", "Notable companies such as Legal & General, Admiral Insurance, HBOS, Zurich, ING Direct, The AA, Principality Building Society, 118118, British Gas, Brains, SWALEC Energy and BT, all operate large national or regional headquarters and contact centres in the city, some of them based in Cardiff's office towers such as Capital Tower and Brunel House.", "Other major employers include NHS Wales and the Senedd.", "On 1 March 2004, Cardiff was granted Fairtrade City status.Cardiff is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United Kingdom, receiving 18.3 million visitors in 2010 and generating £852 million for the city's economy.", "One result is that one in five employees in Cardiff is based in the distribution, hotels and restaurants sector, highlighting the growing retail and tourism industries in the city.", "The city has many hotels of varying sizes and standards, providing almost 9,000 available beds.Cardiff is home to the Welsh media and a large media sector with BBC Cymru Wales, S4C and ITV Wales all having studios in the city.", "There is a large independent TV production industry sector of over 600 companies, employing around 6,000, with a turnover estimated at £350 million.", "Just to the north-west of the city, in Rhondda Cynon Taff, the first completely new film studios in the UK for 30 years are being built, to be named Valleywood.", "The studios are set to be the biggest in the UK.", "In 2011 the BBC completed the Roath Lock studios in Cardiff Bay to film dramas such as ''Casualty'', ''Doctor Who'', and ''Pobol y Cwm''.Cardiff has several regeneration projects, such as St David's 2 Centre and surrounding areas of the city centre, and the £1.4 billion International Sports Village in Cardiff Bay, which played a part in the London 2012 Olympics.", "It features the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales, the Cardiff International Pool, which opened on 12 January 2008.According to the Welsh Rugby Union, the Principality Stadium contributed £1 billion to the Welsh economy in the ten years after it opened in 1999, with around 85% of that staying in the Cardiff area.===Shopping===St.", "David's in The Hayes is the largest shopping centre in Wales.Most of Cardiff's shopping portfolio is in the city centre around Queen Street, St Mary Street and High Street, with large suburban retail parks in Cardiff Bay, Culverhouse Cross, Leckwith, Newport Road and Pontprennau, together with markets in the city centre and Splott.", "A £675 million regeneration programme for Cardiff's St. David's Centre was completed in 2009, providing a total of of shopping space, making it one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom.", "The centre was named the international shopping centre of the year in 2010 by Retail Leisure International (RLI).Queen Street, one of Cardiff's main shopping areasThe Castle Quarter is a commercial area in the north of the city centre, which includes some of Cardiff's Victorian and Edwardian arcades: Castle Arcade, Morgan Arcade and Royal Arcade, and principal shopping streets: St Mary Street, High Street, The Hayes, and Queen Street." ], [ "Transport", "===Rail===Cardiff Central railway station is the largest railway station in Wales, with nine platforms coping with over 12.5 million passengers a year.", "It provides direct services to Bridgend and Newport, long-distance, cross-Wales services to Wrexham and Holyhead, and services to Bristol, Birmingham, Manchester and London.", "Cardiff Central Station is situated within the southern border of what was known Temperance Town, a former residential area within central Cardiff.", "Cardiff Queen Street railway station is the second busiest in Wales and the hub for the Valley Lines services that connect the South Wales Valleys and the Cardiff suburbs with the city centre.", "It is located at the eastern end of the city centre and provides services to Cardiff Bay.", "Cardiff has a suburban rail system known as the Valleys & Cardiff Local Routes, operated by Transport for Wales.", "There are eight lines that serve 20 stations in the city, 26 in the wider urban area (including Taffs Well, Penarth and Dinas Powys) and more than 60 in the South Wales valleys and the Vale of Glamorgan.===Metro===The South Wales Metro is an integrated public transport system under development in south-east Wales, centered on Cardiff.", "The project is to include the electrification of some of the existing railway lines and the creation of multiple light rail and light rapid transit lines.", "Four lines are under construction with a further three planned.", "The first lines will link and to , , and , with plans to also serve , St Mellons and Porth Teigr.", "Alongside this, current commuter services will be improved with a near-tripling in capacity on some routes to and .===Air===Domestic and international air links to Cardiff and South & West Wales are provided from Cardiff Airport (CWL), the only international airport in Wales.", "The airport lies in the village of Rhoose, west of the city.", "There are regular bus services linking the airport with Cardiff city centre, and a train service from Rhoose Cardiff International Airport railway station to Cardiff Central.===Road and bus===The M4 motorway connects Cardiff with Swansea to the west and Newport and London to the east, with four junctions on the M4, including one with the A48(M).", "The A470 provides an important link from the city to the Heads of the Valleys road.", "When completed, the A4232 – also known as the Peripheral Distributor Road – will form part of the Cardiff ring-road system, along with the M4 motorway between junctions 30 and 33.Cardiff has a comprehensive bus network, whose providers include the municipal bus company Cardiff Bus (routes within the city and to Newport, Barry and Penarth), Adventure Travel (cross-city and to Cardiff Airport), Stagecoach South Wales (to the South Wales Valleys) and First Cymru (to Cowbridge and Bridgend).", "National Express and Megabus provides direct services to major cities such as Bristol, London, Newcastle upon Tyne and Manchester.===Cycle===The Taff Trail is a walking and cycle path running for between Cardiff Bay and Brecon in the Brecon Beacons National Park.", "It runs through Bute Park, Sophia Gardens and many other green areas within Cardiff.", "It is possible to cycle the entire distance of the Trail almost completely off-road, as it largely follows the River Taff and many of the disused railways of the Glamorganshire valleys.Nextbike previously operated a public bike-hire scheme in the city between March 2018 and January 2024, with the scheme allegedly being scrapped due to theft.", "Cardiff Council are seeking a replacement operator.", "===Water===The Aquabus water taxi runs every hour between the city centre (Taff Mead Embankment) and Cardiff Bay (Mermaid Quay), and between Cardiff Bay and Penarth Cardiff Bay Barrage.", "Throughout the year, Cardiff Waterbus sail between the Pierhead on The Waterfront and the Penarth end of the Cardiff Bay Barrage with short sightseeing cruises.Between March and October boats depart from Cardiff Bay for Flat Holm Island.", "The ''PS Waverley'' and ''MV Balmoral'' sail from Britannia Quay (in Roath Basin) to various destinations in the Bristol Channel.File:Cardiff Central station (26526139271).jpg|Cardiff Central railway stationFile:Gorsaf Heol y Frenhines, Caerdydd.JPG|Cardiff Queen Street railway stationFile:Cardiff Airport (Oct 2010).jpg|Cardiff AirportFile:Cardiff Bus double decker (Central Bus Station).jpg|Cardiff Bus has the most bus services operating in the Cardiff area.File:Cycle lane in Excalibur Drive, Cardiff.jpg|Typical cycle lane in CardiffFile:Aquabushydro1.jpg|Aquabus" ], [ "Telecommunications", "'''029''' is the current telephone dialling code for Cardiff,as well as for the neighbouring towns of Penarth, Dinas Powys and Caerphilly.", "The dialling code is optional when dialling within the area: one can dial between any two phones within the 029 code using only the eight-digit local number.Prior to the Big Number Change on 22 April 2000 the area had shorter, six-digit local numbers with an area code of 01222.This was 0222 before May 1995, derived from 0 (indicating it was a trunk call), 22 (CA on a telephone pad, for CArdiff) and 2 (as 220 was used for CAmbridge and 221 for BAth).", "Before the introduction of automated trunk call dialling, non-local numbers were accessed through a system of manual telephone exchanges, in common with rest if the United Kingdom.There remains a common misconception that local numbers are still six digits long and that the code is 02920, even though there are newer Cardiff numbers in the ranges (029) 21xx xxxx and (029) 22xx xxxx." ], [ "Education", "Cardiff University's main buildingCardiff is home to four major institutions of higher education: Cardiff University, Cardiff Metropolitan University, University of South Wales and the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama.Cardiff University was founded by a royal charter in 1883 as the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, is a member of the Russell Group of leading research led universities, having most of its campus in Cathays and the city centre.", "Cardiff Metropolitan University (formerly UWIC) has campuses in the Llandaff, Cyncoed and city centre areas, and is part of the confederal University of Wales.", "The Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama is a conservatoire established in 1949 and is based in the grounds of Cardiff Castle.", "The University of South Wales's Cardiff campus, Atrium, is home to the Cardiff School of Creative & Cultural Industries and is located in the city centre.Royal Welsh College of Music & DramaThe total number of higher education students in the city is around 43,900.The city also has two further education colleges: Cardiff and Vale College and St David's College.", "The former is the result of a merger, completed in August 2011, between Coleg Glan Hafren and Barry College.", "Further education is also offered at most high schools in the city.Cardiff has three state nursery schools (one bilingual), 98 state primary schools (two bilingual, fifteen Welsh medium), and 19 state secondary schools (three Welsh medium).", "There are also several independent schools in the city, including St John's College, Llandaff Cathedral School, Cardiff Sixth Form College, Kings Monkton School and Howell's School, a single-sex girls' school (until sixth form).", "In 2013 Cardiff Sixth Form College came top of the independent senior schools in the UK, which were based on the percentage of A* and A at Advanced Level.", "Also in the top 100 were St John's College and Howell's School.Notable schools include Whitchurch High School (the largest secondary school in Wales), Fitzalan High School (one of the most multi-cultural state schools in the UK), and Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf (the largest Welsh medium secondary school in Wales).As well as academic institutions, Cardiff is also home to other educational and learning organisations such as Techniquest, a hands-on science discovery centre that now has franchises throughout Wales, and is part of the Wales Gene Park in collaboration with Cardiff University, NHS Wales and the Welsh Development Agency (WDA).", "Cardiff is also home of the largest regional office of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO).", "This office is home to the organisation's curriculum and assessment centre, which is responsible for overseeing the creation and grading of various IBDP assessments." ], [ "Landmarks and attractions", "Pierhead Building Cardiff has many landmark buildings such as the Principality Stadium, Pierhead Building, the Welsh National Museum and the Senedd building, the home of the Welsh Parliament.", "Cardiff is also famous for Cardiff Castle, St David's Hall, Llandaff Cathedral and the Wales Millennium Centre.Cardiff Castle is a major tourist attraction in the city and is situated in the heart of the city centre.", "The National History Museum at St Fagans in Cardiff is a large open-air museum housing dozens of buildings from throughout Welsh history that have been moved to the site in Cardiff.", "The Civic Centre in Cathays Park comprises a collection of Edwardian buildings such as the City Hall, National Museum and Gallery of Wales, Cardiff Crown Court, and buildings forming part of Cardiff University, together with more modern civic buildings.", "These buildings are laid out around the Queen Alexandra Gardens, a formal park which contains the Welsh National War Memorial and a number of other, smaller memorials.In addition to Cardiff Castle, Castell Coch is a castle in Tongwynlais, in the north of the city.", "The current castle is an elaborately decorated Victorian folly designed by William Burges for the Marquess and built in the 1870s, as an occasional retreat.", "However, the Victorian castle stands on the footings of a much older medieval castle possibly built by Ifor Bach, a regional baron with links to Cardiff Castle also.", "The exterior has become a popular location for film and television productions.", "It rarely fulfilled its intended role as a retreat for the Butes, who seldom stayed there.", "For the Marquess, the pleasure had been in its creation, a pleasure lost following Burges's death in 1881.Cardiff claims the largest concentration of castles of any city in the world.", "As well as Cardiff Castle and Castell Coch, there are the remains of two motte-and-bailey castles in Morganstown and Rhiwbina, known as Morganstown Castle Mound and Twmpath Castle or Twmpath Motte (also known as ) respectively.", "Twmpath being a Welsh word for a small mound), which along with a castle at Whitchurch (known as Treoda and destroyed by housing in the 1960s) formed an arc of fortifications which divided the Norman lordship from the Welsh lordship of Senghenydd.", "Further up the Cefn Cibwr ridge on the boundary with Caerphilly there is also another ruined castle, known as Morgraig Castle ().", "Archaeological evidence suggests this castle was never finished, and it is debated whether the fortification was of Norman or Welsh origin.", "The concentration of castles indicates the moveable nature of the border between the Norman lordship of Glamorgan, centred at Cardiff, and its Welsh neighbours to the north.There is also the ruined Llandaff Bishop's Palace, also known as Llandaff Castle, which was the home of the medieval bishops, which was destroyed about 1403–1404 by the Welsh leader Owain Glyndŵr.", "Now only the ruined gatehouse remains.", "Not strictly a castle in the historical sense, Saint Fagans Castle is a preserved 17th-century manor house, once the seat of the Earls of Plymouth.File:Cardiff Castle - panoramio (1).jpg|Cardiff CastleFile:Castell Coch - exterior.JPG|Castell Coch File:St Fagans National History Museum 196.JPG|St Fagans CastleFile:Bishops palace llandaff.jpg|Bishop's Palace''(also known as Llandaff Castle)''File:Twmpath Castle (2).jpg|The overgrown Twmpath Castle or Motte''(also known as Caer Cynwrig)''File:Morganstown Castle Mound 3.jpg|The overgrown Morganstown Castle Mound File:Caer Castell Camp 0194.jpg|The overgrown Caer Castell CampOther major tourist attractions are the Cardiff Bay regeneration sites, which include the recently opened Wales Millennium Centre and the Senedd building, and many other cultural and sites of interest, including the Cardiff Bay Barrage and the famous Coal Exchange.", "The New Theatre was founded in 1906 and refurbished in the 1980s.", "Until the opening of the Wales Millennium Centre in 2004, it was the premier venue in Wales for touring theatre and dance companies.", "Other venues popular for concerts and sporting events include Cardiff International Arena, St David's Hall and the Principality Stadium.", "Cardiff Story, a museum documenting the city's history, has been open to the public since the spring of 2011.Cardiff has over 1,000 listed buildings, ranging from the more prominent buildings such as the castles, to smaller buildings, houses and structures.", "Cathedral Road was developed by the 3rd Marquis of Bute and is lined by fine villas, some backing on to Sophia Gardens.Cardiff has walks of special interest for tourists and ramblers alike, such as the Centenary Walk, which runs for within Cardiff city centre.", "This route passes through many of Cardiff's landmarks and historic buildings.", "The Animal Wall, designed by William Burges in 1866, marks the south edge of Bute Park on Castle Street.", "It bears 15 carved animal statues." ], [ "Culture and recreation", "Wales Millennium CentreCardiff has many cultural sites varying from the historical Cardiff Castle and out of town Castell Coch to the more modern Wales Millennium Centre and Cardiff Bay.", "Cardiff was a finalist in the European Capital of Culture 2008.In recent years Cardiff has grown in stature as a tourist destination, with recent accolades including Cardiff being voted the eighth favourite UK city by readers of the ''Guardian''.", "The city was also listed as one of the top 10 destinations in the UK on the official British tourist boards website Visit Britain, and US travel guide Frommers have listed Cardiff as one of 13 top destinations worldwide for 2008.Annual events in Cardiff that have become regular appearances in Cardiff's calendar include Sparks in the Park, The Great British Cheese Festival, Pride Cymru (formerly Cardiff Mardi Gras), Cardiff Winter Wonderland, Cardiff Festival and Made in Roath.===Music and performing arts===Cardiff International ArenaA large number of concerts are held in the city, the larger ones at St David's Hall, Cardiff International Arena and occasionally the Principality Stadium.", "A number of festivals are also held in Cardiff, the largest being the Cardiff Big Weekend Festival, held annually in the city centre in the summer and playing host to free musical performances (from artists such as Ash, Jimmy Cliff, Cerys Matthews, the Fun Loving Criminals, Soul II Soul and the Magic Numbers), fairground rides and cultural events such as a Children's Festival that takes place in the grounds of Cardiff Castle.", "The annual festival claims to be the UK's largest free outdoor festival, attracting over 250,000 visitors in 2007.Cardiff hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1883, 1899, 1938, 1960, 1978, 2008 and 2018.Cardiff is unique in Wales in having two permanent stone circles used by the Gorsedd of Bards during Eisteddfodau.", "The original circle stands in Gorsedd Gardens in front of the National Museum while its 1978 replacement is situated in Bute Park.", "Since 1983, Cardiff has hosted the BBC Cardiff Singer of the World competition, a world-renowned event on the opera calendar which is held every two years.", "The city also hosts smaller events.The Wales Millennium Centre hosts performances of opera, ballet, dance, comedy, musicals and is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales.", "St David's Hall (which hosts the Singer of the World competition) has regular performances of classical music and ballet as well as music of other genres.", "The largest of Cardiff's theatres is the New Theatre, situated in the city centre just off Queen Street.", "Other such venues include the Sherman Theatre, Chapter Arts Centre and the Gate Arts Centre.The Cardiff music scene is established and wide-ranging: home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales and the Welsh National Opera; has produced several leading acts; has acted as a springboard for Welsh bands to become famous.", "Acts hailing from Cardiff include Charlotte Church, Shirley Bassey, Iwan Rheon, the Oppressed, Kids In Glass Houses, Los Campesinos, the Hot Puppies, the School, We're No Heroes, Budgie and Shakin' Stevens.", "Also, performers such as the Automatic, Manic Street Preachers, Lostprophets, Underworld, Super Furry Animals, Catatonia and Bullet for My Valentine have links with the city and are associated with the Cardiff music scene.", "In 2010, Cardiff was named the UK's second \"most musical\" city by PRS for Music.===Visual arts===Cardiff has held a photomarathon in the city each year since 2004, in which photographers compete to take the best 12 pictures of 12 previously unknown topics in 12 hours.", "An exhibition of winners and other entries is held in June/July each year.===Sporting venues===Sporting venues include the Principality Stadium – the national stadium and home of the Wales national rugby union team – Sophia Gardens for Glamorgan County Cricket Club, Cardiff City Stadium for Cardiff City F.C.", "and the Wales football team, Cardiff International Sports Stadium, home of Cardiff Amateur Athletic Club, Cardiff Arms Park for Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC rugby union teams, and Ice Arena Wales for Cardiff Devils ice hockey team.", "It hosted the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games and was dubbed European City of Sport for its role in international sporting events in 2009 and again in 2014.The Principality Stadium hosted 11 football matches during the 2012 Summer Olympics, including the opening event and the men's bronze medal match.===Recreation===Bute ParkCardiff has strong nightlife.", "Most clubs and bars are situated in the city centre, especially St Mary Street.", "More recently Cardiff Bay has built up a strong night scene, with many modern bars and restaurants.", "The Brewery Quarter on St Mary Street is a recently developed venue for bars and restaurant with a central courtyard.", "Charles Street is also a popular part of the city.The lake at Roath Park, including the lighthouse erected as a memorial to Captain ScottCardiff is known for its extensive parks and other green spaces covering around 10% of the city's total area.", "Cardiff's main park, Bute Park (which was formerly the castle grounds) extends northwards from the top of one of Cardiff's main shopping street (Queen Street); when combined with the adjacent Llandaff Fields and Pontcanna Fields to the north-west it produces a massive open space skirting the River Taff.", "Other popular parks include Roath Park in the north, donated to the city by the 3rd Marquess of Bute in 1887, which includes a popular boating lake; Victoria Park, Cardiff's first official park; and Thompson's Park, formerly home to an aviary removed in the 1970s.", "Wild open spaces include Howardian Local Nature Reserve, of the lower Rhymney valley in Penylan noted for its orchids, and Forest Farm Country Park, over along the River Taff in Whitchurch.Cardiff is one of the top ten retail destinations in the UK with Queen Street and St. Mary Street as the two main shopping streets with the three shopping arcades, St. David's Centre, Queens Arcade and the Capitol Centre.", "The current expansion of St. David's Centre as part of the St David's 2 project has made it one of the largest shopping centres in the UK.", "As well as the modern shopping arcades, the city is home to Victorian shopping centres, such as High Street Arcade, Castle Arcade, Wyndham Arcade, Royal Arcade and Morgan Arcade.", "Also of note is The Hayes, home to Spillers Records, the world's oldest record shop.", "Cardiff has a number of markets, including the vast Victorian indoor Cardiff Central Market and the newly established Riverside Community Market, which specialises in locally produced organic produce.", "Several out-of-town retail parks exist, such as Newport Road, Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff Gate and Cardiff Bay." ], [ "Media", "The South Wales Echo and Western MailCardiff is the Welsh base for the main national broadcasters (BBC Cymru Wales, ITV Wales and S4C).", "A locally based television station, ''Made in Cardiff'', is also based in the city centre.", "Major filming studios in Cardiff include the BBC's Roath Lock Studios and Pinewood Studios Wales.Several contemporary television programmes and films are filmed in and/or set in Cardiff such as ''Casualty'', ''Doctor Who'', ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'', ''Torchwood'', ''Merlin'', ''Class'', ''The Valleys'', ''Upstairs Downstairs'', ''A Discovery of Witches'', ''His Dark Materials'', ''Being Human'', ''The Story of Tracy Beaker'', ''Wizards vs Aliens'', ''Sex Education'' and ''Sherlock''.The main local newspaper is the ''South Wales Echo''; the national paper is the ''Western Mail''.", "Both are based in Park Street in the city centre.", "''Capital Times'', ''Echo Extra'' and the South Wales edition of ''Metro'' are also based and distributed in the city.", "There are several magazines, including ''Primary Times'' and a monthly ''papur bro'', and a Welsh-language community newsletter called ''Y Dinesydd'' (The Citizen).", "Radio stations serving the city and based in Cardiff include Capital South Wales, Heart South Wales, BBC Radio Wales, BBC Radio Cymru, Nation Radio Wales, Radio Cardiff, Smooth Wales and Xpress Radio.The Principality Stadium was one of the first six British landmarks to be fully mapped on Google Street View as a 360-degree virtual tour." ], [ "Sport", "leftCardiff hosts many high-profile sporting events at local, national and international level and in recognition of the city's commitment to sport for all was awarded the title of European Capital of Sport 2014.Organised sports have been held in the city since the early 19th century.", "national home sporting fixtures are nearly always played in the city.", "All Wales' multi-sports agencies and many of the country's sports governing bodies have their headquarters in Cardiff and the city's many top quality venues have attracted world-famous sports events, sometimes unrelated to Cardiff or to Wales.", "In 2008/09, 61% of Cardiff residents regularly participated in sport and active recreation, the highest percentage in ll 22 local authorities in Wales.Rugby union fans around the world have long been familiar with the old National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, and its successor the Principality Stadium, which hosted the FA Cup for six years (from 2001 to 2006) it took to rebuild Wembley Stadium.", "In 2009, Cardiff hosted the first Ashes cricket test between England and Australia to be held in Wales.", "Cardiff hosted eight football matches of the London 2012 Olympics.Principality StadiumCardiff City F.C.", "(founded 1899 as Riverside AFC) played their home games at Ninian Park from 1910 until the end of the 2008–09 season.", "The club's new home is the Cardiff City Stadium, which they initially rented to the Cardiff Blues, the city's professional rugby union team, the Blues returning to the Arms Park in 2012.Cardiff City have played in the English Football League since the 1920–21 season, climbing to Division 1 after one season.", "Cardiff City are the only non-English team to have won the FA Cup, beating Arsenal in the 1927 final at Wembley Stadium.", "They were runners up to Portsmouth in the 2008 final, losing 1–0 at the new Wembley Stadium.", "In the 2013/14 and 2018/19 seasons Cardiff City played in the English Premier League.Cardiff Metropolitan University F.C.", "of the Athletic Union of Cardiff Metropolitan University, based in Cyncoed, play in the Cymru Premier, having been promoted from Welsh League Division One in 2016.They were winners of the Welsh League Cup for the 2018–19 season.", "Cardiff has numerous smaller clubs including Bridgend Street A.F.C., Caerau (Ely) A.F.C., Cardiff Corinthians F.C., Cardiff Grange Harlequins A.F.C., and Ely Rangers A.F.C., which all play in the Welsh football league system.Sport Wales National Centre, Cardiff, headquarters of Sport Wales, the Welsh Sports Association and the Federation of Disability Sport WalesIn addition to men's football teams Cardiff City Ladies of the FA Women's Premier League Southern Division are based in the city.", "Teams in the Welsh Premier Women's Football League are Cardiff Met.", "Ladies, Cyncoed Ladies and Cardiff City.During the 1990s, London-based football club Wimbledon FC expressed interest in relocating to Cardiff, having been without a home of their own since exiting Plough Lane stadium in 1991 and sharing with Crystal Palace FC at Selhurst Park.", "The relocation of the club to Cardiff did not happen; in 2003, the club moved to Milton Keynes and a year later rebranded as Milton Keynes Dons.Cardiff Arms Park (), in central Cardiff, is among the world's most famous venues—being the scene of three Welsh Grand Slams in the 1970s (1971, 1976 and 1978) and six Five Nations titles in nine years—and was the venue for Wales' games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup.", "The Arms Park has a sporting history dating back to at least the 1850s, when Cardiff Cricket Club (formed 1819) relocated to the site.", "The ground was donated to Cardiff CC in 1867 by the Marquess of Bute.", "Cardiff Cricket Club shared the ground with Cardiff Rugby Football Club (founded 1876) — forming Cardiff Athletic Club between them — until 1966, when the cricket section moved to Sophia Gardens.", "Cardiff Athletic Club and the Welsh Rugby Union established two stadia on the site—Cardiff RFC played at their stadium at the northern end of the site, and the Wales national rugby union team played international matches at the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, which opened in 1970.The National Stadium was replaced by the 74,500 capacity Millennium Stadium () in 1999—in time for the 1999 Rugby World Cup—and is home stadium to the Wales national rugby and football teams for international matches.", "In addition to Wales' Six Nations Championship and other international games, the Principality Stadium held four matches in the 2007 Rugby World Cup and six FA Cup finals (from the 2001–02 to 2005–06 seasons) while Wembley Stadium was being rebuilt.SWALEC StadiumCardiff Cricket Club was formed in 1819 and Glamorgan County Cricket Club has competed as a first-class county since 1921.Its headquarters and ground is the SWALEC Stadium, Sophia Gardens, since moving from Cardiff Arms Park in 1966.The Sophia Gardens stadium underwent multimillion-pound improvements since being selected to host the first \"England\" v Australia Test match of the 2009 Ashes series.", "The Hundred franchise team Welsh Fire is also based at the stadium.Cardiff has a long association with boxing, from 'Peerless' Jim Driscoll — born in Cardiff in 1880 — to more recent, high-profile fights staged in the city.", "These include the WBC Lennox Lewis vs. Frank Bruno heavyweight championship fight at the Arms Park in 1993, and many of Joe Calzaghe's fights, between 2003 and 2007.Cardiff's professional ice hockey team, the Cardiff Devils, plays in the 3,000-seat Ice Arena Wales in the Cardiff International Sports Village.", "It plays in the 12-team professional Elite Ice Hockey League.", "Founded in 1986, it was one of the most successful British teams in the 1990s.Cardiff's only American-flag football team is the Hurricanes.", "It won the British Championship in 2014 after falling short by 2 points in a quarter-final to eventual winners, the London Rebels, the previous year.", "It is based at Roath Recreational Ground.Cardiff International Pool at the International Sports Village, Cardiff BayThe 1958 Commonwealth Games were hosted by Cardiff.", "These involved 1,130 athletes from 35 national teams competing in 94 events.", "One of the venues for those Games—The Wales Empire Swimming Pool—was demolished in 1998 to make way for the Principality Stadium.", "The GBP32m Cardiff International Pool in Cardiff Bay, opened to the public on 12 January 2008 — part of the GBP1bn International Sports Village (ISV) — is the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales.", "When complete, the ISV complex will provide Olympic standard facilities for sports including boxing and fencing, gymnastics, judo, white water events (including canoeing and kayaking) and wrestling as well as a snow dome with real snow for skiing and snowboarding, an arena for public ice skating and ice hockey and a hotel.", "Some of the sports facilities at the ISV were to be used as training venues for the London 2012 Olympics.A stage of Wales Rally GB, hosted inside the Principality StadiumThe Principality Stadium hosts motor-sport events such as the World Rally Championship, as part of Wales Rally GB.", "The first indoor special stages of the World Rally Championship were held at the Principality Stadium in September 2005 and have been an annual event since.", "The British Speedway Grand Prix, one of the World Championship events, is held at the Principality Stadium.", "While the track—a temporary, purpose built, shale oval—is not universally loved, the venue is considered the best of the World Championship's 11 rounds.The Cardiff International Sports Stadium, opened 19 January 2009, replacing the Cardiff Athletics Stadium, demolished to make way for the Cardiff City Stadium.", "It has a 4,953 capacity as a multi sport/special event venue, offering certificated international track and field athletics facilities, including an international standard external throws area.", "The stadium houses the Headquarters of Welsh Athletics, the sport's governing body for Wales.", "The city's indoor track and field athletics sports venue is the National Indoor Athletics Centre, an international athletics and multi sports centre at the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff Campus, Cyncoed.The Principality Cardiff Half Marathon takes place each October and is one of the largest road races in the United Kingdom, attracting over 20,000 participants and many overseas visitors annually.", "The event is organised by the not-for-profit social enterprise Run 4 Wales, and has grown considerably since its establishment in 2003.It has hosted the World (2016) Commmonwealth (2018) British (2014/2015) and Welsh (Annually) Half Marathon Championships and has held a World Athletics Elite Road Race Label since 2017.The race is also a part of the SuperHalfs, a series of leading international half marathon races which also includes Lisbon, Prague, Berlin, Valencia and Copenhagen." ], [ "Notable people", "Many notable people have hailed from Cardiff, ranging from historical figures such as the 12th-century Welsh leader Ifor Bach to more recent figures such as Roald Dahl, Ken Follett, Griff Rhys Jones, Catrin Dafydd, and the former Blue Peter presenter Gethin Jones.Notable actors include Ioan Gruffudd (''Fantastic 4''), Iwan Rheon (Game of Thrones) and Matthew Rhys (''The Americans).", "''Also notable is Siân Grigg, BAFTA winner and Oscar nominated Hollywood make-up artist.The city has been the birthplace of sports stars such as Tanni Grey-Thompson and Colin Jackson, as well as many Premier League, Football League and international footballers, such as Craig Bellamy, Gareth Bale, Ryan Giggs, Joe Ledley, and former managers of the Wales national football team Terry Yorath and John Toshack.", "International rugby league players from Cardiff include Frank Whitcombe, Billy Boston, David Willicombe and Colin Dixon.", "International rugby union players include Sam Warburton, Jamie Roberts, Jamie Robinson, Nicky Robinson, Rhys Patchell, and baseball internationals include George Whitcombe and Ted Peterson.Saint Teilo ( – 9 February ) is the patron saint of Cardiff.", "He was a British Christian monk, bishop, and founder of monasteries and churches.", "Reputed to be a cousin, friend, and disciple of Saint David, he was Bishop of Llandaff and founder of the first church at Llandaff Cathedral, where his tomb is.", "His Saint's Day is 9 February.Cardiff is also well known for its musicians.", "Ivor Novello inspired the Ivor Novello Awards.", "Idloes Owen, founder of the Welsh National Opera, lived in Llandaff.", "Dame Shirley Bassey was born and raised in Cardiff.", "Charlotte Church is famous as a crossover classical/pop singer.", "Shakin' Stevens was one of the top-selling male artists in the UK during the 1980s.", "Tigertailz, a popular glam metal act in the 1980s, also hailed from Cardiff.", "A number of Cardiff-based bands, such as Catatonia and Super Furry Animals, were popular in the 1990s." ], [ "Twinning", "*Luhansk, Ukraine*Hordaland county, Norway*Sucre, Bolivia*Nantes, France*Stuttgart, Germany*Xiamen, China*Lima, Peru" ], [ "Namesakes", "Cardiff-by-the-Sea in Encinitas, California and Cardiff, Alabama were both named after Cardiff in Wales." ], [ "Diplomatic presence", "A total of 28 countries have a diplomatic presence in Cardiff.", "Many of these, such as Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, Canada, Thailand and the Czech Republic, are represented by honorary consulates.", "The United States Embassy to the UK operates a satellite office." ], [ "Freedom of the City", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Cardiff; they are listed with the date that they received the honour.===Individuals======Military units===*The Welch Regiment: 10 June 1944*The Welsh Guards: 27 April 1957*The Royal Regiment of Wales: 11 June 1969*The Royal Welch Fusiliers: 7 November 1973*The 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards: 29 July 1985*HMS Cardiff, RN: 3 February 1988*The Merchant Navy Association (Wales): 3 September 2001*203 (Welsh) Field Hospital (Volunteers) RAMC: 21 April 2014*HMS Dragon, RN: 18 May 2014" ], [ "See also", "*Cardiff city centre*Cardiff music scene*List of cultural venues in Cardiff*List of parliamentary constituencies in South Glamorgan*List of places in Cardiff*List of places of worship in Cardiff*List of streets and squares in Cardiff*Senedd" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cardiff Council site* Visit Cardiff* Cardiff Records: the full text of the edition of historical records for Cardiff, edited by J. H. Matthews (1898–1905).", "Part of British History Online." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Dickens" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles John Huffam Dickens''' (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist and social critic who created some of the world's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era.", "His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius.", "His novels and short stories are widely read today.Born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school at the age of 12 to work in a boot-blacking factory when his father John was incarcerated in a debtors' prison.", "After three years he returned to school, before he began his literary career as a journalist.", "Dickens edited a weekly journal for 20 years, wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles, lectured and performed readings extensively, was an indefatigable letter writer, and campaigned vigorously for children's rights, for education, and for other social reforms.Dickens's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of ''The Pickwick Papers'', a publishing phenomenon—thanks largely to the introduction of the character Sam Weller in the fourth episode—that sparked ''Pickwick'' merchandise and spin-offs.", "Within a few years, Dickens had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire and keen observation of character and society.", "His novels, most of them published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication.", "Cliffhanger endings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense.", "The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience's reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback.", "For example, when his wife's chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in ''David Copperfield'' seemed to reflect her own disabilities, Dickens improved the character with positive features.", "His plots were carefully constructed and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives.", "Masses of the illiterate poor would individually pay a halfpenny to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers.His 1843 novella ''A Christmas Carol'' remains especially popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every creative medium.", "''Oliver Twist'' and ''Great Expectations'' are also frequently adapted and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London.", "His 1859 novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'' (set in London and Paris) is his best-known work of historical fiction.", "The most famous celebrity of his era, he undertook, in response to public demand, a series of public reading tours in the later part of his career.", "The term ''Dickensian'' is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social or working conditions, or comically repulsive characters." ], [ "Early life", "Charles Dickens's birthplace, 393 Commercial Road, PortsmouthChatham, Dickens's home 1817 – May 1821Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road), Landport in Portsea Island (Portsmouth), Hampshire, the second of eight children of Elizabeth Dickens (née Barrow; 1789–1863) and John Dickens (1785–1851).", "His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district.", "He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majesty's Navy, gentleman, and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles.", "Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novel ''Dombey and Son'' (1848).In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street, Fitzrovia.", "When Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11.His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a \"very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy\".Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as ''Robinson Crusoe'' and ''Gil Blas''.", "He read and re-read ''The Arabian Nights'' and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald.", "At the age of seven, he first saw Joseph Grimaldi—the father of modern clowning—perform at the Star Theatre in Rochester, Kent.", "He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit the ''Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi''.", "He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing.", "His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at a dame school and then at a school run by William Giles, a dissenter, in Chatham.Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the Marshalsea, published in the 1892 edition of Forster's ''Life of Charles Dickens''This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House and the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved to Camden Town in London.", "The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means, John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors' prison in Southwark, London in 1824.His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time.", "Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town.", "Mrs Roylance was \"a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family\", whom Dickens later immortalised, \"with a few alterations and embellishments\", as \"Mrs Pipchin\" in ''Dombey and Son''.", "Later, he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court, Archibald Russell, \"a fat, good-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife\" and lame son, in Lant Street in Southwark.", "They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in ''The Old Curiosity Shop''.On Sundays – with his sister Frances, free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music – he spent the day at the Marshalsea.", "Dickens later used the prison as a setting in ''Little Dorrit''.", "To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren's Blacking Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present Charing Cross railway station, where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking.", "The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor.", "He later wrote that he wondered \"how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age\".", "As he recalled to John Forster (from ''Life of Charles Dickens''):When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district of Covent Garden, the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street.", "Small audiences gathered and watched them at work – in Dickens's biographer Simon Callow's estimation, the public display was \"a new refinement added to his misery\".The Marshalsea around 1897, after it had closed.", "Dickens based several of his characters on the experience of seeing his father in the debtors' prison, most notably Amy Dorrit from ''Little Dorrit''.A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450.On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison.", "Under the Insolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea, for the home of Mrs Roylance.Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse.", "This influenced Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: \"I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back.\"", "His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women.Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most autobiographical, novel, ''David Copperfield'': \"I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!", "\"Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in Camden Town, where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there.", "He did not consider it to be a good school: \"Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr Creakle's Establishment in ''David Copperfield''.", "\"Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court, Gray's Inn, as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828.He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks.", "He went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day.", "His favourite actor was Charles Mathews and Dickens learnt his \"monopolylogues\" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart.", "Then, having learned Gurney's system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter.", "A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter at Doctors' Commons and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years.", "This education was to inform works such as ''Nicholas Nickleby'', ''Dombey and Son'' and especially ''Bleak House'', whose vivid portrayal of the machinations and bureaucracy of the legal system did much to enlighten the general public and served as a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens's own views regarding, particularly, the heavy burden on the poor who were forced by circumstances to \"go to law\".In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora in ''David Copperfield''.", "Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris." ], [ "Career", "===Journalism and writing===Catherine Hogarth Dickens by Samuel Laurence (1838).", "She met the author in 1834, and they became engaged the following year before marrying in April 1836.In 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident.", "He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame.", "Drawn to the theatre – he became an early member of the Garrick Club – he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him.", "Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold.", "Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer.In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, \"A Dinner at Poplar Walk\", to the London periodical ''Monthly Magazine''.", "His uncle William Barrow offered him a job on ''The Mirror of Parliament'' and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832.He rented rooms at Furnival's Inn and worked as a political journalist, reporting on Parliamentary debates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the ''Morning Chronicle''.Frontispiece, ''Sketches by Boz''—Boz being a family nickname—written by Dickens with illustrations by George Cruikshank, 1837His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836: ''Sketches by Boz'' – Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years.", "Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens, after a character in Oliver Goldsmith's ''The Vicar of Wakefield''.", "When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, \"Moses\" became \"Boses\" – later shortened to ''Boz''.", "Dickens's own name was considered \"queer\" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: \"Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations.\"", "Dickens contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career.", "In January 1835, the ''Morning Chronicle'' launched an evening edition, under the editorship of the ''Chronicle''s music critic, George Hogarth.", "Hogarth invited him to contribute ''Street Sketches'' and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house – excited by Hogarth's friendship with Walter Scott (whom Dickens greatly admired) and enjoying the company of Hogarth's three daughters: Georgina, Mary and 19-year-old Catherine.Sam Weller from ''The Pickwick Papers''—a publishing phenomenon that sparked numerous spin-offs and ''Pickwick'' merchandise—made the 24-year-old Dickens famous.Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially.", "He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth, the author of the highwayman novel ''Rookwood'' (1834), whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise, Benjamin Disraeli, Edward Bulwer-Lytton and George Cruikshank.", "All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house.", "The success of ''Sketches by Boz'' led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress.", "Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired \"Phiz\" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story.", "The resulting story became ''The Pickwick Papers'' and, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity.", "The final instalment sold 40,000 copies.", "On the impact of the character, ''The Paris Review'' stated, \"arguably the most historic bump in English publishing is the Sam Weller Bump.\"", "A publishing phenomenon, John Sutherland called ''The Pickwick Papers'' \"the most important single novel of the Victorian era\".", "The unprecedented success led to numerous spin-offs and merchandise including ''Pickwick'' cigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books.On its impact on mass culture, Nicholas Dames in ''The Atlantic'' writes, Literature' is not a big enough category for ''Pickwick''.", "It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call 'entertainment'.\"", "In November 1836, Dickens accepted the position of editor of ''Bentley's Miscellany'', a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner.", "In 1836, as he finished the last instalments of ''The Pickwick Papers'', he began writing the beginning instalments of ''Oliver Twist'' – writing as many as 90 pages a month – while continuing work on ''Bentley's'' and also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw.", "''Oliver Twist'', published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist.Young Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise, 1839On 2 April 1836, after a one-year engagement, and between episodes two and three of ''The Pickwick Papers'', Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth (1815–1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the ''Evening Chronicle''.", "They were married in St Luke's Church, Chelsea, London.", "After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent, the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival's Inn.", "The first of their ten children, Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839.Dickens's younger brother Frederick and Catherine's 17-year-old sister Mary Hogarth moved in with them.", "Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837.Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight.", "Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her, Rose Maylie, he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction, and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey.", "His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of ''The Pickwick Papers'' and had to cancel the ''Oliver Twist'' instalment that month as well.", "The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop; Forster soon became his unofficial business manager and the first to read his work.", "''Barnaby Rudge'' was Dickens's first popular failure but the character of Dolly Varden, \"pretty, witty, sexy, became central to numerous theatrical adaptations\"His success as a novelist continued.", "The young Queen Victoria read both ''Oliver Twist'' and ''The Pickwick Papers'', staying up until midnight to discuss them.", "''Nicholas Nickleby'' (1838–39), ''The Old Curiosity Shop'' (1840–41) and, finally, his first historical novel, ''Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty'', as part of the ''Master Humphrey's Clock'' series (1840–41), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books.In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in ''Oliver Twist''.", "Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea.", "He declared they were both to drown there in the \"sad sea waves\".", "She finally got free, and afterwards kept her distance.", "In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America.", "''Master Humphrey's Clock'' was shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of the 18th-century magazines ''Tatler'' and ''The Spectator''.Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as \"people whom, politically, I despise and abhor.\"", "He had been tempted to stand for the Liberals in Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits.", "He wrote three anti-Tory verse satires (\"The Fine Old English Gentleman\", \"The Quack Doctor's Proclamation\", and \"Subjects for Painters\") which were published in ''The Examiner''.===First visit to the United States===On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived in Boston, Massachusetts, aboard the RMS ''Britannia'' during their first trip to the United States and Canada.", "At this time Georgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace, Marylebone to care for the young family they had left behind.", "She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870.Dickens modelled the character of Agnes Wickfield after Georgina and Mary.Sketch of Dickens in 1842 during his first American tour.", "Sketch of Dickens's sister Fanny, bottom leftHe described his impressions in a travelogue, ''American Notes for General Circulation''.", "In ''Notes'', Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early as ''The Pickwick Papers'', correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters.", "In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality.", "For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it.", "From Richmond, Virginia, Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri.", "While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east.", "A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles into Illinois.During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America.", "He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed by Washington Irving, to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated.The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he \"found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control\", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels.", "She writes that he assumed a role of \"influential commentator\", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books.", "His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada – Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal – where he appeared on stage in light comedies.=== Return to England ===Dickens's portrait by Margaret Gillies, 1843.Painted during the period when he was writing ''A Christmas Carol'', it was in the Royal Academy of Arts' 1844 summer exhibition.", "After viewing it there, Elizabeth Barrett Browning said that it showed Dickens with \"the dust and mud of humanity about him, notwithstanding those eagle eyes\".Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories, ''A Christmas Carol'', written in 1843, which was followed by ''The Chimes'' in 1844 and ''The Cricket on the Hearth'' in 1845.Of these, ''A Christmas Carol'' was most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America.", "The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there.", "This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School, caused Dickens to resolve to \"strike a sledge hammer blow\" for the poor.", "As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book.", "He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he \"wept and laughed, and wept again\" as he \"walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed\".After living briefly in Italy (1844), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846), where he began work on ''Dombey and Son'' (1846–48).", "This and ''David Copperfield'' (1849–50) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works.At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother, Augustus, worked (John Chapman & Co).", "It had been carried out by Thomas Powell, a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work.", "Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day.", "After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book called ''The Living Authors of England'' with a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written.", "One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (''Dombey and Son'') on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark, editor of the New York literary magazine ''The Knickerbocker'', saying that Powell was a forger and thief.", "Clark published the letter in the ''New-York Tribune'' and several other papers picked up on the story.", "Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested.", "Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman & Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt.", "Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures.", "Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court.====Philanthropy====Dickens presiding over a charity meeting to discuss the future of the College of God's Gift; from ''The Illustrated London News'', March 1856Angela Burdett Coutts, heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class.", "Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores.", "After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, named Urania Cottage, in the Lime Grove area of Shepherd's Bush, which he managed for ten years, setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents.", "Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859.====Religious views====As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion.", "In 1836, in a pamphlet titled ''Sunday Under Three Heads'', he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays.", "\"Look into your churches – diminished congregations and scanty attendance.", "People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven.", "They display their feeling by staying away from church.", "Turn into the streets on a Sunday and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around.", "\"Portrait of Dickens, , National Library of WalesDickens honoured the figure of Jesus Christ.", "He is regarded as a professing Christian.", "His son, Henry Fielding Dickens, described him as someone who \"possessed deep religious convictions\".", "In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest in Unitarian Christianity and Robert Browning remarked that \"Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian.\"", "Professor Gary Colledge has written that he \"never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism\".", "Dickens authored a work called ''The Life of Our Lord'' (1846), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family.", "In a scene from ''David Copperfield'', Dickens echoed Geoffrey Chaucer's use of Luke 23:34 from ''Troilus and Criseyde'' (Dickens held a copy in his library), with G. K. Chesterton writing, \"among the great canonical English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common.", "\"Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th-century evangelicalism, seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism, all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846.While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as \"that curse upon the world.\"", "Dickens also rejected the Evangelical conviction that the Bible was the infallible word of God.", "His ideas on Biblical interpretation were similar to the Liberal Anglican Arthur Penrhyn Stanley's doctrine of \"progressive revelation\".", "Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky referred to Dickens as \"that great Christian writer\"." ], [ "Middle years", "In December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London-based ''Daily News'', a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, \"the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation.\"", "Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economist Thomas Hodgskin and the social reformer Douglas William Jerrold, who frequently attacked the Corn Laws.", "Dickens lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co-owners.David reaches Canterbury, from ''David Copperfield''.", "The character incorporates many elements of Dickens's own life.", "Artwork by Frank Reynolds.A Francophile, Dickens often holidayed in France and, in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French, called the French \"the first people in the universe\".", "During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literati Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Eugène Scribe, Théophile Gautier, François-René de Chateaubriand and Eugène Sue.", "In early 1849, Dickens started to write ''David Copperfield''.", "It was published between 1849 and 1850.In Dickens's biography, ''Life of Charles Dickens'' (1872), John Forster wrote of ''David Copperfield'', \"underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life\".", "It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the author's preface to the 1867 edition of the novel.In late November 1851, Dickens moved into Tavistock House where he wrote ''Bleak House'' (1852–53), ''Hard Times'' (1854) and ''Little Dorrit'' (1856).", "It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster's ''Life of Charles Dickens''.", "During this period, he worked closely with the novelist and playwright Wilkie Collins.", "In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buy Gads Hill Place in Higham, Kent.", "As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it.", "The area was also the scene of some of the events of Shakespeare's ''Henry IV, Part 1'' and this literary connection pleased him.Commemorative blue plaque in Tavistock Square, London where Dickens lived between 1851 and 1860During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journals ''Household Words'' (1850–1859) and ''All the Year Round'' (1858–1870).", "In 1854, at the behest of Sir John Franklin's widow Lady Jane, Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorer John Rae in ''Household Words'' for his report to the Admiralty, based on interviews with local Inuit, that the members of Franklin's lost expedition had resorted to cannibalism.", "These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 play ''The Frozen Deep'', which satirizes Rae and the Inuit.", "20th century archaeology work in King William Island later confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism.In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MP Austen Henry Layard formed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause.", "With the exception of Lord John Russell, who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicated ''A Tale of Two Cities'', Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were the death of England.", "When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class.", "Dickens used his pulpit in ''Household Words'' to champion the Reform Association.", "He also commented on foreign affairs, declaring his support for Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini, helping raise funds for their campaigns and stating that \"a united Italy would be of vast importance to the peace of the world, and would be a rock in Louis Napoleon's way,\" and that \"I feel for Italy almost as if I were an Italian born.\"", "Dickens also published dozens of writings in ''Household Words'' supporting vaccination, including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneer Edward Jenner.Following the Indian Mutiny of 1857, Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of the East India Company for its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander-in-chief in India so that he would be able to \"do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested.", "\"Actress Ellen Ternan (pictured in 1858) drew the attention of Dickens after he saw her on stage in 1857In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses for ''The Frozen Deep'', which he and his protégé Wilkie Collins had written.", "Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses, Ellen Ternan, and this passion was to last the rest of his life.", "In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame.", "After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from \"a mental disorder\" – statements that disgusted his contemporaries, including Elizabeth Barrett Browning – Dickens attempted to have Catherine institutionalized.", "When his scheme failed, they separated.", "Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child.", "Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children.During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal by Great Ormond Street Hospital to help it survive its first major financial crisis.", "His \"Drooping Buds\" essay in ''Household Words'' earlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success.", "Dickens, whose philanthropy was well-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founder Charles West, to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul.", "Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000.Dickens at his desk, 1858After separating from Catherine, Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels.", "His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland.", "Dickens's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes in ''Nicholas Nickleby'', and he found an outlet in public readings.", "In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland.Dickens was a regular patron at Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese pub in Fleet Street, London.", "He included the venue in ''A Tale of Two Cities''.Other works soon followed, including ''A Tale of Two Cities'' (1859) and ''Great Expectations'' (1861), which were resounding successes.", "Set in London and Paris, ''A Tale of Two Cities'' is his best-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence that begins with \"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.\"", "It is regularly touted as one of the best-selling novels of all time.", "Themes in ''Great Expectations'' include wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil.In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters.", "Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her, the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative.", "In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers.", "Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929.Storey published her account in ''Dickens and Daughter'', though no contemporary evidence was given.", "On his death, Dickens settled an annuity on Ternan which made her financially independent.", "Claire Tomalin's book ''The Invisible Woman'' argues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life.", "The book was subsequently turned into a play, ''Little Nell'', by Simon Gray, and a 2013 film.", "During the same period Dickens furthered his interest in the paranormal becoming one of the early members of The Ghost Club.In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia.", "He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book, ''The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down'', but ultimately decided against the tour.", "Two of his sons, Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens and Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens, migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of the Parliament of New South Wales as Member for Wilcannia between 1889 and 1894." ], [ "Later life", "Aftermath of the Staplehurst rail crash in 1865On 9 June 1865, while returning from Paris with Ellen Ternan, Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in Kent.", "The train's first seven carriages plunged off a cast iron bridge that was under repair and ten passengers were killed.", "The only first-class carriage to remain on the track—which was left hanging precariously off the bridge—was the one in which Dickens was travelling.", "For three hours before rescuers arrived, Dickens tended and comforted the wounded and the dying with a flask of brandy and a hat refreshed with water.", "Before leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript for ''Our Mutual Friend'', and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it.Dickens later used the experience of the crash as material for his short ghost story, \"The Signal-Man\", in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash.", "He also based the story on several previous rail accidents, such as the Clayton Tunnel rail crash in Sussex of 1861.Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquest to avoid disclosing that he had been travelling with Ternan and her mother, which would have caused a scandal.", "After the crash, Dickens was nervous when travelling by train and would use alternative means when available.", "In 1868 he wrote, \"I have sudden vague rushes of terror, even when riding in a hansom cab, which are perfectly unreasonable but quite insurmountable.\"", "Dickens's son, Henry, recalled, \"I have seen him sometimes in a railway carriage when there was a slight jolt.", "When this happened he was almost in a state of panic and gripped the seat with both hands.", "\"===Second visit to the United States===Crowd of spectators buying tickets for a Dickens reading at Steinway Hall, New York City in 1867While he contemplated a second visit to the United States, the outbreak of the Civil War in America in 1861 delayed his plans.", "On 9 November 1867, over two years after the war, Dickens set sail from Liverpool for his second American reading tour.", "Landing in Boston, he devoted the rest of the month to a round of dinners with such notables as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his American publisher, James T. Fields.", "In early December, the readings began.", "He performed 76 readings, netting £19,000, from December 1867 to April 1868.Dickens shuttled between Boston and New York, where he gave 22 readings at Steinway Hall.", "Although he had started to suffer from what he called the \"true American catarrh\", he kept to a schedule that would have challenged a much younger man, even managing to squeeze in some sleighing in Central Park.During his travels, he saw a change in the people and the circumstances of America.", "His final appearance was at a banquet the American Press held in his honour at Delmonico's on 18 April, when he promised never to denounce America again.", "By the end of the tour Dickens could hardly manage solid food, subsisting on champagne and eggs beaten in sherry.", "On 23 April he boarded the Cunard liner to return to Britain, barely escaping a federal tax lien against the proceeds of his lecture tour.===Farewell readings===Poster promoting a reading by Dickens in Nottingham dated 4 February 1869, two months before he had a mild strokeIn 1868–69, Dickens gave a series of \"farewell readings\" in England, Scotland and Ireland, beginning on 6 October.", "He managed, of a contracted 100 readings, to give 75 in the provinces, with a further 12 in London.", "As he pressed on he was affected by giddiness and fits of paralysis.", "He had a stroke on 18 April 1869 in Chester.", "He collapsed on 22 April 1869, at Preston, Lancashire; on doctor's advice, the tour was cancelled.", "After further provincial readings were cancelled, he began work on his final novel, ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood''.", "It was fashionable in the 1860s to 'do the slums' and, in company, Dickens visited opium dens in Shadwell, where he witnessed an elderly addict called \"Laskar Sal\", who formed the model for \"Opium Sal\" in ''Edwin Drood''.After Dickens regained enough strength, he arranged, with medical approval, for a final series of readings to partly make up to his sponsors what they had lost due to his illness.", "There were 12 performances, on 11 January to 15 March 1870; the last at 8:00pm at St. James's Hall, London.", "Though in grave health by then, he read ''A Christmas Carol'' and ''The Trial from Pickwick''.", "On 2 May, he made his last public appearance at a Royal Academy banquet in the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, paying a special tribute on the death of his friend, illustrator Daniel Maclise.===Death===On 8 June 1870, Dickens had another stroke at his home after a full day's work on ''Edwin Drood''.", "He never regained consciousness.", "The next day, he died at Gads Hill Place.", "Biographer Claire Tomalin has suggested Dickens was actually in Peckham when he had had the stroke and his mistress Ellen Ternan and her maids had him taken back to Gads Hill so that the public would not know the truth about their relationship.", "Contrary to his wish to be buried at Rochester Cathedral \"in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner\", he was laid to rest in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.", "A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads:A letter from Dickens to the Clerk of the Privy Council in March indicates he'd been offered and accepted a baronetcy, which was not gazetted before his death.", "His last words were \"On the ground\" in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down.", "On Sunday, 19 June 1870, five days after Dickens was buried in the Abbey, Dean Arthur Penrhyn Stanley delivered a memorial elegy, lauding \"the genial and loving humorist whom we now mourn\", for showing by his own example \"that even in dealing with the darkest scenes and the most degraded characters, genius could still be clean, and mirth could be innocent\".", "Pointing to the fresh flowers that adorned the novelist's grave, Stanley assured those present that \"the spot would thenceforth be a sacred one with both the New World and the Old, as that of the representative of literature, not of this island only, but of all who speak our English tongue.", "\"In his will, drafted more than a year before his death, Dickens left the care of his £80,000 estate (£ in ) to his long-time colleague John Forster and his \"best and truest friend\" Georgina Hogarth who, along with Dickens's two sons, also received a tax-free sum of £8,000 (equivalent to £ in ).", "He confirmed his wife Catherine's annual allowance of £600 (£ in ).", "He bequeathed £19 19s (£ in ) to each servant in his employment at the time of his death." ], [ "Literary style", "Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including the picaresque novel tradition, melodrama and the novel of sensibility.", "According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables of ''The Arabian Nights''.", "Satire and irony are central to the picaresque novel.", "Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition of Laurence Sterne, Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett.", "Fielding's ''Tom Jones'' was a major influence on the 19th-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youth and named a son Henry Fielding Dickens after him.", "Influenced by Gothic fiction—a literary genre that began with ''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764) by Horace Walpole—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works.", "Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens's ''Oliver Twist'' and ''Bleak House''.", "The jilted bride Miss Havisham from ''Great Expectations'' is one of Dickens's best-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud.No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens as William Shakespeare.", "On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare, Alfred Harbage wrote in ''A Kind of Power: The Shakespeare-Dickens Analogy'' (1975) that \"No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius\".", "Regarding Shakespeare as \"the great master\" whose plays \"were an unspeakable source of delight\", Dickens's lifelong affinity with the playwright included seeing theatrical productions of his plays in London and putting on amateur dramatics with friends in his early years.", "In 1838, Dickens travelled to Stratford-upon-Avon and visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book.", "Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work, ''Nicholas Nickleby'' (1838–39), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the character Mrs Wititterly states, \"I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one.", "\"The Artful Dodger from ''Oliver Twist''.", "His dialect is rooted in Cockney English.Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity.", "Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte.", "An early reviewer compared him to Hogarth for his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre.", "Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an \"allegorical impetus\" to the novels' meanings.", "To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr Murdstone in ''David Copperfield'' conjures up twin allusions to murder and stony coldness.", "His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and realism.", "His satires of British aristocratic snobbery – he calls one character the \"Noble Refrigerator\" – are often popular.", "Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy.", "On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriter Sarah Phelps writes, \"He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next.", "The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean-spirited ones.", "\"The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them.", "He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them.", "Marcus Stone, illustrator of ''Our Mutual Friend'', recalled that the author was always \"ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life-history of the creations of his fancy\".", "Dickens employs Cockney English in many of his works, denoting working-class Londoners.", "Cockney grammar appears in terms such as ain't, and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what).", "An example of this usage is in ''Oliver Twist''.", "The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying \"seven\" with \"sivin\".===Characters===''Dickens's Dream'' by Robert William Buss, portraying Dickens at his desk at Gads Hill Place surrounded by many of his charactersDickens's biographer Claire Tomalin regards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction after Shakespeare.Dickensian characters are amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names.", "The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge, Tiny Tim, Jacob Marley and Bob Cratchit (''A Christmas Carol''); Oliver Twist, The Artful Dodger, Fagin and Bill Sikes (''Oliver Twist''); Pip, Miss Havisham and Abel Magwitch (''Great Expectations''); Sydney Carton, Charles Darnay and Madame Defarge (''A Tale of Two Cities''); David Copperfield, Uriah Heep and Mr Micawber (''David Copperfield''); Daniel Quilp and Nell Trent (''The Old Curiosity Shop''), Samuel Pickwick and Sam Weller (''The Pickwick Papers''); and Wackford Squeers (''Nicholas Nickleby'') are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: a ''scrooge'', for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity.Illustration of London Bridge (from the 1914 book ''In Dickens's London'') which Nancy crossed in ''Oliver Twist''His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books.", "\"Gamp\" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character Mrs Gamp, and \"Pickwickian\", \"Pecksniffian\" and \"Gradgrind\" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively, quixotic, hypocritical and vapidly factual.", "The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for his Wellerisms—one-liners that turn proverbs on their heads.", "Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, although she did not recognise herself in the portrait, just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance'; Harold Skimpole in ''Bleak House'' is based on James Henry Leigh Hunt; his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher in ''David Copperfield''.", "Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting with Hans Christian Andersen informed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous with sycophant).Virginia Woolf maintained that \"we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens\" as he produces \"characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks\".", "T. S. Eliot wrote that Dickens \"excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings\".", "One \"character\" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself.", "Dickens described London as a magic lantern, inspiring the places and people in many of his novels.", "From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the Thames, all aspects of the capital – Dickens's London – are described over the course of his body of work.", "Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity.", "Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, \"If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish.", "\"===Autobiographical elements===An original illustration by Phiz from the novel ''David Copperfield'', which is widely regarded as Dickens's most autobiographical workAuthors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life.", "''David Copperfield'' is regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens.", "The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments in ''Bleak House'' reflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright.", "Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the Marshalsea prison in ''Little Dorrit'' resulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution.", "Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly in ''David Copperfield'' and Lucie Manette in ''A Tale of Two Cities''.Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor.", "Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated.", "Though Skimpole brutally sends up Leigh Hunt, some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self-parody.===Episodic writing===Advertisement for ''Great Expectations'', serialised in the weekly literary magazine ''All the Year Round'' from December 1860 to August 1861.The advert contains the plot device \"to be continued\".A pioneer of the serial publication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as ''Master Humphrey's Clock'' and ''Household Words'', later reprinted in book form.", "These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, with the audience more evenly distributed across income levels than previous.", "His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regular cliffhangers made each new episode widely anticipated.", "When ''The Old Curiosity Shop'' was being serialised, American fans waited at the docks in New York harbour, shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, \"Is little Nell dead?\"", "Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end.Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends.", "His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning in ''The Old Curiosity Shop''), and made suggestions about plot and character.", "It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed in ''Oliver Twist''.", "Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine.At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature, Dickens's influence can also be seen in television soap operas and film series, with ''The Guardian'' stating that \"the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything.\"", "His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers.", "In Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson's novel ''The Wrecker'', Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: \"See!", "They were writing up the log,\" said Nares, pointing to the ink-bottle.", "\"Caught napping, as usual.", "I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log-book up to date?", "He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels.", "\"===Social commentary===Nurse Sarah Gamp (left) from ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' became a stereotype of untrained and incompetent nurses of the early Victorian era, before the reforms of Florence Nightingale.Dickens's novels were, among other things, works of social commentary.", "Simon Callow states, \"From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it.\"", "He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society.", "In a New York address, he expressed his belief that \"Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen\".", "Dickens's second novel, ''Oliver Twist'' (1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed.At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society.", "Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues – such as sanitation and the workhouse – but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities.", "He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result.", "His most strident indictment of this condition is in ''Hard Times'' (1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class.", "In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed \"Hands\" by the factory owners; that is, not really \"people\" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated.", "His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression.", "For example, the prison scenes in ''The Pickwick Papers'' are claimed to have been influential in having the Fleet Prison shut down.", "Karl Marx asserted that Dickens \"issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together\".", "George Bernard Shaw even remarked that ''Great Expectations'' was more seditious than Marx's ''Das Kapital''.", "The exceptional popularity of Dickens's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (''Bleak House'', 1853; ''Little Dorrit'', 1857; ''Our Mutual Friend'', 1865), not only underscored his ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored.It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation of Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species''.===Literary techniques===Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his caricatures and the ugly social truths he reveals.", "The story of Nell Trent in ''The Old Curiosity Shop'' (1841) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by Oscar Wilde.", "\"One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell\", he said in a famous remark, \"without dissolving into tears ... of laughter.\"", "G. K. Chesterton stated, \"It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to\", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his \"despotic\" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this.Less fortunate characters, such as Tiny Tim (held aloft by Bob Cratchit), are often used by Dickens in sentimental ways.The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of the sentimental novel is debatable.", "Valerie Purton, in her book ''Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition'', sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his \"sentimental scenes and characters are as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes\", and that \"''Dombey and Son'' is ... Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition\".", "The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online comments that, despite \"patches of emotional excess\", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim in ''A Christmas Carol'' (1843), \"Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist\".In ''Oliver Twist'', Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets.", "While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in ''Bleak House'' and Amy Dorrit in ''Little Dorrit''), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary.", "Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence.", "For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group.", "Such coincidences are a staple of 18th-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding's ''Tom Jones,'' which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth." ], [ "Reputation", "Shakespeare and Tennyson, on a stained glass window at the Ottawa Public Library, Ottawa, CanadaDickens was the most popular novelist of his time, and remains one of the best-known and most-read of English authors.", "His works have never gone out of print, and have been adapted continually for the screen since the invention of cinema, with at least 200 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens's works documented.", "Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime – early productions included ''The Haunted Man'' which was performed in the West End's Adelphi Theatre in 1848 – and, as early as 1901, the British silent film ''Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost'' was made by Walter R. Booth.", "Contemporaries such as publisher Edward Lloyd cashed in on Dickens's popularity with cheap imitations of his novels, resulting in his own popular 'penny dreadfuls'.Dickens created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest British novelist of the Victorian era.", "From the beginning of his career in the 1830s, his achievements in English literature were compared to those of Shakespeare.", "Dickens's literary reputation, however, began to decline with the publication of ''Bleak House'' in 1852–53.Philip Collins calls ''Bleak House'' \"a crucial item in the history of Dickens's reputation.", "Reviewers and literary figures during the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, saw a 'drear decline' in Dickens, from a writer of 'bright sunny comedy ... to dark and serious social' commentary\".", "''The Spectator'' called ''Bleak House'' \"a heavy book to read through at once ... dull and wearisome as a serial\"; Richard Simpson, in ''The Rambler'', characterised ''Hard Times'' as \"this dreary framework\"; ''Fraser's Magazine'' thought ''Little Dorrit'' \"decidedly the worst of his novels\".", "All the same, despite these \"increasing reservations amongst reviewers and the chattering classes, 'the public never deserted its favourite.", "Dickens's popular reputation remained unchanged, sales continued to rise, and ''Household Words'' and later ''All the Year Round'' were highly successful.", "\"Charles Dickens as he appears when reading.\"", "Wood engraving from ''Harper's Weekly'', 7 December 1867.Author David Lodge called Dickens the \"first writer to be an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation\".As his career progressed, Dickens's fame and the demand for his public readings were unparalleled.", "In 1868 ''The Times'' wrote, \"Amid all the variety of 'readings', those of Mr Charles Dickens stand alone.\"", "A Dickens biographer, Edgar Johnson, wrote in the 1950s: \"It was always more than a reading; it was an extraordinary exhibition of acting that seized upon its auditors with a mesmeric possession.\"", "Juliet John backed the claim for Dickens \"to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture.\"", "Comparing his reception at public readings to those of a contemporary pop star, ''The Guardian'' states, \"People sometimes fainted at his shows.", "His performances even saw the rise of that modern phenomenon, the 'speculator' or ticket tout (scalpers) – the ones in New York City escaped detection by borrowing respectable-looking hats from the waiters in nearby restaurants.", "\"Among fellow writers, there was a range of opinions on Dickens.", "Poet laureate, William Wordsworth (1770–1850), thought him a \"very talkative, vulgar young person\", adding he had not read a line of his work, while novelist George Meredith (1828–1909), found Dickens \"intellectually lacking\".", "In 1888, Leslie Stephen commented in the ''Dictionary of National Biography'' that \"if literary fame could be safely measured by popularity with the half-educated, Dickens must claim the highest position among English novelists\".", "Anthony Trollope's ''Autobiography'' famously declared Thackeray, not Dickens, to be the greatest novelist of the age.", "However, both Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky were admirers.", "Dostoyevsky commented: \"We understand Dickens in Russia, I am convinced, almost as well as the English, perhaps even with all the nuances.", "It may well be that we love him no less than his compatriots do.", "And yet how original is Dickens, and how very English!\"", "Tolstoy referred to ''David Copperfield'' as his favourite book, and he later adopted the novel as \"a model for his own autobiographical reflections\".", "French writer Jules Verne called Dickens his favourite writer, writing his novels \"stand alone, dwarfing all others by their amazing power and felicity of expression\".", "Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh was inspired by Dickens's novels in several of his paintings, such as ''Vincent's Chair'', and in an 1889 letter to his sister stated that reading Dickens, especially ''A Christmas Carol'', was one of the things that was keeping him from committing suicide.", "Oscar Wilde generally disparaged his depiction of character, while admiring his gift for caricature.", "Henry James denied him a premier position, calling him \"the greatest of superficial novelists\": Dickens failed to endow his characters with psychological depth, and the novels, \"loose baggy monsters\", betrayed a \"cavalier organisation\".", "Joseph Conrad described his own childhood in bleak Dickensian terms, noting he had \"an intense and unreasoning affection\" for ''Bleak House'' dating back to his boyhood.", "The novel influenced his own gloomy portrait of London in ''The Secret Agent'' (1907).", "Virginia Woolf had a love-hate relationship with Dickens, finding his novels \"mesmerizing\" while reproving him for his sentimentalism and a commonplace style.Around 1940–41, the attitude of the literary critics began to warm towards Dickens – led by George Orwell in ''Inside the Whale and Other Essays'' (March 1940), Edmund Wilson in ''The Wound and the Bow'' (1941) and Humphry House in ''Dickens and His World''.", "However, even in 1948, F. R. Leavis, in ''The Great Tradition'', asserted that \"the adult mind doesn't as a rule find in Dickens a challenge to an unusual and sustained seriousness\"; Dickens was indeed a great genius, \"but the genius was that of a great entertainer\", though he later changed his opinion with ''Dickens the Novelist'' (1970, with Q. D. (Queenie) Leavis): \"Our purpose\", they wrote, \"is to enforce as unanswerably as possible the conviction that Dickens was one of the greatest of creative writers\".", "In 1944, Soviet film director and film theorist Sergei Eisenstein wrote an essay on Dickens's influence on cinema, such as cross-cutting – where two stories run alongside each other, as seen in novels such as ''Oliver Twist''.In the 1950s, \"a substantial reassessment and re-editing of the works began, and critics found his finest artistry and greatest depth to be in the later novels: ''Bleak House'', ''Little Dorrit'', and ''Great Expectations'' – and (less unanimously) in ''Hard Times'' and ''Our Mutual Friend''\".", "Dickens was a favourite author of Roald Dahl; the best-selling children's author would include three of Dickens's novels among those read by the title character in his 1988 novel ''Matilda''.", "An avid reader of Dickens, in 2005, Paul McCartney named ''Nicholas Nickleby'' his favourite novel.", "On Dickens he states, \"I like the world that he takes me to.", "I like his words; I like the language\", adding, \"A lot of my stuff – it's kind of Dickensian.\"", "Screenwriter Jonathan Nolan's screenplay for ''The Dark Knight Rises'' (2012) was inspired by ''A Tale of Two Cities'', with Nolan calling the depiction of Paris in the novel \"one of the most harrowing portraits of a relatable, recognisable civilisation that completely folded to pieces\".", "On 7 February 2012, the 200th anniversary of Dickens's birth, Philip Womack wrote in ''The Telegraph'': \"Today there is no escaping Charles Dickens.", "Not that there has ever been much chance of that before.", "He has a deep, peculiar hold upon us\"." ], [ "Legacy", "''Dickens and Little Nell'' statue in Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaMuseums and festivals celebrating Dickens's life and works exist in many places with which Dickens was associated.", "These include the Charles Dickens Museum in London, the historic home where he wrote ''Oliver Twist'', ''The Pickwick Papers'' and ''Nicholas Nickleby''; and the Charles Dickens Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth, the house in which he was born.", "The original manuscripts of many of his novels, as well as printers' proofs, first editions, and illustrations from the collection of Dickens's friend John Forster are held at the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "Dickens's will stipulated that no memorial be erected in his honour; nonetheless, a life-size bronze statue of Dickens entitled ''Dickens and Little Nell'', cast in 1890 by Francis Edwin Elwell, stands in Clark Park in the Spruce Hill neighbourhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "Another life-size statue of Dickens is located at Centennial Park in Sydney, Australia.", "In 1960 a bas-relief sculpture of Dickens, notably featuring characters from his books, was commissioned from sculptor Estcourt J Clack to adorn the office building built on the site of his former home at 1 Devonshire Terrace, London.", "In 2014, a life-size statue was unveiled near his birthplace in Portsmouth on the 202nd anniversary of his birth; this was supported by his great-great-grandsons, Ian and Gerald Dickens.", "''A Christmas Carol'' significantly influenced the modern celebration of Christmas in many countries''A Christmas Carol'' is most probably his best-known story, with frequent new adaptations.", "It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema.", "According to the historian Ronald Hutton, the current state of the observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday spearheaded by ''A Christmas Carol''.", "Dickens catalysed the emerging Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the dwindling community-based and church-centred observations, as new middle-class expectations arose.", "Its archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) entered into Western cultural consciousness.", "\"Merry Christmas\", a prominent phrase from the tale, was popularised following the appearance of the story.", "The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, and his exclamation \"Bah!", "Humbug!", "'\", a dismissal of the festive spirit, likewise gained currency as an idiom.", "The Victorian era novelist William Makepeace Thackeray called the book \"a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness\".Statue of Dickens in his birthplace Portsmouth, HampshireDickens was commemorated on the Series E £10 note issued by the Bank of England that circulated between 1992 and 2003.His portrait appeared on the reverse of the note accompanied by a scene from ''The Pickwick Papers''.", "The Charles Dickens School is a high school in Broadstairs, Kent.", "A theme park, Dickens World, standing in part on the site of the former naval dockyard where Dickens's father once worked in the Navy Pay Office, opened in Chatham in 2007.To celebrate the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens in 2012, the Museum of London held the UK's first major exhibition on the author in 40 years.", "In 2002, Dickens was number 41 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.", "American literary critic Harold Bloom placed Dickens among the greatest Western writers of all time.", "In the 2003 UK survey The Big Read carried out by the BBC, five of Dickens's books were named in the Top 100.Actors who have portrayed Dickens on screen include Anthony Hopkins, Derek Jacobi, Simon Callow, Dan Stevens and Ralph Fiennes, the latter playing the author in ''The Invisible Woman'' (2013) which depicts Dickens's alleged secret love affair with Ellen Ternan which lasted for thirteen years until his death in 1870.Soviet postage stamp commemorating DickensDickens and his publications have appeared on a number of postage stamps in countries including: the United Kingdom (1970, 1993, 2011 and 2012 issued by the Royal Mail—their 2012 collection marked the bicentenary of Dickens's birth), the Soviet Union (1962), Antigua, Barbuda, Botswana, Cameroon, Dubai, Fujairah, St Lucia and Turks and Caicos Islands (1970), St Vincent (1987), Nevis (2007), Alderney, Gibraltar, Jersey and Pitcairn Islands (2012), Austria (2013), and Mozambique (2014).", "In 1976, a crater on the planet Mercury was named in his honour.In November 2018 it was reported that a previously lost portrait of a 31-year-old Dickens, by Margaret Gillies, had been found in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.", "Gillies was an early supporter of women's suffrage and had painted the portrait in late 1843 when Dickens, aged 31, wrote ''A Christmas Carol''.", "It was exhibited, to acclaim, at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1844.The Charles Dickens Museum is reported to have paid £180,000 for the portrait." ], [ "Works", "Dickens published well over a dozen major novels and novellas, a large number of short stories, including a number of Christmas-themed stories, a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books.=== Novels and novellas ===Dickens's novels and novellas were initially serialised in weekly and monthly magazines, then reprinted in standard book formats.", "* ''The Pickwick Papers'' (''The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club''; monthly serial, April 1836 to November 1837).", "Novel.", "* ''Oliver Twist'' (''The Adventures of Oliver Twist''; monthly serial in ''Bentley's Miscellany'', February 1837 to April 1839).", "Novel.", "* ''Nicholas Nickleby'' (''The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby''; monthly serial, April 1838 to October 1839).", "Novel.", "* ''The Old Curiosity Shop'' (weekly serial in ''Master Humphrey's Clock'', April 1840 to November 1841).", "Novel.", "* ''Barnaby Rudge'' (''Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty''; weekly serial in ''Master Humphrey's Clock'', February to November 1841).", "Novel.", "* ''A Christmas Carol'' (''A Christmas Carol in Prose: Being a Ghost-story of Christmas''; 1843).", "Novella.", "* ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' (''The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit''; monthly serial, January 1843 to July 1844).", "Novel.", "* ''The Chimes'' (''The Chimes: A Goblin Story of Some Bells That Rang an Old Year Out and a New Year In''; 1844).", "Novella.", "* ''The Cricket on the Hearth'' (''The Cricket on the Hearth: A Fairy Tale of Home''; 1845).", "Novella.", "* ''The Battle of Life'' (''The Battle of Life: A Love Story''; 1846).", "Novella.", "* ''Dombey and Son'' (''Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and Son: Wholesale, Retail and for Exportation''; monthly serial, October 1846 to April 1848).", "Novel.", "* ''The Haunted Man'' (''The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain: A Fancy for Christmas-time''; 1848).", "Novella.", "* ''David Copperfield'' (''The Personal History, Adventures, Experience and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger of Blunderstone Rookery Which He Never Meant to Publish on Any Account''; monthly serial, May 1849 to November 1850).", "Novel.", "* ''Bleak House'' (monthly serial, March 1852 to September 1853).", "Novel.", "* ''Hard Times'' (''Hard Times: For These Times''; weekly serial in ''Household Words'', 1 April 1854, to 12 August 1854).", "Novel.", "* ''Little Dorrit'' (monthly serial, December 1855 to June 1857).", "Novel.", "* ''A Tale of Two Cities'' (weekly serial in ''All the Year Round'', 30 April 1859, to 26 November 1859).", "Novel.", "* ''Great Expectations'' (weekly serial in ''All the Year Round'', 1 December 1860 to 3 August 1861).", "Novel.", "* ''Our Mutual Friend'' (monthly serial, May 1864 to November 1865).", "Novel.", "* ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood'' (monthly serial, April 1870 to September 1870), novel left unfinished due to Dickens's death." ], [ "See also", "* List of Dickensian characters* Racism in the work of Charles Dickens* Charles Dickens bibliography*''The Fraud'' by Zadie Smith" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Bradbury, Nicola, ''Charles Dickens' Great Expectations'' (St. Martin's Press, 1990) * Douglas-Fairhurst, Robert, \" Becoming Dickens 'The Invention of a Novelist, London: Harvard University Press, 2011* * * * * Johnson, Edgar, ''Charles Dickens: his tragedy and triumph'', New York: Simon and Schuster, 1952.In two volumes.", "* * * * * Manning, Mick & Granström, Brita, ''Charles Dickens: Scenes From An Extraordinary Life'', Frances Lincoln Children's Books, 2011.", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "===Works===* Charles Dickens's works on Bookwise* * * * * * * Charles Dickens at the British Library===Organisations and portals===* * * Charles Dickens on the Archives Hub* Archival material at Leeds University Library* The Dickens Fellowship, an international society dedicated to the study of Dickens and his Writings* Correspondence of Charles Dickens, with related papers, ca.", "1834–1955* Finding aid to Charles Dickens papers at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library.===Museums===* Dickens Museum Situated in a former Dickens House, 48 Doughty Street, London, WC1* Dickens Birthplace Museum Old Commercial Road, Portsmouth* Victoria and Albert Museum The V&A's collections relating to Dickens===Other===* * Charles Dickens's Traveling Kit From the John Davis Batchelder Collection at the Library of Congress* Charles Dickens's Walking Stick From the John Davis Batchelder Collection at the Library of Congress* Charles Dickens Collection: First editions of Charles Dickens's works included in the Leonard Kebler gift (dispersed in the Division's collection).", "From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carabiner" ], [ "Introduction", "Clockwise from top left: Center is a standard carabiner rating.Using a carabiner to connect to a ropeA '''carabiner''' or '''karabiner''' (), often shortened to '''biner''' or to '''crab''', colloquially known as a ('''climbing''') '''clip''', is a specialized type of shackle, a metal loop with a spring-loaded gate used to quickly and reversibly connect components, most notably in safety-critical systems.", "The word comes from the German , short for , meaning \"carbine rifle hook\" used by a carbine rifleman, or carabinier, to attach his carbine to a belt or bandolier." ], [ "Use", "Carabiners are widely used in rope-intensive activities such as climbing, fall arrest systems, arboriculture, caving, sailing, hot-air ballooning, rope rescue, construction, industrial rope work, window cleaning, whitewater rescue, and acrobatics.", "They are predominantly made from both steel and aluminium.", "Those used in sports tend to be of a lighter weight than those used in commercial applications and rope rescue.Often referred to as carabiner-style or as mini-carabiners, carabiner keyrings and other light-use clips of similar style and design have also become popular.", "Most are stamped with a \"not for climbing\" or similar warning due to a common lack of load-testing and safety standards in manufacturing.While any metal link with a spring-loaded gate is technically a carabiner, the strict usage among the climbing community specifically refers only to devices manufactured and tested for load-bearing in safety-critical systems like rock and mountain climbing, typically rated to 20 kN or more.Carabiners on hot-air balloons are used to connect the envelope to the basket and are rated at 2.5, 3, or 4 tonnes.Load-bearing screw-gate carabiners are used to connect the diver's umbilical to the surface supplied diver's harness.", "They are usually rated for a safe working load of 5 kN or more (equivalent to a weight in excess of approximately 500 kg)." ], [ "Types", "===Shape===Carabiners come in four characteristic shapes:#Oval: Symmetric.", "Most basic and utilitarian.", "Smooth regular curves are gentle on equipment and allow easy repositioning of loads.", "Their greatest disadvantage is that a load is shared equally on both the strong solid spine and the weaker gated axis.", "Often preferred type for racking biners due to their symmetric shape.#D: Asymmetric shape transfers the majority of the load on to the spine, the carabiner's strongest axis.#Offset-D: Variant of a D with a greater asymmetry, allowing for a wider gate opening.#Pear/HMS: Wider and rounder shape at the top than offset-D's, and typically larger.", "Used for belaying with a munter hitch, and with some types of belay device.", "The largest HMS carabiners can also be used for rappelling with a munter hitch (the size is needed to accommodate the hitch with two strands of rope).", "These are usually the heaviest carabiners.===Locking mechanisms===Carabiners fall into three broad locking categories: non-locking, manual locking, and auto locking.====Non-locking====Non-locking carabiners (or ''snap-links'') have a sprung swinging gate that accepts a rope, webbing sling, or other hardware.", "Rock climbers frequently connect two non-locking carabiners with a short length of webbing to create a quickdraw (an extender).Two gate types are common:# Solid gate: The more traditional carabiner design, incorporating a solid metal gate with separate pin and spring mechanisms.", "Most modern carabiners feature a 'key-lock nose shape and gate opening, which is less prone to snagging than traditional notch and pin design.", "Most locking carabiners are based on the solid gate design.# Wire gate: A single piece of bent spring-steel wire forms the gate.", "Wire gate carabiners are significantly lighter than solid gates, with roughly the same strength.", "Wire gates are less prone to icing up than solid gates, an advantage in Alpine mountaineering and ice climbing.", "The reduced gate mass makes their wire bales less prone to \"gate flutter\", a dangerous condition created when the carabiner suddenly impacts rock or other hard surfaces during a fall, and the gate opens momentarily due to momentum (and both lowers the breaking strength of the carabiner when open, and potentially allows the rope to escape).", "Simple wiregate designs feature a notch that can snag objects (similar to original solid gate designs), but newer designs feature a shroud or guide wires around the \"hooked\" part of the carabiner nose to prevent snagging.Both solid and wire gate carabiners can be either \"straight gate\" or \"bent gate\".", "Bent-gate carabiners are easier to clip a rope into using only one hand, and so are often used for the rope-end carabiner of quickdraws and alpine draws used for lead climbing.====Locking====Locking carabiners have the same general shape as non-locking carabiners, but have an additional mechanism securing the gate to prevent unintentional opening during use.", "These mechanisms may be either threaded sleeves (\"screw-lock\"), spring-loaded sleeves (\"twist-lock\"), magnetic levers (\"Magnetron\"), other spring loaded unlocking levers or opposing double spring loaded gates (\"twin-gate\").=====Manual=====* Screw-lock (or screw gate): Have a threaded sleeve over the gate which must be engaged and disengaged manually.", "They have fewer moving parts than spring-loaded mechanisms, are less prone to malfunctioning due to contamination or component fatigue, and are easier to employ one-handed.", "They, however, require more total effort and are more time-consuming than pull-lock, twist-lock or lever-lock.=====Auto-locking=====Carabiner with multiple combined auto lock and quick release, useful in via ferrata and arborist work, where two lanyards and carabiners are used* Twist-lock, push-lock, twist-and-push-lock: Have a security sleeve over the gate which must be manually rotated and/or pulled to disengage, but which springs automatically to locked position upon release.", "They offer the advantage of re-engaging without additional user input, but being spring-loaded are prone to both spring fatigue and their more complex mechanisms becoming balky from dirt, ice, or other contamination.", "They are also difficult to open one-handed and with gloves on, and sometimes jam, getting stuck after being tightened under load, and being very hard to undo once the load is removed.", "* Multiple-levers: Having at least two spring loaded levers that are each operated with one hand.", "* Magnetic: Have two small levers with embedded magnets on either side of the locking gate which must be pushed towards each other or pinched simultaneously to unlock.", "Upon release the levers pull shut and into the locked position against a small steel insert in the carabiner nose.", "With the gate open the magnets in the two levers repel each other so they do not lock or stick together, which might prevent the gate from closing properly.", "Advantages are very easy one-handed operation, re-engaging without additional user input and few mechanical parts that can fail.", "*Double-Gate: Have two opposed overlapping gates at the opening which prevent a rope or anchor from inadvertently passing through the gate in either direction.", "Gates may only be opened by pushing outwards from in between towards either direction.", "The carabiner can therefore be opened by splitting the gates with a fingertip, allowing easy one hand operation.", "The likelihood of a rope under tension to split the gates is therefore practically none.", "The lack of a rotating lock prevents a rolling knot, such as the Munter hitch, from unlocking the gate and passing through, giving a measure of inherent safety in use and reducing mechanical complexity." ], [ "Certification", "===Europe===*Recreation: Carabiners sold for use in climbing in Europe must conform to standard EN 12275:1998 \"Mountaineering equipment – Connectors – Safety requirements and test methods\", which governs testing protocols, rated strengths, and markings.", "A breaking strength of at least 20 kN (20,000 newtons = approximately 2040 kilograms of force which is significantly more than the weight of a small car) with the gate closed and 7 kN with the gate open is the standard for most climbing applications, although requirements vary depending on the activity.", "Carabiners are marked on the side with single letters showing their intended area of use, for example, K (via ferrata), B (base), and H (for belaying with an Italian or Munter hitch).", "*Industry: Carabiners used for access in commercial and industrial environments within Europe must comply with EN 362:2004 \"Personal protective equipment against falls from a height.", "Connectors.\"", "The minimum gate closed breaking strength of a carabiner conforming with EN 362:2004 is nominally the same as that of EN 12275:1998 at around 20 kN.", "Carabiners complying with both EN 12275:1998 and EN 362:2004 are available.===United States===*Climbing and mountaineering: Minimum breaking strength (MBS) requirements and calculations for climbing and mountaineering carabiners in the USA are set out in ASTM Standard F1774.This standard calls for a MBS of 20 kN on the long axis, and 7 kN on the short axis (cross load).", "*Rescue: Carabiners used for rescue are addressed in ASTM F1956.This document addresses two classifications of carabiners, light use and heavy-duty.", "Light use carabiners are the most widely used, and are commonly found in applications including technical rope rescue, mountain rescue, cave rescue, cliff rescue, military, SWAT, and even by some non-NFPA fire departments.", "ASTM requirements for light use carabiners are 27 kN MBS on the long axis, 7 kN on the short axis.", "Requirements for the lesser-used heavy duty rescue carabiners are 40 kN MBS long axis, 10.68 kN short axis.", "*Fire rescue: Minimum breaking strength requirements and calculations for rescue carabiners used by NFPA compliant agencies are set out in National Fire Protection Association standard 1983-2012 edition ''Fire Service Life Safety Rope and Equipment''.", "The standard defines two classes of rescue carabiners.", "Technical use rescue carabiners are required to have minimum breaking strengths of 27 kN gate closed, 7 kN gate open and 7 kN minor axis.", "General use rescue carabiners are required to have minimum breaking strengths of 40 kN gate closed, 11 kN gate open and 11 kN minor axis.", "Testing procedures for rescue carabiners are set out in ASTM International standard F 1956 ''Standard Specification of Rescue Carabiners''.", "*Fall protection: Carabiners used for fall protection in US industry are classified as \"connectors\" and are required to meet Occupational Safety and Health Administration standard 1910.66 App C ''Personal Fall Arrest System'' which specifies \"drop forged, pressed or formed steel, or made of equivalent materials\" and a minimum breaking strength of .American National Standards Institute/American Society of Safety Engineers standard ANSI Z359.1-2007 ''Safety Requirement for Personal Fall Arrest Systems, Subsystems and Components'', section 3.2.1.4 (for snap hooks and carabiners) is a voluntary consensus standard.", "This standard requires that all connectors/ carabiners support a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of and feature an auto-locking gate mechanism which supports a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of ." ], [ "History", "Hooks with a sprung, hinged gate, depicted on a horse's muzzle in the Codex Löffelholz folio 38v, about 1505Rather poor depiction of a carabiner attached to a shoulder belt, from Johann Jacob von Wallhausen's Kriegskunst zu Pferdt, 1616The first known hooks that had a sprung, hinged gate where the spring kept it closed (characteristics expected of a carabiner) were depicted by Nuremberg patrician Martin Löffelholz von Kolberg in about 1505 in the Codex Löffelholz, in the Holy Roman Empire.", "These then became the clip used to hold a cavalry carbine or arquebus, with the earliest known mention of them being in 1616 by Johann Jacob von Wallhausen, in the Holy Roman Empire.", "They were widely used in many European countries during the 17th century, and typically had a belt attachment and swivel joint, much like a modern luggage strap or handbag strap.", "The load bearing latch was added in the 1790s, for the British cavalry design.", "They were used for many other purposes during the 19th century, such as for luggage straps, mining and connecting ropes.", "Some common designs first appeared during that time, including S-carabiners.", "Oval links, which had also appeared in 1485, also reappeared as carabiners.", "Screw gates and internal springs were developed.", "Prussian fire brigades began to use carabiners for connecting themselves to ladders in 1847, and this became the modern gourd-shaped design by 1868.German and Austrian mountaineers started using them during the late 19th century, with a mention of their use from 1879, and their continued use for climbing by climbers in Saxon Switzerland.", "The majority used gourd shaped carabiners which were created for mining or other utility purposes.The common myth suggesting that they were invented, created, designed, made or developed by German climber Otto \"Rambo\" Herzog has no basis in fact.", "However, like many climbers before him, he did use them for some challenging climbs, and some new techniques.", "However, it is worth noting that he did not invent them, or develop any designs, and he was born long after other climbers were already using them.", "More designs were used by climbers during the 1920s, such as narrow pear shapes, mostly sold for general hardware.", "During the late 1920s and early 1930s, carabiners were being sold for climbing, with oval designs being popular during the 1930s.", "Hardened steel carabiners appeared in the 1930s.", "Prototype aluminium carabiners, the first dedicated climbing carabiners, were made first by Pierre Allain during the 1930s, which were also the first offset D-shaped carabiner.", "Aluminium carabiners were first sold to the military in 1941, which were the first commercial carabiners designed specifically for climbing.", "Slightly-offset D-shaped carabiners were sold in the late 1940s, which became the standard offset D-shape which is now the most common in the 1950s.Chouinard Equipment introduced the 22 kN aluminium carabiner in 1968, though this strength had already been far surpassed by steel carabiners.", "Wiregate carabiners were first patented in 1969, and were sold for maritime use.", "They were first sold for climbing in 1996.The popular keylock, which avoids snagging, was developed around 1984-1987." ], [ "See also", "* Maillon* Lobster clasp* Rock-climbing equipment* Glossary of climbing terms" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Continuity (fiction)" ], [ "Introduction", "In fiction, '''continuity''' is the consistency of the characteristics of people, plot, objects, and places seen by the audience over some period of time.", "It is relevant to many genres and forms of storytelling, especially if it is long-running.Continuity is particularly a concern in the process of film and television production due to the difficulty in rectifying errors after filming ends.", "Continuity can also apply to other art forms, such as novels, comics, and video games, though usually on a smaller scale; it also applies to fiction used by persons, corporations, and governments in the public eye.Most film and TV productions have a script supervisor on hand whose job is to pay attention to and attempt to maintain continuity across the chaotic and typically non-linear production schedule.", "It is an inconspicuous job because if done well, none may ever notice.", "The script supervisor gathers numerous paperwork, photographs, and other documentation which note a large quantity of detail for maintaining the continuity of the production; Some of the gathered documents can be sometimes assembled into the story bible.", "The gathered information and photographs usually regard factors both within the scene and the technical details of the production, including meticulous records of camera positioning and equipment settings.", "Film-based Polaroid cameras were once standard but have since been replaced by digital cameras; all of this is, ideally, all related shots can match, due to filming being split up over months in different sets and locations.", "In comic books, continuity has also come to mean a set of contiguous events, sometimes said to be \"set in the same universe.", "\"==Continuity errors==A continuity error in Charlie Chaplin's 1914 comedy short ''The Property Man''.", "In the first frame, Chaplin's character is seen carrying a trunk through a door, holding his hat behind him.", "In the immediately subsequent shot from the other side of the door, he is wearing the hat.Many continuity errors are subtle, such as minor changes between shots (like the level of drink in a glass or the length of a cigarette); these minor errors often remain due to relative indifference to the final cut.", "While minor errors are often unnoticed by the average viewer, other errors may be more noticeable, such as sudden drastic changes in the appearance of a character.", "Productions will aim to prevent such errors in continuity because they can affect the audience's suspension of disbelief.In cinema, special attention must be paid to continuity because scenes are rarely shot in the order in which they appear in the final film.", "The shooting schedule is often dictated by location permit issues and other logistics.", "For example, a character may return to Times Square in New York City several times throughout a movie, but as it is extraordinarily expensive to close off Times Square, those scenes will likely be filmed all at once to reduce permit costs.", "Weather, the ambiance of natural light, cast and crew availability, or any number of other circumstances can also influence a shooting schedule.=== Measures against continuity errors in the film ===Film production companies use various techniques to prevent continuity errors.", "The first would be to film all the shots for a particular scene together and all shots of consecutive scenes together (if the scenes take place together, with no break between them in the film's timeline).", "This allows actors to remain in costume, in character, and in the same location (and with the same weather, if shooting on location).The second major technique is for costume designers, production designers, prop masters, and make-up artists to take instant photographs of actors and sets at the beginning and end of each day's shooting (once made possible by Polaroid cameras, now done with digital cameras and cell phones as well).", "This allows the various workers to check each day's clothing, set, props, and make-up against a previous day's.The third is to avoid shooting on location entirely but instead film everything on a studio set.", "This allows weather and lighting to be controlled (as the shooting is indoors), and for all clothing and sets to be stored in one place to be hauled out the next day from a secure location.The advent of advanced CGI has helped alleviate the challenge of preventing continuity errors from reaching the final cut, as it is easier to \"airbrush\" the errant drink glass or cigarette than it once was, albeit still not necessarily trivial.===Editing errors===Editing errors can occur when a character in a scene references a scene or incident that has not occurred yet, or of which they should not yet be aware.An example of an editing error can be seen in the film ''It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World'' (1963), where a scene of people climbing a slope at the start is seen from below and then replayed from above.===Visual errors===Visual errors are instant ''discontinuities'' occurring in visual media such as film and television.", "Items of clothing change colors, shadows get longer or shorter, items within a scene change place or disappear, etc.One of the earliest examples of a ''visual error'' appears in Charlie Chaplin's 1914 movie ''The Property Man''.", "Here, in a supposedly smooth step from one room to another, the Tramp loses his hat in one room, but it is instantly back on his head as he enters the next room.", "Rather \"loose\" plots and a lack of continuity editing made most early films rife with such errors.Another example occurs in the 1998 film ''Waking Ned'', when two of the film's characters, Jackie and Michael, are walking through a storm towards Ned's house.", "The umbrella they are under is black during their conversation as they walk towards the house (filmed from slightly above and to the front).", "However, after cutting to a lower shot (filmed from behind Jackie), Michael walks onscreen from the right holding an umbrella that is not black but beige, with a brown band at the rim.Another glaring example of poor continuity occurs in the Disney film ''Pete’s Dragon'' (filmed in 1976).", "During the song \"Brazzle Dazzle Day\" when Lampie (Mickey Rooney), Pete (Sean Marshall), and Nora (Helen Reddy) climb the stairs to the top of the lighthouse, Pete's shirt beneath his overalls is orange.", "But after descending to the bottom again and coming out of the lighthouse door, his shirt is now grey.===Plot errors===A plot error, or a plot hole as it is commonly known, reflects a failure in the consistency of the created fictional world.", "A character might state he was an only child, yet later mention a sibling.", "In the TV show ''Cheers'', Frasier Crane's wife Lilith mentions Frasier's parents are both dead, and, in another episode, Frasier himself claims his father to have been a scientist.", "When the character was spun off into ''Frasier'', his father, a retired policeman named Martin, became a central character.", "Eventually, in an episode featuring ''Cheers'' star Ted Danson, the inconsistency was given the retroactive explanation that Frasier was embarrassed about his father's lowbrow attitudes and thus claimed his death.", "This is a frequent occurrence in sitcoms, where networks may agree to continue a show, but only if a certain character is emphasized, leading other minor characters to be written out of the show with no further mention of the character's existence, while the emphasized character (usually a breakout character, as in the case of Frasier Crane) develops a more complete back story that ignores previous, more simplified backstories.===Homeric nod===A Homeric nod (sometimes heard as 'Even Homer nods') is a term for a continuity error that has its origins in Homeric epic.", "The proverbial phrase for it was coined by the Roman poet Horace in his ''Ars Poetica'': ''\"et idem indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus\"'' (\"and yet I also become annoyed whenever the great Homer nods off\").There are numerous continuity errors in Homer that can be described as \"nods\", as for example:*In ''Iliad'', Menelaos kills a minor character, Pylaimenes, in combat.", "Pylaimenes is later still alive to witness the death of his son.", "*In ''Iliad'' 9.165-93 three characters, Phoinix, Odysseus, and Aias set out on an embassy to Achilleus; however, at line 182 the poet uses a verb in the dual form to indicate that there are only two people going; at lines 185ff.", "verbs in the plural form are used, indicating more than two; but another dual verb appears at line 192 (\"the two of them came forward\").In modern Homeric scholarship, many of Homer's \"nods\" are explicable as the consequences of the poem being retold and improvised by generations of oral poets.", "In the second case cited above, it is likely that two different versions are being conflated: one version with an embassy of three people, another with just two people.", "Alexander Pope was inclined to give Homeric nods the benefit of the doubt, saying in his ''Essay on Criticism'' that \"Those oft are Stratagems which Errors seem, Nor is it Homer Nods, but We that Dream.", "\"===Aging discrepancies===The practice of accelerating the age of a television character (usually a child or teenager) in conflict with the timeline of a series and/or the real-world progression of time is popularly known as Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome, or SORAS.", "Children unseen on screen for a time might reappear portrayed by an actor several years older than the original.", "Usually coinciding with a recast, this rapid aging is typically done to open up the character to a wider range of storylines, and to attract younger viewers.", "A recent example of this occurring is in the BBC's ''Merlin'' series, in which Mordred is initially played by a young child in Season 4, yet suddenly grows up into his late teens in time for the start of Season 5, with the rest of the characters aging by only three years.The reverse can also happen.", "On the television program ''Lost'', the character of 10-year-old Walt Lloyd was played by 12-year-old actor Malcolm David Kelley.", "The first few seasons took place over the course of just a few months, but by that point, Lloyd looked much older than 10.In his remaining few appearances, special effects were used to make him look younger, or the scene took place years later." ], [ "Dealing with errors", "When continuity mistakes have been made, explanations are often proposed by either writers or fans to smooth over discrepancies.", "Fans sometimes make up explanations for such errors that may or may not be integrated into canon; this has come to be colloquially known as ''fanwanking'' (a term originally coined by the author Craig Hinton to describe excessive use of continuity).", "Often when fans do not agree with one of the events in a story (such as the death of a favorite character), they will choose to ignore the event in question so that their enjoyment of the franchise is not diminished.", "When the holder of the intellectual property discards all existing continuity and starts from scratch, it is known as rebooting.", "Fans call a less extreme literary technique that erases one episode the reset button.", "See also fanon.A conflict with previously-established facts is sometimes deliberate; this is a ''retcon'', as it is a ''retro''active change in ''con''tinuity.", "Retcons sometimes clarify ambiguities or correct perceived errors.", "This is not to be confused with the continuance of a reality (continuality)." ], [ "Ageless characters", "Some fiction ignores continuity to allow characters to slow or stop the aging process, despite real-world markers like major social or technological changes.", "In comics this is sometimes referred to as a \"floating timeline\", where the fiction takes place in a \"continuous present\".", "Roz Kaveney suggests that comic books use this technique to satisfy \"the commercial need to keep certain characters going forever\".", "This is also due to the fact that the authors have no need to accommodate the aging of their characters, which is also typical of most animated television shows.", "Kevin Wanner compares the use of a sliding timescale in comics to the way ageless figures in myths are depicted interacting with the contemporary world of the storyteller.", "When certain stories in comics, especially origin stories, are rewritten, they often retain key events but are updated to a contemporary time, such as with the comic book character Tony Stark, who invents his Iron Man armor in a different war depending on when the story is told." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Capital punishment" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Capital punishment''', also known as the '''death penalty''' and formerly called '''judicial homicide''', is the state-sanctioned practice of killing a person as a punishment for a crime, usually following an authorised, rule-governed process to conclude that the person is responsible for violating norms that warrant said punishment.", "The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in such a manner is known as a '''death sentence''', and the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an '''execution'''.", "A prisoner who has been sentenced to death and awaits execution is ''condemned'' and is commonly referred to as being \"on death row\".", "Etymologically, the term ''capital'' (, derived via the Latin '''' from '''', \"head\") refers to execution by beheading, but executions are carried out by many methods, including hanging, shooting, lethal injection, stoning, electrocution, and gassing.Crimes that are punishable by death are known as ''capital crimes'', ''capital offences'', or ''capital felonies'', and vary depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly include serious crimes against a person, such as assassination, mass murder, child murder, aggravated rape, terrorism, aircraft hijacking, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, along with crimes against the state such as attempting to overthrow government, treason, espionage, sedition, and piracy.", "Also, in some cases, acts of recidivism, aggravated robbery, and kidnapping, in addition to drug trafficking, drug dealing, and drug possession, are capital crimes or enhancements.", "However, states have also imposed punitive executions, for an expansive range of conduct, for political or religious beliefs and practices, for a status beyond one's control, or without employing any significant due process procedures.", "Judicial murder is the intentional and premeditated killing of an innocent person by means of capital punishment.", "For example, the executions following the show trials in the Soviet Union during the Great Purge of 1936–1938 were an instrument of political repression.As of late 2022, 54 countries retain capital punishment, 111 countries have completely abolished it ''de jure'' for all crimes, seven have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 24 are abolitionist in practice.", "Although the majority of nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where the death penalty is retained, such as China, India, the United States, Singapore, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Japan, and Taiwan.Capital punishment is controversial, with many people, organisations, and religious groups holding differing views on whether it is ethically permissible.", "Amnesty International declares that the death penalty breaches human rights, specifically \"the right to life and the right to live free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.\"", "These rights are protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948.In the European Union (EU), Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment.", "The Council of Europe, which has 46 member states, has sought to abolish the use of the death penalty by its members absolutely, through Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights.", "However, this only affects those member states which have signed and ratified it, and they do not include Armenia and Azerbaijan.", "The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, throughout the years from 2007 to 2020, eight non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition." ], [ "History", "Anarchist Auguste Vaillant about to be guillotined in France in 1894Execution of criminals and dissidents has been used by nearly all societies since the beginning of civilisations on Earth.", "Until the nineteenth century, without developed prison systems, there was frequently no workable alternative to ensure deterrence and incapacitation of criminals.", "In pre-modern times the executions themselves often involved torture with painful methods, such as the breaking wheel, keelhauling, sawing, hanging, drawing and quartering, burning at the stake, crucifixion, flaying, slow slicing, boiling alive, impalement, mazzatello, blowing from a gun, schwedentrunk, and scaphism.", "Other methods which appear only in legend include the blood eagle and brazen bull.The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history.", "Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system.", "Communal punishments for wrongdoing generally included blood money compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution.", "In tribal societies, compensation and shunning were often considered enough as a form of justice.", "The response to crimes committed by neighbouring tribes, clans or communities included a formal apology, compensation, blood feuds, and tribal warfare.A blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails, or an arbitration system is non-existent.", "This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion.", "It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour.", "\"Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished.", "\"In most countries that practice capital punishment, it is now reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice.", "In some countries, sexual crimes, such as rape, fornication, adultery, incest, sodomy, and bestiality carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as Hudud, Zina, and Qisas crimes, such as apostasy (formal renunciation of the state religion), blasphemy, moharebeh, hirabah, Fasad, Mofsed-e-filarz and witchcraft.", "In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking and often drug possession is also a capital offence.", "In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption and financial crimes are punished by the death penalty.", "In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.===Ancient history===''The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer'', by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883).", "Roman Circus Maximus.Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system.", "Compensation was based on the principle of ''substitution'' which might include material (for example, cattle, slaves, land) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt.", "Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution.", "The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the social system was based on tribes and clans, not individuals.", "Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Norsemen ''things''.", "Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat or blood money).", "One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel.Beheading of John the Baptist, woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860In certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged.", "These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties.", "Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations.", "Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slaves emerged.", "Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalized the relation between the different \"social classes\" rather than \"tribes\".", "The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation, according to the different class or group of victims and perpetrators.", "The Torah/Old Testament lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, practicing magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were exceedingly rare, if they occurred at all.A further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system replacing customary oral law was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining capital punishment only for intentional homicide, and only with victim's family permission.", "The word draconian derives from Draco's laws.", "The Romans also used the death penalty for a wide range of offences.===Ancient Greece===The Death of Socrates (1787), in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York CityProtagoras (whose thought is reported by Plato) criticised the principle of revenge, because once the damage is done it cannot be cancelled by any action.", "So, if the death penalty is to be imposed by society, it is only to protect the latter against the criminal or for a dissuasive purpose.", "\"The only right that Protagoras knows is therefore human right, which, established and sanctioned by a sovereign collectivity, identifies itself with positive or the law in force of the city.", "In fact, it finds its guarantee in the death penalty which threatens all those who do not respect it.", "\"Plato saw the death penalty as a means of purification, because crimes are a \"defilement\".", "Thus, in the Laws, he considered necessary the execution of the animal or the destruction of the object which caused the death of a man by accident.", "For the murderers, he considered that the act of homicide is not natural and is not fully consented by the criminal.", "Homicide is thus a disease of the soul, which must be reeducated as much as possible, and, as a last resort, sentence to death if no rehabilitation is possible.According to Aristotle, for whom free will is proper to man, a person is responsible for their actions.", "If there was a crime, a judge must define the penalty allowing the crime to be annulled by compensating it.", "This is how pecuniary compensation appeared for criminals the least recalcitrant and whose rehabilitation is deemed possible.", "However, for others, he argued, the death penalty is necessary.This philosophy aims on the one hand to protect society and on the other hand to compensate to cancel the consequences of the crime committed.", "It inspired Western criminal law until the 17th century, a time when the first reflections on the abolition of the death penalty appeared.===Ancient Rome===The Twelve Tables, the body of laws handed down from archaic Rome, prescribe the death penalty for a variety of crimes including libel, arson and theft.", "During the Late Republic, there was consensus among the public and legislators to reduce the incidence of capital punishment.", "This opinion led to voluntary exile being prescribed in place of the death penalty, whereby a convict could either choose to leave in exile or face execution.A historic debate, followed by a vote, took place in the Roman Senate to decide the fate of Catiline's allies when he attempted to seize power in December, 63 BC.", "Cicero, then Roman consul, argued in support of the killing of conspirators without judgment by decision of the Senate (Senatus consultum ultimum) and was supported by the majority of senators; among the minority voices opposed to the execution, the most notable was Julius Caesar.", "The custom was different for foreigners who did not hold rights as Roman citizens, and especially for slaves, who were transferrable property.Crucifixion was a form of punishment first employed by the Romans against slaves who rebelled, and throughout the Republican era was reserved for slaves, bandits, and traitors.", "Intended to be a punishment, a humiliation, and a deterrent, the condemned could take up to a few days to die.", "Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and to be eaten by animals.===China===There was a time in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when the death penalty was abolished.", "This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756).", "When abolishing the death penalty, Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution.", "Thus, depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment.", "However, the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion.", "At this time in the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution.", "Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736.The two most common forms of execution in the Tang dynasty were strangulation and decapitation, which were the prescribed methods of execution for 144 and 89 offences respectively.", "Strangulation was the prescribed sentence for lodging an accusation against one's parents or grandparents with a magistrate, scheming to kidnap a person and sell them into slavery and opening a coffin while desecrating a tomb.", "Decapitation was the method of execution prescribed for more serious crimes such as treason and sedition.", "Despite the great discomfort involved, most of the Tang Chinese preferred strangulation to decapitation, as a result of the traditional Tang Chinese belief that the body is a gift from the parents and that it is, therefore, disrespectful to one's ancestors to die without returning one's body to the grave intact.Some further forms of capital punishment were practiced in the Tang dynasty, of which the first two that follow at least were extralegal.", "The first of these was scourging to death with the thick rod which was common throughout the Tang dynasty especially in cases of gross corruption.", "The second was truncation, in which the convicted person was cut in two at the waist with a fodder knife and then left to bleed to death.", "A further form of execution called Ling Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 1905.When a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution.", "Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there.Nearly all executions under the Tang dynasty took place in public as a warning to the population.", "The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears.", "When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place.===Middle Ages===The breaking wheel was used during the Middle Ages and was still in use into the 19th century.In medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalised form of punishment for even minor offences.In early modern Europe, a mass panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America.", "During this period, there were widespread claims that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organised threat to Christendom.", "As a result, tens of thousands of women were prosecuted for witchcraft and executed through the witch trials of the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries).The burning of Jakob Rohrbach, a leader of the peasants during the German Peasants' WarThe death penalty also targeted sexual offences such as sodomy.", "In the early history of Islam (7th–11th centuries), there is a number of \"purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports\" (''athar'') regarding the punishments of sodomy ordered by some of the early caliphs.", "Abu Bakr, the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else burning him alive, while Ali ibn Abi Talib is said to have ordered death by stoning for one sodomite and had another thrown head-first from the top of the highest building in the town; according to Ibn Abbas, the latter punishment must be followed by stoning.", "Other medieval Muslim leaders, such as the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad (most notably al-Mu'tadid), were often cruel in their punishments.", "In early modern England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for \"buggery\".", "James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835.In 1636 the laws of Puritan governed Plymouth Colony included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.", "The Massachusetts Bay Colony followed in 1641.Throughout the 19th century, U.S. states repealed death sentences from their sodomy laws, with South Carolina being the last to do so in 1873.Historians recognise that during the Early Middle Ages, the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination, religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers.", "As People of the Book, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to ''dhimmi'' status (along with Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians), which was inferior to the status of Muslims.", "Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelise or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs.", "Under ''sharia'', Non-Muslims were obligated to pay ''jizya'' and ''kharaj'' taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam.", "Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam.", "Many Christian martyrs were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs.Despite the wide use of the death penalty, calls for reform were not unknown.", "The 12th-century Jewish legal scholar Moses Maimonides wrote: \"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent man to death.\"", "He argued that executing an accused criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely \"according to the judge's caprice\".", "Maimonides's concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission.===Enlightenment philosophy===While during the Middle Ages the expiatory aspect of the death penalty was taken into account, this is no longer the case under the Lumières.", "These define the place of man within society no longer according to a divine rule, but as a contract established at birth between the citizen and the society, it is the social contract.", "From that moment on, capital punishment should be seen as useful to society through its dissuasive effect, but also as a means of protection of the latter vis-à-vis criminals.===Modern era===''Antiporta'' of ''Dei delitti e delle pene'' (''On Crimes and Punishments''), 1766 ed.In the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights.", "The period saw an increase in standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions.", "Rational choice theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a form of deterrence as opposed to retribution, can be traced back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (1764) was the first detailed analysis of capital punishment to demand the abolition of the death penalty.", "In England, Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the founder of modern utilitarianism, called for the abolition of the death penalty.", "Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx noted the incidence of increased violent criminality at the times and places of executions.", "Official recognition of this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view.In England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, Parliament drastically increased the number of capital offences to more than 200.These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard.", "In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle.", "The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the statutory level for a capital crime.===20th century===Mexican execution by firing squad, 1916In Nazi Germany, there were three types of capital punishment; hanging, decapitation, and death by shooting.", "Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline.", "In the past, cowardice, absence without leave, desertion, insubordination, shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death (see decimation and running the gauntlet).", "One method of execution, since firearms came into common use, has also been firing squad, although some countries use execution with a single shot to the head or neck.Standgericht'' in retaliation for the assassination of 1 German policeman in Nazi-occupied Poland, 1944Various authoritarian states employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression.", "According to Robert Conquest, the leading expert on Joseph Stalin's purges, more than one million Soviet citizens were executed during the Great Purge of 1936 to 1938, almost all by a bullet to the back of the head.", "Mao Zedong publicly stated that \"800,000\" people had been executed in China during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).", "Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights organisations started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and an abolition of the death penalty.===Contemporary era===By continent, all European states but one have abolished capital punishment; many Oceanian states have abolished it; most states in the Americas have abolished its use, while a few actively retain it; less than half of countries in Africa retain it; and the majority of countries in Asia retain it, for example, China, Japan and India.Abolition was often adopted due to political change, as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or when it became an entry condition for the EU.", "The United States is a notable exception: some states have had bans on capital punishment for decades, the earliest being Michigan, where it was abolished in 1846, while other states still actively use it today.", "The death penalty in the United States remains a contentious issue which is hotly debated.In retentionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived when a miscarriage of justice has occurred though this tends to cause legislative efforts to improve the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty.", "In abolitionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders, though few countries have brought it back after abolishing it.", "However, a spike in serious, violent crimes, such as murders or terrorist attacks, has prompted some countries to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty.", "One notable example is Pakistan which in December 2014 lifted a six-year moratorium on executions after the Peshawar school massacre during which 132 students and 9 members of staff of the Army Public School and Degree College Peshawar were killed by Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan terrorists, a group distinct from the Afghan Taliban, who condemned the attack.Since then, Pakistan has executed over 400 convicts.In 2017, two major countries, Turkey and the Philippines, saw their executives making moves to reinstate the death penalty.", "In the same year, passage of the law in the Philippines failed to obtain the Senate's approval.On 29 December 2021, after a 20-year moratorium, the Kazakhstan government enacted the 'On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Abolition of the Death Penalty' signed by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev as part of series of Omnibus reformations of the Kazak legal system 'Listening State' initiative." ], [ "History of abolition", "Emperor Shōmu banned the death penalty in Japan in 724.In 724 AD in Japan, the death penalty was banned during the reign of Emperor Shōmu but the abolition only lasted a few years.", "In 818, Emperor Saga abolished the death penalty under the influence of Shinto and it lasted until 1156.In China, the death penalty was banned by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang in 747, replacing it with exile or scourging.", "However, the ban only lasted 12 years.", "Following his conversion to Christianity in 988, Vladimir the Great abolished the death penalty in Kievan Rus', along with torture and mutilation; corporal punishment was also seldom used.In England, a public statement of opposition was included in The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, written in 1395.Sir Thomas More's ''Utopia'', published in 1516, debated the benefits of the death penalty in dialogue form, coming to no firm conclusion.", "More was himself executed for treason in 1535.Leopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany (later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor), abolished the death penalty throughout his realm in 1786, making it the first country in modern history to do so.More recent opposition to the death penalty stemmed from the book of the Italian Cesare Beccaria ''Dei Delitti e Delle Pene'' (\"On Crimes and Punishments\"), published in 1764.In this book, Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of social welfare, of torture and the death penalty.", "Influenced by the book, Grand Duke Leopold II of Habsburg, the future Emperor of Austria, abolished the death penalty in the then-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the first permanent abolition in modern times.", "On 30 November 1786, after having ''de facto'' blocked executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land.", "In 2000, Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event.", "The event is commemorated on this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating Cities for Life Day.", "In the United Kingdom, it was abolished for murder (leaving only treason, piracy with violence, arson in royal dockyards and a number of wartime military offences as capital crimes) for a five-year experiment in 1965 and permanently in 1969, the last execution having taken place in 1964.It was abolished for all offences in 1998.Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights, first entering into force in 2003, prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances for those states that are party to it, including the United Kingdom from 2004.In the post-classical Republic of Poljica, life was ensured as a basic right in its Poljica Statute of 1440.The short-lived revolutionary Roman Republic banned capital punishment in 1849.Venezuela followed suit and abolished the death penalty in 1863 and San Marino did so in 1865.The last execution in San Marino had taken place in 1468.In Portugal, after legislative proposals in 1852 and 1863, the death penalty was abolished in 1867.The last execution in Brazil was 1876; from then on all the condemnations were commuted by the Emperor Pedro II until its abolition for civil offences and military offences in peacetime in 1891.The penalty for crimes committed in peacetime was then reinstated and abolished again twice (1938–1953 and 1969–1978), but on those occasions it was restricted to acts of terrorism or subversion considered \"internal warfare\" and all sentences were commuted and not carried out.Abolition occurred in Canada in 1976 (except for some military offences, with complete abolition in 1998); in France in 1981; and in Australia in 1973 (although the state of Western Australia retained the penalty until 1984).", "In South Australia, under the premiership of then-Premier Dunstan, the ''Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935'' (SA) was modified so that the death sentence was changed to life imprisonment in 1976.In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed in a formal resolution that throughout the world, it is desirable to \"progressively restrict the number of offences for which the death penalty might be imposed, with a view to the desirability of abolishing this punishment\".In the United States, Michigan was the first state to ban the death penalty, on 18 May 1846.The death penalty was declared unconstitutional between 1972 and 1976 based on the ''Furman v. Georgia'' case, but the 1976 ''Gregg v. Georgia'' case once again permitted the death penalty under certain circumstances.", "Further limitations were placed on the death penalty in ''Atkins v. Virginia'' (2002; death penalty unconstitutional for people with an intellectual disability) and ''Roper v. Simmons'' (2005; death penalty unconstitutional if defendant was under age 18 at the time the crime was committed).", "In the United States, 23 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. ban capital punishment.Many countries have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice.", "Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing capital punishment.", "Capital punishment has been completely abolished by 108 countries, a further seven have done so for all offences except under special circumstances and 26 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions." ], [ "Contemporary use", "===By country===Most nations, including almost all developed countries, have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice; notable exceptions are the United States, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore.", "Additionally, capital punishment is also carried out in China, India, and most Islamic states.for certain federal and military crimes.Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing the death penalty.", "54 countries retain the death penalty in active use, 112 countries have abolished capital punishment altogether, 7 have done so for all offences except under special circumstances, and 22 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions.Number of abolitionist and retentionist countries by yearAccording to Amnesty International, 20 countries are known to have performed executions in 2022.There are countries which do not publish information on the use of capital punishment, most significantly China and North Korea.", "According to Amnesty International, around 1,000 prisoners were executed in 2017.Amnesty reported in 2004 and 2009 that Singapore and Iraq respectively had the world's highest per capita execution rate.", "According to Al Jazeera and UN Special Rapporteur Ahmed Shaheed, Iran has had the world's highest per capita execution rate.", "A 2012 EU report from the Directorate-General for External Relations' policy department pointed to Gaza as having the highest per capita execution rate in the MENA region.", "Country Total executed (2022)CapitalPunishmentsUK\tAmnestyInternational Unknown > > > > > > > Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown UnknownThe use of the death penalty is becoming increasingly restrained in some retentionist countries including Taiwan and Singapore.", "Indonesia carried out no executions between November 2008 and March 2013.Singapore, Japan and the United States are the only developed countries that are classified by Amnesty International as 'retentionist' (South Korea is classified as 'abolitionist in practice').", "Nearly all retentionist countries are situated in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.", "The only retentionist country in Europe is Belarus and in March 2023 Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko signed a law which allows to use capital punishment against officials and soldiers convicted of high treason.", "During the 1980s, the democratisation of Latin America swelled the ranks of abolitionist countries.This was soon followed by the fall of communism in Europe.", "Many of the countries which restored democracy aspired to enter the EU.", "The EU and the Council of Europe both strictly require member states not to practice the death penalty (see Capital punishment in Europe).", "Public support for the death penalty in the EU varies.", "The last execution in a member state of the present-day Council of Europe took place in 1997 in Ukraine.", "In contrast, the rapid industrialisation in Asia has seen an increase in the number of developed countries which are also retentionist.", "In these countries, the death penalty retains strong public support, and the matter receives little attention from the government or the media; in China there is a small but significant and growing movement to abolish the death penalty altogether.", "This trend has been followed by some African and Middle Eastern countries where support for the death penalty remains high.Some countries have resumed practising the death penalty after having previously suspended the practice for long periods.", "The United States suspended executions in 1972 but resumed them in 1976; there was no execution in India between 1995 and 2004; and Sri Lanka declared an end to its moratorium on the death penalty on 20 November 2004, although it has not yet performed any further executions.", "The Philippines re-introduced the death penalty in 1993 after abolishing it in 1987, but again abolished it in 2006.The United States and Japan are the only developed countries to have recently carried out executions.", "The U.S. federal government, the U.S. military, and 27 states have a valid death penalty statute, and over 1,400 executions have been carried in the United States since it reinstated the death penalty in 1976.Japan has 108 inmates with finalized death sentences , after Yuki Endo, who was sentenced to death on 18 January, by the Kofu District Court for murdering the parents of his love interest and setting fire to their home in Yamanashi prefecture on 12 October 2021, when Endo was 19 years old at the time of the double murder, withdrew the appeal to the High Court, which was filed by his attorney, thus Endo's death sentence was finalized.The most recent country to abolish the death penalty was Kazakhstan on 2 January 2021 after a moratorium dating back 2 decades.According to an Amnesty International report released in April 2020, Egypt ranked regionally third and globally fifth among the countries that carried out most executions in 2019.The country increasingly ignored international human rights concerns and criticism.", "In March 2021, Egypt executed 11 prisoners in a jail, who were convicted in cases of \"murder, theft, and shooting\".According to Amnesty International's 2021 report, at least 483 people were executed in 2020 despite the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The figure excluded the countries that classify death penalty data as state secret.", "The top five executioners for 2020 were China, Iran, Egypt, Iraq and Saudi Arabia.===Modern-day public opinion===The public opinion on the death penalty varies considerably by country and by the crime in question.", "Countries where a majority of people are against execution include Norway, where only 25% support it.", "Most French, Finns, and Italians also oppose the death penalty.", "In 2020, 55% of Americans supported the death penalty for an individual convicted of murder, down from 60% in 2016, 64% in 2010, 65% in 2006, and 68% in 2001.In 2020, 43% of Italians expressed support for the death penalty.In Taiwan, polls and research have consistently shown strong support for the death penalty at 80%.", "This includes a survey conducted by the National Development Council of Taiwan in 2016, showing that 88% of Taiwanese people disagree with abolishing the death penalty.", "Its continuation of the practice drew criticism from local rights groups.The support and sentencing of capital punishment has been growing in India in the 2010s due to anger over several recent brutal cases of rape, even though actual executions are comparatively rare.", "While support for the death penalty for murder is still high in China, executions have dropped precipitously, with 3,000 executed in 2012 versus 12,000 in 2002.A poll in South Africa, where capital punishment is abolished, found that 76% of millennial South Africans support re-introduction of the death penalty due to increasing incidents of rape and murder.A 2017 poll found younger Mexicans are more likely to support capital punishment than older ones.", "57% of Brazilians support the death penalty.", "The age group that shows the greatest support for execution of those condemned is the 25 to 34-year-old category, in which 61% say they support it.A 2023 poll by Research Co. found that 54 percent of Canadians support reinstating the death penalty for murder in their country.", "In April 2021 a poll found that 54% of Britons said they would support reinstating the death penalty for those convicted of terrorism in the UK.", "About a quarter (23%) of respondents said they would be opposed.", "In 2020, an Ipsos/Sopra Steria survey showed that 55% of the French people support re-introduction of the death penalty; this was an increase from 44% in 2019.===Juvenile offenders===The death penalty for juvenile offenders (criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime although the legal or accepted definition of ''juvenile offender'' may vary from one jurisdiction to another) has become increasingly rare.", "Considering the age of majority is not 18 in some countries or has not been clearly defined in law, since 1990 ten countries have executed offenders who were considered juveniles at the time of their crimes: The People's Republic of China (PRC), Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United States, and Yemen.", "China, Pakistan, the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen have since raised the minimum age to 18.Amnesty International has recorded 61 verified executions since then, in several countries, of both juveniles and adults who had been convicted of committing their offences as juveniles.", "The PRC does not allow for the execution of those under 18, but child executions have reportedly taken place.Mother Catherine Cauchés (center) and her two daughters Guillemine Gilbert (left) and Perotine Massey (right) with her infant son burning for heresyOne of the youngest children ever to be executed was the infant son of Perotine Massey on or around 18 July 1556.His mother was one of the Guernsey Martyrs who was executed for heresy, and his father had previously fled the island.", "At less than one day old, he was ordered to be burned by Bailiff Hellier Gosselin, with the advice of priests nearby who said the boy should burn due to having inherited moral stain from his mother, who had given birth during her execution.Starting from 1642 in Colonial America until the present day in the United States, an estimated 365 juvenile offenders were executed by various colonial authorities and (after the American Revolution) the federal government.", "The U.S. Supreme Court abolished capital punishment for offenders under the age of 16 in ''Thompson v. Oklahoma'' (1988), and for all juveniles in ''Roper v. Simmons'' (2005).In Prussia, children under the age of 14 were exempted from the death penalty in 1794.Capital punishment was cancelled by the Electorate of Bavaria in 1751 for children under the age of 11 and by the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1813 for children and youth under 16 years.", "In Prussia, the exemption was extended to youth under the age of 16 in 1851.For the first time, all juveniles were excluded for the death penalty by the North German Confederation in 1871, which was continued by the German Empire in 1872.In Nazi Germany, capital punishment was reinstated for juveniles between 16 and 17 years in 1939.This was broadened to children and youth from age 12 to 17 in 1943.The death penalty for juveniles was abolished by West Germany, also generally, in 1949 and by East Germany in 1952.In the Hereditary Lands, Austrian Silesia, Bohemia and Moravia within the Habsburg monarchy, capital punishment for children under the age of 11 was no longer foreseen by 1770.The death penalty was, also for juveniles, nearly abolished in 1787 except for emergency or military law, which is unclear in regard of those.", "It was reintroduced for juveniles above 14 years by 1803, and was raised by general criminal law to 20 years in 1852 and this exemption and the alike one of military law in 1855, which may have been up to 14 years in wartime, were also introduced into all of the Austrian Empire.In the Helvetic Republic, the death penalty for children and youth under the age of 16 was abolished in 1799 yet the country was already dissolved in 1803 whereas the law could remain in force if it was not replaced on cantonal level.", "In the canton of Bern, all juveniles were exempted from the death penalty at least in 1866.In Fribourg, capital punishment was generally, including for juveniles, abolished by 1849.In Ticino, it was abolished for youth and young adults under the age of 20 in 1816.In Zurich, the exclusion from the death penalty was extended for juveniles and young adults up to 19 years of age by 1835.In 1942, the death penalty was almost deleted in criminal law, as well for juveniles, but since 1928 persisted in military law during wartime for youth above 14 years.", "If no earlier change was made in the given subject, by 1979 juveniles could no longer be subject to the death penalty in military law during wartime.Between 2005 and May 2008, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen were reported to have executed child offenders, the largest number occurring in Iran.During Hassan Rouhani's tenure as president of Iran from 2013 until 2021, at least 3,602 death sentences have been carried out.", "This includes the executions of 34 juvenile offenders.The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids capital punishment for juveniles under article 37(a), has been signed by all countries and subsequently ratified by all signatories with the exception of the United States (despite the US Supreme Court decisions abolishing the practice).", "The UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights maintains that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to a jus cogens of customary international law.", "A majority of countries are also party to the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (whose Article 6.5 also states that \"Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age...\").Iran, despite its ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, was the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders, for which it has been the subject of broad international condemnation; the country's record is the focus of the Stop Child Executions Campaign.", "But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed controversial laws relating to the execution of juveniles.", "In the new legislation the age of 18 (solar year) would be applied to accused of both genders and juvenile offenders must be sentenced pursuant to a separate law specifically dealing with juveniles.", "Based on the Islamic law which now seems to have been revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 of lunar year (11 days shorter than a solar year) are deemed fully responsible for their crimes.", "Iran accounted for two-thirds of the global total of such executions, and currently has approximately 140 people considered as juveniles awaiting execution for crimes committed (up from 71 in 2007).", "The past executions of Mahmoud Asgari, Ayaz Marhoni and Makwan Moloudzadeh became the focus of Iran's child capital punishment policy and the judicial system that hands down such sentences.", "In 2023 Iran executed a minor who had knifed a guy that fought him for following a girl in the street.Saudi Arabia also executes criminals who were minors at the time of the offence.", "In 2013, Saudi Arabia was the center of an international controversy after it executed Rizana Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, who was believed to have been 17 years old at the time of the crime.", "Saudi Arabia banned execution for minors, except for terrorism cases, in April 2020.Japan has not executed juvenile criminals after August 1997, when they executed Norio Nagayama, a spree killer who had been convicted of shooting four people dead in the late 1960s.", "Nagayama's case created the eponymously named ''Nagayama standards'', which take into account factors such as the number of victims, brutality and social impact of the crimes.", "The standards have been used in determining whether to apply the death sentence in murder cases.", "Teruhiko Seki, convicted of murdering four family members including a 4-year-old daughter and raping a 15-year-old daughter of a family in 1992, became the second inmate to be hanged for a crime committed as a minor in the first such execution in 20 years after Nagayama on 19 December 2017.Takayuki Otsuki, who was convicted of raping and strangling a 23-year-old woman and subsequently strangling her 11-month-old daughter to death on 14 April 1999, when he was 18, is another inmate sentenced to death, and his request for retrial has been rejected by the Supreme Court of Japan.There is evidence that child executions are taking place in the parts of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU).", "In October 2008, a girl, Aisha Ibrahim Dhuhulow was buried up to her neck at a football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people.", "Somalia's established Transitional Federal Government announced in November 2009 (reiterated in 2013) that it plans to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child.", "This move was lauded by UNICEF as a welcome attempt to secure children's rights in the country.===Methods===Red Guard prisoners being executed by the Whites in Varkaus, North Savonia during the 1918 Finnish Civil War.The following methods of execution have been used by various countries:* Hanging (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Nigeria, Sudan, Pakistan, Palestinian National Authority, Israel, Yemen, Egypt, India, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, the UAE, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Liberia)* Shooting (the People's Republic of China, Republic of China, Vietnam, Belarus, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Somalia, North Korea, Indonesia, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Yemen, and in the US states of Oklahoma and Utah).", "* Lethal injection (United States, Guatemala, Thailand, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam)* Beheading (Saudi Arabia)* Stoning (Nigeria, Sudan)* Electrocution and gas inhalation (some U.S. states, but only if the prisoner requests it or if lethal injection is unavailable)*Inert gas asphyxiation (Some U.S. states, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama)===Public execution===A public execution is a form of capital punishment which \"members of the general public may voluntarily attend\".", "This definition excludes the presence of a small number of witnesses randomly selected to assure executive accountability.", "While today the great majority of the world considers public executions to be distasteful and most countries have outlawed the practice, throughout much of history executions were performed publicly as a means for the state to demonstrate \"its power before those who fell under its jurisdiction be they criminals, enemies, or political opponents\".", "Additionally, it afforded the public a chance to witness \"what was considered a great spectacle\".Social historians note that beginning in the 20th century in the U.S. and western Europe, death in general became increasingly shielded from public view, occurring more and more behind the closed doors of the hospital.", "Executions were likewise moved behind the walls of the penitentiary.", "The last formal public executions occurred in 1868 in Britain, in 1936 in the U.S. and in 1939 in France.According to Amnesty International, in 2012, \"public executions were known to have been carried out in Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Somalia\".", "There have been reports of public executions carried out by state and non-state actors in Hamas-controlled Gaza, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Yemen.", "Executions which can be classified as public were also carried out in the U.S. states of Florida and Utah ." ], [ "Capital crime", "===Crimes against humanity===Crimes against humanity such as genocide are usually punishable by death in countries retaining capital punishment.", "Death sentences for such crimes were handed down and carried out during the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 and the Tokyo Trials in 1948, but the current International Criminal Court does not use capital punishment.", "The maximum penalty available to the International Criminal Court is life imprisonment.===Murder===Intentional homicide is punishable by death in most countries retaining capital punishment, but generally provided it involves an aggravating factor required by statute or judicial precedents.Some countries, including Singapore and Malaysia, made the death penalty mandatory for murder, though Singapore later changed its laws since 2013 to reserve the mandatory death sentence for intentional murder while providing an alternative sentence of life imprisonment with/without caning for murder with no intention to cause death, which allowed some convicted murderers on death row in Singapore (including Kho Jabing) to apply for the reduction of their death sentences after the courts in Singapore confirmed that they committed murder without the intention to kill and thus eligible for re-sentencing under the new death penalty laws in Singapore.", "In October 2018 the Malaysian Government imposed a moratorium on all executions until the passage of a new law that would abolish the death penalty.", "In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia.", "The death penalty would be retained, but courts have the discretion to replace it with other punishments, including whipping and imprisonment of 30–40 years.===Drug trafficking===Sign at the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport warning that drug trafficking is a capital crime in the Republic of China (2005)In 2018, at least 35 countries retained the death penalty for drug trafficking, drug dealing, drug possession and related offences.", "People had been regularly sentenced to death and executed for drug-related offences in China, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Vietnam.", "Other countries may retain the death penalty for symbolic purposes.The death penalty was mandated for drug trafficking in Singapore and Malaysia.", "Since 2013, Singapore ruled that those who were certified to have diminished responsibility (e.g.", "Major depressive disorder) or acting as drug couriers and had assisted the authorities in tackling drug-related activities, would be sentenced to life imprisonment instead of death, with the offender liable to at least 15 strokes of the cane if he was not sentenced to death and was simultaneously sentenced to caning as well.", "Drug courier Yong Vui Kong's death sentence was replaced with a life sentence and 15 strokes of the cane in November 2013.In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia.===Other offences===Other crimes that are punishable by death in some countries include:*Terrorism*Treason (a capital crime in most countries that retain capital punishment)*Espionage *Crimes against the state, such as attempting to overthrow government (most countries with the death penalty)*Political protests (Saudi Arabia) *Rape (China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Brunei, etc.", ")*Economic crimes (China, Iran) *Human trafficking (China)*Corruption (China, Iran)*Kidnapping (China, Bangladesh, the US states of Georgia and Idaho, etc.)", "*Separatism (China) *Unlawful sexual behaviour (Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Qatar, Brunei, Nigeria, etc.", ")*Religious Hudud offences such as apostasy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan etc.)", "*Blasphemy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, certain states in Nigeria)*Moharebeh (Iran)*Drinking alcohol (Iran) *Witchcraft and sorcery (Saudi Arabia)*Arson (Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Mauritania, etc.", ")*Hirabah; brigandage; armed or aggravated robbery (Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kenya, Zambia, Ethiopia, the US state of Georgia etc.)" ], [ "Controversy and debate", "Death penalty opponents regard the death penalty as inhumane and criticize it for its irreversibility.", "They argue also that capital punishment lacks deterrent effect, or has a brutalization effect, discriminates against minorities and the poor, and that it encourages a \"culture of violence\".", "There are many organizations worldwide, such as Amnesty International, and country-specific, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), that have abolition of the death penalty as its main purpose.Advocates of the death penalty argue that it deters crime, is a good tool for police and prosecutors in plea bargaining, makes sure that convicted criminals do not offend again, and that it ensures justice for crimes such as homicide, where other penalties will not inflict the desired retribution demanded by the crime itself.", "Capital punishment for non-lethal crimes is usually considerably more controversial, and abolished in many of the countries that retain it.===Retribution===war criminal in Germany in 1946Supporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as for murder of police officers, child murder, torture murder, multiple homicide and mass killing such as terrorism, massacre and genocide.", "This argument is strongly defended by New York Law School's Professor Robert Blecker, who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime.", "Eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant defended a more extreme position, according to which every murderer deserves to die on the grounds that loss of life is incomparable to any penalty that allows them to remain alive, including life imprisonment.Some abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned.", "Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute.", "It is also argued that the punishing of a killing with another death is a relatively unusual punishment for a violent act, because in general violent crimes are not punished by subjecting the perpetrator to a similar act (e.g.", "rapists are, typically, not punished by corporal punishment, although it may be inflicted in Singapore, for example).===Human rights===Abolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture.", "Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it \"cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment\".", "Amnesty International considers it to be \"the ultimate irreversible denial of Human Rights\".", "Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called ''Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death'':In the classic doctrine of natural rights as expounded by for instance Locke and Blackstone, on the other hand, it is an important idea that the right to life can be forfeited, as most other rights can be given due process is observed, such as the right to property and the right to freedom, including provisionally, in anticipation of an actual verdict.", "As John Stuart Mill explained in a speech given in Parliament against an amendment to abolish capital punishment for murder in 1868:In one of the most recent cases relating to the death penalty in Singapore, activists like Jolovan Wham, Kirsten Han and Kokila Annamalai and even the international groups like the United Nations and European Union argued for Malaysian drug trafficker Nagaenthran K. Dharmalingam, who has been on death row at Singapore's Changi Prison since 2010, should not be executed due to an alleged intellectual disability, as they argued that Nagaenthran has low IQ of 69 and a psychiatrist has assessed him to be mentally impaired to an extent that he should not be held liable to his crime and execution.", "They also cited international law where a country should be prohibiting the execution of mentally and intellectually impaired people in order to push for Singapore to commute Nagaenthran's death penalty to life imprisonment based on protection of human rights.", "However, the Singapore government and both Singapore's High Court and Court of Appeal maintained their firm stance that despite his certified low IQ, it is confirmed that Nagaenthran is not mentally or intellectually disabled based on the joint opinion of three government psychiatrists as he is able to fully understand the magnitude of his actions and has no problem in his daily functioning of life.", "Despite the international outcry, Nagaenthran was executed on 27 April 2022.===Non-painful execution===A gurney at San Quentin State Prison in California formerly used for executions by lethal injectionTrends in most of the world have long been to move to private and less painful executions.", "France developed the guillotine for this reason in the final years of the 18th century, while Britain banned hanging, drawing, and quartering in the early 19th century.", "Hanging by turning the victim off a ladder or by kicking a stool or a bucket, which causes death by strangulation, was replaced by long drop \"hanging\" where the subject is dropped a longer distance to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord.", "Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia (1896–1907) introduced throat-cutting and blowing from a gun (close-range cannon fire) as quick and relatively painless alternatives to more torturous methods of executions used at that time.", "In the United States, electrocution and gas inhalation were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, but have been almost entirely superseded by lethal injection.", "A small number of countries, for example Iran and Saudi Arabia, still employ slow hanging methods, decapitation, and stoning.A study of executions carried out in the United States between 1977 and 2001 indicated that at least 34 of the 749 executions, or 4.5%, involved \"unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner\".", "The rate of these \"botched executions\" remained steady over the period of the study.", "A separate study published in ''The Lancet'' in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics was insufficient to guarantee unconsciousness.", "However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (''Baze v. Rees'') and again in 2015 (''Glossip v. Gross'') that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment.", "In ''Bucklew v. Precythe'', the majority verdict – written by Judge Neil Gorsuch – further affirmed this principle, stating that while the ban on cruel and unusual punishment affirmatively bans penalties that ''deliberately inflict'' pain and degradation, it does in no sense limit the possible infliction of pain in the execution of a capital verdict.===Wrongful execution===Capital punishment was abolished in the United Kingdom in part because of the case of Timothy Evans, who was executed in 1950 after being wrongfully convicted of two murders that had in fact been committed by his landlord, John Christie.", "The case was considered vital in bolstering opposition, which limited the scope of the penalty in 1957 and abolished it completely for murder in 1965.It is frequently argued that capital punishment leads to miscarriage of justice through the wrongful execution of innocent persons.", "Many people have been proclaimed innocent victims of the death penalty.Some have claimed that as many as 39 executions have been carried out in the face of compelling evidence of innocence or serious doubt about guilt in the US from 1992 through 2004.Newly available DNA evidence prevented the pending execution of more than 15 death row inmates during the same period in the US, but DNA evidence is only available in a fraction of capital cases.", ", 159 prisoners on death row have been exonerated by DNA or other evidence, which is seen as an indication that innocent prisoners have almost certainly been executed.", "The National Coalition toAbolish the Death Penalty claims that between 1976 and 2015, 1,414 prisoners in the United States have been executed while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated.", "It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases.Improper procedure may also result in unfair executions.", "For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore \"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused.", "This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty\".", "Singapore's Misuse of Drugs Act presumes one is guilty of possession of drugs if, as examples, one is found to be present or escaping from a location \"proved or presumed to be used for the purpose of smoking or administering a controlled drug\", if one is in possession of a key to a premises where drugs are present, if one is in the company of another person found to be in possession of illegal drugs, or if one tests positive after being given a mandatory urine drug screening.", "Urine drug screenings can be given at the discretion of police, without requiring a search warrant.", "The onus is on the accused in all of the above situations to prove that they were not in possession of or consumed illegal drugs.===Volunteers===Some prisoners have volunteered or attempted to expedite capital punishment, often by waiving all appeals.", "Prisoners have made requests or committed further crimes in prison as well.", "In the United States, execution volunteers constitute approximately 11% of prisoners on death row.", "Volunteers often bypass legal procedures which are designed to designate the death penalty for the \"worst of the worst\" offenders.", "Opponents of execution volunteering cited the prevalence of mental illness among volunteers comparing it to suicide.", "Execution volunteers have received considerably less attention and effort at legal reform than those who were exonerated after execution.===Racial, ethnic and social class bias===Opponents of the death penalty argue that this punishment is being used more often against perpetrators from racial and ethnic minorities and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, than against those criminals who come from a privileged background; and that the background of the victim also influences the outcome.", "Researchers have shown that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty when told that it is mostly applied to black Americans, and that more stereotypically black-looking or dark-skinned defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death if the case involves a white victim.", "However, a study published in 2018 failed to replicate the findings of earlier studies that had concluded that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty if informed that it is largely applied to black Americans; according to the authors, their findings \"may result from changes since 2001 in the effects of racial stimuli on white attitudes about the death penalty or their willingness to express those attitudes in a survey context.", "\"In Alabama in 2019, a death row inmate named Domineque Ray was denied his imam in the room during his execution, instead only offered a Christian chaplain.", "After filing a complaint, a federal court of appeals ruled 5–4 against Ray's request.", "The majority cited the \"last-minute\" nature of the request, and the dissent stated that the treatment went against the core principle of denominational neutrality.In July 2019, two Shiite men, Ali Hakim al-Arab, 25, and Ahmad al-Malali, 24, were executed in Bahrain, despite the protests from the United Nations and rights group.", "Amnesty International stated that the executions were being carried out on confessions of \"terrorism crimes\" that were obtained through torture.On 30 March 2022, despite the appeals by the United Nations and rights activists, 68-year-old Malay Singaporean Abdul Kahar Othman was hanged at Singapore's Changi Prison for illegally trafficking diamorphine, which marked the first execution in Singapore since 2019 as a result of an informal moratorium caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Earlier, there were appeals made to advocate for Abdul Kahar's death penalty be commuted to life imprisonment on humanitarian grounds, as Abdul Kahar came from a poor family and has struggled with drug addiction.", "He was also revealed to have been spending most of his life going in and out of prison, including a ten-year sentence of preventive detention from 1995 to 2005, and has not been given much time for rehabilitation, which made the activists and groups arguing that Abdul Kahar should be given a chance for rehabilitation instead of subjecting him to execution.", "Both the European Union (EU) and Amnesty International criticised Singapore for finalizing and carrying out Abdul Kahar's execution, and about 400 Singaporeans protested against the government's use of the death penalty merely days after Abdul Kahar's death sentence was authorised.", "Still, over 80% of the public supported the use of the death penalty in Singapore.===International views===Same-sex intercourse illegal: The United Nations introduced a resolution during the General Assembly's 62nd sessions in 2007 calling for a universal ban.", "The approval of a draft resolution by the Assembly's third committee, which deals with human rights issues, voted 99 to 52, with 33 abstentions, in support of the resolution on 15 November 2007 and was put to a vote in the Assembly on 18 December.Again in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted, on 20 November in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee), a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty; 105 countries voted in support of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained.The moratorium resolution has been presented for a vote each year since 2007.On December 15, 2022, 125 countries voted in support of the moratorium, with 37 countries opposing, and 22 abstentions.", "The countries voting against the moratorium included the United States, People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran.A range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated.", "It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for \"a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty\".Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms the prohibition on capital punishment in the EU.A number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Protocol 6 (abolition in time of peace) and Protocol 13 (abolition in all circumstances) to the European Convention on Human Rights.", "The same is also stated under Protocol 2 in the American Convention on Human Rights, which, however, has not been ratified by all countries in the Americas, most notably Canada and the United States.", "Most relevant operative international treaties do not require its prohibition for cases of serious crime, most notably, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "This instead has, in common with several other treaties, an optional protocol prohibiting capital punishment and promoting its wider abolition.Several international organizations have made abolition of the death penalty (during time of peace, or in all circumstances) a requirement of membership, most notably the EU and the Council of Europe.", "The Council of Europe are willing to accept a moratorium as an interim measure.", "Thus, while Russia was a member of the Council of Europe, and the death penalty remains codified in its law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the council – Russia has not executed anyone since 1996.With the exception of Russia (abolitionist in practice) and Belarus (retentionist), all European countries are classified as abolitionist.Latvia abolished the death penalty for war crimes in 2012, becoming the last EU member to do so.Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights calls for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances (including for war crimes).", "The majority of European countries have signed and ratified it.", "Some European countries have not done this, but all of them except Belarus have now abolished the death penalty in all circumstances (, and Russia ).", "Poland is the most recent country to ratify the protocol, on 28 August 2013.Protocol 6, which prohibits the death penalty during peacetime, has been ratified by all members of the Council of Europe.", "It had been signed but not ratified by Russia at the time of its expulsion in 2022.Signatories to the Second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR: parties in dark green, signatories in light green, non-members in greyThere are also other international abolitionist instruments, such as the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has 90 parties; and the Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty (for the Americas; ratified by 13 states).In Turkey, over 500 people were sentenced to death after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état.", "About 50 of them were executed, the last one 25 October 1984.Then there was a ''de facto'' moratorium on the death penalty in Turkey.", "As a move towards EU membership, Turkey made some legal changes.", "The death penalty was removed from peacetime law by the National Assembly in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution to remove capital punishment in all circumstances.", "It ratified Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights in February 2006.As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, all states, having ratified Protocol 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights, with the exceptions of Russia (which has entered a moratorium) and Belarus, which are not members of the Council of Europe.", "The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practice the death penalty, the U.S. and Japan, to abolish it or lose their observer status.", "In addition to banning capital punishment for EU member states, the EU has also banned detainee transfers in cases where the receiving party may seek the death penalty.Sub-Saharan African countries that have recently abolished the death penalty include Burundi, which abolished the death penalty for all crimes in 2009, and Gabon which did the same in 2010.On 5 July 2012, Benin became part of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which prohibits the use of the death penalty.The newly created South Sudan is among the 111 UN member states that supported the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly that called for the removal of the death penalty, therefore affirming its opposition to the practice.", "South Sudan, however, has not yet abolished the death penalty and stated that it must first amend its Constitution, and until that happens it will continue to use the death penalty.Among non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are noted for their opposition to capital punishment.", "A number of such NGOs, as well as trade unions, local councils, and bar associations, formed a World Coalition Against the Death Penalty in 2002.An open letter led by Danish Member of the European Parliament, Karen Melchior was sent to the European Commission ahead of the 26 January 2021 meeting of the Bahraini Minister of Foreign Affairs, Abdullatif bin Rashid Al Zayani with the members of the European Union for the signing of a Cooperation Agreement.", "A total of 16 MEPs undersigned the letter expressing their grave concern towards the extended abuse of human rights in Bahrain following the arbitrary arrest and detention of activists and critics of the government.", "The attendees of the meeting were requested to demand from their Bahraini counterparts to take into consideration the concerns raised by the MEPs, particularly for the release of Abdulhadi Al-Khawaja and Sheikh Mohammed Habib Al-Muqdad, the two European-Bahraini dual citizens on death row.===Religious views===The world's major faiths have differing views depending on the religion, denomination, sect and the individual adherent.", "The Catholic Church considers the death penalty as \"inadmissible\" in any circumstance and denounces it as an \"attack\" on the \"inviolability and dignity of the person.\"", "Both the Baháʼí and Islamic faiths support capital punishment." ], [ "See also", "* Capital punishment for homosexuality* Death in custody* Execution chamber* Executioner* Judicial dissolution, sometimes referred to as the \"corporate death penalty\"* ''The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints'' (book)* Shame culture* Last meal* Capital punishment in Judaism* List of prisoners with whole life orders" ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes=======Explanatory notes========References=======Bibliography===* * * Marian J. Borg and Michael L. Radelet.", "(2004).", "On botched executions.", "In: Peter Hodgkinson and William A. Schabas (eds.)", "Capital Punishment.", "pp. 143–68.Online.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "Available from: Cambridge Books Online .", "* Gail A.", "Van Norman.", "(2010).", "Physician participation in executions.", "In: Gail A.", "Van Norman et al.", "(eds.)", "Clinical Ethics in Anesthesiology.", "pp. 285–91.Online.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "Available from: Cambridge Books Online ." ], [ "Further reading", "** * Curry, Tim. \"", "Cutting the Hangman's Noose: African Initiatives to Abolish the Death Penalty .\"", "() American University Washington College of Law.", "* Davis, David Brion.", "\"The movement to abolish capital punishment in America, 1787–1861.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 63.1 (1957): 23–46.online* * Hammel, A.", "''Ending the Death Penalty: The European Experience in Global Perspective'' (2014).", "* * * * * * O'Brien, Doireann.", "\"Investigating the Origin of Europe and America's Diverging Positions on the Issue of Capital Punishment.\"", "''Social and Political Review'' (2018): 98+.", "online * Rakoff, Jed S., \"The Last of His Kind\" (review of John Paul Stevens, ''The Making of a Justice: Reflections on My First 94 Years'', Little, Brown, 549 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "14 (26 September 2019), pp.", "20, 22, 24.John Paul Stevens, \"a throwback to the postwar liberal Republican U.S. Supreme Court appointees\", questioned the validity of \"the doctrine of sovereign immunity, which holds that you cannot sue any state or federal government agency, or any of its officers or employees, for any wrong they may have committed against you, unless the state or federal government consents to being sued\" (p. 20); the propriety of \"the increasing resistance of the U.S. Supreme Court to most meaningful forms of gun control\" (p. 22); and \"the constitutionality of the death penalty... because of incontrovertible evidence that innocent people have been sentenced to death.\"", "(pp.", "22, 24.", ")* Sarat, Austin and Juergen Martschukat, eds.", "''Is the Death Penalty Dying?", ": European and American Perspectives'' (2011)* for middle school students* ** Steiker, Carol S. \"Capital punishment and American exceptionalism.\"", "''Oregon Law Review''.", "81 (2002): 97+ online*" ], [ "External links", "* About.com's Pros & Cons of the Death Penalty and Capital Punishment * Capital Punishment article in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.", "* 1000+ Death Penalty links all in one place* Updates on the death penalty generally and capital punishment law specifically* Texas Department of Criminal Justice: list of executed offenders and their last statements* Death Penalty Worldwide: Academic research database on the laws, practice, and statistics of capital punishment for every death penalty country in the world.", "* Answers.com entry on capital punishment* \"How to Kill a Human Being\", BBC Horizon TV programme documentary, 2008* U.S. and 50 State death penalty/capital punishment law and other relevant links Megalaw* Two audio documentaries covering execution in the United States: Witness to an Execution The Execution Tapes===Supporting===* Studies showing the death penalty saves lives* Criminal Justice Legal Foundation* Keep life without parole and death penalty intact * Why the death penalty is needed* Pro Death Penalty.com* Pro Death Penalty Resource Page* 119 Pro DP Links* The Death Penalty is Constitutional* The Paradoxes of a Death Penalty Stance by Charles Lane in ''The Washington Post''* Clark County, Indiana, Prosecutor's Page on capital punishment* In Favor of Capital Punishment – Famous Quotes supporting Capital Punishment* Studies spur new death penalty debate===Opposing===* World Coalition Against the Death Penalty* Death Watch International International anti-death penalty campaign group* Campaign to End the Death Penalty* Anti-Death Penalty Information: includes a monthly watchlist of upcoming executions and death penalty statistics for the United States.", "* The Death Penalty Information Center: Statistical information and studies* Amnesty International – Abolish the death penalty Campaign: Human Rights organisation* European Union: Information on anti-death penalty policies* IPS Inter Press Service International news on capital punishment* Death Penalty Focus: American group dedicated to abolishing the death penalty* Reprieve.org: United States-based volunteer program for foreign lawyers, students, and others to work at death penalty defense offices* American Civil Liberties Union: Demanding a Moratorium on the Death Penalty* National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty* NSW Council for Civil Liberties : an Australian organisation opposed to the Death Penalty in the Asian region* Winning a war on terror: eliminating the death penalty* Electric Chair at Sing Sing, a 1900 photograph by William M. Vander Weyde, accompanied by a poem by Jared Carter.", "* Lead prosecutor apologizes for role in sending man to death row Shreveport Times, 2015* ===Religious views===* Message supporting the moratorium on the death penalty The Dalai Lama* Buddhism & Capital Punishment from The Engaged Zen Society* Orthodox Union website: Rabbi Yosef Edelstein: Parshat Beha'alotcha: A Few Reflections on Capital Punishment* Lists several Catholic links Priests for Life* The Death Penalty: Why the Church Speaks a Countercultural Message by Kenneth R. Overberg, S.J., from AmericanCatholic.org* Wrestling with the Death Penalty by Andy Prince, from ''Youth Update'' on AmericanCatholic.org* * Catholics Against Capital Punishment: offers a Catholic perspective and provides resources and links* Kashif Shahzada 2010: Why The Death Penalty Is un-Islamic?" ] ]
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[ [ "Cultural movement" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''cultural movement''' is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work.", "This embodies all art forms, the sciences, and philosophies.", "Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less distinct.", "When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade.", ": These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive.", "An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect – sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with \"neo-\").There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions.", "As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range.", "Thus use of the term \"period\" is somewhat deceptive.", "\"Period\" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time.", "Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms.", "So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad \"movements\" that have rough beginnings and endings.", "Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the \"height\" or accepted time span of the movement.This current article covers Western, notably European and American cultural movements.", "They have, however, been paralleled by cultural movements in East Asia and elsewhere.", "In the late 20th and early 21st century in Thailand, for example, there has been a cultural shift away from Western social and political values more toward Japanese and Chinese.", "As well, That culture has reinvigorated monarchical concepts to accommodate state shifts away from Western ideology regarding democracy and monarchies." ], [ "Cultural movements", "* Graeco-Roman** The Greek culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it.", "The Romans adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.", "Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the Classical Age by some.", "Others might divide it into the Hellenistic period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions.", ":: See: Classical architecture — Classical sculpture — Greek architecture — Hellenistic architecture — Ionic — Doric — Corinthian — Stoicism — Cynicism — Epicurean — Roman architecture — Early Christian — Neoplatonism* Romanesque (11th century & 12th centuries)** A style (esp.", "architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles.", "Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent.", ":: See: Romanesque architecture — Ottonian Art* Gothic (mid 12th century until mid 15th century): :: See: Gothic architecture — Gregorian chant — Neoplatonism* Nominalism** Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms.", "* Humanism (16th century)* Renaissance** The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life.", "Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the \"Golden Age\".", "In reality it was less an \"Age\" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time.", "Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: Italian Renaissance 1450–1550.Spanish Renaissance 1550–1587.English Renaissance 1588–1629.", "* Protestant Reformation** The Protestant Reformation, often referred to simply as the Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other early Protestant Reformers in the 16th century Europe.", "* Mannerism** Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself.", "** See: Mannerism/Art* Baroque** Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the \"disturbing angst\" of Mannerism.", "Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State.", "Occupied with notions of infinity.", "** See: Baroque art — Baroque music* Rococo* Neoclassical (17th–19th centuries)** Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek (\"classical\") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style.", "It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics.", "Also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the 19th century.", "Beginning in the early 17th century with Cartesian thought (see René Descartes), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world.", "In Renaissance Classicism attempts are made to recreate the classic art forms — tragedy, comedy, and farce.", "** See also: Weimar Classicism*Age of Enlightenment (1688–1789): Reason (rationalism) seen as the ideal.", "* Romanticism (1770–1830)** Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction against Neoclassicism and against the Age of Enlightenment..", "The notion of \"folk genius\", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement.", "Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present.", "Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular.", "Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period.", "It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works.", "** See: Symbolism* Realism (1830–1905)** Ushered in by the Industrial Revolution and growing Nationalism in the world.", "Began in France.", "Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life.", "Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems.", "Plays by Ibsen are an example.", "Naturalism evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theatre, film, and literature.", "Impressionism, based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively.", "** See: Post-impressionism — Neo-impressionism — Pointillism — Pre-Raphaelite* Art Nouveau (1880–1905)** Decorative, symbolic art** See: Transcendentalism* Modernism (1880–1965)** Also known as the Avant-garde movement.", "Originating in the 19th century with Symbolism, the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in contrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy.", "The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days.", "** See: Fauvism — Cubism — Futurism — Suprematism — Dada — Constructivism — Surrealism — Expressionism — Existentialism — Op art — Art Deco — Bauhaus — Neo-Plasticism — Precisionism — Abstract expressionism — New Realism — Color field painting — Happening — Fluxus — Hard-edge painting — Pop art — Photorealism — Minimalism — Postminimalism — Lyrical abstraction — Situationism* Postmodernism (since c.1965)** A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist – or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant.", "It is exemplified by movements such as deconstructivism, conceptual art, ''etc.", "''** See: Postmodern philosophy — Postmodern music — Postmodern art* Post-postmodernism (since c.1990)" ], [ "See also", "* Art movement* List of art movements* Critical theory* Cultural imperialism* Cultural sensibility* History of philosophy* Postliterate society* Periodization* Social movement" ], [ "External links", "* Alphabetical list of some movements, styles, discoveries and facts on the World History Timeline chart" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chalcogen" ], [ "Introduction", " ↓ Period '''2''' 3 4 5 6 7 ----''Legend'' primordial element naturally occurring by radioactive decay synthetic element Atomic number color: red=gas, black=solidThe '''chalcogens''' (ore forming) ( ) are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table.", "This group is also known as the '''oxygen family'''.", "Group 16 consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive elements polonium (Po) and livermorium (Lv).", "Often, oxygen is treated separately from the other chalcogens, sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term \"chalcogen\" altogether, due to its very different chemical behavior from sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium.", "The word \"chalcogen\" is derived from a combination of the Greek word () principally meaning copper (the term was also used for bronze/brass, any metal in the poetic sense, ore or coin), and the Latinized Greek word , meaning ''born'' or ''produced''.Sulfur has been known since antiquity, and oxygen was recognized as an element in the 18th century.", "Selenium, tellurium and polonium were discovered in the 19th century, and livermorium in 2000.All of the chalcogens have six valence electrons, leaving them two electrons short of a full outer shell.", "Their most common oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6.They have relatively low atomic radii, especially the lighter ones.All of the naturally occurring chalcogens have some role in biological functions, either as a nutrient or a toxin.", "Selenium is an important nutrient (among others as a building block of selenocysteine) but is also commonly toxic.", "Tellurium often has unpleasant effects (although some organisms can use it), and polonium (especially the isotope polonium-210) is always harmful as a result of its radioactivity.Sulfur has more than 20 allotropes, oxygen has nine, selenium has at least eight, polonium has two, and only one crystal structure of tellurium has so far been discovered.", "There are numerous organic chalcogen compounds.", "Not counting oxygen, organic sulfur compounds are generally the most common, followed by organic selenium compounds and organic tellurium compounds.", "This trend also occurs with chalcogen pnictides and compounds containing chalcogens and carbon group elements.Oxygen is generally obtained by separation of air into nitrogen and oxygen.", "Sulfur is extracted from oil and natural gas.", "Selenium and tellurium are produced as byproducts of copper refining.", "Polonium is most available in naturally occurring actinide-containing materials.", "Livermorium has been synthesized in particle accelerators.", "The primary use of elemental oxygen is in steelmaking.", "Sulfur is mostly converted into sulfuric acid, which is heavily used in the chemical industry.", "Selenium's most common application is glassmaking.", "Tellurium compounds are mostly used in optical disks, electronic devices, and solar cells.", "Some of polonium's applications are due to its radioactivity." ], [ "Properties", "===Atomic and physical===Chalcogens show similar patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, where they all have the same number of valence electrons, resulting in similar trends in chemical behavior:Z Element No.", "of electrons/shell 8 Oxygen 2, 6 16 Sulfur 2, 8, 6 34 Selenium 2, 8, 18, 6 52 Tellurium 2, 8, 18, 18, 6 84 Polonium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6 116 Livermorium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 ''(predicted)''Element Melting point(°C) Boiling point(°C)Density at STP(g/cm3)Oxygen −219 −183 0.00143Sulfur 120 445 2.07Selenium 221 685 4.3Tellurium 450 988 6.24Polonium 254 962 9.2Livermorium 220 (predicted) 800 (predicted) 14 (predicted)All chalcogens have six valence electrons.", "All of the solid, stable chalcogens are soft and do not conduct heat well.", "Electronegativity decreases towards the chalcogens with higher atomic numbers.", "Density, melting and boiling points, and atomic and ionic radii tend to increase towards the chalcogens with higher atomic numbers.===Isotopes===Out of the six known chalcogens, one (oxygen) has an atomic number equal to a nuclear magic number, which means that their atomic nuclei tend to have increased stability towards radioactive decay.", "Oxygen has three stable isotopes, and 14 unstable ones.", "Sulfur has four stable isotopes, 20 radioactive ones, and one isomer.", "Selenium has six observationally stable or nearly stable isotopes, 26 radioactive isotopes, and 9 isomers.", "Tellurium has eight stable or nearly stable isotopes, 31 unstable ones, and 17 isomers.", "Polonium has 42 isotopes, none of which are stable.", "It has an additional 28 isomers.", "In addition to the stable isotopes, some radioactive chalcogen isotopes occur in nature, either because they are decay products, such as 210Po, because they are primordial, such as 82Se, because of cosmic ray spallation, or via nuclear fission of uranium.", "Livermorium isotopes 290Lv through 293Lv have been discovered; the most stable livermorium isotope is 293Lv, which has a half-life of 0.061 seconds.With the exception of oxygen and livermorium, all chalcogens have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope, sulfur has trace 35S, selenium has 82Se, tellurium has 128Te and 130Te, and polonium has 210Po.Among the lighter chalcogens (oxygen and sulfur), the most neutron-poor isotopes undergo proton emission, the moderately neutron-poor isotopes undergo electron capture or β+ decay, the moderately neutron-rich isotopes undergo β− decay, and the most neutron rich isotopes undergo neutron emission.", "The middle chalcogens (selenium and tellurium) have similar decay tendencies as the lighter chalcogens, but no proton-emitting isotopes have been observed, and some of the most neutron-deficient isotopes of tellurium undergo alpha decay.", "Polonium isotopes tend to decay via alpha or beta decay.", "Isotopes with nonzero nuclear spins are more abundant in nature among the chalcogens selenium and tellurium than they are with sulfur.===Allotropes===Phase diagram of sulfur showing the relative stabilities of several allotropesSTPPhase diagram for solid oxygenOxygen's most common allotrope is diatomic oxygen, or O2, a reactive paramagnetic molecule that is ubiquitous to aerobic organisms and has a blue color in its liquid state.", "Another allotrope is O3, or ozone, which is three oxygen atoms bonded together in a bent formation.", "There is also an allotrope called tetraoxygen, or O4, and six allotropes of solid oxygen including \"red oxygen\", which has the formula O8.Sulfur has over 20 known allotropes, which is more than any other element except carbon.", "The most common allotropes are in the form of eight-atom rings, but other molecular allotropes that contain as few as two atoms or as many as 20 are known.", "Other notable sulfur allotropes include rhombic sulfur and monoclinic sulfur.", "Rhombic sulfur is the more stable of the two allotropes.", "Monoclinic sulfur takes the form of long needles and is formed when liquid sulfur is cooled to slightly below its melting point.", "The atoms in liquid sulfur are generally in the form of long chains, but above 190 °C, the chains begin to break down.", "If liquid sulfur above 190 °C is frozen very rapidly, the resulting sulfur is amorphous or \"plastic\" sulfur.", "Gaseous sulfur is a mixture of diatomic sulfur (S2) and 8-atom rings.Selenium has at least eight distinct allotropes.", "The gray allotrope, commonly referred to as the \"metallic\" allotrope, despite not being a metal, is stable and has a hexagonal crystal structure.", "The gray allotrope of selenium is soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2, and brittle.", "Four other allotropes of selenium are metastable.", "These include two monoclinic red allotropes and two amorphous allotropes, one of which is red and one of which is black.", "The red allotrope converts to the black allotrope in the presence of heat.", "The gray allotrope of selenium is made from spirals on selenium atoms, while one of the red allotropes is made of stacks of selenium rings (Se8).Tellurium is not known to have any allotropes, although its typical form is hexagonal.", "Polonium has two allotropes, which are known as α-polonium and β-polonium.", "α-polonium has a cubic crystal structure and converts to the rhombohedral β-polonium at 36 °C.The chalcogens have varying crystal structures.", "Oxygen's crystal structure is monoclinic, sulfur's is orthorhombic, selenium and tellurium have the hexagonal crystal structure, while polonium has a cubic crystal structure.===Chemical===Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals, and tellurium is a metalloid, meaning that its chemical properties are between those of a metal and those of a nonmetal.", "It is not certain whether polonium is a metal or a metalloid.", "Some sources refer to polonium as a metalloid, although it has some metallic properties.", "Also, some allotropes of selenium display characteristics of a metalloid, even though selenium is usually considered a nonmetal.", "Even though oxygen is a chalcogen, its chemical properties are different from those of other chalcogens.", "One reason for this is that the heavier chalcogens have vacant d-orbitals.", "Oxygen's electronegativity is also much higher than those of the other chalcogens.", "This makes oxygen's electric polarizability several times lower than those of the other chalcogens.For covalent bonding a chalcogen may accept two electrons according to the octet rule, leaving two lone pairs.", "When an atom forms two single bonds, they form an angle between 90° and 120°.", "In 1+ cations, such as , a chalcogen forms three molecular orbitals arranged in a trigonal pyramidal fashion and one lone pair.", "Double bonds are also common in chalcogen compounds, for example in chalcogenates (see below).The oxidation number of the most common chalcogen compounds with positive metals is −2.However the tendency for chalcogens to form compounds in the −2 state decreases towards the heavier chalcogens.", "Other oxidation numbers, such as −1 in pyrite and peroxide, do occur.", "The highest formal oxidation number is +6.This oxidation number is found in sulfates, selenates, tellurates, polonates, and their corresponding acids, such as sulfuric acid.Oxygen is the most electronegative element except for fluorine, and forms compounds with almost all of the chemical elements, including some of the noble gases.", "It commonly bonds with many metals and metalloids to form oxides, including iron oxide, titanium oxide, and silicon oxide.", "Oxygen's most common oxidation state is −2, and the oxidation state −1 is also relatively common.", "With hydrogen it forms water and hydrogen peroxide.", "Organic oxygen compounds are ubiquitous in organic chemistry.", "Sulfur's oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6.Sulfur-containing analogs of oxygen compounds often have the prefix ''thio-''.", "Sulfur's chemistry is similar to oxygen's, in many ways.", "One difference is that sulfur-sulfur double bonds are far weaker than oxygen-oxygen double bonds, but sulfur-sulfur single bonds are stronger than oxygen-oxygen single bonds.", "Organic sulfur compounds such as thiols have a strong specific smell, and a few are utilized by some organisms.Selenium's oxidation states are −2, +4, and +6.Selenium, like most chalcogens, bonds with oxygen.", "There are some organic selenium compounds, such as selenoproteins.", "Tellurium's oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6.Tellurium forms the oxides tellurium monoxide, tellurium dioxide, and tellurium trioxide.", "Polonium's oxidation states are +2 and +4.alt=Water dripping into a glass, showing drops and bubbles.There are many acids containing chalcogens, including sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, selenic acid, and telluric acid.", "All hydrogen chalcogenides are toxic except for water.", "Oxygen ions often come in the forms of oxide ions (), peroxide ions (), and hydroxide ions ().", "Sulfur ions generally come in the form of sulfides (), bisulfides (), sulfites (), sulfates (), and thiosulfates ().", "Selenium ions usually come in the form of selenides (), selenites () and selenates ().", "Tellurium ions often come in the form of tellurates ().", "Molecules containing metal bonded to chalcogens are common as minerals.", "For example, pyrite (FeS2) is an iron ore, and the rare mineral calaverite is the ditelluride .Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table, including oxygen, can be defined as chalcogens, oxygen and oxides are usually distinguished from chalcogens and chalcogenides.", "The term ''chalcogenide'' is more commonly reserved for sulfides, selenides, and tellurides, rather than for oxides.Except for polonium, the chalcogens are all fairly similar to each other chemically.", "They all form X2− ions when reacting with electropositive metals.Sulfide minerals and analogous compounds produce gases upon reaction with oxygen." ], [ "Compounds", "===With halogens=== Chalcogens also form compounds with halogens known as '''chalcohalides''', or '''chalcogen halides'''.", "The majority of simple chalcogen halides are well-known and widely used as chemical reagents.", "However, more complicated chalcogen halides, such as sulfenyl, sulfonyl, and sulfuryl halides, are less well known to science.", "Out of the compounds consisting purely of chalcogens and halogens, there are a total of 13 chalcogen fluorides, nine chalcogen chlorides, eight chalcogen bromides, and six chalcogen iodides that are known.", "The heavier chalcogen halides often have significant molecular interactions.", "Sulfur fluorides with low valences are fairly unstable and little is known about their properties.", "However, sulfur fluorides with high valences, such as sulfur hexafluoride, are stable and well-known.", "Sulfur tetrafluoride is also a well-known sulfur fluoride.", "Certain selenium fluorides, such as selenium difluoride, have been produced in small amounts.", "The crystal structures of both selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium tetrafluoride are known.", "Chalcogen chlorides and bromides have also been explored.", "In particular, selenium dichloride and sulfur dichloride can react to form organic selenium compounds.", "Dichalcogen dihalides, such as Se2Cl2 also are known to exist.", "There are also mixed chalcogen-halogen compounds.", "These include SeSX, with X being chlorine or bromine.", "Such compounds can form in mixtures of sulfur dichloride and selenium halides.", "These compounds have been fairly recently structurally characterized, as of 2008.In general, diselenium and disulfur chlorides and bromides are useful chemical reagents.", "Chalcogen halides with attached metal atoms are soluble in organic solutions.", "One example of such a compound is .", "Unlike selenium chlorides and bromides, selenium iodides have not been isolated, as of 2008, although it is likely that they occur in solution.", "Diselenium diiodide, however, does occur in equilibrium with selenium atoms and iodine molecules.", "Some tellurium halides with low valences, such as and , form polymers when in the solid state.", "These tellurium halides can be synthesized by the reduction of pure tellurium with superhydride and reacting the resulting product with tellurium tetrahalides.", "Ditellurium dihalides tend to get less stable as the halides become lower in atomic number and atomic mass.", "Tellurium also forms iodides with even fewer iodine atoms than diiodides.", "These include TeI and Te2I.", "These compounds have extended structures in the solid state.", "Halogens and chalcogens can also form halochalcogenate anions.===Organic===Alcohols, phenols and other similar compounds contain oxygen.", "However, in thiols, selenols and tellurols; sulfur, selenium, and tellurium replace oxygen.", "Thiols are better known than selenols or tellurols.", "Aside from alcohols, thiols are the most stable chalcogenols and tellurols are the least stable, being unstable in heat or light.", "Other organic chalcogen compounds include thioethers, selenoethers and telluroethers.", "Some of these, such as dimethyl sulfide, diethyl sulfide, and dipropyl sulfide are commercially available.", "Selenoethers are in the form of R2Se or RSeR.", "Telluroethers such as dimethyl telluride are typically prepared in the same way as thioethers and selenoethers.", "Organic chalcogen compounds, especially organic sulfur compounds, have the tendency to smell unpleasant.", "Dimethyl telluride also smells unpleasant, and selenophenol is renowned for its \"metaphysical stench\".", "There are also thioketones, selenoketones, and telluroketones.", "Out of these, thioketones are the most well-studied with 80% of chalcogenoketones papers being about them.", "Selenoketones make up 16% of such papers and telluroketones make up 4% of them.", "Thioketones have well-studied non-linear electric and photophysical properties.", "Selenoketones are less stable than thioketones and telluroketones are less stable than selenoketones.", "Telluroketones have the highest level of polarity of chalcogenoketones.===With metals===There is a very large number of metal chalcogenides.", "There are also ternary compounds containing alkali metals and transition metals.", "Highly metal-rich metal chalcogenides, such as Lu7Te and Lu8Te have domains of the metal's crystal lattice containing chalcogen atoms.", "While these compounds do exist, analogous chemicals that contain lanthanum, praseodymium, gadolinium, holmium, terbium, or ytterbium have not been discovered, as of 2008.The boron group metals aluminum, gallium, and indium also form bonds to chalcogens.", "The Ti3+ ion forms chalcogenide dimers such as TiTl5Se8.Metal chalcogenide dimers also occur as lower tellurides, such as Zr5Te6.Elemental chalcogens react with certain lanthanide compounds to form lanthanide clusters rich in chalcogens.", "Uranium(IV) chalcogenol compounds also exist.", "There are also transition metal chalcogenols which have potential to serve as catalysts and stabilize nanoparticles.===With pnictogens===Bismuth sulfide, a pnictogen chalcogenideCompounds with chalcogen-phosphorus bonds have been explored for more than 200 years.", "These compounds include unsophisticated phosphorus chalcogenides as well as large molecules with biological roles and phosphorus-chalcogen compounds with metal clusters.", "These compounds have numerous applications, including organo-phosphate insecticides, strike-anywhere matches and quantum dots.", "A total of 130,000 compounds with at least one phosphorus-sulfur bond, 6000 compounds with at least one phosphorus-selenium bond, and 350 compounds with at least one phosphorus-tellurium bond have been discovered.", "The decrease in the number of chalcogen-phosphorus compounds further down the periodic table is due to diminishing bond strength.", "Such compounds tend to have at least one phosphorus atom in the center, surrounded by four chalcogens and side chains.", "However, some phosphorus-chalcogen compounds also contain hydrogen (such as secondary phosphine chalcogenides) or nitrogen (such as dichalcogenoimidodiphosphates).", "Phosphorus selenides are typically harder to handle that phosphorus sulfides, and compounds in the form PxTey have not been discovered.", "Chalcogens also bond with other pnictogens, such as arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.", "Heavier chalcogen pnictides tend to form ribbon-like polymers instead of individual molecules.", "Chemical formulas of these compounds include Bi2S3 and Sb2Se3.Ternary chalcogen pnictides are also known.", "Examples of these include P4O6Se and P3SbS3.salts containing chalcogens and pnictogens also exist.", "Almost all chalcogen pnictide salts are typically in the form of PnxE4x3−, where Pn is a pnictogen and E is a chalcogen.", "Tertiary phosphines can react with chalcogens to form compounds in the form of R3PE, where E is a chalcogen.", "When E is sulfur, these compounds are relatively stable, but they are less so when E is selenium or tellurium.", "Similarly, secondary phosphines can react with chalcogens to form secondary phosphine chalcogenides.", "However, these compounds are in a state of equilibrium with chalcogenophosphinous acid.", "Secondary phosphine chalcogenides are weak acids.", "Binary compounds consisting of antimony or arsenic and a chalcogen.", "These compounds tend to be colorful and can be created by a reaction of the constituent elements at temperatures of .===Other===Chalcogens form single bonds and double bonds with other carbon group elements than carbon, such as silicon, germanium, and tin.", "Such compounds typically form from a reaction of carbon group halides and chalcogenol salts or chalcogenol bases.", "Cyclic compounds with chalcogens, carbon group elements, and boron atoms exist, and occur from the reaction of boron dichalcogenates and carbon group metal halides.", "Compounds in the form of M-E, where M is silicon, germanium, or tin, and E is sulfur, selenium or tellurium have been discovered.", "These form when carbon group hydrides react or when heavier versions of carbenes react.", "Sulfur and tellurium can bond with organic compounds containing both silicon and phosphorus.All of the chalcogens form hydrides.", "In some cases this occurs with chalcogens bonding with two hydrogen atoms.", "However tellurium hydride and polonium hydride are both volatile and highly labile.", "Also, oxygen can bond to hydrogen in a 1:1 ratio as in hydrogen peroxide, but this compound is unstable.Chalcogen compounds form a number of interchalcogens.", "For instance, sulfur forms the toxic sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide.", "Tellurium also forms oxides.", "There are some chalcogen sulfides as well.", "These include selenium sulfide, an ingredient in some shampoos.Since 1990, a number of borides with chalcogens bonded to them have been detected.", "The chalcogens in these compounds are mostly sulfur, although some do contain selenium instead.", "One such chalcogen boride consists of two molecules of dimethyl sulfide attached to a boron-hydrogen molecule.", "Other important boron-chalcogen compounds include macropolyhedral systems.", "Such compounds tend to feature sulfur as the chalcogen.", "There are also chalcogen borides with two, three, or four chalcogens.", "Many of these contain sulfur but some, such as Na2B2Se7 contain selenium instead." ], [ "History", "===Early discoveries===Sulfur has been known since ancient times and is mentioned in the Bible fifteen times.", "It was known to the ancient Greeks and commonly mined by the ancient Romans.", "In the Middle Ages, it was a key part of alchemical experiments.", "In the 1700s and 1800s, scientists Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard proved sulfur to be a chemical element.Early attempts to separate oxygen from air were hampered by the fact that air was thought of as a single element up to the 17th and 18th centuries.", "Robert Hooke, Mikhail Lomonosov, Ole Borch, and Pierre Bayden all successfully created oxygen, but did not realize it at the time.", "Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1774 when he focused sunlight on a sample of mercuric oxide and collected the resulting gas.", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele had also created oxygen in 1771 by the same method, but Scheele did not publish his results until 1777.Tellurium was first discovered in 1783 by Franz Joseph Müller von Reichenstein.", "He discovered tellurium in a sample of what is now known as calaverite.", "Müller assumed at first that the sample was pure antimony, but tests he ran on the sample did not agree with this.", "Muller then guessed that the sample was bismuth sulfide, but tests confirmed that the sample was not that.", "For some years, Muller pondered the problem.", "Eventually he realized that the sample was gold bonded with an unknown element.", "In 1796, Müller sent part of the sample to the German chemist Martin Klaproth, who purified the undiscovered element.", "Klaproth decided to call the element tellurium after the Latin word for earth.Selenium was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius.", "Berzelius noticed a reddish-brown sediment at a sulfuric acid manufacturing plant.", "The sample was thought to contain arsenic.", "Berzelius initially thought that the sediment contained tellurium, but came to realize that it also contained a new element, which he named selenium after the Greek moon goddess Selene.===Periodic table placing===Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic system proposed in 1871 showing oxygen, sulfur, selenium and tellurium part of his group VIThree of the chalcogens (sulfur, selenium, and tellurium) were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner as having similar properties.", "Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music.", "His version included a \"group b\" consisting of oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and osmium.Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as chalcogens.After 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing oxygen at the top of \"group VI\" above sulfur, selenium, and tellurium.", "Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and uranium were sometimes included in this group, but they would be later rearranged as part of group VIB; uranium would later be moved to the actinide series.", "Oxygen, along with sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and later polonium would be grouped in ''group VIA'', until the group's name was changed to ''group 16'' in 1988.===Modern discoveries===In the late 19th century, Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered that a sample of pitchblende was emitting four times as much radioactivity as could be explained by the presence of uranium alone.", "The Curies gathered several tons of pitchblende and refined it for several months until they had a pure sample of polonium.", "The discovery officially took place in 1898.Prior to the invention of particle accelerators, the only way to produce polonium was to extract it over several months from uranium ore.The first attempt at creating livermorium was from 1976 to 1977 at the LBNL, who bombarded curium-248 with calcium-48, but were not successful.", "After several failed attempts in 1977, 1998, and 1999 by research groups in Russia, Germany, and the US, livermorium was created successfully in 2000 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research by bombarding curium-248 atoms with calcium-48 atoms.", "The element was known as ununhexium until it was officially named livermorium in 2012.===Names and etymology===In the 19th century, Jons Jacob Berzelius suggested calling the elements in group 16 \"amphigens\", as the elements in the group formed amphid salts (salts of oxyacids.", "Formerly regarded as composed of two oxides, an acid and a basic oxide) The term received some use in the early 1800s but is now obsolete.", "The name ''chalcogen'' comes from the Greek words '''' (, literally \"copper\"), and '''' (, born, gender, kindle).", "It was first used in 1932 by Wilhelm Biltz's group at Leibniz University Hannover, where it was proposed by Werner Fischer.", "The word \"chalcogen\" gained popularity in Germany during the 1930s because the term was analogous to \"halogen\".", "Although the literal meanings of the modern Greek words imply that ''chalcogen'' means \"copper-former\", this is misleading because the chalcogens have nothing to do with copper in particular.", "\"Ore-former\" has been suggested as a better translation, as the vast majority of metal ores are chalcogenides and the word '''' in ancient Greek was associated with metals and metal-bearing rock in general; copper, and its alloy bronze, was one of the first metals to be used by humans.Oxygen's name comes from the Greek words ''oxy genes'', meaning \"acid-forming\".", "Sulfur's name comes from either the Latin word '''' or the Sanskrit word ''''; both of those terms are ancient words for sulfur.", "Selenium is named after the Greek goddess of the moon, Selene, to match the previously discovered element tellurium, whose name comes from the Latin word '''', meaning earth.", "Polonium is named after Marie Curie's country of birth, Poland.", "Livermorium is named for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory." ], [ "Occurrence", "The four lightest chalcogens (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium) are all primordial elements on Earth.", "Sulfur and oxygen occur as constituent copper ores and selenium and tellurium occur in small traces in such ores.", "Polonium forms naturally from the decay of other elements, even though it is not primordial.", "Livermorium does not occur naturally at all.Oxygen makes up 21% of the atmosphere by weight, 89% of water by weight, 46% of the Earth's crust by weight, and 65% of the human body.", "Oxygen also occurs in many minerals, being found in all oxide minerals and hydroxide minerals, and in numerous other mineral groups.", "Stars of at least eight times the mass of the Sun also produce oxygen in their cores via nuclear fusion.", "Oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, making up 1% of the universe by weight.Sulfur makes up 0.035% of the Earth's crust by weight, making it the 17th most abundant element there and makes up 0.25% of the human body.", "It is a major component of soil.", "Sulfur makes up 870 parts per million of seawater and about 1 part per billion of the atmosphere.", "Sulfur can be found in elemental form or in the form of sulfide minerals, sulfate minerals, or sulfosalt minerals.", "Stars of at least 12 times the mass of the Sun produce sulfur in their cores via nuclear fusion.", "Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe, making up 500 parts per million of the universe by weight.Selenium makes up 0.05 parts per million of the Earth's crust by weight.", "This makes it the 67th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.", "Selenium makes up on average 5 parts per million of the soils.", "Seawater contains around 200 parts per trillion of selenium.", "The atmosphere contains 1 nanogram of selenium per cubic meter.", "There are mineral groups known as selenates and selenites, but there are not many minerals in these groups.", "Selenium is not produced directly by nuclear fusion.", "Selenium makes up 30 parts per billion of the universe by weight.There are only 5 parts per billion of tellurium in the Earth's crust and 15 parts per billion of tellurium in seawater.", "Tellurium is one of the eight or nine least abundant elements in the Earth's crust.", "There are a few dozen tellurate minerals and telluride minerals, and tellurium occurs in some minerals with gold, such as sylvanite and calaverite.", "Tellurium makes up 9 parts per billion of the universe by weight.Polonium only occurs in trace amounts on Earth, via radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.", "It is present in uranium ores in concentrations of 100 micrograms per metric ton.", "Very minute amounts of polonium exist in the soil and thus in most food, and thus in the human body.", "The Earth's crust contains less than 1 part per billion of polonium, making it one of the ten rarest metals on Earth.Livermorium is always produced artificially in particle accelerators.", "Even when it is produced, only a small number of atoms are synthesized at a time.===Chalcophile elements===Chalcophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they combine readily with chalcogens other than oxygen, forming compounds which do not sink into the core.", "Chalcophile (\"chalcogen-loving\") elements in this context are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with the heavier chalcogen sulfur as sulfides.", "Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by lithophile elements, chalcophile elements separated below the lithophiles at the time of the first crystallisation of the Earth's crust.", "This has led to their depletion in the Earth's crust relative to their solar abundances, though this depletion has not reached the levels found with siderophile elements." ], [ "Production", "Approximately 100 million metric tons of oxygen are produced yearly.", "Oxygen is most commonly produced by fractional distillation, in which air is cooled to a liquid, then warmed, allowing all the components of air except for oxygen to turn to gases and escape.", "Fractionally distilling air several times can produce 99.5% pure oxygen.", "Another method with which oxygen is produced is to send a stream of dry, clean air through a bed of molecular sieves made of zeolite, which absorbs the nitrogen in the air, leaving 90 to 93% pure oxygen.North Vancouver, British ColumbiaSulfur can be mined in its elemental form, although this method is no longer as popular as it used to be.", "In 1865 a large deposit of elemental sulfur was discovered in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Texas, but it was difficult to extract at the time.", "In the 1890s, Herman Frasch came up with the solution of liquefying the sulfur with superheated steam and pumping the sulfur up to the surface.", "These days sulfur is instead more often extracted from oil, natural gas, and tar.The world production of selenium is around 1500 metric tons per year, out of which roughly 10% is recycled.", "Japan is the largest producer, producing 800 metric tons of selenium per year.", "Other large producers include Belgium (300 metric tons per year), the United States (over 200 metric tons per year), Sweden (130 metric tons per year), and Russia (100 metric tons per year).", "Selenium can be extracted from the waste from the process of electrolytically refining copper.", "Another method of producing selenium is to farm selenium-gathering plants such as milk vetch.", "This method could produce three kilograms of selenium per acre, but is not commonly practiced.Tellurium is mostly produced as a by-product of the processing of copper.", "Tellurium can also be refined by electrolytic reduction of sodium telluride.", "The world production of tellurium is between 150 and 200 metric tons per year.", "The United States is one of the largest producers of tellurium, producing around 50 metric tons per year.", "Peru, Japan, and Canada are also large producers of tellurium.Until the creation of nuclear reactors, all polonium had to be extracted from uranium ore.", "In modern times, most isotopes of polonium are produced by bombarding bismuth with neutrons.", "Polonium can also be produced by high neutron fluxes in nuclear reactors.", "Approximately 100 grams of polonium are produced yearly.", "All the polonium produced for commercial purposes is made in the Ozersk nuclear reactor in Russia.", "From there, it is taken to Samara, Russia for purification, and from there to St. Petersburg for distribution.", "The United States is the largest consumer of polonium.All livermorium is produced artificially in particle accelerators.", "The first successful production of livermorium was achieved by bombarding curium-248 atoms with calcium-48 atoms.", "As of 2011, roughly 25 atoms of livermorium had been synthesized." ], [ "Applications", "Metabolism is the most important source and use of oxygen.", "Minor industrial uses include Steelmaking (55% of all purified oxygen produced), the chemical industry (25% of all purified oxygen), medical use, water treatment (as oxygen kills some types of bacteria), rocket fuel (in liquid form), and metal cutting.Most sulfur produced is transformed into sulfur dioxide, which is further transformed into sulfuric acid, a very common industrial chemical.", "Other common uses include being a key ingredient of gunpowder and Greek fire, and being used to change soil pH.", "Sulfur is also mixed into rubber to vulcanize it.", "Sulfur is used in some types of concrete and fireworks.", "60% of all sulfuric acid produced is used to generate phosphoric acid.", "Sulfur is used as a pesticide (specifically as an acaricide and fungicide) on \"orchard, ornamental, vegetable, grain, and other crops.", "\"Gunpowder, an application of sulfurAround 40% of all selenium produced goes to glassmaking.", "30% of all selenium produced goes to metallurgy, including manganese production.", "15% of all selenium produced goes to agriculture.", "Electronics such as photovoltaic materials claim 10% of all selenium produced.", "Pigments account for 5% of all selenium produced.", "Historically, machines such as photocopiers and light meters used one-third of all selenium produced, but this application is in steady decline.Tellurium suboxide, a mixture of tellurium and tellurium dioxide, is used in the rewritable data layer of some CD-RW disks and DVD-RW disks.", "Bismuth telluride is also used in many microelectronic devices, such as photoreceptors.", "Tellurium is sometimes used as an alternative to sulfur in vulcanized rubber.", "Cadmium telluride is used as a high-efficiency material in solar panels.Some of polonium's applications relate to the element's radioactivity.", "For instance, polonium is used as an alpha-particle generator for research.", "Polonium alloyed with beryllium provides an efficient neutron source.", "Polonium is also used in nuclear batteries.", "Most polonium is used in antistatic devices.", "Livermorium does not have any uses whatsoever due to its extreme rarity and short half-life.Organochalcogen compounds are involved in the semiconductor process.", "These compounds also feature into ligand chemistry and biochemistry.", "One application of chalcogens themselves is to manipulate redox couples in supramolecular chemistry (chemistry involving non-covalent bond interactions).", "This application leads on to such applications as crystal packing, assembly of large molecules, and biological recognition of patterns.", "The secondary bonding interactions of the larger chalcogens, selenium and tellurium, can create organic solvent-holding acetylene nanotubes.", "Chalcogen interactions are useful for conformational analysis and stereoelectronic effects, among other things.", "Chalcogenides with through bonds also have applications.", "For instance, divalent sulfur can stabilize carbanions, cationic centers, and radical.", "Chalcogens can confer upon ligands (such as DCTO) properties such as being able to transform Cu(II) to Cu(I).", "Studying chalcogen interactions gives access to radical cations, which are used in mainstream synthetic chemistry.", "Metallic redox centers of biological importance are tunable by interactions of ligands containing chalcogens, such as methionine and selenocysteine.", "Also, chalcogen through-bonds can provide insight about the process of electron transfer." ], [ "Biological role", "DNA, an important biological compound containing oxygenOxygen is needed by almost all organisms for the purpose of generating ATP.", "It is also a key component of most other biological compounds, such as water, amino acids and DNA.", "Human blood contains a large amount of oxygen.", "Human bones contain 28% oxygen.", "Human tissue contains 16% oxygen.", "A typical 70-kilogram human contains 43 kilograms of oxygen, mostly in the form of water.All animals need significant amounts of sulfur.", "Some amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine contain sulfur.", "Plant roots take up sulfate ions from the soil and reduce it to sulfide ions.", "Metalloproteins also use sulfur to attach to useful metal atoms in the body and sulfur similarly attaches itself to poisonous metal atoms like cadmium to haul them to the safety of the liver.", "On average, humans consume 900 milligrams of sulfur each day.", "Sulfur compounds, such as those found in skunk spray often have strong odors.All animals and some plants need trace amounts of selenium, but only for some specialized enzymes.", "Humans consume on average between 6 and 200 micrograms of selenium per day.", "Mushrooms and brazil nuts are especially noted for their high selenium content.", "Selenium in foods is most commonly found in the form of amino acids such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine.", "Selenium can protect against heavy metal poisoning.Tellurium is not known to be needed for animal life, although a few fungi can incorporate it in compounds in place of selenium.", "Microorganisms also absorb tellurium and emit dimethyl telluride.", "Most tellurium in the blood stream is excreted slowly in urine, but some is converted to dimethyl telluride and released through the lungs.", "On average, humans ingest about 600 micrograms of tellurium daily.", "Plants can take up some tellurium from the soil.", "Onions and garlic have been found to contain as much as 300 parts per million of tellurium in dry weight.Polonium has no biological role, and is highly toxic on account of being radioactive." ], [ "Toxicity", "Oxygen is generally nontoxic, but oxygen toxicity has been reported when it is used in high concentrations.", "In both elemental gaseous form and as a component of water, it is vital to almost all life on Earth.", "Despite this, liquid oxygen is highly dangerous.", "Even gaseous oxygen is dangerous in excess.", "For instance, sports divers have occasionally drowned from convulsions caused by breathing pure oxygen at a depth of more than underwater.", "Oxygen is also toxic to some bacteria.", "Ozone, an allotrope of oxygen, is toxic to most life.", "It can cause lesions in the respiratory tract.Sulfur is generally nontoxic and is even a vital nutrient for humans.", "However, in its elemental form it can cause redness in the eyes and skin, a burning sensation and a cough if inhaled, a burning sensation and diarrhoea and/or catharsis if ingested, and can irritate the mucous membranes.", "An excess of sulfur can be toxic for cows because microbes in the rumens of cows produce toxic hydrogen sulfide upon reaction with sulfur.", "Many sulfur compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are highly toxic.Selenium is a trace nutrient required by humans on the order of tens or hundreds of micrograms per day.", "A dose of over 450 micrograms can be toxic, resulting in bad breath and body odor.", "Extended, low-level exposure, which can occur at some industries, results in weight loss, anemia, and dermatitis.", "In many cases of selenium poisoning, selenous acid is formed in the body.", "Hydrogen selenide (H2Se) is highly toxic.Exposure to tellurium can produce unpleasant side effects.", "As little as 10 micrograms of tellurium per cubic meter of air can cause notoriously unpleasant breath, described as smelling like rotten garlic.", "Acute tellurium poisoning can cause vomiting, gut inflammation, internal bleeding, and respiratory failure.", "Extended, low-level exposure to tellurium causes tiredness and indigestion.", "Sodium tellurite (Na2TeO3) is lethal in amounts of around 2 grams.Polonium is dangerous as an alpha particle emitter.", "If ingested, polonium-210 is a million times as toxic as hydrogen cyanide by weight; it has been used as a murder weapon in the past, most famously to kill Alexander Litvinenko.", "Polonium poisoning can cause nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and lymphopenia.", "It can also damage hair follicles and white blood cells.", "Polonium-210 is only dangerous if ingested or inhaled because its alpha particle emissions cannot penetrate human skin.", "Polonium-209 is also toxic, and can cause leukemia." ], [ "Amphid salts", "''Amphid salts'' was a name given by Jons Jacob Berzelius in the 19th century for chemical salts derived from the 16th group of the periodic table which included oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium.", "The term received some use in the early 1800s but is now obsolete.", "The current term in use for the 16th group is chalcogens." ], [ "See also", "* Chalcogenide* Gold chalcogenides* Halogen* Interchalcogen* Pnictogen" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carbon dioxide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carbon dioxide''' is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ''''''.", "It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms.", "It is found in the gas state at room temperature, and as the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric is the primary carbon source for life on Earth.", "In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, acting as a greenhouse gas.", "Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater.", "When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate (), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric levels increase.It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm), or about 0.04% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.025%.", "Burning fossil fuels is the primary cause of these increased concentrations and also the primary cause of climate change.", "Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological phenomena.", "Plants, algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a waste product.", "In turn, oxygen is consumed and is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration.", "is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires.", "Since plants require for photosynthesis, and humans and animals depend on plants for food, is necessary for the survival of life on earth.Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere.", "About half of excess emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks.", "These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the being released back into the atmosphere.", "is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal, petroleum and natural gas.", "Sequestered is released into the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels or naturally by volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and when carbonate rocks dissolve in water or react with acids.", "is a versatile industrial material, used, for example, as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers, as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery, and as a supercritical fluid solvent in decaffeination and supercritical drying.", "It is a byproduct of fermentation of sugars in bread, beer and wine making, and is added to carbonated beverages like seltzer and beer for effervescence.", "It has a sharp and acidic odor and generates the taste of soda water in the mouth, but at normally encountered concentrations it is odorless." ], [ "Chemical and physical properties", "=== Structure, bonding and molecular vibrations ===The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry.", "The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm, noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of a typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls.", "Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule has no electric dipole moment.Stretching and bending oscillations of the molecule.", "Upper left: symmetric stretching.", "Upper right: antisymmetric stretching.", "Lower line: degenerate pair of bending modes.As a linear triatomic molecule, has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram.", "In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule.", "There are two bending modes, which are degenerate, meaning that they have the same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule.", "When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes.", "Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum: the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm−1 (wavelength 4.25 μm) and the degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm−1 (wavelength 15 μm).", "The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm−1 (wavelength 7.2 μm).In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure.", "However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced.", "Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide.", "The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear.", "This counter-intuitive result is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries.", "This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules.=== In aqueous solution ===Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly forms (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid since its ionization in water is incomplete.", ":The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C::Hence, the majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid, but remains as molecules, not affecting the pH.The relative concentrations of , , and the deprotonated forms (bicarbonate) and (carbonate) depend on the pH.", "As shown in a Bjerrum plot, in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater.", "In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate.", "The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter.Being diprotic, carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants, the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ():::''K''a1 = 2.5 × 10−4 mol/L; p''K''a1 = 3.6 at 25 °C.This is the ''true'' first acid dissociation constant, defined as:where the denominator includes only covalently bound and does not include hydrated (aq).", "The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10−7 is an ''apparent'' value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved is present as carbonic acid, so that :Since most of the dissolved remains as molecules, ''K''a1(apparent) has a much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true ''K''a1.The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution.", "At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion ():::''K''a2 = 4.69 × 10−11 mol/L; p''K''a2 = 10.329In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase.=== Chemical reactions of === is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.", "However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible.", "The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates is used in scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating.Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with to give carboxylates:::where M = Li or MgBr and R = alkyl or aryl.In metal carbon dioxide complexes, serves as a ligand, which can facilitate the conversion of to other chemicals.The reduction of to CO is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction::The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V ''versus'' the standard hydrogen electrode.", "The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process.Photoautotrophs (i.e.", "plants and cyanobacteria) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from absorbed from the air and water::=== Physical properties ===Pellets of \"dry ice\", a common form of solid carbon dioxideCarbon dioxide is colorless.", "At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor.", "At standard temperature and pressure, the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m3, about 1.53 times that of air.Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm).", "At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa), the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature.", "In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice.Pressure–temperature phase diagram of carbon dioxide.", "Note that it is a log-lin chart.Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram).", "The critical point is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm).", "Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid.", "This form of glass, called ''carbonia'', is produced by supercooling heated at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa, or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil.", "This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide.", "Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released.At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide.Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide:Temperature (°C)Density (kg/m3)Specific heat (kJ/(kg⋅K))Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅K))Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)Prandtl NumberBulk modulus (K^-1)−501156.341.841.19 × 10−70.08554.02 × 10−82.96−401117.771.881.18 × 10−70.10114.81 × 10−82.46−301076.761.971.17 × 10−70.11165.27 × 10−82.22−201032.392.051.15 × 10−70.11515.45 × 10−82.12−10983.382.181.13 × 10−70.10995.13 × 10−82.20926.992.471.08 × 10−70.10454.58 × 10−82.3810860.033.141.01 × 10−70.09713.61 × 10−82.820772.5759.10 × 10−80.08722.22 × 10−84.11.40 × 10−230597.8136.48.00 × 10−80.07030.279 × 10−828.7Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide () at atmospheric pressure:Temperature (K)Density (kg/m3)Specific heat (kJ/(kg⋅°C))Dynamic viscosity (kg/(m⋅s))Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅°C))Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)Prandtl Number2202.47330.7831.11 × 10−54.49 × 10−60.0108055.92 × 10−60.8182502.16570.8041.26 × 10−55.81 × 10−60.0128847.40 × 10−60.7933001.79730.8711.50 × 10−58.32 × 10−60.0165721.06 × 10−50.773501.53620.91.72 × 10−51.12 × 10−50.020471.48 × 10−50.7554001.34240.9421.93 × 10−51.44 × 10−50.024611.95 × 10−50.7384501.19180.982.13 × 10−51.79 × 10−50.028972.48 × 10−50.7215001.07321.0132.33 × 10−52.17 × 10−50.033523.08 × 10−50.7025500.97391.0472.51 × 10−52.57 × 10−50.038213.75 × 10−50.6856000.89381.0762.68 × 10−53.00 × 10−50.043114.48 × 10−50.6686500.81431.12.88 × 10−53.54 × 10−50.04454.97 × 10−50.7127000.75641.133.05 × 10−54.03 × 10−50.04815.63 × 10−50.7177500.70571.153.21 × 10−54.55 × 10−50.05176.37 × 10−50.7148000.66141.173.37 × 10−55.10 × 10−50.05517.12 × 10−50.716" ], [ "Biological role", "Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism.", "This includes all plants, algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria.", "In vertebrates, the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body's tissues to the skin (e.g., amphibians) or the gills (e.g., fish), from where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where it is exhaled.", "During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.=== Photosynthesis and carbon fixation ===Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixationCarbon fixation is a biochemical process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae and cyanobacteria into energy-rich organic molecules such as glucose, thus creating their own food by photosynthesis.", "Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce sugars from which other organic compounds can be constructed, and oxygen is produced as a by-product.Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from and ribulose bisphosphate, as shown in the diagram at left.RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth.Phototrophs use the products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins.", "These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves.", "Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales.", "A globally significant species of coccolithophore is ''Emiliania huxleyi'' whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone, where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales.Overview of photosynthesis and respiration.", "Carbon dioxide (at right), together with water, form oxygen and organic compounds (at left) by photosynthesis (green), which can be respired (red) to water and .Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients.", "Elevated levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated in FACE experiments.Increased atmospheric concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency.", "Studies using FACE have shown that enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants.", "This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein.The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of .Plants also emit during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day.", "Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of each year, a mature forest will produce as much from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants.", "Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks, helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere.", "Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of from the atmosphere.=== Toxicity ===Symptoms of carbon dioxide toxicity, by increasing volume percent in airCarbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location.", "is an asphyxiant gas and not classified as toxic or harmful in accordance with Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals standards of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe by using the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals.", "In concentrations up to 1% (10,000 ppm), it will make some people feel drowsy and give the lungs a stuffy feeling.", "Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour.", "The physiological effects of acute carbon dioxide exposure are grouped together under the term hypercapnia, a subset of asphyxiation.Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without the dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated.", "Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed.", "Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo.", "The Swahili term for this phenomenon is .Rising levels of threatened the Apollo 13 astronauts who had to adapt cartridges from the command module to supply the carbon dioxide scrubber in the Apollo Lunar Module, which they used as a lifeboat.Adaptation to increased concentrations of occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance the effects of blood acidification (acidosis).", "Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g.", "a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days.", "Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels.", "Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse the condition.==== Below 1% ====There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%.", "Occupational exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period.", "At this concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption.", "Studies in animals at 0.5% have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure.", "A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000ppm) likely due to induced increases in cerebral blood flow.", "Another study observed a decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm.", "However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm).", "Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used.", "Similarly a study on the effects of the concentration of in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins.", "Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of declined to safe levels (0.2%).+ General guidelines on indoor concentration effects Concentration Note 280 ppm Pre-industrial levels 421 ppm Current (May 2022) levels 700 ppm ASHRAE recommendation 1000 ppm Cognitive impairment, Canada's long term exposure limit 1000-2000 ppm Drowsiness 2000-5000 ppm Headaches, sleepiness; poor concentration, loss of attention, slight nausea also possible 5000 ppm USA 8h exposure limit==== Ventilation ====A carbon dioxide sensor that measures concentration using a nondispersive infrared sensorPoor ventilation is one of the main causes of excessive concentrations in closed spaces, leading to poor indoor air quality.", "Carbon dioxide differential above outdoor concentrations at steady state conditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system operation are sufficiently long that concentration has stabilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates per person.", "Higher concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation.", "ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions.", "Thus if the outdoor concentration is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus standard.", "Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000 ppm).Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas exposure due to insufficient ventilation, referred to mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as \"blackdamp\", \"choke damp\" or \"stythe\".", "Before more effective technologies were developed, miners would frequently monitor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in mine shafts by bringing a caged canary with them as they worked.", "The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop singing and fall off its perch.", "The Davy lamp could also detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects near the floor) by burning less brightly, while methane, another suffocating gas and explosion risk, would make the lamp burn more brightly.In February 2020, three people died from suffocation at a party in Moscow when dry ice (frozen ) was added to a swimming pool to cool it down.", "A similar accident occurred in 2018 when a woman died from fumes emanating from the large amount of dry ice she was transporting in her car.==== Indoor air ====Humans spend more and more time in a confined atmosphere (around 80-90% of the time in a building or vehicle).", "According to the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) and various actors in France, the rate in the indoor air of buildings (linked to human or animal occupancy and the presence of combustion installations), weighted by air renewal, is “usually between about 350 and 2,500 ppm”.In homes, schools, nurseries and offices, there are no systematic relationships between the levels of and other pollutants, and indoor is statistically not a good predictor of pollutants linked to outdoor road (or air, etc.)", "traffic.", "is the parameter that changes the fastest (with hygrometry and oxygen levels when humans or animals are gathered in a closed or poorly ventilated room).", "In poor countries, many open hearths are sources of and CO emitted directly into the living environment.==== Outdoor areas with elevated concentrations ====Local concentrations of carbon dioxide can reach high values near strong sources, especially those that are isolated by surrounding terrain.", "At the Bossoleto hot spring near Rapolano Terme in Tuscany, Italy, situated in a bowl-shaped depression about in diameter, concentrations of rise to above 75% overnight, sufficient to kill insects and small animals.", "After sunrise the gas is dispersed by convection.", "High concentrations of produced by disturbance of deep lake water saturated with are thought to have caused 37 fatalities at Lake Monoun, Cameroon in 1984 and 1700 casualties at Lake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986." ], [ "Human physiology", "=== Content ===+Reference ranges or averages for partial pressures of carbon dioxide (abbreviated p) Blood compartment (kPa) (mm Hg) Venous blood carbon dioxide Alveolar pulmonarygas pressures Arterial blood carbon dioxide The body produces approximately of carbon dioxide per day per person, containing of carbon.", "In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries.", "The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume.", "In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents are shown in the adjacent table.=== Transport in the blood === is carried in blood in three different ways.", "Exact percentages vary between arterial and venous blood.", "* Majority (about 70% to 80%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells, by the reaction::* 5–10% is dissolved in blood plasma* 5–10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compoundsHemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide.", "However, the bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen.", "Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains.", "However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen.", "This is known as the Haldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.", "Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.=== Regulation of respiration ===Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply.", "If its concentration is high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH.", "A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood.", "Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing.", "Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels.", "As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger.", "This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots.", "It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial pressure of 40 mmHg.", "With intentional hyperventilation, the content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mmHg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished.", "This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating.", "This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving." ], [ "Concentrations and role in the environment", "=== Atmosphere ===Annual flows from anthropogenic sources (left) into Earth's atmosphere, land, and ocean sinks (right) since the 1960s.", "Units in equivalent gigatonnes carbon per year.=== Oceans ======= Ocean acidification ====Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (), bicarbonate (), and carbonate ().", "There is about fifty times as much carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere.", "The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of emitted by human activity.Pterapod shell dissolved in seawater adjusted to an ocean chemistry projected for the year 2100==== Hydrothermal vents ====Carbon dioxide is also introduced into the oceans through hydrothermal vents.", "The ''Champagne'' hydrothermal vent, found at the Northwest Eifuku volcano in the Mariana Trench, produces almost pure liquid carbon dioxide, one of only two known sites in the world as of 2004, the other being in the Okinawa Trough.", "The finding of a submarine lake of liquid carbon dioxide in the Okinawa Trough was reported in 2006." ], [ "Production", "=== Biological processes ===Carbon dioxide is a by-product of the fermentation of sugar in the brewing of beer, whisky and other alcoholic beverages and in the production of bioethanol.", "Yeast metabolizes sugar to produce and ethanol, also known as alcohol, as follows::All aerobic organisms produce when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins.", "The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily.", "Refer to cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis.", "The equation for the respiration of glucose and other monosaccharides is::Anaerobic organisms decompose organic material producing methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds.", "Regardless of the type of organic material, the production of gases follows well defined kinetic pattern.", "Carbon dioxide comprises about 40–45% of the gas that emanates from decomposition in landfills (termed \"landfill gas\").", "Most of the remaining 50–55% is methane.=== Industrial processes ===Carbon dioxide can be obtained by distillation from air, but the method is inefficient.", "Industrially, carbon dioxide is predominantly an unrecovered waste product, produced by several methods which may be practiced at various scales.==== Combustion ====The combustion of all carbon-based fuels, such as methane (natural gas), petroleum distillates (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, propane), coal, wood and generic organic matter produces carbon dioxide and, except in the case of pure carbon, water.", "As an example, the chemical reaction between methane and oxygen::Iron is reduced from its oxides with coke in a blast furnace, producing pig iron and carbon dioxide::==== By-product from hydrogen production ====Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of the industrial production of hydrogen by steam reforming and the water gas shift reaction in ammonia production.", "These processes begin with the reaction of water and natural gas (mainly methane).", "This is a major source of food-grade carbon dioxide for use in carbonation of beer and soft drinks, and is also used for stunning animals such as poultry.", "In the summer of 2018 a shortage of carbon dioxide for these purposes arose in Europe due to the temporary shut-down of several ammonia plants for maintenance.==== Thermal decomposition of limestone ====It is produced by thermal decomposition of limestone, by heating (calcining) at about , in the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), a compound that has many industrial uses::Acids liberate from most metal carbonates.", "Consequently, it may be obtained directly from natural carbon dioxide springs, where it is produced by the action of acidified water on limestone or dolomite.", "The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) is shown below::The carbonic acid () then decomposes to water and ::Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, or both, as the gas is released.", "They have widespread uses in industry because they can be used to neutralize waste acid streams." ], [ "Commercial uses", "Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil industry, and the chemical industry.The compound has varied commercial uses but one of its greatest uses as a chemical is in the production of carbonated beverages; it provides the sparkle in carbonated beverages such as soda water, beer and sparkling wine.=== Precursor to chemicals ===In the chemical industry, carbon dioxide is mainly consumed as an ingredient in the production of urea, with a smaller fraction being used to produce methanol and a range of other products.", "Some carboxylic acid derivatives such as sodium salicylate are prepared using by the Kolbe–Schmitt reaction.In addition to conventional processes using for chemical production, electrochemical methods are also being explored at a research level.", "In particular, the use of renewable energy for production of fuels from (such as methanol) is attractive as this could result in fuels that could be easily transported and used within conventional combustion technologies but have no net emissions.=== Agriculture ===Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis.", "The atmospheres of greenhouses may (if of large size, must) be enriched with additional to sustain and increase the rate of plant growth.", "At very high concentrations (100 times atmospheric concentration, or greater), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher for several hours will eliminate pests such as whiteflies and spider mites in a greenhouse.=== Foods ===Carbon dioxide bubbles in a soft drinkCarbon dioxide is a food additive used as a propellant and acidity regulator in the food industry.", "It is approved for usage in the EU (listed as E number E290), US, Australia and New Zealand (listed by its INS number 290).A candy called Pop Rocks is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas at about .", "When placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop.Leavening agents cause dough to rise by producing carbon dioxide.", "Baker's yeast produces carbon dioxide by fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda release carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed to acids.==== Beverages ====Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks and soda water.", "Traditionally, the carbonation of beer and sparkling wine came about through natural fermentation, but many manufacturers carbonate these drinks with carbon dioxide recovered from the fermentation process.", "In the case of bottled and kegged beer, the most common method used is carbonation with recycled carbon dioxide.", "With the exception of British real ale, draught beer is usually transferred from kegs in a cold room or cellar to dispensing taps on the bar using pressurized carbon dioxide, sometimes mixed with nitrogen.The taste of soda water (and related taste sensations in other carbonated beverages) is an effect of the dissolved carbon dioxide rather than the bursting bubbles of the gas.", "Carbonic anhydrase 4 converts carbon dioxide to carbonic acid leading to a sour taste, and also the dissolved carbon dioxide induces a somatosensory response.==== Winemaking ====Dry ice used to preserve grapes after harvestCarbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is often used during the cold soak phase in winemaking to cool clusters of grapes quickly after picking to help prevent spontaneous fermentation by wild yeast.", "The main advantage of using dry ice over water ice is that it cools the grapes without adding any additional water that might decrease the sugar concentration in the grape must, and thus the alcohol concentration in the finished wine.", "Carbon dioxide is also used to create a hypoxic environment for carbonic maceration, the process used to produce Beaujolais wine.Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles or other storage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxidation, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the wine, making a previously still wine slightly fizzy.", "For this reason, other gases such as nitrogen or argon are preferred for this process by professional wine makers.====Stunning animals====Carbon dioxide is often used to \"stun\" animals before slaughter.", "\"Stunning\" may be a misnomer, as the animals are not knocked out immediately and may suffer distress.=== Inert gas ===Carbon dioxide is one of the most commonly used compressed gases for pneumatic (pressurized gas) systems in portable pressure tools.", "Carbon dioxide is also used as an atmosphere for welding, although in the welding arc, it reacts to oxidize most metals.", "Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are more brittle than those made in more inert atmospheres.", "When used for MIG welding, use is sometimes referred to as MAG welding, for Metal Active Gas, as can react at these high temperatures.", "It tends to produce a hotter puddle than truly inert atmospheres, improving the flow characteristics.", "Although, this may be due to atmospheric reactions occurring at the puddle site.", "This is usually the opposite of the desired effect when welding, as it tends to embrittle the site, but may not be a problem for general mild steel welding, where ultimate ductility is not a major concern.Carbon dioxide is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately , allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would.", "Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation.", "Aluminium capsules of are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for air guns, paintball markers/guns, inflating bicycle tires, and for making carbonated water.", "High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests.", "Liquid carbon dioxide is used in supercritical drying of some food products and technological materials, in the preparation of specimens for scanning electron microscopy and in the decaffeination of coffee beans.=== Fire extinguisher ===Use of a fire extinguisherCarbon dioxide can be used to extinguish flames by flooding the environment around the flame with the gas.", "It does not itself react to extinguish the flame, but starves the flame of oxygen by displacing it.", "Some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure.", "Carbon dioxide extinguishers work well on small flammable liquid and electrical fires, but not on ordinary combustible fires, because they do not cool the burning substances significantly, and when the carbon dioxide disperses, they can catch fire upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen.", "They are mainly used in server rooms.Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as an extinguishing agent in fixed fire-protection systems for local application of specific hazards and total flooding of a protected space.", "International Maritime Organization standards recognize carbon dioxide systems for fire protection of ship holds and engine rooms.", "Carbon dioxide-based fire-protection systems have been linked to several deaths, because it can cause suffocation in sufficiently high concentrations.", "A review of systems identified 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the report (2000), causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries.=== Supercritical as solvent ===Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many lipophilic organic compounds and is used to decaffeinate coffee.", "Carbon dioxide has attracted attention in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as organochlorides.", "It is also used by some dry cleaners for this reason.", "It is used in the preparation of some aerogels because of the properties of supercritical carbon dioxide.=== Medical and pharmacological uses ===In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide (130 times atmospheric concentration) is added to oxygen for stimulation of breathing after apnea and to stabilize the / balance in blood.Carbon dioxide can be mixed with up to 50% oxygen, forming an inhalable gas; this is known as Carbogen and has a variety of medical and research uses.Another medical use are the mofette, dry spas that use carbon dioxide from post-volcanic discharge for therapeutic purposes.=== Energy ===Supercritical is used as the working fluid in the Allam power cycle engine.==== Fossil fuel recovery ====Carbon dioxide is used in enhanced oil recovery where it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usually under supercritical conditions, when it becomes miscible with the oil.", "This approach can increase original oil recovery by reducing residual oil saturation by 7–23% additional to primary extraction.", "It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground crude oil, significantly reduces its viscosity, and changing surface chemistry enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the reservoir to the removal well.", "In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points.In enhanced coal bed methane recovery, carbon dioxide would be pumped into the coal seam to displace methane, as opposed to current methods which primarily rely on the removal of water (to reduce pressure) to make the coal seam release its trapped methane.==== Bio transformation into fuel ====It has been proposed that from power generation be bubbled into ponds to stimulate growth of algae that could then be converted into biodiesel fuel.", "A strain of the cyanobacterium ''Synechococcus elongatus'' has been genetically engineered to produce the fuels isobutyraldehyde and isobutanol from using photosynthesis.Researchers have developed an electrocatalytic technique using enzymes isolated from bacteria to power the chemical reactions which convert into fuels.===== Refrigerant =====Comparison of the pressure–temperature phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) as a log-lin chart with phase transitions points at 1 atmosphereLiquid and solid carbon dioxide are important refrigerants, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods.", "Solid carbon dioxide is called \"dry ice\" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical.", "Solid carbon dioxide is always below at regular atmospheric pressure, regardless of the air temperature.", "Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the use of dichlorodifluoromethane (R12, a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound).", "might enjoy a renaissance because one of the main substitutes to CFCs, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a, a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) compound) contributes to climate change more than does.", "physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity.", "Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to , systems require highly mechanically resistant reservoirs and components that have already been developed for mass production in many sectors.", "In automobile air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions for latitudes higher than 50°, (R744) operates more efficiently than systems using HFCs (e.g., R134a).", "Its environmental advantages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pump water heaters, among others.", "Coca-Cola has fielded -based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is interested in refrigeration and heating technology.=== Minor uses ===A carbon-dioxide laserCarbon dioxide is the lasing medium in a carbon-dioxide laser, which is one of the earliest type of lasers.Carbon dioxide can be used as a means of controlling the pH of swimming pools, by continuously adding gas to the water, thus keeping the pH from rising.", "Among the advantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more hazardous) acids.", "Similarly, it is also used in the maintaining reef aquaria, where it is commonly used in calcium reactors to temporarily lower the pH of water being passed over calcium carbonate in order to allow the calcium carbonate to dissolve into the water more freely, where it is used by some corals to build their skeleton.Used as the primary coolant in the British advanced gas-cooled reactor for nuclear power generation.Carbon dioxide induction is commonly used for the euthanasia of laboratory research animals.", "Methods to administer include placing animals directly into a closed, prefilled chamber containing , or exposure to a gradually increasing concentration of .", "The American Veterinary Medical Association's 2020 guidelines for carbon dioxide induction state that a displacement rate of 30–70% of the chamber or cage volume per minute is optimal for the humane euthanasia of small rodents.", "Percentages of vary for different species, based on identified optimal percentages to minimize distress.Carbon dioxide is also used in several related cleaning and surface-preparation techniques." ], [ "History of discovery", "Crystal structure of dry iceCarbon dioxide was the first gas to be described as a discrete substance.", "In about 1640, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont observed that when he burned charcoal in a closed vessel, the mass of the resulting ash was much less than that of the original charcoal.", "His interpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been transmuted into an invisible substance he termed a \"gas\" (from Greek \"chaos\") or \"wild spirit\" (''spiritus sylvestris'').The properties of carbon dioxide were further studied in the 1750s by the Scottish physician Joseph Black.", "He found that limestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he called \"fixed air\".", "He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and supported neither flame nor animal life.", "Black also found that when bubbled through limewater (a saturated aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide), it would precipitate calcium carbonate.", "He used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation.", "In 1772, English chemist Joseph Priestley published a paper entitled ''Impregnating Water with Fixed Air'' in which he described a process of dripping sulfuric acid (or ''oil of vitriol'' as Priestley knew it) on chalk in order to produce carbon dioxide, and forcing the gas to dissolve by agitating a bowl of water in contact with the gas.Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in 1823 by Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday.", "The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) was given by the French inventor Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier, who in 1835 opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a \"snow\" of solid .Carbon dioxide in combination with nitrogen was known from earlier times as Blackdamp, stythe or choke damp.", "Along with the other types of damp it was encountered in mining operations and well sinking.", "Slow oxidation of coal and biological processes replaced the oxygen to create a suffocating mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide." ], [ "See also", "* * * (from the atmosphere)* List of least carbon efficient power stations* List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions* * (early work on and climate change)* * NASA's * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Current global map of carbon dioxide concentration* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Carbon Dioxide* Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (NOAA)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cheers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Cheers''''' is an American sitcom television series that ran on NBC from 1982 to 1993, with a total of 275 22-26 minute episodes across eleven seasons.", "The show was produced by Charles/Burrows/Charles Productions in association with Paramount Network Television and was created by the team of James Burrows and Glen and Les Charles.", "The show is set in the eponymous bar in Boston, where a group of locals meet to drink, relax, socialize, and escape from their day to day issues.At the center of the show is the bar's owner and head bartender, Sam Malone, who is a womanizing former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox.", "The show's ensemble cast introduced in the pilot episode are waitresses Diane Chambers and Carla Tortelli, second bartender Coach Ernie Pantusso, and regular customers Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin.", "Later main characters of the show also include Frasier Crane, Woody Boyd, Lilith Sternin, and Rebecca Howe.After premiering in 1982, it was nearly canceled during its first season when it ranked almost last in ratings for its premiere (74th out of 77 shows).", "However, ''Cheers'' eventually became a Nielsen ratings juggernaut in the United States, earning a top-10 rating during eight of its 11 seasons, including one season at number one (season 9).", "The show spent most of its run on NBC's Thursday night \"Must See TV\" lineup.", "Its widely watched series finale in 1993 became the most watched single TV episode of the 1990s, and the show's 275 episodes have been successfully syndicated worldwide.", "Nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series for all 11 of its seasons on the air, it earned 28 Primetime Emmy Awards from a record of 117 nominations.During its run, ''Cheers'' became one of the most popular scripted series in history and received critical acclaim from its start to its end.", "In 1997, the episodes \"Thanksgiving Orphans\" and \"Home Is the Sailor,\" aired originally in 1987, were respectively ranked No.", "7 and No.", "45 on ''TV Guide''s 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time.", "Its series finale was watched by an estimated 93 million viewers, almost 40% of the US population at the time.", "The series also produced three spin-offs: ''The Tortellis'', ''Wings'', and ''Frasier''; and a Spanish remake.", "In 2002, ''Cheers'' was ranked No.", "18 on ''TV Guide''s 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.", "In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it as the eighth-best-written TV series and ''TV Guide'' ranked it No.", "11 on their list of the 60 greatest shows." ], [ "Characters", "Before the ''Cheers'' pilot \"Give Me a Ring Sometime\" was completed and aired in 1982, the series consisted of four employees in the first script.", "Neither Norm Peterson nor Cliff Clavin, regular customers of Cheers, were featured; later revisions added them as among the regular characters of the series.In later years, Woody Boyd replaced Coach, after the character died off-screen in season three (1984–85), following actor Nicholas Colasanto's death.", "Frasier Crane started as a recurring character and became a permanent one.", "In season six (1987–88), new character Rebecca Howe was added, having been written into the show after the finale of the previous season (1986–87).", "Lilith Sternin started as a one-time character in an episode of season four, \"Second Time Around\" (1985).", "After her second season five appearance, she became a recurring character and was later featured as a permanent one during season 10 (1991–92).===Original main characters===Cast of seasons one through three, ''left to right'': ''(top)'' Shelley Long, Ted Danson; ''(middle)'' Rhea Perlman, Nicholas Colasanto; ''(bottom)'' George Wendt, John Ratzenberger |alt=Background is the bar setting.", "Top row has a businesswoman and a handsome bartender.", "Middle row has a brunette perm waitress and an old bartender.", "Bottom row has a suit-dressed man and a mailman.", "* Ted Danson as Sam Malone: A bartender and proprietor of Cheers, Sam is also a lothario.", "Before the series began, he was a baseball relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox nicknamed \"Mayday Malone\" until he became an alcoholic, harming his career.", "He has an on-again, off-again relationship with Diane Chambers, his class opposite, in the first five seasons (1982–1987).", "During their off-times, Sam has flings with many not-so-bright \"sexy women\" yet fails to pursue a meaningful relationship.", "After Diane is written out of the series, he tries to pursue Rebecca Howe, with varying results.", "At the end of the series, he is still unmarried and faces his sexual addiction with the help of Dr. Robert Sutton's (Gilbert Lewis) group meetings, advised by Frasier.", "* Shelley Long as Diane Chambers: An academic, sophisticated graduate student attending Boston University.", "In the pilot, Diane is abandoned by her fiancé, leaving her without a job, a man or money.", "Realizing that one of her few practical skills is memorization, which comes in handy when dealing with drink orders, she reluctantly becomes a barmaid.", "Later, she becomes a close friend of Coach and has an on-and-off relationship with bartender Sam Malone, her class opposite.", "During their off-relationship times, Diane dates men who fit her upper-class ideals, such as Frasier Crane.", "Diane returns to Cheers while dating Frasier to help cure Sam of his drinking addiction with help from Dr. Crane.", "Diane's biggest enemy is Carla, who frequently insults her, but Diane's lack of retaliation serves to annoy Carla even more.", "In 1987, Diane leaves Boston and Sam for a writing and film or screenplay writing career in California.", "She promises Sam she will return to Boston to marry him but does not do so.", "* Nicholas Colasanto as \"Coach\" Ernie Pantusso: A \"borderline senile\" co-bartender, widower and retired baseball coach.", "Coach is also a friend of Sam and a close friend of Diane.", "He has a daughter, Lisa (Allyce Beasley).", "Coach listens to people's problems and solves them.", "However, other people also help resolve his own problems.", "In 1985, Coach died without explicit explanation, as Colasanto died of a heart attack.", "* Rhea Perlman as Carla Tortelli: A \"wisecracking, cynical\" cocktail waitress, who treats customers badly.", "When the series premieres, she is the mother of five children by her ex-husband Nick Tortelli (Dan Hedaya).", "Over the course of the series, she bears three more, the depiction of which incorporated Perlman's real-life pregnancies.", "All of her children are ill behaved, except Ludlow, whose father is a prominent academic.", "She flirts with men, including ones who are not flattered by her ways, and believes in superstitions.", "Later, she marries Eddie LeBec, an ice hockey player, who later becomes a penguin mascot for ice shows.", "After he dies in an ice show accident by an ice resurfacer, Carla later discovers that Eddie had committed bigamy with another woman, whom he had gotten pregnant.", "Carla sleeps with Sam's enemy, John Allen Hill, to Sam's annoyance and anger.", "* George Wendt as Norm Peterson: A bar regular and occasionally employed accountant.", "A recurrent joke on the show, especially in the earlier seasons, is that the character was such a popular and constant fixture at the bar that anytime he entered through the front door, everyone present would yell out his name (\"NORM!\")", "in greeting; usually, this cry would be followed by one of the present bartenders asking Norm how he was, usually receiving a sardonic response and a request for a beer.", "(\"It's a dog-eat-dog world, and I'm wearing Milkbone underwear.\")", "He has infrequent accounting jobs and a troubled marriage with (but is still in love with and married to) Vera, an unseen character, though she is occasionally heard.", "Later in the series, he becomes a house painter and an interior decorator.", "Even later in the series, Norm secures his dream job, tasting beer at a brewery.", "The character was not originally intended to be a main cast role; Wendt auditioned for a minor role of George for the pilot episode.", "The role was only to be Diane Chambers' first customer and had only one word: \"Beer!\"", "After he was cast in a more permanent role, the character was renamed Norm.===Subsequent main characters===Perlman, Woody Harrelson, Kelsey Grammer, Bebe Neuwirth; (bottom) Wendt, Kirstie Alley, Danson, Ratzenberger |thumb|upright=1.36|alt=Background is bar setting.", "Top row has a waitress, a young handsome bartender, and married opposite-sex psychiatrists.", "Bottom row has a suit-dressed man, a blonde, a middle-aged handsome bartender, and a mailman.", "* John Ratzenberger as Cliff Clavin: A know-it-all bar regular and mail carrier.", "He lives with his mother Esther Clavin (Frances Sternhagen) in first the family house and later his own apartment.", "In the bar, Cliff continuously spouts nonsensical and annoying trivia, making him an object of derision for the bar patrons (especially Carla).", "Ratzenberger auditioned for the role of a minor character George, but it went to Wendt, evolving the role into Norm Peterson.", "The producers decided they wanted a resident bar know-it-all, so the security guard Cliff Clavin was added for the pilot, as a recurring character for the first season before becoming a main character starting with the second.", "The producers changed his occupation into a mail carrier as they thought such a man would have wider knowledge than a guard.", "* Kelsey Grammer as Frasier Crane: A psychiatrist and bar regular, a recurring character for seasons 3 and 4 who joins the main cast by season 5.Frasier started out as Diane Chambers' love interest in the third season (1984–85).", "In the fourth season (1985–86), after Diane jilts him at the altar in Europe, Frasier starts to frequent Cheers and becomes a regular.", "He later marries Lilith Sternin and has a son, Frederick.", "After the series ends, the character becomes the focus of the spin-off ''Frasier'', in which he is divorced from Lilith and living in Seattle.", "* Woody Harrelson as Woody Boyd: A not-so-bright bartender, first appearing in season 4.He arrives from his Midwest hometown of Hanover, Indiana to Boston, to see Coach, his \"pen pal\" (as referring to exchanging \"pens\", not letters).", "When Sam tells Woody that Coach died, Sam hires Woody in Coach's place.", "Later, he marries his girlfriend Kelly Gaines (Jackie Swanson), also not-so-bright but raised in a rich family.", "In the final season, he runs for city council and, surprisingly, wins.", "* Bebe Neuwirth as Lilith Sternin: A psychiatrist and bar regular, a recurring character until joining the main cast in season 10.She is often teased by bar patrons about her uptight personality and appearance.", "In \"Second Time Around\" (1986), her first and only episode of the fourth season, her date with Frasier does not go well because they constantly argue.", "In the fifth season, with help from Diane, Lilith and Frasier begin a relationship.", "Eventually, they marry and have a son, Frederick.", "In the eleventh and final season, she commits adultery and leaves Frasier to live with another man in an experimental underground environment called the \"Eco-pod\".", "She breaks it off, returns later in the season and reconciles with Frasier.", "However, in the spin-off ''Frasier'', the couple has divorced, with Lilith maintaining custody of Frederick.", "In season 11 of ''Cheers'', Bebe Neuwirth is given \"starring\" credit only when she appears.", "* Kirstie Alley as Rebecca Howe: First appearing in season 6, she starts out as a strong independent woman, manager of the bar for the corporation that buys Cheers from Sam after his on-off relationship with Diane ends.", "Eventually, when Sam regains ownership, she begs him to let her remain, first as a cocktail waitress and later as a manager.", "She repeatedly has romantic failures with mainly rich men and becomes more and more \"neurotic, insecure, and sexually frustrated\".", "At the start, Sam frequently attempts to seduce Rebecca without success.", "As her personality changes, he loses interest in her.", "In the series finale, after failed relationships with rich men, Rebecca marries a plumber and quits working for the bar.", "In the ''Frasier'' episode \"The Show Where Sam Shows Up\", she is revealed to be divorced and back at the bar.", "When Frasier asks whether this means that she is working there again, Sam says, \"No, she's just back at the bar.", "\"===Character table=== Character Actress / Actor Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sam Malone Ted Danson Diane Chambers Shelley Long Ernie \"Coach\" Pantusso Nicholas Colasanto Carla Tortelli Rhea Perlman Norm Peterson George Wendt Cliff Clavin John Ratzenberger Woody Boyd Woody Harrelson Frasier Crane Kelsey Grammer Rebecca Howe Kirstie Alley Lilith Sternin Bebe Neuwirth===Recurring characters===Although ''Cheers'' operated largely around that main ensemble cast and their interactions with various one-off characters, guest stars and recurring characters did occasionally supplement them.", "Notable repeat guests included Dan Hedaya as Nick Tortelli and Jean Kasem as Loretta Tortelli (who were the main characters in the first spin-off, ''The Tortellis''), Fred Dryer as Dave Richards, Annie Golden as Margaret O'Keefe, Derek McGrath as Andy Schroeder (also referred to as ''Andy Andy''), interchangeably Joel Polis and Robert Desiderio as rival bar owner Gary, Jay Thomas as Eddie LeBec, Roger Rees as Robin Colcord, Tom Skerritt as Evan Drake, Frances Sternhagen as Esther Clavin, Richard Doyle as Walter Gaines, Keene Curtis as John Allen Hill, Anthony Cistaro as Henri, Michael McGuire as Professor Sumner Sloan, and Harry Anderson as Harry \"The Hat\" Gittes.", "Jackie Swanson, who played the recurring role of Woody's girlfriend and eventual wife \"Kelly Gaines-Boyd\", appeared in 24 episodes from 1989 to 1993.The character is as equally dim and naive—but ultimately as sweet-natured—as Woody.Paul Willson played the recurring barfly character Paul Krapence.", "(In one early appearance in the first season he was called \"Glen\", and was later credited on-screen as \"Gregg\" and \"Tom\", but he was playing the same character throughout.)", "Thomas Babson played \"Tom\", a law student often mocked by Cliff Clavin, for continually failing to pass the Massachusetts bar exam.", "\"Al\", played by Al Rosen, appeared in 38 episodes, and was known for his surly quips.", "Rhea Perlman's father Philip Perlman played the role of \"Phil\".===Celebrity appearances===Other celebrities guest-starred in single episodes as themselves throughout the series.", "Sports figures appeared on the show as themselves, with a connection to Boston or Sam's former team, the Red Sox, such as Luis Tiant, Wade Boggs, and Kevin McHale (of the Boston Celtics).", "Some television stars also made guest appearances as themselves such as Alex Trebek, Arsenio Hall, Dick Cavett, Robert Urich, George McFarland and Johnny Carson.", "Various political figures even made appearances on ''Cheers'' such as then-Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William J. Crowe, former Colorado Senator Gary Hart, then-Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, then-Senator John Kerry, then-Governor Michael Dukakis, Ethel Kennedy (widow of Robert F. Kennedy), and then-Mayor of Boston Raymond Flynn, the last five of whom all represented Cheers' home state and city.In maternal roles, Glynis Johns, in a guest appearance in 1983, played Diane's mother, Helen Chambers.", "Nancy Marchand played Frasier's mother, Hester Crane, in an episode that aired in 1985.In an episode that aired in 1992, Celeste Holm – who had previously played Ted Danson's mother in \"Three Men and a Baby\" – appeared as Kelly's jokester of a paternal grandmother.", "Melendy Britt appeared in the episode \"''Woody or Won't He''\" (1990) as Kelly's mother, Roxanne Gaines, a very attractive high-society lady and a sexy, flirtatious upper-class cougar who tries to seduce Woody.The musician Harry Connick Jr. appeared in an episode as Woody's cousin and plays a song from his Grammy-winning album ''We Are in Love'' ().", "John Cleese won a Primetime Emmy Award for his guest appearance as \"Dr. Simon Finch-Royce\" in the fifth-season episode \"Simon Says\".", "Emma Thompson guest-starred as Nanny G/Nannette Guzman, a famous singing nanny and Frasier's ex-wife.", "Christopher Lloyd guest-starred as a tortured artist who wanted to paint Diane.", "Marcia Cross portrayed Rebecca's sister Susan in the season 7 episode ''Sisterly Love''.", "John Mahoney once appeared as an inept jingle writer, which included a brief conversation with Frasier Crane, whose father he later portrayed on the spin-off ''Frasier''.", "Peri Gilpin, who later played Roz Doyle on ''Frasier,'' also appeared in one episode of ''Cheers'', in its 11th season, as Holly Matheson, a reporter who interviews Woody.", "The Righteous Brothers, Bobby Hatfield and Bill Medley, also guest-starred in different episodes.", "In \"The Guy Can't Help It\", Rebecca meets a plumber, played by Tom Berenger, who came to fix one of the beer keg taps.", "They marry in the series finale, triggering her resignation from Cheers.", "Judith Barsi appears in the episode ''Relief Bartender''.Notable guest appearances of actresses portraying Sam's sexual conquests or potential sexual conquests include Kate Mulgrew in the three-episode finale of season four, portraying Boston councilwoman Janet Eldridge; Donna McKechnie as Debra, Sam's ex-wife (with whom he is on good terms), who pretends to be an intellectual in front of Diane; Barbara Babcock as Lana Marshall, a talent agent who specializes in representing male athletes, with whom she routinely sleeps on demand; Julia Duffy as Rebecca Prout, a depressed intellectual friend of Diane's; Alison LaPlaca as magazine reporter Paula Nelson; Carol Kane as Amanda, who Sam eventually learns was a fellow patient at the sanitarium with Diane; Barbara Feldon as Lauren Hudson, Sam's annual Valentine's Day fling (in an homage to ''Same Time, Next Year''); Sandahl Bergman as Judy Marlowe, a longtime casual sex partner and whose now grown daughter, Laurie Marlowe (Chelsea Noble), who has always considered Sam a pseudo-father figure, Sam falls for; Madolyn Smith-Osborne as Dr. Sheila Rydell, a colleague of Frasier and Lilith; Valerie Mahaffey as Valerie Hill, John Allen Hill's daughter whom Sam pursues if only to gain an upper hand in his business relationship with Hill; and Alexis Smith as Alice Anne Volkman, Rebecca's much older ex-professor.", "In season 9, episode 17, \"I'm Getting My Act Together and Sticking It in Your Face\", Sam, believing Rebecca wants a more serious relationship, pretends to be gay, his lover being a casual friend named Leon (Jeff McCarthy)—the plan ultimately leads to a kiss between Sam and Leon.===Death of Nicholas Colasanto===Near the end of production of the third season, the writers of ''Cheers'' had to deal with the death of one of the main actors.", "Nicholas Colasanto's heart condition had been diagnosed in the mid-1970s, but it had worsened.", "He had lost weight and was having trouble breathing during filming, and he was hospitalized shortly before filming finished for season three due to fluid in his lungs.", "He recovered but was not cleared to return to work.", "He was visiting the set in January 1985 to watch the filming of several episodes, and co-star Shelley Long commented, \"I think we were all in denial.", "We were all glad he was there, but he lost a lot of weight.\"", "Co-star Rhea Perlman added that he \"wanted to be there so badly.", "He didn't want to be sick.", "He couldn't breathe well.", "It was hard.", "He was laboring all the time.\"", "Colasanto ultimately died of a heart attack at his home on February 12, 1985.The third-season episodes of ''Cheers'' were filmed out of order, partly to accommodate Shelley Long's pregnancy.", "As a result, they had already completed filming the season finale at the time of his death, which had scenes with Colasanto in it.", "As the remaining episodes were filmed, Coach's absence was explained by having one of the characters mention that Coach was out of town for various reasons.The ''Cheers'' writing staff assembled in June 1985 to discuss how to deal with the absence of Coach.", "They quickly discarded the idea that he had moved away, as they felt that he would never abandon his friends.", "In addition, most viewers were aware of Colasanto's death, so the writing staff decided to handle the situation more openly.", "The season four opener, \"Birth, Death, Love and Rice\", dealt with Coach's death and introduced Woody Harrelson, Colasanto's replacement." ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Themes", "Nearly all of ''Cheers'' takes place in the front room of the bar, but the characters often go into the rear pool room or the bar's office.", "''Cheers'' does not show any action outside the bar until the first episode of the second season, which takes place in Diane's apartment.The show's main theme in its early seasons is the romance between intellectual waitress Diane Chambers and the bar's owner, Sam Malone, a former Major League Baseball pitcher for the Boston Red Sox and recovering alcoholic.", "After Shelley Long (Diane) left the show, the focus shifted to Sam's new relationship with Rebecca Howe, a neurotic corporate ladder climber.Many ''Cheers'' scripts centered or touched upon a variety of social issues, albeit humorously.", "As ''Toasting Cheers'' puts it, \"The script was further strengthened by the writers' boldness in successfully tackling controversial issues such as alcoholism, homosexuality, and adultery.", "\"Social class was a subtext of the show.", "The \"upper class\" — represented by characters like Diane Chambers, Frasier Crane, and Lilith Sternin — rub shoulders with middle- and working-class characters Sam Malone, Carla Tortelli, Norm Peterson, and Cliff Clavin.", "An extreme example of this was the relationship between Woody Boyd and a millionaire's daughter, Kelly Gaines.", "Many viewers enjoyed ''Cheers'' in part because of this focus on character development in addition to plot development.Feminism and the role of women were also recurring themes throughout the show, with some critics seeing each of the major female characters portraying an aspect as a flawed feminist in her own way.", "Diane is a vocal feminist, and Sam is the epitome of everything she hates: promiscuity and chauvinism (see \"Sam and Diane\").Homosexuality was dealt with from the first season, which was rare in the early 1980s on American television.", "In the first-season episode \"The Boys in the Bar\" (the title being a reference to the play and subsequent movie ''The Boys in the Band''), a friend and former teammate of Sam's comes out in his autobiography.", "Some of the male regulars pressure Sam to take action to ensure that Cheers does not become a gay bar.", "The episode won a GLAAD Media Award, and the script's writers, Ken Levine and David Isaacs, were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award.Addiction also plays a role on ''Cheers'', almost exclusively through Sam.", "He is a recovering alcoholic who had bought a bar during his drinking days.", "Frasier has a notable bout of drinking in the fourth-season episode \"The Triangle\", while Woody develops a gambling problem in the seventh season's \"Call Me Irresponsible\".", "Carla and other characters drink beer while pregnant, but nobody seems to mind." ], [ "Cheers owners", "The Cheers sign in 2005Cheers had several owners before Sam, as the bar was opened in 1889.The \"Est.", "1895\" on the bar's sign is a made-up date chosen by Carla for numerology purposes, revealed in season 8, episode 6, \"The Stork Brings a Crane\", which also revealed the bar's address as 112 Beacon Street and that it originated under the name Mom's.", "In the series' second episode, \"Sam's Women\", Coach tells a customer looking for Gus, the owner of Cheers, that Gus is dead.", "In a later episode, Gus O'Mally comes back from Arizona for one night and helps run the bar.The biggest storyline surrounding the ownership of Cheers begins in the fifth-season finale, \"I Do, Adieu\", when Sam and Diane part ways, due to Shelley Long's departure from the series.", "In addition, Sam leaves on a trip to circumnavigate the globe.", "Before he leaves, he sells Cheers to the Lillian Corporation.", "He returns in the sixth-season premiere, \"Home is the Sailor\", having sunk his boat, to find the bar under the new management of Rebecca Howe.", "He begs for his job back and is hired by Rebecca as a bartender.", "In the seventh-season premiere, \"How to Recede in Business\", Rebecca is fired and Sam is promoted to manager.", "Rebecca is allowed to keep a job at Lillian vaguely similar to what she had before, but only after Sam has Rebecca (in absentia) \"agree\" to a long list of demands that the corporation had for her.From there, Sam occasionally attempts to buy the bar back with schemes that usually involve the wealthy executive Robin Colcord.", "Sam acquires Cheers again in the eighth-season finale, when it is sold back to him for 85¢ by the Lillian Corporation after he alerts the company to Colcord's insider trading.", "Fired by the corporation because of her silence on the issue, Rebecca is hired by Sam as a hostess/office manager.", "For the rest of the episode, to celebrate Sam's reclaiming the bar, a huge banner reading \"Under OLD Management!\"", "hangs from the staircase.", "When it is learned that the Pool Room and bathrooms are actually owned by Melville's (which spawns a war of wits between Sam and Melville's owner John Allen Hill), Rebecca later purchases them from Hill, making Sam and Rebecca partners in the ownership of Cheers (and more or less co-runners of the establishment).Sam has two main battles.", "One is with Gary's Olde Towne Tavern, trying to beat them at some activity or another but always failing, except for one episode when Diane helps Cheers win the bowling trophy, and extending to the practical jokes they play on each other.", "The second is with Melville's owner John Allen Hill, who keeps annoying Sam with his pettiness and ego.", "Hill had an ongoing relationship with Carla." ], [ "Production", "The Cheers Beacon Hill, formerly the Bull & Finch Pub, in Boston in 2005===Creation and concept===Some believe that the show is a rehashing of Boston's ABC affiliate WCVB's locally produced 1979 sitcom ''Park Street Under'' featuring Steve Sweeney and American Repertory Theater founder Karen MacDonald.", "Three men developed and created the ''Cheers'' television series: Glen and Les Charles (\"Glen and Les\") and James Burrows, who identified themselves as \"two Mormons and a Jew.\"", "They aimed at \"creating a show around a Spencer Tracy-Katharine Hepburn-type relationship\" between their two main characters, Sam and Diane.", "Malone represents the average man, while Chambers represents class and sophistication.", "The show revolves around characters in a bar under \"humorous adult themes\" and \"situations\".The original idea was a group of workers who interacted like a family, the goal being a concept similar to ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show''.", "The creators considered making an American version of the British ''Fawlty Towers'', set in a hotel or an inn.", "When the creators settled on a bar as their setting, the show began to resemble the radio program ''Duffy's Tavern'', originally written and cocreated by James Burrows' father Abe Burrows.", "They liked the idea of a tavern, as it provided a continuous stream of new people, for a variety of characters.", "An early concept revolved around a woman becoming the new owner of the bar and the animosity created between her and the regulars, an idea that was used later in Season 6 when the character of Rebecca Howe is introduced.Early discussions about the location of the show centered on Barstow, California, then Kansas City, Missouri.", "They eventually turned to the East Coast and finally Boston.", "The Bull & Finch Pub in Boston, which was the model for Cheers, was chosen from a phone book.", "When Glen Charles asked the bar's owner, Tom Kershaw, to shoot exterior and interior photos, he agreed, charging $1.Kershaw has since gone on to make millions of dollars, licensing the pub's image and selling a variety of ''Cheers'' memorabilia.", "The Bull & Finch became the 42nd-busiest outlet in the American food and beverage industry in 1997.During initial casting, Shelley Long, who was in Boston at the time filming ''A Small Circle of Friends'', remarked that the bar in the script resembled a bar she had come upon in the city, which turned out to be the Bull & Finch.===Production team===The crew of ''Cheers'' numbered in the hundreds.", "The three creators—James Burrows and Glen and Les Charles—kept offices on Paramount's lot for the duration of the ''Cheers'' run.", "The Charles Brothers remained in overall charge throughout the show's run, frequently writing major episodes, though starting with the third season they began delegating the day-to-day running of the writing staff to various showrunners.", "Ken Estin and Sam Simon were appointed as showrunners for the third season, and succeeded by David Angell, Peter Casey and David Lee the following year.", "Angell, Casey and Lee would remain as showrunners until the end of the seventh season when they left to develop their own sitcom, ''Wings'', and were replaced by Bill and Cheri Steinkellner and Phoef Sutton for the eighth through tenth seasons.", "For the final season, Tom Anderson and Dan O'Shannon acted as the showrunners.James Burrows is regarded as being a factor in the show's longevity, directing 243 of the 270 episodes and supervising the show's production.", "Among the show's other directors were Andy Ackerman, Thomas Lofaro, Tim Berry, Tom Moore, Rick Beren, as well as cast members John Ratzenberger and George Wendt.Craig Safan provided the series' original music for its entire run except the theme song.", "His extensive compositions for the show led to his winning numerous ASCAP Top TV Series awards for his music.===Casting===The character of Sam Malone was originally intended to be a retired football player and was slated to be played by Fred Dryer, but Danson was chosen in part because he was younger and had more acting experience than Dryer.", "After casting Ted Danson, it was decided that a former baseball player (Sam \"Mayday\" Malone) would be more believable than a retired football player.", "Dryer, however, went on to play sportscaster Dave Richards, an old friend of Sam, in three episodes.", "Bill Cosby was also considered early in the casting process for the role of Sam, after having been recommended by the network.Shelley Long was recommended by various sources to the producers for the role of Diane Chambers, but Long wished to be offered the part straight out and had to be coaxed into giving an audition.", "When she did read for the part, according to Glen Charles, \"that was it, we knew that we wanted her.\"", "Before the final decision was made, three pairs of actors were tested in front of the producers and network executives for Sam and Diane: Danson and Long, Fred Dryer and Julia Duffy, and William Devane and Lisa Eichhorn.", "The chemistry was so apparent between Long and Danson that it secured them the roles.", "Ted Danson was sent to bartending school to prepare him for the part and according to Burrows, had to learn \"how to pretend that he knew a lot about sports\" since Danson was not a sports fan in real life and had never been to a baseball game.The character of Cliff Clavin was created for John Ratzenberger after he auditioned for the role of Norm Peterson, which eventually went to George Wendt.", "While chatting with producers afterward, he asked if they were going to include a \"bar know-it-all\", the part he eventually played.", "Alley joined the cast when Shelley Long left, and Woody Harrelson joined when Nicholas Colasanto died.", "Danson, Perlman and Wendt were the only actors to appear in every episode of the series; Ratzenberger appears in all but one (and his name wasn't part of the opening credit montage during the first season).===Filming styles and locations===Interior of the barMost ''Cheers'' episodes were, as a voiceover stated at the start of each, \"filmed before a live studio audience\" on Paramount Stage 25 in Hollywood, generally on Tuesday nights.", "Scripts for a new episode were issued the Wednesday before for a read-through, Friday was rehearsal day, and final scripts were issued on Monday.", "Burrows, who directed most episodes, insisted on using film stock rather than videotape.", "He was also noted for using motion in his directorial style, trying to constantly keep characters moving rather than standing still.", "Burrows and the Charles brothers emphasized to the cast to \"never assume that you're not being watched\" because the camera would be focused on the actors at all times, so they had to always be reacting and \"always be funny\".", "During the first season when ratings were poor Paramount and NBC asked that the show use videotape to save money, but a poor test taping ended the experiment and ''Cheers'' continued to use film.Due to a decision by Glen and Les Charles, the cold open was often not connected to the rest of the episode, with the lowest-ranked writers assigned to create the jokes for them.", "Some cold opens were taken from episodes that ran too long.The first year of the show took place entirely within the confines of the bar, the first location outside the bar being Diane's apartment in the second year.", "When the series became a hit, the characters started venturing further afield, first to other sets and eventually to an occasional exterior location.", "The exterior location shots of the bar are of the Bull & Finch Pub, located directly north of the Boston Public Garden.", "The pub has become a tourist attraction because of its association with the series, and draws nearly one million visitors annually.", "It has since been renamed Cheers Beacon Hill; its interior is different from the TV bar.", "The pub itself is at 84 Beacon Street (on the corner of Brimmer Street).", "In August 2001, there was a replica made of the bar in Faneuil Hall to capitalize on the popularity of the show.After the show ended, the 1,000-square-foot bar set from ''Cheers'' was offered to the Smithsonian, which turned it down because it was too large.", "It was displayed for a short time at the defunct Hollywood Entertainment Museum, but later returned to storage, where it remained for many years.", "In 2014, CBS donated the set to the Museum of Television after a years-long campaign by James Burrows and his office on behalf of the museum's founder, James Comisar.", "At the time of the donation, Comisar initiated a planned $100,000 restoration of the set using former conservators from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, although a site for the 10,000 item collection of the museum had not been decided upon.===Theme song===The original version of one of the images used in the opening title sequence.Before \"Where Everybody Knows Your Name\", written by Gary Portnoy and Judy Hart Angelo, became the show's theme song, ''Cheers'' producers rejected two of Portnoy's and Hart Angelo's songs.", "The songwriters had collaborated to provide music for ''Preppies'', an unsuccessful Broadway musical.", "When told they could not appropriate \"People Like Us\", ''Preppies'' opening song, the pair wrote another song, \"My Kind of People\", which resembles \"People Like Us\" and was intended to satirize \"the lifestyle of old decadent old-money WASPs\", but to meet producers' demands, they rewrote the lyrics to be about \"likeable losers\" in a Boston bar.", "The show's producers rejected this song, as well.", "After they read the script of the series pilot, they created another song \"Another Day\".", "When Portnoy and Hart Angelo heard that NBC had commissioned thirteen episodes, they created an official theme song \"Where Everybody Knows Your Name\" and rewrote the lyrics.", "On syndicated airings of ''Cheers'', the theme song was shortened to make room for additional commercials." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical reception===''Cheers'' was critically acclaimed in its first season, though it landed a disappointing 74th out of 96 shows in that year's ratings.", "This critical support, the early success at the Primetime Emmy Awards, and the support of the president of NBC's entertainment division Brandon Tartikoff, are thought to be the main reasons for the show's survival and eventual success.", "Tartikoff stated in 1983 that ''Cheers'' was a sophisticated adult comedy and that NBC executives \"never for a second doubted\" that the show would be renewed.", "Writer Levine believes that the most important reason was that the network recognized that it did not have other hit shows to help promote ''Cheers''; as he later wrote, \"NBC had nothing else better to replace it with.", "\"Writing in 2016, drama critic Chris Jones called ''Cheers'' \"a hinge sitcom – one foot in classic bits and shtick not far removed from Mel Brooks and another in ambitious, ''Seinfeld''-like absurdism.\"", "In 2013, ''GQ'' magazine held an online competition to find the best TV comedy.", "''Cheers'' was voted the greatest comedy show of all time.", "In 2017, James Charisma of ''''Paste'''' magazine ranked the show's opening sequence No.", "5 on a list of ''The 75 Best TV Title Sequences of All Time''.", "In 2022, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked ''Cheers'' as the eighth-greatest TV show of all time.", "In 2023, ''Variety'' ranked ''Cheers'' #11 on its list of the 100 greatest TV shows of all time.===Ratings===Ratings improved for the summer reruns after the first season.", "The cast went on various talk shows to try to further promote the series after its first season.", "By the second season ''Cheers'' was competitive with CBS's top-rated show ''Simon & Simon''.", "With the growing popularity of ''Family Ties'', which ran in the slot ahead of ''Cheers'' from January 1984 until ''Family Ties'' was moved to Sundays in 1987, and the placement of ''The Cosby Show'' in front of both at the start of their third season (1984), the line-up became a runaway ratings success that NBC eventually dubbed \"Must See Thursday\".", "The next season, ''Cheers'' ratings increased dramatically after Woody Boyd became a regular character as well.", "The fifth season earned the series the highest rating for the year that it would ever achieve.", "Although ratings mostly declined each year after that, the show retained a competitive advantage and rose to rank number one for the year for its first and only time in the ninth season.", "Although ratings and ranking both lost ground in the last two seasons, it still performed well, as it was the only show on NBC during those seasons to be in the top 10.By the end of its final season, the show had a run of eight consecutive seasons in the top ten of the Nielsen ratings; seven of them were in the top five.NBC dedicated a whole night to the final episode of ''Cheers'', following the one-hour season finale of ''Seinfeld'' (which was its lead-in).", "The show began with a \"pregame\" show hosted by Bob Costas, followed by the final 98-minute episode itself.", "NBC affiliates then aired tributes to ''Cheers'' during their local newscasts, and the night concluded with a special ''Tonight Show'' broadcast live from the Bull & Finch Pub.", "Although the episode fell short of its hyped ratings predictions to become the most-watched television episode, it was the most watched show that year, bringing in 93 million viewers (64 percent of all viewers that night), almost 40% of the US population at the time, and ranked 11th all time in entertainment programming.", "The 1993 final broadcast of ''Cheers'' also emerged as the highest rated broadcast of NBC to date, as well as the most watched single episode from any television series throughout the decade 1990s on U.S. television.The episode originally aired in the usual ''Cheers'' spot of Thursday night, and was then rebroadcast on Sunday.", "While the original broadcast did not outperform the ''M*A*S*H'' finale, the combined non-repeating audiences for the Thursday and Sunday showings did.", "Television had greatly changed between the two finales, leaving ''Cheers'' with a broader array of competition for ratings.NBC timeslots:* Season 1 Episodes 1–12: Thursday at 9:00 pm* Season 1 Episode 13 – Season 2 Episode 10: Thursday at 9:30 pm* Season 2 Episode 11 – Season 11 Episode 28: Thursday at 9:00 pm===Serialized storylines===Although not the first sitcom to do it, ''Cheers'' employed the use of end-of-season cliffhangers and, starting with the third season, the show's storylines became more serialized.", "The show's success helped make such multi-episode story arcs popular on sitcoms, which Les Charles regrets.We may have been partly responsible for what's going on now, where if you miss the first episode or two, you are lost.", "You have to wait until you can get the whole thing on DVD and catch up with it.", "If that blood is on our hands, I feel kind of badly about it.", "It can be very frustrating.", "\"''Cheers'' began with a limited five-character ensemble consisting of Ted Danson, Shelley Long, Rhea Perlman, Nicholas Colasanto and George Wendt.", "''Cheers'' was able to gradually phase in characters such as Cliff, Frasier, Lilith, Rebecca, and Woody.", "By the time season 10 began, the show had eight front characters in its roster.===Awards and honors===Over its eleven-season run, the ''Cheers'' cast and crew earned many awards.", "The show garnered a record 111 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, with a total of 28 wins.", "In addition, ''Cheers'' earned 31 Golden Globe nominations, with a total of six wins.", "Danson, Long, Alley, Perlman, Wendt, Ratzenberger, Harrelson, Grammer, Neuwirth, and Colasanto all received Emmy nominations for their roles.", "''Cheers'' won the Golden Globe Award for \"Best TV-Series – Comedy/Musical\" in 1991 and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1983, 1984, 1989, and 1991.The series was presented with the \"Legend Award\" at the 2006 TV Land Awards, with many of the surviving cast members attending the event.The following are awards that have been earned by the ''Cheers'' cast and crew over its 11-season run:+ Winner Award Emmy Year Golden Globe Year Kirstie Alley Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series 1991 Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical 1991 Ted Danson Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series 1990 1993 Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical 1990 1991 Woody Harrelson Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series 1989 Shelley Long Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series 1983 Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical 1985 Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series, or Motion Picture Made for TV 1983 Bebe Neuwirth Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series 1990 1991 Rhea Perlman Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series 1984 1985 1986 1989 John Cleese Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series 1987 '''''Production Awards''''' Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series 1983 1991 Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series 1983 1984 Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences 1983 Outstanding Film Editing for a Series 1984 Outstanding Editing for a Series – Multi-Camera Production 1988 1993 Outstanding Live and Tape Sound Mixing and Sound Effects for a Series 1985 Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or Special 1986 1987 1990" ], [ "Distribution", "===Syndication===''Cheers'' grew in popularity as it aired on American television and entered off-network syndication in 1987, initially distributed by Paramount Domestic Television.", "When the show went off the air in 1993, ''Cheers'' was syndicated in 38 countries, with 179 American television markets and 83 million viewers.", "When the quality of some earlier footage of ''Cheers'' began to deteriorate, it underwent a careful restoration in 2001.The series aired on Nick at Nite from 2001 to 2004 and on TV Land from 2004 to 2008, with Nick at Nite airing week-long ''Cheers'' \"Everybody Knows Your Name\" marathons.", "The show was removed from the lineup in 2004.The series began airing on Hallmark Channel in the United States in October 2008, and WGN America in 2009.In January 2011, Reelz Channel began airing the series in hour-long blocks.", "MeTV began airing ''Cheers'' weeknights in 2010.USA Network has aired the series on Sunday early mornings and weekday mornings to allow it to show extended-length films of hours and maintain symmetric schedules.In 2011, ''Cheers'' was made available on the Netflix and Amazon Prime Video streaming services.", "''Cheers'' began airing on Eleven (a digital channel of Network Ten) in Australia on January 11, 2011.NCRV in the Netherlands aired all 275 episodes in sequence, once per night, repeating the series a total of three times.In Italy, ''Cheers'' aired on Italia 1 & Canale 5 as ''Cin Cin'' from 1985 until 1988.", "''Cheers'' was first screened in the UK on Channel 4, and was one of the then-fledgling network's first imports.", "As of 2012, ''Cheers'' has been repeated on UK satellite channel CBS Drama.", "It has also been shown on the UK free-to-air channel ITV4, with two episodes every weeknight.", "On March 16, 2015, the series began airing on UK subscription channel Gold on weekdays at 9:30 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. ''Cheers'' aired again daily in 2019 on Channel 4.====High definition====A high-definition transfer of ''Cheers'' began running on HDNet in the United States in August 2010.The program was originally shot on film (but transferred to and edited on videotape) and broadcast in a 4:3 aspect ratio, but the newly transferred versions are in 16:9.However, in the United Kingdom, the HD repeats on ITV4 HD, and later Channel 4 HD, are shown in the original 4:3 aspect ratio.===Home media===Paramount Home Entertainment and (from 2006 onward) CBS Home Entertainment have released all 11 seasons of ''Cheers'' on DVD in Region 1, Region 2, and Region 4.In the US, some episodes from the final three seasons appear on the DVDs with music substitutions.", "For example, in the episode \"Grease\", \"I Fought the Law\" was replaced even though its removal affects the comedic value of the scenes in which it was originally heard.", "The finale episode (73 minutes long without commercials) is presented in its three-part syndicated cut.On March 6, 2012, CBS released ''Fan Favorites: The Best of Cheers''.", "Based on the 2012 Facebook poll, the selected episodes are:# \"Give Me a Ring Sometime\" (season 1, episode 1)# \"Diane's Perfect Date\" (season 1, episode 17)# \"Pick a Con, Any Con\" (season 1, episode 19)# \"Abnormal Psychology\" (season 5, episode 4)# \"Thanksgiving Orphans\" (season 5, episode 9)# \"Dinner at Eight-ish\" (season 5, episode 20)# \"Simon Says\" (season 5, episode 21)# \"An Old Fashioned Wedding\", parts one and two (season 10, episodes 25)On May 5, 2015, CBS DVD released ''Cheers – The Complete Series'' on DVD in Region 1.===Digital media distribution===The complete 11 seasons of ''Cheers'' are available through the iTunes Store, Amazon Prime Video, Peacock and Hulu.", "In Canada, all seasons are available on streaming service Crave.The entire series is available in the UK on All 4." ], [ "Licensing", "The series lent itself naturally to the development of ''Cheers'' bar-related merchandise, culminating in the development of a chain of ''Cheers'' themed pubs.", "Paramount's licensing group, led by Tom McGrath, developed the ''Cheers'' pub concept initially in partnership with Host Marriott, which placed ''Cheers'' themed pubs in over 15 airports around the world.", "Boston boasts the original ''Cheers'' bar, historically known to Boston insiders as the Bull and Finch; a Cheers restaurant in the Faneuil Hall marketplace; and Sam's Place, a spin-off sports bar concept also located in Faneuil Hall.", "In 1997, Europe's first officially licensed ''Cheers'' bar opened in London's Regent's Street W1.Like Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers London is a replica of the set.", "The gala opening was attended by James Burrows and cast members George Wendt and John Ratzenberger.", "The ''Cheers'' bar in London closed on December 31, 2008.The actual bar set had been on display at the Hollywood Entertainment Museum until the museum's closing in early 2006.The theme song to the show was eventually licensed to a Canadian restaurant, Kelsey's Neighbourhood Bar & Grill.CBS currently holds the rights to the ''Cheers'' franchise as a result of the 2005 Viacom split which saw Paramount transfer its entire television studio to CBS (both CBS and Viacom would reunite in 2019)." ], [ "Spin-offs", "Some of the actors and actresses from ''Cheers'' brought their characters onto other television shows, either in a guest appearance or on a new spin-off series.", "The most successful ''Cheers'' spin-off was ''Frasier'', which featured Frasier Crane following his relocation back to Seattle, Washington.", "Sam, Diane, and Woody all individually appeared in ''Frasier'' episodes, with Lilith appearing as a guest on multiple episodes.", "In the season nine episode \"Cheerful Goodbyes\", Frasier returns to Boston and meets up with the Cheers gang, later attending Cliff's retirement party.", "''Frasier'' was revived in 2023, moving back to Boston like ''Cheers''.Although ''Frasier'' was more successful, ''The Tortellis'' was the first series to spin off from ''Cheers'', premiering in 1987.The show featured Carla's ex-husband Nick Tortelli and his wife Loretta, but was canceled after 13 episodes and drew protests for its stereotypical depictions of Italian Americans." ], [ "Crossovers", "Woody, Cliff, and Norm on ''The Simpsons''In addition to direct spin-offs, several ''Cheers'' characters had guest appearance crossovers with other shows, including ''Wings'' and ''St.", "Elsewhere'' (episode \"Cheers\").", "''Cheers'' has also been spoofed or referenced in other media, including ''The Simpsons'' (spoofing the title sequence and theme song in \"Flaming Moe's\"; actually visiting the place with vocal role reprises of the majority of the principal cast in \"Fear of Flying\"), ''Scrubs'' (episode \"My Life in Four Cameras\"), and the 2012 comedy film ''Ted''.The eighth-anniversary special of ''Late Night with David Letterman'', airing in 1990, begins with a scene at Cheers in which the bar's TV gets stuck on NBC and all the bar patrons decide to go home instead of staying to watch David Letterman.", "The scene was re-used to open Letterman's final episode in 1993.A similar scene aired in the Super Bowl XVII Pregame Show on NBC, in which the characters briefly discuss the upcoming game.In 2019, members of the ''Cheers'' cast, Rhea Perlman, George Wendt, John Ratzenberger and Kirstie Alley reprised their characters in an episode of ''The Goldbergs'' where they play customers of Geoff's short-lived food delivery business.In the 2010 show ''Adventure Time'', the show ''Cheers'' is referenced a few times, usually by Ice King/Simon because it was his favorite show back when he was a human living in the 20th century.", "This is explored in greater detail in the 2023 spin-off series ''Fionna and Cake'', which is partially set within the mind of Simon.", "All televisions in that world simply play an animated rendition of ''Cheers'' reruns on every channel, and the characters sometimes sing the theme song in difficult moments.", "The season finale of the show is simply entitled \"Cheers\"." ], [ "Cultural references", "In Australia, ''Cheers'' is remembered for its role in the infamous cancellation of the 1992 Nine Network special ''Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos''.", "Due to the then-owner of Nine Network Kerry Packer's objections to its content, ''Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos'' was pulled off the air during its first and only broadcast; viewers saw the network abruptly begin airing a rerun of ''Cheers'' midway through the special, either after a scheduled commercial break or a Nine Network bumper claiming a technical problem.", "Nine Network's affiliate in Perth didn't air the special at all and filled its timeslot with two episodes of ''Cheers''.", "When the program was re-aired in its entirety in 2008, it abruptly cut away to the opening of ''Cheers'' midway through in a reenactment of the incident before resuming the second half that didn't get aired.In the Cheers episode \"Woody For Hire, Norman Meets the Apes\" Woody shows and tells everyone how he was an extra on Boston based drama ''Spenser: For Hire''.", "In the season 4 episode of ''Seinfeld'' titled \"The Pitch\", Jerry and George are presenting their idea for a sitcom to NBC executives.", "George is unhappy with their offer and feels that he deserves the same salary as Ted Danson which he claims was $800,000 per episode, being that ''Cheers'' is also an NBC show.", "Danson's reported salary was actually $250,000 per episode.", "At this point Cheers was in its 10th season and Ted Danson had won an Emmy and a Golden Globe the year before.", "In another Seinfeld episode, The Trip, George runs into George Wendt (portraying himself) while backstage on the set of The Tonight Show and annoys him by suggesting that the series change its setting from a bar to a rec room or community center.In the seventh episode of the second season of ''How I Met Your Mother'', a coffee shop barista mistakenly hears Barney's name as \"Swarley\" and writes it on his cup.", "This leads to a running gag in which everyone mercilessly refers to Barney as \"Swarley\" despite his protests, which culminates in everyone in McClaren's bar shouting \"Swarley\" when he enters and playing the Cheers theme song.", "The credits are then shown in the \"Cheers\" style.", "In the season seven episode, In Tailgate, Ted and Barney are outraged with the price to get into MacLaren's on New Year's Eve, so they offer for everyone to come upstairs.", "In the apartment, there is a puzzles sign that is designed to parody Cheers.", "Ted and Barney employ Kevin as their bartender, and they invent a theme song which also parodies the Cheers theme song.", "OIn the 2004 video game ''Tony Hawk's Underground 2'', \"Jeers\" is set in the Boston map, with the typeface referencing the Cheers logo.", "It is located down a set of stairs, and when near the front door, there is bar chatter coming from inside.In the 2015 video game ''Fallout 4'', which is set in Boston, there is a bar named Prost Bar near Boston Common that, when entered, is an almost exact replica of the bar featured on the series.", "It includes two dead bodies sitting at the end of the bar, with one of them wearing a mail carrier's uniform, a direct reference to regular barfly Cliff Clavin.In the season 2 finale of the NBC sitcom ''The Good Place'', Ted Danson's character Michael appears as a bartender while wearing a blue plaid button-down, in a clear homage to Danson's character in ''Cheers''." ], [ "Remake", "In September 2011, Plural Entertainment debuted a remake of the series on Spanish television, also titled ''Cheers''.", "Set at an Irish pub, it starred Alberto San Juan as Nicolás \"Nico\" Arnedo, the equivalent of Sam Malone on the original series.", "It also used the original theme song, rerecorded in Spanish by Dani Martín, under the title \"Donde la gente se divierte.", "\"In December 2012, The Irish Film and Television Network announced that casting was underway on an Irish-language version of ''Cheers'' produced by production company Sideline.", "The new show, tentatively titled ''Teach Seán'', would air on Ireland's TG4 and features a main character who, like Sam Malone, is a bar owner, a retired athlete, and a recovering alcoholic.", "However, because of being set in Ireland, the barman is a \"former hurling star\" rather than an ex-baseball player.", "As of August 2019, the Irish remake has not occurred." ], [ "''Cheers: Live on Stage''", "On September 9, 2016, a stage adaptation called ''Cheers: Live on Stage'' opened at the Shubert Theatre in Boston.", "Comprising pieces of the original TV series, the play was adapted by Erik Forrest Jackson.", "It was produced by Troika/Stageworks.", "The director was Matt Lenz.", "It starred Grayson Powell as Sam Malone, Jillian Louis as Diane Chambers, Barry Pearl as Ernie \"Coach\" Pantusso, Sarah Sirotta as Carla Tortelli, Paul Vogt as Norm Peterson, and Buzz Roddy as Cliff Clavin.", "The production was scheduled to tour through 2017, but was cancelled in 2016." ], [ "See also", "* ''Early Doors'' (2003)* ''Park Street Under'' (1979)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Darowski, Joseph J.; Darowski, Kate (2019) ''Cheers: A Cultural History''.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.", "* * * * * Snauffer, Douglas (2008).", "''The Show Must Go On: How the Deaths of Lead Actors Have Affected Television Series''.", "Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland.", ".", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Cheers'' at Museum of Broadcast Communications* Cheers Boston, an official website of a bar that tributes to and is also a production set of ''Cheers''* Cheers Bruchsal Bar in Bruchsal cheersbruchsal.de" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Counterpoint" ], [ "Introduction", "In music, '''counterpoint''' is the relationship between two or more musical lines (or voices) which are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour.", "It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, especially in the Baroque period.", "The term originates from the Latin ''punctus contra punctum'' meaning \"point against point\", i.e.", "\"note against note\".In Western pedagogy, counterpoint is taught through a system of species (see below).There are several different forms of counterpoint, including imitative counterpoint and free counterpoint.", "Imitative counterpoint involves the repetition of a main melodic idea across different vocal parts, with or without variation.", "Compositions written in free counterpoint often incorporate non-traditional harmonies and chords, chromaticism and dissonance." ], [ "General principles", "The term \"counterpoint\" has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition.", "Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction.", "In the words of John Rahn:Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation.", "In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth.", "Octavio Agustin has extended the model to microtonal contexts.In counterpoint, the ''functional independence'' of voices is the prime concern.", "The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint.", "In organ registers, certain interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading.", "These voices, losing independence, are fused into one and the parallel chords are perceived as single tones with a new timbre.", "This effect is also used in orchestral arrangements; for instance, in Ravel’s Bolero #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta resemble the sound of an electric organ.", "In counterpoint, parallel voices are prohibited because they violate the homogeneity of musical texture when independent voices occasionally disappear turning into a new timbre quality and vice versa." ], [ "Development", "Some examples of related compositional techniques include: the round (familiar in folk traditions), the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention: the fugue.", "All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint." ], [ "Examples from the repertoire", "There are many examples of song melodies that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour.", "For example, \"Frère Jacques\" and \"Three Blind Mice\" combine euphoniously when sung together.", "A number of popular songs that share the same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint.", "A well-known pair of examples is \"My Way\" combined with \"Life on Mars\".Johann Sebastian Bach is revered as one of the greatest masters of counterpoint.", "For example the harmony implied in opening subject of the Fugue in G sharp minor from Book II of the ''Well-tempered Clavier'' is heard anew in a subtle way when a second voice is added.", "“The counterpoint in bars 5-8… sheds an unexpected light on the tonality of the Subject.”:Bach prelude in G sharp minor from WTC Book 2Bach prelude in G sharp minor from WTC Book 2 Bach's 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies:Bach 3-part Invention BWV 795, bars 7–9Bach 3-part Invention BWV 795, bars 7–9According to pianist András Schiff, Bach's counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven.", "In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor, Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding \"a wonderful counterpoint\" to one of the main themes.Beethoven Piano Sonata Op.", "90, first movement bars 110–113Beethoven Piano Sonata Op.", "90, first movement bars 110–113A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the \"Ode to Joy\" theme in the last movement of Beethoven's Symphony No.", "9, bars 116–123.The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos, while \"the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised.", "Meantime a solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality.", "\"Beethoven, Symphony No.", "9, finale, bars 116–123Beethoven, Symphony No.", "9, finale, bars 116–123In the Prelude to Richard Wagner's opera ''Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg'', three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously.", "According to Gordon Jacob, \"This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity.\"", "However, Donald Tovey points out that here \"the combination of themes ... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony.", "\"Wagner Meistersinger Vorspiel bars 158–161Wagner Meistersinger Vorspiel bars 158–161One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in the finale to Mozart's Symphony No 41 (\"Jupiter\" Symphony).", "Here five tunes combine simultaneously in \"a rich tapestry of dialogue\":Mozart Symphony No.", "41 Finale, bars 389–396Mozart Symphony No.", "41 Finale, bars 389–396See also Invertible counterpoint." ], [ "Species counterpoint", "Example of \"third species\" counterpointSpecies counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several \"species\" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for \"fixed melody\").", "Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a \"strict\" counterpoint.", "The student gradually attains the ability to write ''free'' counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time.", "The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his ''Scintille di musica'' (Brescia, 1533).", "The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential ''Le institutioni harmoniche'', and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his ''Prattica di musica''.", "Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint.", "''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (1725) by Johann Joseph Fux defines the modern system of teaching counterpointIn 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (Steps to Parnassus), in which he described five species:#Note against note;#Two notes against one;#Four notes against one;#Notes offset against each other (as suspensions);#All the first four species together, as \"florid\" counterpoint.A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux's seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules.", "Many of Fux's rules concerning the purely linear construction of melodies have their origin in solfeggi.", "Concerning the common practice era, alterations to the melodic rules were introduced to enable the function of certain harmonic forms.", "The combination of these melodies produced the basic harmonic structure, the figured bass.===Considerations for all species===The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part:#The final note must be approached by step.", "If the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key (Dorian, Hypodorian, Aeolian, Hypoaeolian), but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode.", "Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C is necessary at the cadence.#Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect unison, fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth.", "The ascending minor sixth must be immediately followed by motion downwards.#If writing two skips in the same direction—something that must be only rarely done—the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant.", "The three notes should be from the same triad; if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave.", "In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction.#If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with step-wise motion in the other direction.#The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided (for example, an ascending melodic motion F–A–B) as is the interval of a seventh in three notes.#There must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus.", "This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat.#An outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction.And, in all species, the following rules govern the combination of the parts:#The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance.#Contrary motion should dominate.#Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion.#Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion.#The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts unless by necessity.#Build from the bass, upward.=== First species ===In ''first species'' counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as ''lines'' or ''voices'') sounds against one note in the cantus firmus.", "Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously.", "Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence is not available.In the present context, a \"step\" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step.", "A \"skip\" is an interval of a third or fourth.", "(See Steps and skips.)", "An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a \"leap\".A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows.#Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave.#Use no unisons except at the beginning or end.#Avoid parallel fifths or octaves between any two parts; and avoid \"hidden\" parallel fifths or octaves: that is, movement by similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave, unless one part (sometimes restricted to the ''higher'' of the parts) moves by step.#Avoid moving in parallel fourths.", "(In practice Palestrina and others frequently allowed themselves such progressions, especially if they do not involve the lowest of the parts.", ")#Do not use an interval more than three times in a row.#Attempt to use up to three parallel thirds or sixths in a row.#Attempt to keep any two adjacent parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written by moving outside that range.#Avoid having any two parts move in the same direction by skip.#Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible.#Avoid dissonant intervals between any two parts: major or minor second, major or minor seventh, any augmented or diminished interval, and perfect fourth (in many contexts).In the adjacent example in two parts, the cantus firmus is the lower part.", "(The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also.", "Each is in the Dorian mode.", ")===Second species===In ''second species'' counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part.Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species:#It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice.#The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect).", "The unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, i.e.", "it must be approached and left by step in the same direction.#Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar.#Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves.", "They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern.", "The example shown is weak due to similar motion in the second measure in both voices.", "A good rule to follow: if one voice skips or jumps try to use step-wise motion in the other voice or at the very least contrary motion.===Third species===In ''third species'' counterpoint, four (or three, etc.)", "notes move against each longer note in the given part.Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth species, and ultimately outside the restrictions of ''species writing''.", "There are three figures to consider: The ''nota cambiata'', ''double neighbor tones'', and ''double passing tones''.Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows special dissonances.", "The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and resolved on beat 4.The fifth note or downbeat of the next measure should move by step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure.", "Lastly a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row.", "The figure would consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step.", "The two notes that allow dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4.The dissonant interval of a fourth would proceed into a diminished fifth and the next note would resolve at the interval of a sixth.Example of a double passing tone in which the two middle notes are a dissonant interval from the cantus firmus, a fourth and a diminished fifthExample of a descending double neighbor figure against a cantus firmusExample of an ascending double neighbor figure (with an interesting tritone leap at the end) against a cantus firmus===Fourth species===In ''fourth species'' counterpoint, some notes are sustained or ''suspended'' in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and \"catching up\") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound.", "As before, fourth species counterpoint is called ''expanded'' when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves.", "The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation.", "Also, it is important to note that a dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of the syncopation created by the suspension.", "While it is not incorrect to start with a half note, it is also common to start 4th species with a half rest.", "\\relative c' {\\new PianoStaff >}Short example of \"fourth species\" counterpoint===Fifth species (florid counterpoint)===In ''fifth species'' counterpoint, sometimes called ''florid counterpoint'', the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts.", "In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first species.", "In florid counterpoint it is important that no one species dominates the composition.\\relative c' {\\new PianoStaff >}Short example of \"Florid\" counterpoint" ], [ "Contrapuntal derivations", "Since the Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has been written in imitative counterpoint.", "In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element.", "The fantasia, the ricercar, and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form ''par excellence'') all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals.", "Imitative counterpoint spawned a number of devices, including:;Melodic inversion: The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down—so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see interval), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third, etc.", "(Compare, in twelve-tone technique, the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.)", "(Note: in ''invertible counterpoint'', including ''double'' and ''triple counterpoint'', the term ''inversion'' is used in a different sense altogether.", "At least one pair of parts is switched, so that the one that was higher becomes lower.", "See Inversion in counterpoint; it is not a kind of imitation, but a rearrangement of the parts.", ");Retrograde: Whereby an imitative voice sounds the melody backwards in relation to the leading voice.", ";Retrograde inversion: Where the imitative voice sounds the melody backwards and upside-down at once.", ";Augmentation: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.", ";Diminution: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced." ], [ "Free counterpoint", "Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony, from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the style of free counterpoint.", "This means that the general focus of the composer had shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a ''cantus firmus'', and more toward how they related to each other.Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan: \"....actual teaching in that fashion (free counterpoint) did not become widespread until the late nineteenth century.\"", "Young composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Schumann, were still educated in the style of \"strict\" counterpoint, but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of the subject.Main features of free counterpoint:# All forbidden chords, such as second-inversion, seventh, ninth etc., can be used freely as long as they resolve to a consonant triad# Chromaticism is allowed# The restrictions about rhythmic-placement of dissonance are removed.", "It is possible to use passing tones on the accented beat# Appoggiatura is available: dissonance tones can be approached by leaps." ], [ "Linear counterpoint", "'''Linear counterpoint''' is \"a purely horizontal technique in which the integrity of the individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations.", "\"Its distinctive feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the adherents of the 'new objectivity' when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-type to the Romantic harmony.\"", "The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the effects their combined motions may create.\"", "In other words, either \"the domination of the horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical\" is featured or the \"harmonic control of lines is rejected.", "\"Associated with neoclassicism, the technique was first used in Igor Stravinsky's ''Octet'' (1923), inspired by J. S. Bach and Giovanni Palestrina.", "However, according to Knud Jeppesen: \"Bach's and Palestrina's points of departure are antipodal.", "Palestrina starts out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach's music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which the voices develop with a bold independence that is often breath-taking.", "\"According to Cunningham, linear harmony is \"a frequent approach in the 20th century...in which lines are combined with almost careless abandon in the hopes that new 'chords' and 'progressions'...will result.\"", "It is possible with \"any kind of line, diatonic or duodecuple\"." ], [ "Dissonant counterpoint", "'''Dissonant counterpoint''' was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as \"at first purely a school-room discipline,\" consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed.", "First species counterpoint must be all dissonances, establishing \"dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule,\" and consonances are \"resolved\" through a skip, not step.", "He wrote that \"the effect of this discipline\" was \"one of purification\".", "Other aspects of composition, such as rhythm, could be \"dissonated\" by applying the same principle.Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it.", "Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Johanna Beyer, John Cage, Ruth Crawford-Seeger, Vivian Fine, Carl Ruggles, Henry Cowell, Carlos Chávez, John J. Becker, Henry Brant, Lou Harrison, Wallingford Riegger, and Frank Wigglesworth." ], [ "See also", "*Counter-melody*Hauptstimme*Polyphony*Polyrhythm*Voice leading" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''**" ], [ "Further reading", "*Kurth, Ernst (1991).", "\"Foundations of Linear Counterpoint\".", "In ''Ernst Kurth: Selected Writings'', selected and translated by Lee Allen Rothfarb, foreword by Ian Bent, p. 37–95.Cambridge Studies in Music Theory and Analysis 2.Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.", "Paperback reprint 2006.", "(cloth); (pbk)* *Prout, Ebenezer (1890).", "''Counterpoint: Strict and Free''.", "London: Augener & Co.*Spalding, Walter Raymond (1904).", "''Tonal Counterpoint: Studies in Part-writing''.", "Boston, New York: A. P. Schmidt." ], [ "External links", "* An explanation and teach yourself method for Species Counterpoint* ntoll.org: Species Counterpoint by Nicholas H. Tollervey* Orima: The History of Experimental Music in Northern California: On Dissonant Counterpoint by David Nicholls from his ''American Experimental Music: 1890–1940''* Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary: Dissonant counterpoint examples and definition* Counterpointer:Software tutorial for the study of counterpoint by Jeffrey Evans* \"Bach as Contrapuntist\" by Dan Brown, music critic from Cornell University, from his web book ''Why Bach?", "''* \"contrapuntal—a collaborative arts project by Benjamin Skepper\"* Principles of Counterpoint, by Alan Belkin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cyanide" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, a '''cyanide''' () is a chemical compound that contains a functional group.", "This group, known as the '''cyano group''', consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom.In inorganic cyanides, the cyanide group is present as the cyanide anion .", "This anion is extremely poisonous.", "Soluble salts such as sodium cyanide (NaCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN) are highly toxic.", "Hydrocyanic acid, also known as hydrogen cyanide, or HCN, is a highly volatile liquid that is produced on a large scale industrially.", "It is obtained by acidification of cyanide salts.Organic cyanides are usually called nitriles.", "In nitriles, the group is linked by a single covalent bond to carbon.", "For example, in acetonitrile (), the cyanide group is bonded to methyl ().", "Although nitriles generally do not release cyanide ions, the cyanohydrins do and are thus toxic." ], [ "Bonding", "The cyanide ion is isoelectronic with carbon monoxide and with molecular nitrogen N≡N.", "A triple bond exists between C and N. The negative charge is concentrated on carbon C." ], [ "Occurrence", "===In nature===Removal of cyanide from cassava in Nigeria.Cyanides are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae.", "It is an antifeedant in a number of plants.", "Cyanides are found in substantial amounts in certain seeds and fruit stones, e.g., those of bitter almonds, apricots, apples, and peaches.", "Chemical compounds that can release cyanide are known as cyanogenic compounds.", "In plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides and defend the plant against herbivores.", "Cassava roots (also called manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries (and the base from which tapioca is made), also contain cyanogenic glycosides.The Madagascar bamboo ''Cathariostachys madagascariensis'' produces cyanide as a deterrent to grazing.", "In response, the golden bamboo lemur, which eats the bamboo, has developed a high tolerance to cyanide.The hydrogenase enzymes contain cyanide ligands attached to iron in their active sites.", "The biosynthesis of cyanide in the NiFe hydrogenases proceeds from carbamoyl phosphate, which converts to cysteinyl thiocyanate, the donor.===Interstellar medium===The cyanide radical •CN has been identified in interstellar space.", "Cyanogen, , is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.===Pyrolysis and combustion product===Hydrogen cyanide is produced by the combustion or pyrolysis of certain materials under oxygen-deficient conditions.", "For example, it can be detected in the exhaust of internal combustion engines and tobacco smoke.", "Certain plastics, especially those derived from acrylonitrile, release hydrogen cyanide when heated or burnt.===Organic derivatives===In IUPAC nomenclature, organic compounds that have a functional group are called nitriles.", "An example of a nitrile is acetonitrile, .", "Nitriles usually do not release cyanide ions.", "A functional group with a hydroxyl and cyanide bonded to the same carbon atom is called cyanohydrin ().", "Unlike nitriles, cyanohydrins do release poisonous hydrogen cyanide." ], [ "Reactions", "===Protonation===Cyanide is basic.", "The p''K''a of hydrogen cyanide is 9.21.Thus, addition of acids stronger than hydrogen cyanide to solutions of cyanide salts releases hydrogen cyanide.===Hydrolysis===Cyanide is unstable in water, but the reaction is slow until about 170 °C.", "It undergoes hydrolysis to give ammonia and formate, which are far less toxic than cyanide::Cyanide hydrolase is an enzyme that catalyzes this reaction.===Alkylation===Because of the cyanide anion's high nucleophilicity, cyano groups are readily introduced into organic molecules by displacement of a halide group (e.g., the chloride on methyl chloride).", "In general, organic cyanides are called nitriles.", "In organic synthesis, cyanide is a C-1 synthon; i.e., it can be used to lengthen a carbon chain by one, while retaining the ability to be functionalized.", ":===Redox===The cyanide ion is a reductant and is oxidized by strong oxidizing agents such as molecular chlorine (), hypochlorite (), and hydrogen peroxide ().", "These oxidizers are used to destroy cyanides in effluents from gold mining.===Metal complexation===The cyanide anion reacts with transition metals to form M-CN bonds.", "This reaction is the basis of cyanide's toxicity.", "The high affinities of metals for this anion can be attributed to its negative charge, compactness, and ability to engage in π-bonding.Among the most important cyanide coordination compounds are the potassium ferrocyanide and the pigment Prussian blue, which are both essentially nontoxic due to the tight binding of the cyanides to a central iron atom.", "Prussian blue was first accidentally made around 1706, by heating substances containing iron and carbon and nitrogen, and other cyanides made subsequently (and named after it).", "Among its many uses, Prussian blue gives the blue color to blueprints, bluing, and cyanotypes." ], [ "Manufacture", "The principal process used to manufacture cyanides is the Andrussow process in which gaseous hydrogen cyanide is produced from methane and ammonia in the presence of oxygen and a platinum catalyst.", ":Sodium cyanide, the precursor to most cyanides, is produced by treating hydrogen cyanide with sodium hydroxide::" ], [ "Toxicity", "Many cyanides are highly toxic.", "The cyanide anion is an inhibitor of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (also known as aa3), the fourth complex of the electron transport chain found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.", "It attaches to the iron within this protein.", "The binding of cyanide to this enzyme prevents transport of electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen.", "As a result, the electron transport chain is disrupted, meaning that the cell can no longer aerobically produce ATP for energy.", "Tissues that depend highly on aerobic respiration, such as the central nervous system and the heart, are particularly affected.", "This is an example of histotoxic hypoxia.The most hazardous compound is hydrogen cyanide, which is a gas and kills by inhalation.", "For this reason, an air respirator supplied by an external oxygen source must be worn when working with hydrogen cyanide.", "Hydrogen cyanide is produced by adding acid to a solution containing a cyanide salt.", "Alkaline solutions of cyanide are safer to use because they do not evolve hydrogen cyanide gas.", "Hydrogen cyanide may be produced in the combustion of polyurethanes; for this reason, polyurethanes are not recommended for use in domestic and aircraft furniture.", "Oral ingestion of a small quantity of solid cyanide or a cyanide solution of as little as 200 mg, or exposure to airborne cyanide of 270 ppm, is sufficient to cause death within minutes.Organic nitriles do not readily release cyanide ions, and so have low toxicities.", "By contrast, compounds such as trimethylsilyl cyanide readily release HCN or the cyanide ion upon contact with water.===Antidote===Hydroxocobalamin reacts with cyanide to form cyanocobalamin, which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys.", "This method has the advantage of avoiding the formation of methemoglobin (see below).", "This antidote kit is sold under the brand name Cyanokit and was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2006.An older cyanide antidote kit included administration of three substances: amyl nitrite pearls (administered by inhalation), sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulfate.", "The goal of the antidote was to generate a large pool of ferric iron () to compete for cyanide with cytochrome a3 (so that cyanide will bind to the antidote rather than the enzyme).", "The nitrites oxidize hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which competes with cytochrome oxidase for the cyanide ion.", "Cyanmethemoglobin is formed and the cytochrome oxidase enzyme is restored.", "The major mechanism to remove the cyanide from the body is by enzymatic conversion to thiocyanate by the mitochondrial enzyme rhodanese.", "Thiocyanate is a relatively non-toxic molecule and is excreted by the kidneys.", "To accelerate this detoxification, sodium thiosulfate is administered to provide a sulfur donor for rhodanese, needed in order to produce thiocyanate.===Sensitivity===Minimum risk levels (MRLs) may not protect for delayed health effects or health effects acquired following repeated sublethal exposure, such as hypersensitivity, asthma, or bronchitis.", "MRLs may be revised after sufficient data accumulates." ], [ "Applications", "===Mining===Cyanide is mainly produced for the mining of silver and gold: It helps dissolve these metals allowing separation from the other solids.", "In the ''cyanide process'', finely ground high-grade ore is mixed with the cyanide (at a ratio of about 1:500 parts NaCN to ore); low-grade ores are stacked into heaps and sprayed with a cyanide solution (at a ratio of about 1:1000 parts NaCN to ore).", "The precious metals are complexed by the cyanide anions to form soluble derivatives, e.g., (dicyanoargentate(I)) and (dicyanoaurate(I)).", "Silver is less \"noble\" than gold and often occurs as the sulfide, in which case redox is not invoked (no is required).", "Instead, a displacement reaction occurs::Ag2S + 4 NaCN + H2O -> 2 NaAg(CN)2 + NaSH + NaOH:4 Au + 8 NaCN + O2 + 2 H2O -> 4 NaAu(CN)2 + 4 NaOHThe \"pregnant liquor\" containing these ions is separated from the solids, which are discarded to a tailing pond or spent heap, the recoverable gold having been removed.", "The metal is recovered from the \"pregnant solution\" by reduction with zinc dust or by adsorption onto activated carbon.", "This process can result in environmental and health problems.", "A number of environmental disasters have followed the overflow of tailing ponds at gold mines.", "Cyanide contamination of waterways has resulted in numerous cases of human and aquatic species mortality.Aqueous cyanide is hydrolyzed rapidly, especially in sunlight.", "It can mobilize some heavy metals such as mercury if present.", "Gold can also be associated with arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is similar to iron pyrite (fool's gold), wherein half of the sulfur atoms are replaced by arsenic.", "Gold-containing arsenopyrite ores are similarly reactive toward inorganic cyanide.===Industrial organic chemistry===The second major application of alkali metal cyanides (after mining) is in the production of CN-containing compounds, usually nitriles.", "Acyl cyanides are produced from acyl chlorides and cyanide.", "Cyanogen, cyanogen chloride, and the trimer cyanuric chloride are derived from alkali metal cyanides.===Medical uses===The cyanide compound sodium nitroprusside is used mainly in clinical chemistry to measure urine ketone bodies mainly as a follow-up to diabetic patients.", "On occasion, it is used in emergency medical situations to produce a rapid decrease in blood pressure in humans; it is also used as a vasodilator in vascular research.", "The cobalt in artificial vitamin B12 contains a cyanide ligand as an artifact of the purification process; this must be removed by the body before the vitamin molecule can be activated for biochemical use.", "During World War I, a copper cyanide compound was briefly used by Japanese physicians for the treatment of tuberculosis and leprosy.===Illegal fishing and poaching===Cyanides are illegally used to capture live fish near coral reefs for the aquarium and seafood markets.", "The practice is controversial, dangerous, and damaging but is driven by the lucrative exotic fish market.Poachers in Africa have been known to use cyanide to poison waterholes, to kill elephants for their ivory.===Pest control===M44 cyanide devices are used in the United States to kill coyotes and other canids.", "Cyanide is also used for pest control in New Zealand, particularly for possums, an introduced marsupial that threatens the conservation of native species and spreads tuberculosis amongst cattle.", "Possums can become bait shy but the use of pellets containing the cyanide reduces bait shyness.", "Cyanide has been known to kill native birds, including the endangered kiwi.", "Cyanide is also effective for controlling the dama wallaby, another introduced marsupial pest in New Zealand.", "A licence is required to store, handle and use cyanide in New Zealand.Cyanides are used as insecticides for fumigating ships.", "Cyanide salts are used for killing ants, and have in some places been used as rat poison (the less toxic poison arsenic is more common).===Niche uses===Potassium ferrocyanide is used to achieve a blue color on cast bronze sculptures during the final finishing stage of the sculpture.", "On its own, it will produce a very dark shade of blue and is often mixed with other chemicals to achieve the desired tint and hue.", "It is applied using a torch and paint brush while wearing the standard safety equipment used for any patina application: rubber gloves, safety glasses, and a respirator.", "The actual amount of cyanide in the mixture varies according to the recipes used by each foundry.Cyanide is also used in jewelry-making and certain kinds of photography such as sepia toning.Although usually thought to be toxic, cyanide and cyanohydrins increase germination in various plant species.====Human poisoning====Deliberate cyanide poisoning of humans has occurred many times throughout history.Common salts such as sodium cyanide are involatile but water-soluble, so are poisonous by ingestion.", "Hydrogen cyanide is a gas, making it more indiscriminately dangerous, however it is lighter than air and rapidly disperses up into the atmosphere, which makes it ineffective as a chemical weapon.", "Poisoning by hydrogen cyanide is more effective in an enclosed space, such as a gas chamber.", "Most significantly, hydrogen cyanide released from pellets of Zyklon-B was used extensively in the extermination camps of the Holocaust.", "====Food additive====Because of the high stability of their complexation with iron, ferrocyanides (Sodium ferrocyanide E535, Potassium ferrocyanide E536, and Calcium ferrocyanide E538) do not decompose to lethal levels in the human body and are used in the food industry as, e.g., an anticaking agent in table salt." ], [ "Chemical tests for cyanide", "Cyanide is quantified by potentiometric titration, a method widely used in gold mining.", "It can also be determined by titration with silver ion.", "Some analyses begin with an air-purge of an acidified boiling solution, sweeping the vapors into a basic absorber solution.", "The cyanide salt absorbed in the basic solution is then analyzed.===Qualitative tests===Because of the notorious toxicity of cyanide, many methods have been investigated.", "Benzidine gives a blue coloration in the presence of ferricyanide.", "Iron(II) sulfate added to a solution of cyanide, such as the filtrate from the sodium fusion test, gives prussian blue.", "A solution of ''para''-benzoquinone in DMSO reacts with inorganic cyanide to form a cyanophenol, which is fluorescent.", "Illumination with a UV light gives a green/blue glow if the test is positive." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ATSDR medical management guidelines for cyanide poisoning (US)* HSE recommendations for first aid treatment of cyanide poisoning (UK)* Hydrogen cyanide and cyanides (CICAD 61)* IPCS/CEC Evaluation of antidotes for poisoning by cyanides* National Pollutant Inventory – Cyanide compounds fact sheet* Eating apple seeds is safe despite the small amount of cyanide* Toxicological Profile for Cyanide, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, July 2006;Safety data (French)* Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). \"", "Cyanure d'hydrogène et solutions aqueuses\".", "''Fiche toxicologique n° 4'', Paris: INRS, 5 pp.", "(PDF file, )* Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). \"", "Cyanure de sodium.", "Cyanure de potassium\".", "''Fiche toxicologique n° 111'', Paris: INRS, 6 pp.", "(PDF file, )" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carbonate" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''carbonate''' is a salt of carbonic acid, , characterized by the presence of the '''carbonate ion''', a polyatomic ion with the formula .", "The word \"carbonate\" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the '''carbonate group''' .The term is also used as a verb, to describe carbonation: the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.In geology and mineralogy, the term \"carbonate\" can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock (which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals), and both are dominated by the carbonate ion, .", "Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock.", "The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate, , the chief constituent of limestone (as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons); dolomite, a calcium-magnesium carbonate ; and siderite, or iron(II) carbonate, , an important iron ore.", "Sodium carbonate (\"soda\" or \"natron\"), , and potassium carbonate (\"potash\"), , have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation, as well as for the manufacture of glass.", "Carbonates are widely used in industry, such as in iron smelting, as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture, in the composition of ceramic glazes, and more.", "New applications of alkali metal carbonates include: thermal energy storage, catalysis and electrolyte both in fuel cell technology as well as in electrosynthesis of in aqueous media." ], [ "Structure and bonding", "The carbonate ion is the simplest oxocarbon anion.", "It consists of one carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms, in a trigonal planar arrangement, with ''D''3h molecular symmetry.", "It has a molecular mass of 60.01 g/mol and carries a total formal charge of −2.It is the conjugate base of the hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) ion, , which is the conjugate base of , carbonic acid.The Lewis structure of the carbonate ion has two (long) single bonds to negative oxygen atoms, and one short double bond to a neutral oxygen atom.", ":Simple, localised Lewis structure of the carbonate ionThis structure is incompatible with the observed symmetry of the ion, which implies that the three bonds are the same length and that the three oxygen atoms are equivalent.", "As in the case of the isoelectronic nitrate ion, the symmetry can be achieved by a resonance among three structures::Resonance structures of the carbonate ionThis resonance can be summarized by a model with fractional bonds and delocalized charges::Delocalisation and partial charges on the carbonate ion Space-filling model of the carbonate ion" ], [ "Chemical properties", "Stalactites and stalagmites are carbonate minerals.Metal carbonates generally decompose on heating, liberating carbon dioxide leaving behind an oxide of the metal.", "This process is called calcination, after ''calx'', the Latin name of quicklime or calcium oxide, CaO, which is obtained by roasting limestone in a lime kiln::As illustrated by its affinity for , carbonate is a ligand for many metal cations.", "Transition metal carbonate and bicarbonate complexes feature metal ions covalently bonded to carbonate in a variety of bonding modes.Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and ammonium carbonates are water-soluble salts, but carbonates of 2+ and 3+ ions are often poorly soluble in water.", "Of the insoluble metal carbonates, is important because, in the form of scale, it accumulates in and impedes flow through pipes.", "Hard water has the source of this material.Acidification of carbonates generally liberates carbon dioxide::Thus, scale can be removed with acid.", "In solution the equilibrium between carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide and carbonic acid is sensitive to pH, temperature, and pressure.", "Although di- and trivalent carbonates have low solubility, bicarbonate salts are far more soluble.", "This difference is related to the disparate lattice energies of solids composed of mono- vs dianions, as well as mono- vs dications.In aqueous solution, carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid participate in a dynamic equilibrium.", "In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion predominates, while in weakly basic conditions, the bicarbonate ion is prevalent.", "In more acid conditions, aqueous carbon dioxide, , is the main form, which, with water, , is in equilibrium with carbonic acidthe equilibrium lies strongly towards carbon dioxide.", "Thus sodium carbonate is basic, sodium bicarbonate is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid." ], [ "Organic carbonates", "In organic chemistry a carbonate can also refer to a functional group within a larger molecule that contains a carbon atom bound to three oxygen atoms, one of which is double bonded.", "These compounds are also known as organocarbonates or carbonate esters, and have the general formula , or .", "Important organocarbonates include dimethyl carbonate, the cyclic compounds ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate, and the phosgene replacement, triphosgene." ], [ "Buffer", "Three reversible reactions control the pH balance of blood and act as a buffer to stabilise it in the range 7.37–7.43: # # # Exhaled depletes , which in turn consumes , causing the equilibrium of the first reaction to try to restore the level of carbonic acid by reacting bicarbonate with a hydrogen ion, an example of Le Châtelier's principle.", "The result is to make the blood more alkaline (raise pH).", "By the same principle, when the pH is too high, the kidneys excrete bicarbonate () into urine as urea via the urea cycle (or Krebs–Henseleit ornithine cycle).", "By removing the bicarbonate, more is generated from carbonic acid (), which comes from produced by cellular respiration.Crucially, a similar buffer operates in the oceans.", "It is a major factor in climate change and the long-term carbon cycle, due to the large number of marine organisms (especially coral) which are made of calcium carbonate.", "Increased solubility of carbonate through increased temperatures results in lower production of marine calcite and increased concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.", "This, in turn, increases Earth temperature.", "The amount of available is on a geological scale and substantial quantities may eventually be redissolved into the sea and released to the atmosphere, increasing levels even more." ], [ "Carbonate salts", "* Carbonate overview:" ], [ "Presence outside Earth", "It is generally thought that the presence of carbonates in rock is strong evidence for the presence of liquid water.", "Recent observations of the planetary nebula NGC 6302 show evidence for carbonates in space, where aqueous alteration similar to that on Earth is unlikely.", "Other minerals have been proposed which would fit the observations.Until recently carbonate deposits have not been found on Mars via remote sensing or in situ missions, even though Martian meteorites contain small amounts.", "Groundwater may have existed at Gusev and Meridiani Planum." ], [ "See also", "* Cap carbonates* Orthocarbonic acid, , or , a hypothetic unstable molecule* Oxalate* Peroxocarbonate* Sodium percarbonate" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Carbonate/bicarbonate/carbonic acid equilibrium in water: pH of solutions, buffer capacity, titration and species distribution vs. pH computed with a free spreadsheet*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Catalysis" ], [ "Introduction", "A range of industrial catalysts in pellet formAn air filter that uses a low-temperature oxidation catalyst to convert carbon monoxide to less toxic carbon dioxide at room temperature.", "It can also remove formaldehyde from the air.", "'''Catalysis''' () is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a '''catalyst''' ().", "Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after it.", "If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst recycles quickly, very small amounts of catalyst often suffice; mixing, surface area, and temperature are important factors in reaction rate.", "Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process of regenerating the catalyst.The rate increase occurs because the catalyst allows the reaction to occur by an alternative mechanism which may be much faster than the non-catalyzed mechanism.", "However the non-catalyzed mechanism does remain possible, so that the total rate (catalyzed plus non-catalyzed) can only increase in the presence of the catalyst and never decrease.Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous, whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant, or heterogeneous, whose components are not in the same phase.", "Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category.Catalysis is ubiquitous in chemical industry of all kinds.", "Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture.The term \"catalyst\" is derived from Greek , ''kataluein'', meaning \"loosen\" or \"untie\".", "The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame, based on her novel work in oxidation-reduction experiments." ], [ "General principles", "===Example===An illustrative example is the effect of catalysts to speed the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen::2 HO → 2 HO + OThis reaction proceeds because the reaction products are more stable than the starting compound, but this decomposition is so slow that hydrogen peroxide solutions are commercially available.", "In the presence of a catalyst such as manganese dioxide this reaction proceeds much more rapidly.", "This effect is readily seen by the effervescence of oxygen.", "The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction, and may be recovered unchanged and re-used indefinitely.", "Accordingly, manganese dioxide is said to ''catalyze'' this reaction.", "In living organisms, this reaction is catalyzed by enzymes (proteins that serve as catalysts) such as catalase.===Units===The SI derived unit for measuring the '''catalytic activity''' of a catalyst is the katal, which is quantified in moles per second.", "The productivity of a catalyst can be described by the turnover number (or TON) and the catalytic activity by the ''turn over frequency'' (TOF), which is the TON per time unit.", "The biochemical equivalent is the enzyme unit.", "For more information on the efficiency of enzymatic catalysis, see the article on ''enzymes''.===Catalytic reaction mechanisms===In general, chemical reactions occur faster in the presence of a catalyst because the catalyst provides an alternative reaction mechanism (reaction pathway) having a lower activation energy than the non-catalyzed mechanism.", "In catalyzed mechanisms, the catalyst is regenerated.As a simple example occurring in the gas phase, the reaction 2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3 can be catalyzed by adding nitric oxide.", "The reaction occurs in two steps: : 2NO + O2 → 2NO2 (rate-determining): NO2 + SO2 → NO + SO3 (fast)The NO catalyst is regenerated.", "The overall rate is the rate of the slow step :v = 2k1NO2O2.An example of heterogeneous catalysis is the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO, or ''titania'') to produce water.", "Scanning tunneling microscopy showed that the molecules undergo adsorption and dissociation.", "The dissociated, surface-bound O and H atoms diffuse together.", "The intermediate reaction states are: HO, HO, then HO and the reaction product (water molecule dimers), after which the water molecule desorbs from the catalyst surface.===Reaction energetics===Generic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in a hypothetical exothermic chemical reaction X + Y to give Z.", "The presence of the catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (shown in red) with lower activation energy.", "The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.Catalysts enable pathways that differ from the uncatalyzed reactions.", "These pathways have lower activation energy.", "Consequently, more molecular collisions have the energy needed to reach the transition state.", "Hence, catalysts can enable reactions that would otherwise be blocked or slowed by a kinetic barrier.", "The catalyst may increase the reaction rate or selectivity, or enable the reaction at lower temperatures.", "This effect can be illustrated with an energy profile diagram.In the catalyzed elementary reaction, catalysts do '''not''' change the extent of a reaction: they have '''no''' effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction.", "The ratio of the forward and the reverse reaction rates is unaffected (see also thermodynamics).", "The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction.", "Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium.", "Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in a reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy.", "Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous only if Gibbs free energy is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst.", "Then, removing the catalyst would also result in a reaction, producing energy; i.e.", "the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy.", "Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine, a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics.", "Thus, catalysts '''do not''' alter the equilibrium constant.", "(A catalyst can however change the equilibrium concentrations by reacting in a subsequent step.", "It is then consumed as the reaction proceeds, and thus it is also a reactant.", "Illustrative is the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters, where the produced carboxylic acid immediately reacts with the base catalyst and thus the reaction equilibrium is shifted towards hydrolysis.", ")The catalyst stabilizes the transition state more than it stabilizes the starting material.", "It decreases the kinetic barrier by decreasing the ''difference'' in energy between starting material and the transition state.", "It '''does not''' change the energy difference between starting materials and products (thermodynamic barrier), or the available energy (this is provided by the environment as heat or light).===Related concepts===Some so-called catalysts are really '''precatalysts'''.", "Precatalysts convert to catalysts in the reaction.", "For example, Wilkinson's catalyst RhCl(PPh) loses one triphenylphosphine ligand before entering the true catalytic cycle.", "Precatalysts are easier to store but are easily activated in situ.", "Because of this preactivation step, many catalytic reactions involve an induction period.In '''cooperative catalysis''', chemical species that improve catalytic activity are called '''cocatalysts''' or '''promoters'''.In tandem catalysis two or more different catalysts are coupled in a one-pot reaction.In autocatalysis, the catalyst ''is'' a product of the overall reaction, in contrast to all other types of catalysis considered in this article.", "The simplest example of autocatalysis is a reaction of type A + B → 2 B, in one or in several steps.", "The overall reaction is just A → B, so that B is a product.", "But since B is also a reactant, it may be present in the rate equation and affect the reaction rate.", "As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of B increases and can accelerate the reaction as a catalyst.", "In effect, the reaction accelerates itself or is autocatalyzed.", "An example is the hydrolysis of an ester such as aspirin to a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.", "In the absence of added acid catalysts, the carboxylic acid product catalyzes the hydrolysis.A true catalyst can work in tandem with a sacrificial catalyst.", "The true catalyst is consumed in the elementary reaction and turned into a deactivated form.The sacrificial catalyst regenerates the true catalyst for another cycle.", "The sacrificial catalyst is consumed in the reaction, and as such, it is not really a catalyst, but a reagent.", "For example, osmium tetroxide (OsO4) is a good reagent for dihydroxylation, but it is highly toxic and expensive.", "In Upjohn dihydroxylation, the sacrificial catalyst N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) regenerates OsO4, and only catalytic quantities of OsO4 are needed.===Classification===Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous.", "A homogeneous catalysis is one whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant's molecules.", "A heterogeneous catalysis is one where the reaction components are not in the same phase.", "Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category.", "Similar mechanistic principles apply to heterogeneous, homogeneous, and biocatalysis." ], [ "Heterogeneous catalysis", "The microporous molecular structure of the zeolite ZSM-5 is exploited in catalysts used in refineriesZeolites are extruded as pellets for easy handling in catalytic reactors.Heterogeneous catalysts act in a different phase than the reactants.", "Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that act on substrates in a liquid or gaseous reaction mixture.", "Important heterogeneous catalysts include zeolites, alumina, higher-order oxides, graphitic carbon, transition metal oxides, metals such as Raney nickel for hydrogenation, and vanadium(V) oxide for oxidation of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide by the contact process.Diverse mechanisms for reactions on surfaces are known, depending on how the adsorption takes place (Langmuir-Hinshelwood, Eley-Rideal, and Mars-van Krevelen).", "The total surface area of a solid has an important effect on the reaction rate.", "The smaller the catalyst particle size, the larger the surface area for a given mass of particles.A heterogeneous catalyst has '''active sites''', which are the atoms or crystal faces where the substrate actually binds.", "Active sites are atoms but are often described as a facet (edge, surface, step, etc.)", "of a solid.", "Most of the volume but also most of the surface of a heterogeneous catalyst may be catalytically inactive.", "Finding out the nature of the active site is technically challenging.For example, the catalyst for the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen is often described as iron.", "But detailed studies and many optimizations have led to catalysts that are mixtures of iron-potassium-calcium-aluminum-oxide.", "The reacting gases adsorb onto active sites on the iron particles.", "Once physically adsorbed, the reagents partially or wholly dissociate and form new bonds.", "In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is broken, which would be extremely uncommon in the gas phase due to its high activation energy.", "Thus, the activation energy of the overall reaction is lowered, and the rate of reaction increases.", "Another place where a heterogeneous catalyst is applied is in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide on vanadium(V) oxide for the production of sulfuric acid.", "Many heterogeneous catalysts are in fact nanomaterials.Heterogeneous catalysts are typically \"supported,\" which means that the catalyst is dispersed on a second material that enhances the effectiveness or minimizes its cost.", "Supports prevent or minimize agglomeration and sintering of small catalyst particles, exposing more surface area, thus catalysts have a higher specific activity (per gram) on support.", "Sometimes the support is merely a surface on which the catalyst is spread to increase the surface area.", "More often, the support and the catalyst interact, affecting the catalytic reaction.", "Supports can also be used in nanoparticle synthesis by providing sites for individual molecules of catalyst to chemically bind.", "Supports are porous materials with a high surface area, most commonly alumina, zeolites or various kinds of activated carbon.", "Specialized supports include silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, and barium sulfate.===Electrocatalysts===In the context of electrochemistry, specifically in fuel cell engineering, various metal-containing catalysts are used to enhance the rates of the half reactions that comprise the fuel cell.", "One common type of fuel cell electrocatalyst is based upon nanoparticles of platinum that are supported on slightly larger carbon particles.", "When in contact with one of the electrodes in a fuel cell, this platinum increases the rate of oxygen reduction either to water or to hydroxide or hydrogen peroxide." ], [ "Homogeneous catalysis", "Homogeneous catalysts function in the same phase as the reactants.", "Typically homogeneous catalysts are dissolved in a solvent with the substrates.", "One example of homogeneous catalysis involves the influence of H on the esterification of carboxylic acids, such as the formation of methyl acetate from acetic acid and methanol.", "High-volume processes requiring a homogeneous catalyst include hydroformylation, hydrosilylation, hydrocyanation.", "For inorganic chemists, homogeneous catalysis is often synonymous with organometallic catalysts.", "Many homogeneous catalysts are however not organometallic, illustrated by the use of cobalt salts that catalyze the oxidation of p-xylene to terephthalic acid.=== Organocatalysis ===Whereas transition metals sometimes attract most of the attention in the study of catalysis, small organic molecules without metals can also exhibit catalytic properties, as is apparent from the fact that many enzymes lack transition metals.", "Typically, organic catalysts require a higher loading (amount of catalyst per unit amount of reactant, expressed in mol% amount of substance) than transition metal(-ion)-based catalysts, but these catalysts are usually commercially available in bulk, helping to lower costs.", "In the early 2000s, these organocatalysts were considered \"new generation\" and are competitive to traditional metal(-ion)-containing catalysts.", "Organocatalysts are supposed to operate akin to metal-free enzymes utilizing, e.g., non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding.", "The discipline organocatalysis is divided into the application of covalent (e.g., proline, DMAP) and non-covalent (e.g., thiourea organocatalysis) organocatalysts referring to the preferred catalyst-substrate binding and interaction, respectively.", "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan \"for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis.", "\"===Photocatalysts===Photocatalysis is the phenomenon where the catalyst can receive light to generate an excited state that effect redox reactions.", "Singlet oxygen is usually produced by photocatalysis.", "Photocatalysts are components of dye-sensitized solar cells.===Enzymes and biocatalysts===In biology, enzymes are protein-based catalysts in metabolism and catabolism.", "Most biocatalysts are enzymes, but other non-protein-based classes of biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes, and synthetic deoxyribozymes.Biocatalysts can be thought of as an intermediate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, although strictly speaking soluble enzymes are homogeneous catalysts and membrane-bound enzymes are heterogeneous.", "Several factors affect the activity of enzymes (and other catalysts) including temperature, pH, the concentration of enzymes, substrate, and products.", "A particularly important reagent in enzymatic reactions is water, which is the product of many bond-forming reactions and a reactant in many bond-breaking processes.In biocatalysis, enzymes are employed to prepare many commodity chemicals including high-fructose corn syrup and acrylamide.Some monoclonal antibodies whose binding target is a stable molecule that resembles the transition state of a chemical reaction can function as weak catalysts for that chemical reaction by lowering its activation energy.", "Such catalytic antibodies are sometimes called \"abzymes\"." ], [ "Significance", "Left: Partially caramelized cube sugar, Right: burning cube sugar with ash as catalystA Ti-Cr-Pt tube (~40 μm long) releases oxygen bubbles when immersed in hydrogen peroxide (via catalytic decomposition), forming a micropump.Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture.", "In 2005, catalytic processes generated about $900 billion in products worldwide.", "Catalysis is so pervasive that subareas are not readily classified.", "Some areas of particular concentration are surveyed below.===Energy processing===Petroleum refining makes intensive use of catalysis for alkylation, catalytic cracking (breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces), naphtha reforming and steam reforming (conversion of hydrocarbons into synthesis gas).", "Even the exhaust from the burning of fossil fuels is treated via catalysis: Catalytic converters, typically composed of platinum and rhodium, break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust.", ":2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO + NWith regard to synthetic fuels, an old but still important process is the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from synthesis gas, which itself is processed via water-gas shift reactions, catalyzed by iron.", "The Sabatier reaction produces methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen.", "Biodiesel and related biofuels require processing via both inorganic and biocatalysts.Fuel cells rely on catalysts for both the anodic and cathodic reactions.Catalytic heaters generate flameless heat from a supply of combustible fuel.===Bulk chemicals===Typical vanadium pentoxide catalyst used in sulfuric acid production for an intermediate reaction to convert sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.Some of the largest-scale chemicals are produced via catalytic oxidation, often using oxygen.", "Examples include nitric acid (from ammonia), sulfuric acid (from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by the contact process), terephthalic acid from p-xylene, acrylic acid from propylene or propane and acrylonitrile from propane and ammonia.The production of ammonia is one of the largest-scale and most energy-intensive processes.", "In the Haber process nitrogen is combined with hydrogen over an iron oxide catalyst.", "Methanol is prepared from carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide but using copper-zinc catalysts.Bulk polymers derived from ethylene and propylene are often prepared via Ziegler-Natta catalysis.", "Polyesters, polyamides, and isocyanates are derived via acid-base catalysis.Most carbonylation processes require metal catalysts, examples include the Monsanto acetic acid process and hydroformylation.===Fine chemicals===Many fine chemicals are prepared via catalysis; methods include those of heavy industry as well as more specialized processes that would be prohibitively expensive on a large scale.", "Examples include the Heck reaction, and Friedel–Crafts reactions.", "Because most bioactive compounds are chiral, many pharmaceuticals are produced by enantioselective catalysis (catalytic asymmetric synthesis).", "(R)-1,2-Propandiol, the precursor to the antibacterial levofloxacin, can be synthesized efficiently from hydroxyacetone by using catalysts based on BINAP-ruthenium complexes, in Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation:levofloxaxin synthesis===Food processing===One of the most obvious applications of catalysis is the hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen gas) of fats using nickel catalyst to produce margarine.", "Many other foodstuffs are prepared via biocatalysis (see below).===Environment===Catalysis affects the environment by increasing the efficiency of industrial processes, but catalysis also plays a direct role in the environment.", "A notable example is the catalytic role of chlorine free radicals in the breakdown of ozone.", "These radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).", ":Cl + O → ClO + O:ClO + O → Cl + O" ], [ "History", "The term \"catalyst\", broadly defined as anything that increases the rate of a process, is derived from Greek καταλύειν, meaning \"to annul,\" or \"to untie,\" or \"to pick up\".", "The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame and described in a 1794 book, based on her novel work in oxidation–reduction reactions.", "The first chemical reaction in organic chemistry that knowingly used a catalyst was studied in 1811 by Gottlieb Kirchhoff, who discovered the acid-catalyzed conversion of starch to glucose.", "The term ''catalysis'' was later used by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1835 to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction.", "Fulhame, who predated Berzelius, did work with water as opposed to metals in her reduction experiments.", "Other 18th century chemists who worked in catalysis were Eilhard Mitscherlich who referred to it as ''contact'' processes, and Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner who spoke of ''contact action.", "''He developed Döbereiner's lamp, a lighter based on hydrogen and a platinum sponge, which became a commercial success in the 1820s that lives on today.", "Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis.", "In the 1880s, Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of acids and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases.", "For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.", "Vladimir Ipatieff performed some of the earliest industrial scale reactions, including the discovery and commercialization of oligomerization and the development of catalysts for hydrogenation." ], [ "Inhibitors, poisons, and promoters", "An added substance that lowers the rate is called a reaction inhibitor if reversible and catalyst poisons if irreversible.", "Promoters are substances that increase the catalytic activity, even though they are not catalysts by themselves.Inhibitors are sometimes referred to as \"negative catalysts\" since they decrease the reaction rate.", "However the term inhibitor is preferred since they do not work by introducing a reaction path with higher activation energy; this would not lower the rate since the reaction would continue to occur by the non-catalyzed path.", "Instead, they act either by deactivating catalysts or by removing reaction intermediates such as free radicals.", "In heterogeneous catalysis, coking inhibits the catalyst, which becomes covered by polymeric side products.The inhibitor may modify selectivity in addition to rate.", "For instance, in the hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes, a palladium (Pd) catalyst partly \"poisoned\" with lead(II) acetate (Pb(CHCO)) can be used(Lindlar catalyst).", "Without the deactivation of the catalyst, the alkene produced would be further hydrogenated to alkane.The inhibitor can produce this effect by, e.g., selectively poisoning only certain types of active sites.", "Another mechanism is the modification of surface geometry.", "For instance, in hydrogenation operations, large planes of metal surface function as sites of hydrogenolysis catalysis while sites catalyzing hydrogenation of unsaturates are smaller.", "Thus, a poison that covers the surface randomly will tend to lower the number of uncontaminated large planes but leave proportionally smaller sites free, thus changing the hydrogenation vs. hydrogenolysis selectivity.", "Many other mechanisms are also possible.Promoters can cover up the surface to prevent the production of a mat of coke, or even actively remove such material (e.g., rhenium on platinum in platforming).", "They can aid the dispersion of the catalytic material or bind to reagents." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Science Aid: Catalysts Page for high school level science* W.A.", "Herrmann Technische Universität presentation * Alumite Catalyst, Kameyama-Sakurai Laboratory, Japan* Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Utrecht University, The Netherlands* Centre for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis* Carbons & Catalysts Group, University of Concepcion, Chile* Center for Enabling New Technologies Through Catalysis, An NSF Center for Chemical Innovation, USA* \"Bubbles turn on chemical catalysts\" , Science News magazine online, April 6, 2009." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Circumference" ], [ "Introduction", " Circumference = × diameter = 2 × radius.In geometry, the '''circumference''' (from Latin ''circumferens'', meaning \"carrying around\") is the perimeter of a circle or ellipse.", "The circumference is the arc length of the circle, as if it were opened up and straightened out to a line segment.", "More generally, the perimeter is the curve length around any closed figure.", "Circumference may also refer to the circle itself, that is, the locus corresponding to the edge of a disk.", "The is the circumference, or length, of any one of its great circles." ], [ "Circle", "The circumference of a circle is the distance around it, but if, as in many elementary treatments, distance is defined in terms of straight lines, this cannot be used as a definition.", "Under these circumstances, the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeters of inscribed regular polygons as the number of sides increases without bound.", "The term circumference is used when measuring physical objects, as well as when considering abstract geometric forms.When a circle's diameter is 1, its circumference is When a circle's radius is 1—called a unit circle—its circumference is === Relationship with ===The circumference of a circle is related to one of the most important mathematical constants.", "This constant, pi, is represented by the Greek letter The first few decimal digits of the numerical value of are 3.141592653589793 ... Pi is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter Or, equivalently, as the ratio of the circumference to twice the radius.", "The above formula can be rearranged to solve for the circumference:The ratio of the circle's circumference to its radius is called the circle constant, and is equivalent to .", "The value is also the amount of radians in one turn.", "The use of the mathematical constant is ubiquitous in mathematics, engineering, and science.In ''Measurement of a Circle'' written circa 250 BCE, Archimedes showed that this ratio ( since he did not use the name ) was greater than 3 but less than 3 by calculating the perimeters of an inscribed and a circumscribed regular polygon of 96 sides.", "This method for approximating was used for centuries, obtaining more accuracy by using polygons of larger and larger number of sides.", "The last such calculation was performed in 1630 by Christoph Grienberger who used polygons with 1040 sides." ], [ "Ellipse", "Circumference is used by some authors to denote the perimeter of an ellipse.", "There is no general formula for the circumference of an ellipse in terms of the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse that uses only elementary functions.", "However, there are approximate formulas in terms of these parameters.", "One such approximation, due to Euler (1773), for the canonical ellipse, is Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse with are:Here the upper bound is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse's major axis, and the lower bound is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and minor axes.The circumference of an ellipse can be expressed exactly in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind.", "More precisely,where is the length of the semi-major axis and is the eccentricity" ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Continuum mechanics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Continuum mechanics''' is a branch of mechanics that deals with the deformation of and transmission of forces through materials modeled as a '''''continuous medium''''' (also called a '''''continuum''''') rather than as discrete particles.", "The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such models in the 19th century.Continuum mechanics deals with ''deformable bodies'', as opposed to rigid bodies.", "A continuum model assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the space it occupies.", "While ignoring the fact that matter is made of atoms, this provides a sufficiently accurate description of matter on length scales much greater than that of inter-atomic distances.", "The concept of a continuous medium allows for intuitive analysis of bulk matter by using differential equations that describe the behavior of such matter according to physical laws, such as mass conservation, momentum conservation, and energy conservation.", "Information about the specific material is expressed in constitutive relationships.Continuum mechanics treats the physical properties of solids and fluids independently of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed.", "These properties are represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects with the salient property of being independent of coordinate systems.", "This permits definition of physical properties at any point in the continuum, according to mathematically convenient continuous functions.", "The theories of elasticity, plasticity and fluid mechanics are based on the concepts of continuum mechanics." ], [ "Concept of a continuum", "The concept of a continuum underlies the mathematical framework for studying large-scale forces and deformations in materials.", "Although materials are composed of discrete atoms and molecules, separated by empty space or microscopic cracks and crystallographic defects, physical phenomena can often be modeled by considering a substance distributed throughout some region of space.", "A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with local material properties defined at any particular point.", "Properties of the bulk material can therefore be described by continuous functions, and their evolution can be studied using the mathematics of calculus.Apart from the assumption of continuity, two other independent assumptions are often employed in the study of continuum mechanics.", "These are homogeneity (assumption of identical properties at all locations) and isotropy (assumption of directionally invariant vector properties).", "If these auxiliary assumptions are not globally applicable, the material may be segregated into sections where they are applicable in order to simplify the analysis.", "For more complex cases, one or both of these assumptions can be dropped.", "In these cases, computational methods are often used to solve the differential equations describing the evolution of material properties." ], [ "Major areas", "An additional area of continuum mechanics comprises elastomeric foams, which exhibit a curious hyperbolic stress-strain relationship.", "The elastomer is a true continuum, but a homogeneous distribution of voids gives it unusual properties." ], [ "Formulation of models", "Figure 1.Configuration of a continuum bodyContinuum mechanics models begin by assigning a region in three-dimensional Euclidean space to the material body being modeled.", "The points within this region are called particles or material points.", "Different ''configurations'' or states of the body correspond to different regions in Euclidean space.", "The region corresponding to the body's configuration at time is labeled .A particular particle within the body in a particular configuration is characterized by a position vector :where are the coordinate vectors in some frame of reference chosen for the problem (See figure 1).", "This vector can be expressed as a function of the particle position in some ''reference configuration'', for example the configuration at the initial time, so that:This function needs to have various properties so that the model makes physical sense.", "needs to be:* continuous in time, so that the body changes in a way which is realistic,* globally invertible at all times, so that the body cannot intersect itself,* orientation-preserving, as transformations which produce mirror reflections are not possible in nature.For the mathematical formulation of the model, is also assumed to be twice continuously differentiable, so that differential equations describing the motion may be formulated." ], [ "Forces in a continuum", "A solid is a deformable body that possesses shear strength, ''sc.''", "a solid can support shear forces (forces parallel to the material surface on which they act).", "Fluids, on the other hand, do not sustain shear forces.Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, the motion of a material body is produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds: surface forces and body forces .", "Thus, the total force applied to a body or to a portion of the body can be expressed as::===Surface forces===''Surface forces'' or ''contact forces'', expressed as force per unit area, can act either on the bounding surface of the body, as a result of mechanical contact with other bodies, or on imaginary internal surfaces that bound portions of the body, as a result of the mechanical interaction between the parts of the body to either side of the surface (Euler-Cauchy's stress principle).", "When a body is acted upon by external contact forces, internal contact forces are then transmitted from point to point inside the body to balance their action, according to Newton's third law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum (for continuous bodies these laws are called the Euler's equations of motion).", "The internal contact forces are related to the body's deformation through constitutive equations.", "The internal contact forces may be mathematically described by how they relate to the motion of the body, independent of the body's material makeup.The distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body is assumed to be continuous.", "Therefore, there exists a ''contact force density'' or ''Cauchy traction field'' that represents this distribution in a particular configuration of the body at a given time .", "It is not a vector field because it depends not only on the position of a particular material point, but also on the local orientation of the surface element as defined by its normal vector .Any differential area with normal vector of a given internal surface area , bounding a portion of the body, experiences a contact force arising from the contact between both portions of the body on each side of , and it is given by:where is the ''surface traction'', also called ''stress vector'', ''traction'', or ''traction vector''.", "The stress vector is a frame-indifferent vector (see Euler-Cauchy's stress principle).The total contact force on the particular internal surface is then expressed as the sum (surface integral) of the contact forces on all differential surfaces ::In continuum mechanics a body is considered stress-free if the only forces present are those inter-atomic forces (ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) required to hold the body together and to keep its shape in the absence of all external influences, including gravitational attraction.", "Stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also excluded when considering stresses in a body.", "Therefore, the stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of the body, ''sc.''", "only relative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute values of stress.===Body forces===''Body forces'' are forces originating from sources outside of the body that act on the volume (or mass) of the body.", "Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies that the interaction between different parts of the body (internal forces) are manifested through the contact forces alone.", "These forces arise from the presence of the body in force fields, ''e.g.''", "gravitational field (gravitational forces) or electromagnetic field (electromagnetic forces), or from inertial forces when bodies are in motion.", "As the mass of a continuous body is assumed to be continuously distributed, any force originating from the mass is also continuously distributed.", "Thus, body forces are specified by vector fields which are assumed to be continuous over the entire volume of the body, ''i.e.''", "acting on every point in it.", "Body forces are represented by a body force density (per unit of mass), which is a frame-indifferent vector field.In the case of gravitational forces, the intensity of the force depends on, or is proportional to, the mass density of the material, and it is specified in terms of force per unit mass () or per unit volume ().", "These two specifications are related through the material density by the equation .", "Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field.The total body force applied to a continuous body is expressed as:Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments of force (torques) relative to a given point.", "Thus, the total applied torque about the origin is given by:In certain situations, not commonly considered in the analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials, it becomes necessary to include two other types of forces: these are ''couple stresses'' (surface couples, contact torques) and ''body moments''.", "Couple stresses are moments per unit area applied on a surface.", "Body moments, or body couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass applied to the volume of the body.", "Both are important in the analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric solid under the action of an electric field, materials where the molecular structure is taken into consideration (''e.g.''", "bones), solids under the action of an external magnetic field, and the dislocation theory of metals.Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are called ''polar materials''.", "''Non-polar materials'' are then those materials with only moments of forces.", "In the classical branches of continuum mechanics the development of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials.Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) in the body can be given by::" ], [ "Kinematics: motion and deformation", "Figure 2.Motion of a continuum body.A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement.", "The displacement of a body has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a deformation.", "A rigid-body displacement consists of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size.", "Deformation implies the change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration to a current or deformed configuration (Figure 2).The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements.", "Thus, the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle occupies a series of points in space which describe a path line.There is continuity during motion or deformation of a continuum body in the sense that:* The material points forming a closed curve at any instant will always form a closed curve at any subsequent time.", "* The material points forming a closed surface at any instant will always form a closed surface at any subsequent time and the matter within the closed surface will always remain within.It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all subsequent configurations are referenced from.", "The reference configuration need not be one that the body will ever occupy.", "Often, the configuration at is considered the reference configuration, .", "The components of the position vector of a particle, taken with respect to the reference configuration, are called the material or reference coordinates.When analyzing the motion or deformation of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time.", "One description for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates, called material description or Lagrangian description.===Lagrangian description===In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time.", "In this case '''the reference configuration is the configuration at '''.", "An observer standing in the frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties as the material body moves in space as time progresses.", "The results obtained are independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration, .", "This description is normally used in solid mechanics.In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum body is expressed by the mapping function (Figure 2),:which is a mapping of the initial configuration onto the current configuration , giving a geometrical correspondence between them, i.e.", "giving the position vector that a particle , with a position vector in the undeformed or reference configuration , will occupy in the current or deformed configuration at time .", "The components are called the spatial coordinates.Physical and kinematic properties , i.e.", "thermodynamic properties and flow velocity, which describe or characterize features of the material body, are expressed as continuous functions of position and time, i.e.", ".The material derivative of any property of a continuum, which may be a scalar, vector, or tensor, is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of particles of the moving continuum body.", "The material derivative is also known as the ''substantial derivative'', or ''comoving derivative'', or ''convective derivative''.", "It can be thought as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with that group of particles.In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of is simply the partial derivative with respect to time, and the position vector is held constant as it does not change with time.", "Thus, we have:The instantaneous position is a property of a particle, and its material derivative is the ''instantaneous flow velocity'' of the particle.", "Therefore, the flow velocity field of the continuum is given by:Similarly, the acceleration field is given by:Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of the material points.", "All physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described this way.", "In this sense, the function and are single-valued and continuous, with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required, usually to the second or third.===Eulerian description===Continuity allows for the inverse of to trace backwards where the particle currently located at was located in the initial or referenced configuration .", "In this case the description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates, in which case is called the spatial description or Eulerian description, i.e.", "'''the current configuration is taken as the reference configuration'''.The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, focuses on the current configuration , giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses, instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time.", "This approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the kinematic property of greatest interest is the rate at which change is taking place rather than the shape of the body of fluid at a reference time.Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function:which provides a tracing of the particle which now occupies the position in the current configuration to its original position in the initial configuration .A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the determinant of the Jacobian matrix, often referred to simply as the Jacobian, should be different from zero.", "Thus,:In the Eulerian description, the physical properties are expressed as:where the functional form of in the Lagrangian description is not the same as the form of in the Eulerian description.The material derivative of , using the chain rule, is then:The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives the ''local rate of change'' of the property occurring at position .", "The second term of the right-hand side is the ''convective rate of change'' and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position in space (motion).Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differentiability of the flow velocity field.", "All physical quantities are defined this way at each instant of time, in the current configuration, as a function of the vector position .===Displacement field===The vector joining the positions of a particle in the undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is called the displacement vector , in the Lagrangian description, or , in the Eulerian description.A ''displacement field'' is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the body, which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration.", "It is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in terms of the material coordinates as:or in terms of the spatial coordinates as:where are the direction cosines between the material and spatial coordinate systems with unit vectors and , respectively.", "Thus:and the relationship between and is then given by:Knowing that:then:It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed configurations, which results in , and the direction cosines become Kronecker deltas, i.e.", ":Thus, we have:or in terms of the spatial coordinates as:<!--" ], [ "Fundamental laws", "===Conservation of mass======Conservation of momentum===Pi=Pf===Conservation of energy===-->" ], [ "Governing equations", "Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as continuous for certain length and time scales.", "The equations that govern the mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy.", "Kinematic relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing equations.", "Physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions.", "In the continuum mechanics of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the Clausius–Duhem form of the entropy inequality is satisfied.The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume must arise from three causes:#the physical quantity itself flows through the surface that bounds the volume,#there is a source of the physical quantity on the surface of the volume, or/and,#there is a source of the physical quantity inside the volume.Let be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let be its surface (the boundary of ).Let the motion of material points in the body be described by the map:where is the position of a point in the initial configuration and is the location of the same point in the deformed configuration.The deformation gradient is given by:===Balance laws===Let be a physical quantity that is flowing through the body.", "Let be sources on the surface of the body and let be sources inside the body.", "Let be the outward unit normal to the surface .", "Let be the flow velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowing.", "Also, let the speed at which the bounding surface is moving be (in the direction ).Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form:The functions , , and can be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued - depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with.", "If there are internal boundaries in the body, jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the balance laws.If we take the Eulerian point of view, it can be shown that the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy for a solid can be written as (assuming the source term is zero for the mass and angular momentum equations):In the above equations is the mass density (current), is the material time derivative of , is the particle velocity, is the material time derivative of , is the Cauchy stress tensor, is the body force density, is the internal energy per unit mass, is the material time derivative of , is the heat flux vector, and is an energy source per unit mass.", "The operators used are defined below.", "With respect to the reference configuration (the Lagrangian point of view), the balance laws can be written as:In the above, is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and is the mass density in the reference configuration.", "The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor by:We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor which is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that:Then the balance laws become:====Operators====The operators in the above equations are defined as:where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of an orthonormal basis in the current configuration.", "Also,:where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of an orthonormal basis in the reference configuration.The inner product is defined as:===Clausius–Duhem inequality===The Clausius–Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic materials.", "This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy dissipation is involved.Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a flux of a quantity, a source of the quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass.", "The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy.", "Thus, we assume that there is an entropy flux, an entropy source, an internal mass density and an internal specific entropy (i.e.", "entropy per unit mass) in the region of interest.Let be such a region and let be its boundary.", "Then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to (as a flux or from internal sources) and the change of the internal entropy density due to material flowing in and out of the region.", "Let move with a flow velocity and let particles inside have velocities .", "Let be the unit outward normal to the surface .", "Let be the density of matter in the region, be the entropy flux at the surface, and be the entropy source per unit mass.", "Then the entropy inequality may be written as:The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux at the surface by the relation .", "Under the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions, we have:where is the heat flux vector, is an energy source per unit mass, and is the absolute temperature of a material point at at time .We then have the Clausius–Duhem inequality in integral form::We can show that the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as:In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius–Duhem inequality may be written as :" ], [ "Validity", "The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in which either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of the microstructure exist.", "More specifically, the continuum hypothesis hinges on the concepts of a representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on the Hill–Mandel condition.", "This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and a theoretician's viewpoint on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or coupled fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure.", "When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum of a finer resolution than the size of the representative volume element (RVE), a statistical volume element (SVE) is employed, which results in random continuum fields.", "The latter then provide a micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE).", "The levels of SVE and RVE link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics.", "Experimentally, the RVE can only be evaluated when the constitutive response is spatially homogenous." ], [ "Applications", "* Continuum mechanics** Solid mechanics** Fluid mechanics* Engineering** Civil engineering** Mechanical engineering** Aerospace engineering** Biomedical engineering** Chemical engineering" ], [ "See also", "* Transport phenomena* Bernoulli's principle* Cauchy elastic material* Configurational mechanics* Curvilinear coordinates* Equation of state* Finite deformation tensors* Finite strain theory* Hyperelastic material* Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field* Movable cellular automaton* Peridynamics (a non-local continuum theory leading to integral equations)* Stress (physics)* Stress measures* Tensor calculus* Tensor derivative (continuum mechanics)* Theory of elasticity" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Works cited===* * *** * ****** ===General references===*******************" ], [ "External links", "* \"Objectivity in classical continuum mechanics: Motions, Eulerian and Lagrangian functions; Deformation gradient; Lie derivatives; Velocity-addition formula, Coriolis; Objectivity\" by Gilles Leborgne, April 7, 2021: \"Part IV Velocity-addition formula and Objectivity\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Constitutional law" ], [ "Introduction", "The principles from the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen still have constitutional importance'''Constitutional law''' is a body of law which defines the role, powers, and structure of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the parliament or legislature, and the judiciary; as well as the basic rights of citizens and, in federal countries such as the United States and Canada, the relationship between the central government and state, provincial, or territorial governments.Not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a , or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules.", "These may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law, or international rules and norms.", "Constitutional law deals with the fundamental principles by which the government exercises its authority.", "In some instances, these principles grant specific powers to the government, such as the power to tax and spend for the welfare of the population.", "Other times, constitutional principles act to place limits on what the government can do, such as prohibiting the arrest of an individual without sufficient cause.In most nations, such as the United States, India, and Singapore, constitutional law is based on the text of a document ratified at the time the nation came into being.", "Other constitutions, notably that of the United Kingdom, rely heavily on uncodified rules, as several legislative statutes and constitutional conventions, their status within constitutional law varies, and the terms of conventions are in some cases strongly contested." ], [ "State and legal structure", "Constitutional laws can be considered second order rule making or rules about making rules to exercise power.", "It governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority.", "One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power.", "For example, in a unitary state, the constitution will vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities.", "When a constitution establishes a federal state, it will identify multiple levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement.", "Some federal states, most notably the United States, have separate and parallel federal and state judiciaries, with each having its own hierarchy of courts with a supreme court for each state.", "India, on the other hand, has one judiciary divided into district courts, high courts, and the Supreme Court of India." ], [ "Human rights", "Human rights or civil liberties form a crucial part of a country's constitution and uphold the rights of the individual against the state.", "Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a codified constitution, with a bill of rights.", "A recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that failed to be ratified.", "Perhaps the most important example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter.", "These are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments.", "Canada is another instance where a codified constitution.", "with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, protects human rights for people under the nation's jurisdiction.Some countries like the United Kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights; in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention.", "A case named ''Entick v. Carrington'' is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law.", "John Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sherriff Carrington.", "Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it.", "The court, led by Lord Camden stated that,The common law and the civil law jurisdictions do not share the same constitutional law underpinnings.", "Common law nations, such as those in the Commonwealth as well as the United States, derive their legal systems from that of the United Kingdom, and as such place emphasis on judicial precedent, whereby consequential court rulings (especially those by higher courts) are a source of law.", "Civil law jurisdictions, on the other hand, place less emphasis on judicial review and only the parliament or legislature has the power to effect law.", "As a result, the structure of the judiciary differs significantly between the two, with common law judiciaries being adversarial and civil law judiciaries being inquisitorial.", "Common law judicatures consequently separate the judiciary from the prosecution, thereby establishing the courts as completely independent from both the legislature and law enforcement.", "Human rights law in these countries is as a result, largely built on legal precedent in the courts' interpretation of constitutional law, whereas that of civil law countries is almost exclusively composed of codified law, constitutional or otherwise." ], [ "Legislative procedure", "Another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate.", "For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution.", "In bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force.", "Alternatively, there may further be requirements for maximum terms that a government can keep power before holding an election." ], [ "Study of constitutional law", "Constitutional law is a major focus of legal studies and research.", "For example, most law students in the United States are required to take a class in Constitutional Law during their first year, and several law journals are devoted to the discussion of constitutional issues." ], [ "The rule of law", "The doctrine of the rule of law dictates that government must be conducted according to law.", "This was first established by British legal theorist A. V. Dicey.Dicey identified three essential elements of the British Constitution which were indicative of the rule of law:#Absolute supremacy of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power;#Equality before the law;#The Constitution is a result of the ordinary law of the land.Dicey's rule of law formula consists of three classic tenets.", "The first is that the regular law is supreme over arbitrary and discretionary powers.", "\"No man is punishable ... except for a distinct breach of the law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary courts of the land.", "\"The second is that all men are to stand equal in the eyes of the law.", "\"...no man is above the law...every man, whatever be his rank or condition, is subject to the ordinary law of the realm and amenable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals\" The third is that the general ideas and principles that the constitution supports arise directly from the judgements and precedents issued by the judiciary.", "\"We may say that the constitution is pervaded by the rule of law on the ground that the general principles of the constitution... are with us the result of judicial decisions determining the rights of private persons in particular cases brought before the courts\"" ], [ "The separation of powers", "Separation of powers is often regarded as a second limb functioning alongside the rule of law to curb the powers of the government.", "In many modern nation states, power is divided and vested into three branches of government: The legislature, the executive, and the judiciary are known as the horizontal separation of powers.", "The first and the second are harmonised in traditional Westminster system.", "Vertical separation of powers is decentralisation." ], [ "Election Law", "Election law is a subfield of constitutional law.", "It includes the rules governing the process of elections.", "These rules enable the translation of the will of the people into functioning democracies.", "Election law addresses issues who is entitled to vote, voter registration, ballot access, campaign finance and party funding, redistricting, apportionment, electronic voting and voting machines, accessibility of elections, election systems and formulas, vote counting, election disputes, referendums, and issues such as electoral fraud and electoral silence." ], [ "See also", "*Constitutionalism*Constitution*Constitutional economics*Constitutional rights*Philosophy of law*Public law*Rechtsstaat*Rule of law" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Celtic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Celtic languages''' ( ) are a group of related languages descended from Proto-Celtic.", "They form a branch of the Indo-European language family.", "The term \"Celtic\" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, following Paul-Yves Pezron, who made the explicit link between the Celts described by classical writers and the Welsh and Breton languages.During the first millennium BC, Celtic languages were spoken across much of Europe and central Anatolia.", "Today, they are restricted to the northwestern fringe of Europe and a few diaspora communities.", "There are six living languages: the four continuously living languages Breton, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh, and the two revived languages Cornish and Manx.", "All are minority languages in their respective countries, though there are continuing efforts at revitalisation.", "Welsh is an official language in Wales and Irish is an official language of Ireland and of the European Union.", "Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as endangered by UNESCO.", "The Cornish and Manx languages became extinct in modern times.", "They have been the object of revivals and now each has several hundred second-language speakers.Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic form the Goidelic languages, while Welsh, Cornish and Breton are Brittonic.", "All of these are Insular Celtic languages, since Breton, the only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain.", "There are a number of extinct but attested continental Celtic languages, such as Celtiberian, Galatian and Gaulish.", "Beyond that there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family.", "They may be divided into P-Celtic and Q-Celtic.The Celtic languages have a rich literary tradition.", "The earliest specimens of written Celtic are Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC in the Alps.", "Early Continental inscriptions used Italic and Paleohispanic scripts.", "Between the 4th and 8th centuries, Irish and Pictish were occasionally written in an original script, Ogham, but Latin script came to be used for all Celtic languages.", "Welsh has had a continuous literary tradition from the 6th century AD." ], [ "Living languages", "SIL Ethnologue lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers.", "These are: the Goidelic languages (Irish and Scottish Gaelic, both descended from Middle Irish) and the Brittonic languages (Welsh and Breton, descended from Common Brittonic).", "The other two, Cornish (Brittonic) and Manx (Goidelic), died out in modern times with their presumed last native speakers in 1777 and 1974 respectively.", "Revitalisation movements in the 2000s led to the reemergence of native speakers for both languages following their adoption by adults and children.", "By the 21st century, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages, increasing to 1.4 million speakers by 2010.=== Demographics === Language Native name Grouping Number of native speakers Number of skilled speakers Area of origin(still spoken) Regulated by/language body Estimated number of speakers in major cities Irish / / / / Goidelic 40,000–80,000In the Republic of Ireland, 73,803 people use Irish daily outside the education system.", "Total speakers: '''1,887,437'''Republic of Ireland: 1,774,437United Kingdom: 95,000United States: 18,000 ''Gaeltacht'' of Ireland Dublin: 184,140Galway: 37,614Cork: 57,318Belfast: 14,086 Welsh / Brittonic 562,000 (19.0% of the population of Wales) claim that they \"can speak Welsh\" (2011) Total speakers: ≈ '''947,700''' (2011) Wales: 788,000 speakers (26.7% of the population) England: 150,000 Chubut Province, Argentina: 5,000 United States: 2,500 Canada: 2,200 Wales Welsh Language CommissionerThe Welsh Government(previously the Welsh Language Board, ) Cardiff: 54,504Swansea: 45,085Newport: 18,490Bangor: 7,190 Breton Brittonic 206,000 356,000 Brittany Rennes: 7,000Brest: 40,000Nantes: 4,000 Scottish Gaelic Goidelic 57,375 (2011) Scotland: 87,056 (2011)Nova Scotia, Canada: 1,275 (2011) Scotland Glasgow: 5,726Edinburgh: 3,220Aberdeen: 1,397 Cornish Brittonic 563 2,000 Cornwall Akademi KernewekCornish Language Partnership () Truro: 118 Manx / Goidelic 100+, including a small number of children who are new native speakers 1,823 Isle of Man Douglas: 507=== Mixed languages ===* Beurla Reagaird, Highland travellers' language* Shelta, based largely on Irish and Hiberno-English (some 86,000 speakers in 2009)." ], [ "Classification", "Classification of Celtic languages according to Insular vs. Continental hypothesis.", "''(click to enlarge)''Classification of Indo-European languages.", "''(click to enlarge)''The Celtic nations, where Celtic languages are spoken today, or were spoken into the modern era:The second of the four Botorrita plaques.", "The third plaque is the longest text discovered in any ancient Celtic language.", "However, this plaque is inscribed in Latin script.Celtic is divided into various branches:* Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).", "Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy.", "Coins with Lepontic inscriptions have been found in Noricum and Gallia Narbonensis.", "* Celtiberian, also called Eastern or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic, spoken in the ancient Iberian Peninsula, in the eastern part of Old Castile and south of Aragon.", "Modern provinces: Segovia, Burgos, Soria, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Zaragoza and Teruel.", "The relationship of Celtiberian with Gallaecian, in northwest Iberia, is uncertain.", "* Gallaecian, also known as Western or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, anciently spoken in the northwest of the peninsula (modern Northern Portugal, and the Spanish regions of Galicia, Asturias and northwestern Castile and León).", "* Gaulish languages, including Galatian and possibly Noric.", "These were once spoken in a wide arc from Belgium to Turkey.", "They are now all extinct.", "* Brittonic, spoken in Great Britain and Brittany.", "Including the living languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh, and the lost Cumbric and Pictish, though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of Common Brittonic.", "Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language there.", "The theory of a Brittonic Ivernic language predating Goidelic speech in Ireland has been suggested, but is not widely accepted.", "* Goidelic, including the extant Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic.=== Continental/Insular Celtic and P/Q-Celtic hypotheses ===Scholarly handling of Celtic languages has been contentious owing to scarceness of primary source data.", "Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) posit that the primary distinction is between Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages.", "Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words.", "Most of the Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Celtiberian languages are Q-Celtic.", "The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages.", "According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' : \"Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early.", "\"The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter, having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era and having evolved into Breton.In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic.", "It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt).", "In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late.The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC.", "However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic.", "The controversial paper by Forster and Toth included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years.", "They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis.", "The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis.", "Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories.", "However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation ''-nm-'' > ''-nu'' (Gaelic ''ainm'' / Gaulish ''anuana'', Old Welsh ''enuein'' \"names\"), that is less accidental than only one.", "The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a Gallo-Brittonic dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986).The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory.", "Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is \"out of favour\" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis \"widely accepted\".When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, \"Q-Celtic\" is equivalent to \"Goidelic\" and \"P-Celtic\" is equivalent to \"Brittonic\".How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used:\"'''Insular Celtic hypothesis'''\"* Proto-Celtic** Continental Celtic *** Celtiberian *** Gallaecian *** Gaulish ** Insular Celtic*** Brittonic*** Goidelic\"'''P/Q-Celtic hypothesis'''\"* Proto-Celtic** Q-Celtic*** Celtiberian *** Gallaecian *** Goidelic** P-Celtic*** Gaulish *** Brittonic=== Eska (2010) ===Eska evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on shared innovations, though it is not always clear that the innovations are not areal features.", "It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust.", "On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure.", "Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun ''*i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od'' into an uninflected enclitic particle.", "Eska sees Cisalpine Gaulish as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish.", "* Celtic** Celtiberian** Gallaecian** Nuclear Celtic?", "*** Cisalpine Celtic: Lepontic → Cisalpine Gaulish *** Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic (secure)**** Transalpine Gaulish (\"Transalpine Celtic\")**** Insular Celtic***** Goidelic***** BrittonicEska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a sprachbund.", "However, if they have another explanation (such as an SOV substratum language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be:* Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic (P-Celtic hypothesis)** Goidelic** Gallo-Brittonic*** Transalpine Gaulish (\"Transalpine Celtic\")*** Brittonic=== Italo-Celtic ===Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily.", "This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist Calvert Watkins in 1966.Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses." ], [ "Characteristics", "Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances.", "* consonant mutations (Insular Celtic only)* inflected prepositions (Insular Celtic only)* two grammatical genders (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders, although Gaulish may have merged the neuter and masculine in its later forms)* a vigesimal number system (counting by twenties)** Cornish \"fifty-six\" (literally \"sixteen and two twenty\")* verb–subject–object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)* an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others* an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a passive or intransitive** Welsh \"I teach\" vs. \"is taught, one teaches\"** Irish \"I teach\" vs. \"is taught, one teaches\"* no infinitives, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or verbnoun* frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g.", "formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.", "* use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause** mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativisers** particles for negation, interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations* pronouns positioned between particles and verbs* lack of simple verb for the imperfective \"have\" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition** Cornish \"I have a cat\", literally \"there is a cat to me\"** Welsh \"I have a cat\", literally \"a cat is with me\"** Irish \"I have a cat\", literally \"there is a cat at me\"* use of periphrastic constructions to express verbal tense, voice, or aspectual distinctions* distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and copula* bifurcated demonstrative structure* suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns* use of singulars or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappearedExamples:: : (Literal translation) ''Do not bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.", "'':* is the genitive of .", "The the result of affection; the is the lenited form of .", ":* is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition .", ":* The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half.", "Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order.", ": : (Literally) ''four on fifteen and four twenties'':* is a mutated form of , which is (\"five\") plus (\"ten\").", "Likewise, is a mutated form of .", ":* The multiples of ten are .=== Comparison table ===The lexical similarity between the different Celtic languages is apparent in their core vocabulary, especially in terms of actual pronunciation.", "Moreover, the phonetic differences between languages are often the product of regular sound change (i.e.", "lenition of /b/ into /v/ or Ø).The table below has words in the modern languages that were inherited direct from Proto-Celtic, as well as a few old borrowings from Latin that made their way into all the daughter languages.", "There is often a closer match between Welsh, Breton and Cornish on the one hand and Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx on the other.", "For a fuller list of comparisons, see the Swadesh list for Celtic.", "English Brittonic Goidelic Welsh Breton Cornish IrishGaelic ScottishGaelicManx bee ''seillean''''shellan'' big ''mòr''''mooar'' dog , ( \"hound\") ''cù''''coo'' fish † † † ''iasg''''yeeast'' full ''làn''''lane'' goat ''gobhar''''goayr'' house ''taigh''''thie'' lip (anatomical) ''bile''''meill'' mouth of a river ''inbhir''''inver'' four ''ceithir''''kiare'' night ''oidhche''''oie'' number† ''rhif, nifer''† † † ''àireamh''''earroo'' three ''trì''''tree'' milk † † † ''bianne, leachd''''bainney'' you (sg) ''thu, tu''''oo'' star ''reult, rionnag''''rollage'' today ''an-diugh''''jiu'' tooth , ''fiacaill, deud''''feeackle'' (to) fall ''tuit(eam)''''tuitt(ym)'' (to) smoke ''smocadh''''toghtaney, smookal'' (to) whistle ''fead''''fed'' time, weather \"time\", \"weather\" ''aimsir''''emshyr''† Borrowings from Latin.=== Examples ===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.", "''* * * * * *" ], [ "Possible members of the family", "Several poorly-documented languages may have been Celtic.", "*'''Ancient Belgian'''* '''Camunic''' is an extinct language spoken in the first millennium BC in the Val Camonica and Valtellina valleys of the Central Alps.", "It has recently been proposed that it was a Celtic language.", "* '''Ivernic'''* '''Ligurian''', on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling the southeast French and northwest Italian coasts, including parts of Tuscany, Elba and Corsica.", "Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language similar to Gaulish.", "The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999).", "Ancient Ligurian is listed as either Celtic (epigraphic), or Para-Celtic (onomastic).", "* '''Lusitanian''', spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers of western Iberia (a region straddling the present border of Portugal and Spain).", "Known from only five inscriptions and various place names.", "It is an Indo-European language and some scholars have proposed that it may be a para-Celtic language that evolved alongside Celtic or formed a dialect continuum or sprachbund with Tartessian and Gallaecian.", "This is tied to a theory of an Iberian origin for the Celtic languages.", "It is also possible that the Q-Celtic languages alone, including Goidelic, originated in western Iberia (a theory that was first put forward by Edward Lhuyd in 1707) or shared a common linguistic ancestor with Lusitanian.", "Secondary evidence for this hypothesis has been found in research by biological scientists, who have identified (1) deep-rooted similarities in human DNA found precisely in both the former Lusitania and Ireland, and; (2) the so-called \"Lusitanian distribution\" of animals and plants unique to western Iberia and Ireland.", "Both phenomena are now generally thought to have resulted from human emigration from Iberia to Ireland, in the late Paleolithic or early Mesolithic eras.", "Other scholars see greater linguistic affinities between Lusitanian, proto-Gallo-Italic (particularly with Ligurian) and Old European.", "Prominent modern linguists such as Ellis Evans, believe Gallaecian-Lusitanian was in fact one same language (not separate languages) of the \"P\" Celtic variant.", "* '''Rhaetic''', spoken in central Switzerland, Tyrol in Austria, and the Alpine regions of northeast Italy.", "Documented by a limited number of short inscriptions (found through Northern Italy and Western Austria) in two variants of the Etruscan alphabet.", "Its linguistic categorization is not clearly established, and it presents a confusing mixture of what appear to be Etruscan, Indo-European, and uncertain other elements.", "Howard Hayes Scullard argues that Rhaetian was also a Celtic language.", "* '''Tartessian''', spoken in the southwest of the Iberia Peninsula (mainly southern Portugal and southwest Spain).", "Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions, with the longest having 82 readable signs.", "John T. Koch argues that Tartessian was also a Celtic language." ], [ "See also", "* Ogham* Celts* Celts (modern)* A Swadesh list of the modern Celtic languages* Celtic Congress* Celtic League* Continental Celtic languages* Italo-Celtic* Language family" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Ball, Martin J.", "& James Fife (ed.)", "(1993).", "''The Celtic Languages''.", "London: Routledge.", ".", "* Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.)", "(1996).", "''The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* * ''Celtic Linguistics, 1700–1850'' (2000).", "London; New York: Routledge.", "8 vols comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.", "* * * * Lewis, Henry & Holger Pedersen (1989).", "''A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar''.", "Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.", ".", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Aberdeen University Celtic Department * \"Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages\", by Meredith Richard* Celts and Celtic Languages (PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Color" ], [ "Introduction", "Colored pencils'''Color''' (American English) or '''colour''' (Commonwealth English) is the visual perception based on the electromagnetic spectrum.", "Though color is not an inherent property of matter, color perception is related to an object's light absorption, reflection, emission spectra and interference.", "For most humans, colors are perceived in the visible light spectrum with three types of cone cells (trichromacy).", "Other animals may have a different number of cone cell types or have eyes sensitive to different wavelength, such as bees that can distinguish ultraviolet, and thus have a different color sensitivity range.", "Animal perception of color originates from different light wavelength or spectral sensitivity in cone cell types, which is then processed by the brain.Colors have perceived properties such as hue, colorfulness (saturation) and luminance.", "Colors can also be additively mixed (commonly used for actual light) or subtractively mixed (commonly used for materials).", "If the colors are mixed in the right proportions, because of metamerism, they may look the same as a single-wavelength light.", "For convenience, colors can be organized in a color space, which when being abstracted as a mathematical color model can assign each region of color with a corresponding set of numbers.", "As such, color spaces are an essential tool for color reproduction in print, photography, computer monitors and television.", "The most well-known color models are RGB, CMYK, YUV, HSL and HSV.Because the perception of color is an important aspect of human life, different colors have been associated with emotions, activity, and nationality.", "Names of color regions in different cultures can have different, sometimes overlapping areas.", "In visual arts, color theory is used to govern the use of colors in an aesthetically pleasing and harmonious way.", "The theory of color includes the color complements; color balance; and classification of primary colors (traditionally red, yellow, blue), secondary colors (traditionally orange, green, purple) and tertiary colors.", "The study of colors in general is called color science." ], [ "Physical properties", "The visible spectrum perceived from 390 to 710 nm wavelengthElectromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity.", "When the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 390 nm to 700 nm), it is known as \"visible light\".Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's ''spectrum'' is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength.", "Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations.", "In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species.", "In each such class, the members are called ''metamers'' of the color in question.", "This effect can be visualized by comparing the light sources' spectral power distributions and the resulting colors.=== Spectral colors ===The familiar colors of the rainbow in the spectrum—named using the Latin word for ''appearance'' or ''apparition'' by Isaac Newton in 1671—include all those colors that can be produced by visible light of a single wavelength only, the ''pure spectral'' or ''monochromatic'' colors.", "The spectrum above shows approximate wavelengths (in nm) for spectral colors in the visible range.", "Spectral colors have 100% purity, and are fully saturated.", "A complex mixture of spectral colors can be used to describe any color, which is the definition of a light power spectrum.The spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors linguistically is a matter of culture and historical contingency.", "Despite the ubiquitous ROYGBIV mnemonic used to remember the spectral colors in English, the inclusion or exclusion of colors is contentious, with disagreement often focused on indigo and cyan.", "Even if the subset of color terms is agreed, their wavelength ranges and borders between them may not be.The ''intensity'' of a spectral color, relative to the context in which it is viewed, may alter its perception considerably according to the Bezold–Brücke shift; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive green.", "In color models capable of representing spectral colors, such as CIELUV, a spectral color has the maximal saturation.", "In Helmholtz coordinates, this is described as 100% purity.=== Color of objects ===The physical color of an object depends on how it absorbs and scatters light.", "Most objects scatter light to some degree and do not reflect or transmit light specularly like glasses or mirrors.", "A transparent object allows almost all light to transmit or pass through, thus transparent objects are perceived as colorless.", "Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead absorbing or reflecting the light it receives.", "Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects are seen colored because they scatter or absorb certain wavelengths of light via internal scatterance.", "The absorbed light is often dissipated as heat." ], [ "Color vision<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Colour vision\"></span>", "=== Development of theories of color vision ===The upper disk and the lower disk have exactly the same objective color, and are in identical gray surroundings; based on context differences, humans perceive the squares as having different reflectances, and may interpret the colors as different color categories; see checker shadow illusion.Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already written on the nature of light and color vision, it was not until Newton that light was identified as the source of the color sensation.", "In 1810, Goethe published his comprehensive ''Theory of Colors'' in which he provided a rational description of color experience, which 'tells us how it originates, not what it is'.", "(Schopenhauer)In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory, based on the observation that any color could be matched with a combination of three lights.", "This theory was later refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz.", "As Helmholtz puts it, \"the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in 1856.Young's theory of color sensations, like so much else that this marvelous investigator achieved in advance of his time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell directed attention to it.", "\"At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color, noting that color blindness and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-orange, yellow-violet, and black-white).", "Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory.In 1931, an international group of experts known as the ''Commission internationale de l'éclairage'' (CIE) developed a mathematical color model, which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to each.=== Color in the eye ===Normalized typical human cone cell responses (S, M, and L types) to monochromatic spectral stimuliThe ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths.", "Humans are trichromatic—the retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones.", "One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that is perceived as blue or blue-violet, with wavelengths around 450 nm; cones of this type are sometimes called ''short-wavelength cones'' or ''S cones'' (or misleadingly, ''blue cones'').", "The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically: ''middle-wavelength cones'', ''M cones'', or ''green cones'' are most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 540 nm, while the ''long-wavelength cones'', ''L cones'', or ''red cones'', are most sensitive to light that is perceived as greenish yellow, with wavelengths around 570 nm.Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the eye.", "Each cone type adheres to the principle of univariance, which is that each cone's output is determined by the amount of light that falls on it over all wavelengths.", "For each location in the visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated.", "These amounts of stimulation are sometimes called ''tristimulus values''.The response curve as a function of wavelength varies for each type of cone.", "Because the curves overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination.", "For example, it is not possible to stimulate ''only'' the mid-wavelength (so-called \"green\") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated to some degree at the same time.", "The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human ''color space''.", "It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors.The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve.", "In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all.", "On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response.", "(Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light in the \"red\" range.)", "In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone.", "These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, which describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as a function of temperature and intensity.=== Color in the brain ===While the mechanisms of color vision at the level of the retina are well-described in terms of tristimulus values, color processing after that point is organized differently.", "A dominant theory of color vision proposes that color information is transmitted out of the eye by three opponent processes, or opponent channels, each constructed from the raw output of the cones: a red–green channel, a blue–yellow channel, and a black–white \"luminance\" channel.", "This theory has been supported by neurobiology, and accounts for the structure of our subjective color experience.", "Specifically, it explains why humans cannot perceive a \"reddish green\" or \"yellowish blue\", and it predicts the color wheel: it is the collection of colors for which at least one of the two color channels measures a value at one of its extremes.The exact nature of color perception beyond the processing already described, and indeed the status of color as a feature of the perceived world or rather as a feature of our ''perception'' of the world—a type of qualia—is a matter of complex and continuing philosophical dispute.dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown.", "The ventral stream is responsible for color perception.From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2.The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the \"thin stripes\" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form).", "Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4.This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO.", "Area V4 was initially suggested by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color, and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others, a finding confirmed by subsequent studies.", "The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2 and V3.Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called globs.", "This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of hues found in color space.=== Nonstandard color perception ======= Color vision deficiency ====A color vision deficiency causes an individual to perceive a smaller gamut of colors than the standard observer with normal color vision.", "The effect can be mild, having lower \"color resolution\" (i.e.", "anomalous trichromacy), moderate, lacking an entire dimension or channel of color (e.g.", "dichromacy), or complete, lacking all color perception (i.e.", "monochromacy).", "Most forms of color blindness derive from one or more of the three classes of cone cells either being missing, having a shifted spectral sensitivity or having lower responsiveness to incoming light.", "In addition, cerebral achromatopsia is caused by neural anomalies in those parts of the brain where visual processing takes place.Some colors that appear distinct to an individual with normal color vision will appear metameric to the color blind.", "The most common form of color blindness is congenital red–green color blindness, affecting ~8% of males.", "Individuals with the strongest form of this condition (dichromacy) will experience blue and purple, green and yellow, teal and gray as colors of confusion, i.e.", "metamers.==== Tetrachromacy ====Outside of humans, which are mostly ''trichromatic'' (having three types of cones), most mammals are dichromatic, possessing only two cones.", "However, outside of mammals, most vertebrate are ''tetrachromatic'', having four types of cones, and includes most, birds, reptiles, amphibians and bony fish.", "An extra dimension of color vision means these vertebrates can see two distinct colors that a normal human would view as metamers.", "Some invertebrates, such as the mantis shrimp, have an even higher number of cones (12) that could lead to a richer color gamut than even imaginable by humans.The existence of human tetrachromats is a contentious notion.", "As many as half of all human females have 4 distinct cone classes, which could enable tetrachromacy.", "However, a distinction must be made between ''retinal (or weak) tetrachromats'', which express four cone classes in the retina, and ''functional (or strong) tetrachromats'', which are able to make the enhanced color discriminations expected of tetrachromats.", "In fact, there is only ''one'' peer-reviewed report of a functional tetrachromat.", "It is estimated that while the average person is able to see one million colors, someone with functional tetrachromacy could see a hundred million colors.==== Synesthesia ====In certain forms of synesthesia, perceiving letters and numbers (grapheme–color synesthesia) or hearing sounds (chromesthesia) will evoke a perception of color.", "Behavioral and functional neuroimaging experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route.", "Synesthesia can occur genetically, with 4% of the population having variants associated with the condition.", "Synesthesia has also been known to occur with brain damage, drugs, and sensory deprivation.The philosopher Pythagoras experienced synesthesia and provided one of the first written accounts of the condition in approximately 550 BCE.", "He created mathematical equations for musical notes that could form part of a scale, such as an octave.=== Afterimages ===After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range, photoreceptors of a given type become desensitized.", "For a few seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less strongly than they otherwise would.", "Colors observed during that period will appear to lack the color component detected by the desensitized photoreceptors.", "This effect is responsible for the phenomenon of afterimages, in which the eye may continue to see a bright figure after looking away from it, but in a complementary color.", "Afterimage effects have also been used by artists, including Vincent van Gogh.=== Color constancy ===When an artist uses a limited color palette, the human eye tends to compensate by seeing any gray or neutral color as the color which is missing from the color wheel.", "For example, in a limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black, and white, a mixture of yellow and black will appear as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of purple, and pure gray will appear bluish.The trichromatic theory is strictly true when the visual system is in a fixed state of adaptation.", "In reality, the visual system is constantly adapting to changes in the environment and compares the various colors in a scene to reduce the effects of the illumination.", "If a scene is illuminated with one light, and then with another, as long as the difference between the light sources stays within a reasonable range, the colors in the scene appear relatively constant to us.", "This was studied by Edwin H. Land in the 1970s and led to his retinex theory of color constancy.Both phenomena are readily explained and mathematically modeled with modern theories of chromatic adaptation and color appearance (e.g.", "CIECAM02, iCAM).", "There is no need to dismiss the trichromatic theory of vision, but rather it can be enhanced with an understanding of how the visual system adapts to changes in the viewing environment." ], [ "Reproduction", "The CIE 1931 color space xy chromaticity diagram with the visual locus plotted using the CIE (2006) physiologically relevant LMS fundamental color matching functions transformed into the CIE 1931 xy color space and converted into Adobe RGB.", "The triangle shows the gamut of Adobe RGB.", "The Planckian locus is shown with color temperatures labeled in Kelvins.", "The outer curved boundary is the spectral (or monochromatic) locus, with wavelengths shown in nanometers.", "The colors in this file are being specified using Adobe RGB.", "Areas outside the triangle cannot be accurately rendered since they are outside the gamut of Adobe RGB, therefore they have been interpreted.", "The colors depicted depend on the gamut and color accuracy of your display.Color reproduction is the science of creating colors for the human eye that faithfully represent the desired color.", "It focuses on how to construct a spectrum of wavelengths that will best evoke a certain color in an observer.", "Most colors are not spectral colors, meaning they are mixtures of various wavelengths of light.", "However, these non-spectral colors are often described by their dominant wavelength, which identifies the single wavelength of light that produces a sensation most similar to the non-spectral color.", "Dominant wavelength is roughly akin to hue.There are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (mixtures of red and violet light, from opposite ends of the spectrum).", "Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray, and white) and colors such as pink, tan, and magenta.Two different light spectra that have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color.", "They are metamers of that color.", "This is exemplified by the white light emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum.", "The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although the color rendering index of each light source may affect the color of objects illuminated by these metameric light sources.Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called ''primaries''.", "This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other media.", "There are a number of methods or color spaces for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors.", "Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the particular application.No mixture of colors, however, can produce a response truly identical to that of a spectral color, although one can get close, especially for the longer wavelengths, where the CIE 1931 color space chromaticity diagram has a nearly straight edge.", "For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green.Because of this, and because the ''primaries'' in color printing systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated spectral colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly.", "However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems.", "The range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the gamut.", "The CIE chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut.Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the initial measurement of color, or colorimetry.", "The characteristics of the color sensors in measurement devices (e.g.", "cameras, scanners) are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye.A color reproduction system \"tuned\" to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate results for other observers, according to color vision deviations to the standard observer.The different color response of different devices can be problematic if not properly managed.", "For color information stored and transferred in digital form, color management techniques, such as those based on ICC profiles, can help to avoid distortions of the reproduced colors.", "Color management does not circumvent the gamut limitations of particular output devices, but can assist in finding good mapping of input colors into the gamut that can be reproduced.=== Additive coloring ===Additive color mixing: combining red and green yields yellow; combining all three primary colors together yields white.Additive color is light created by mixing together light of two or more different colors.", "Red, green, and blue are the additive primary colors normally used in additive color systems such as projectors, televisions, and computer terminals.=== Subtractive coloring ===Subtractive color mixing: combining yellow and magenta yields red; combining all three primary colors together yields black.Twelve main pigment colorsSubtractive coloring uses dyes, inks, pigments, or filters to absorb some wavelengths of light and not others.", "The color that a surface displays comes from the parts of the visible spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore remain visible.", "Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors) well in all directions.", "When a pigment or ink is added, wavelengths are absorbed or \"subtracted\" from white light, so light of another color reaches the eye.If the light is not a pure white source (the case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting), the resulting spectrum will appear a slightly different color.", "Red paint, viewed under blue light, may appear black.", "Red paint is red because it scatters only the red components of the spectrum.", "If red paint is illuminated by blue light, it will be absorbed by the red paint, creating the appearance of a black object.The subtractive model also predicts the color resulting from a mixture of paints, or similar medium such as fabric dye, whether applied in layers or mixed together prior to application.", "In the case of paint mixed before application, incident light interacts with many different pigment particles at various depths inside the paint layer before emerging.=== Structural color ===Structural colors are colors caused by interference effects rather than by pigments.", "Color effects are produced when a material is scored with fine parallel lines, formed of one or more parallel thin layers, or otherwise composed of microstructures on the scale of the color's wavelength.", "If the microstructures are spaced randomly, light of shorter wavelengths will be scattered preferentially to produce Tyndall effect colors: the blue of the sky (Rayleigh scattering, caused by structures much smaller than the wavelength of light, in this case, air molecules), the luster of opals, and the blue of human irises.", "If the microstructures are aligned in arrays, for example, the array of pits in a CD, they behave as a diffraction grating: the grating reflects different wavelengths in different directions due to interference phenomena, separating mixed \"white\" light into light of different wavelengths.", "If the structure is one or more thin layers then it will reflect some wavelengths and transmit others, depending on the layers' thickness.Structural color is studied in the field of thin-film optics.", "The most ordered or the most changeable structural colors are iridescent.", "Structural color is responsible for the blues and greens of the feathers of many birds (the blue jay, for example), as well as certain butterfly wings and beetle shells.", "Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in peacock feathers, soap bubbles, films of oil, and mother of pearl, because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle.", "Numerous scientists have carried out research in butterfly wings and beetle shells, including Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke.", "Since 1942, electron micrography has been used, advancing the development of products that exploit structural color, such as \"photonic\" cosmetics." ], [ "Cultural perspective", "Colors, their meanings and associations can play a major role in works of art, including literature.=== Associations ===Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as national colors (in general described in individual color articles and color symbolism).", "The field of color psychology attempts to identify the effects of color on human emotion and activity.", "Chromotherapy is a form of alternative medicine attributed to various Eastern traditions.", "Colors have different associations in different countries and cultures.Different colors have been demonstrated to have effects on cognition.", "For example, researchers at the University of Linz in Austria demonstrated that the color red significantly decreases cognitive functioning in men.", "The combination of the colors red and yellow together can induce hunger, which has been capitalized on by a number of chain restaurants.Color plays a role in memory development too.", "A photograph that is in black and white is slightly less memorable than one in color.", "Studies also show that wearing bright colors makes you more memorable to people you meet.=== Terminology ===Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, etc), saturation, brightness.", "Some color words are derived from the name of an object of that color, such as \"orange\" or \"salmon\", while others are abstract, like \"red\".In the 1969 study ''Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution'', Brent Berlin and Paul Kay describe a pattern in naming \"basic\" colors (like \"red\" but not \"red-orange\" or \"dark red\" or \"blood red\", which are \"shades\" of red).", "All languages that have two \"basic\" color names distinguish dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors.", "The next colors to be distinguished are usually red and then yellow or green.", "All languages with six \"basic\" colors include black, white, red, green, blue, and yellow.", "The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, gray, white, pink, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and azure (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian, but not English)." ], [ "See also", "* Chromophore* Color analysis* Color in Chinese culture* Color mapping* Complementary colors* Impossible color* International Color Consortium* International Commission on Illumination* Lists of colors (compact version)* Neutral color* Pearlescent coating including Metal effect pigments* Pseudocolor* Primary, secondary and tertiary colors" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computation" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''computation''' is any type of arithmetic or non-arithmetic calculation that is well-defined.", "Common examples of computations are mathematical equations and computer algorithms.Mechanical or electronic devices (or, historically, people) that perform computations are known as ''computers''.", "The study of computation is the field of computability, itself a sub-field of computer science." ], [ "Introduction", "The notion that mathematical statements should be 'well-defined' had been argued by mathematicians since at least the 1600s, but agreement on a suitable definition proved elusive.", "A candidate definition was proposed independently by several mathematicians in the 1930s.", "The best-known variant was formalised by the mathematician Alan Turing, who defined a well-defined statement or calculation as any statement that could be expressed in terms of the initialisation parameters of a Turing Machine.", "Other (mathematically equivalent) definitions include Alonzo Church's ''lambda-definability'', Herbrand-Gödel-Kleene's ''general recursiveness'' and Emil Post's ''1-definability''.Today, any formal statement or calculation that exhibits this quality of well-definedness is termed '''computable''', while the statement or calculation itself is referred to as a '''computation'''.Turing's definition apportioned \"well-definedness\" to a very large class of mathematical statements, including all well-formed algebraic statements, and all statements written in modern computer programming languages.Despite the widespread uptake of this definition, there are some mathematical concepts that have no well-defined characterisation under this definition.", "This includes the halting problem and the busy beaver game.", "It remains an open question as to whether there exists a more powerful definition of 'well-defined' that is able to capture both computable and 'non-computable' statements.Some examples of mathematical statements that are computable include:* All statements characterised in modern programming languages, including C++, Python, and Java.", "* All calculations carried by an electronic computer, calculator or abacus.", "*\tAll calculations carried out on an analytical engine.", "* All calculations carried out on a Turing Machine.", "* The majority of mathematical statements and calculations given in maths textbooks.Some examples of mathematical statements that are ''not'' computable include:* Calculations or statements which are ill-defined, such that they cannot be unambiguously encoded into a Turing machine: (\"Paul loves me twice as much as Joe\").", "* Problem statements which do appear to be well-defined, but for which it can be proved that no Turing machine exists to solve them (such as the halting problem).=== The Physical process of computation ===Computation can be seen as a purely physical process occurring inside a closed physical system called a computer.", "Turing's 1937 proof, ''On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem'', demonstrated that there is a formal equivalence between computable statements and particular physical systems, commonly called computers.", "Examples of such physical systems are: Turing machines, human mathematicians following strict rules, digital computers, mechanical computers, analog computers and others." ], [ "Alternative accounts of computation", "=== The mapping account ===An alternative account of computation is found throughout the works of Hilary Putnam and others.", "Peter Godfrey-Smith has dubbed this the \"simple mapping account.\"", "Gualtiero Piccinini's summary of this account states that a physical system can be said to perform a specific computation when there is a mapping between the state of that system and the computation such that the \"microphysical states of the system mirror the state transitions between the computational states.", "\"=== The semantic account ===Philosophers such as Jerry Fodor have suggested various accounts of computation with the restriction that semantic content be a necessary condition for computation (that is, what differentiates an arbitrary physical system from a computing system is that the operands of the computation represent something).", "This notion attempts to prevent the logical abstraction of the mapping account of pancomputationalism, the idea that everything can be said to be computing everything.=== The mechanistic account ===Gualtiero Piccinini proposes an account of computation based on mechanical philosophy.", "It states that physical computing systems are types of mechanisms that, by design, perform physical computation, or the manipulation (by a functional mechanism) of a \"medium-independent\" vehicle according to a rule.", "\"Medium-independence\" requires that the property can be instantiated by multiple realizers and multiple mechanisms, and that the inputs and outputs of the mechanism also be multiply realizable.", "In short, medium-independence allows for the use of physical variables with properties other than voltage (as in typical digital computers); this is imperative in considering other types of computation, such as that which occurs in the brain or in a quantum computer.", "A rule, in this sense, provides a mapping among inputs, outputs, and internal states of the physical computing system." ], [ "Mathematical models", "In the theory of computation, a diversity of mathematical models of computation has been developed.Typical mathematical models of computers are the following:* State models including Turing machine, pushdown automaton, finite state automaton, and PRAM* Functional models including lambda calculus* Logical models including logic programming* Concurrent models including actor model and process calculiGiunti calls the models studied by computation theory ''computational systems,'' and he argues that all of them are mathematical dynamical systems with discrete time and discrete state space.", "He maintains that a computational system is a complex object which consists of three parts.", "First, a mathematical dynamical system with discrete time and discrete state space; second, a computational setup , which is made up of a theoretical part , and a real part ; third, an interpretation , which links the dynamical system with the setup ." ], [ "See also", "* Computability theory* Hypercomputation* Computational problem* Limits of computation* Computationalism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Clown" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''clown''' is a person who performs comedy and arts in a state of open-mindedness using physical comedy, typically while wearing distinct makeup or costuming and reversing folkway-norms.", "Clowns have a varied tradition with significant variations in costume and performance.", "The most recognisable clowns are those that commonly perform in the circus, characterized by colorful wigs, red noses, and oversized shoes.", "However, clowns have also played roles in theater and folklore, like the court jesters of the Middle Ages and the jesters and ritual clowns of various indigenous cultures.", "Their performances can elicit a range of emotions, from humor and laughter to fear and discomfort, reflecting complex societal and psychological dimensions.", "Through the centuries, clowns have continued to play significant roles in society, evolving alongside changing cultural norms and artistic expressions." ], [ "History", "The most ancient clowns have been found in the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, around 2400 BC.", "Unlike court jesters, clowns have traditionally served a socio-religious and psychological role, and traditionally the roles of priest and clown have been held by the same persons.Peter Berger writes, \"It seems plausible that folly and fools, like religion and magic, meet some deeply rooted needs in human society.\"", "For this reason, clowning is often considered an important part of training as a physical performance discipline, partly because tricky subject matter can be dealt with, but also because it requires a high level of risk and play in the performer.In anthropology, the term ''clown'' has been extended to comparable jester or fool characters in non-Western cultures.", "A society in which such clowns have an important position are termed ''clown societies'', and a clown character involved in a religious or ritual capacity is known as a ''ritual clown''.A Heyoka is an individual in Lakota and Dakota culture cultures who lives outside the constraints of normal cultural roles, playing the role of a backwards clown by doing everything in reverse.", "The Heyoka role is sometimes best filled by a Winkte.Many native tribes have a history of clowning.", "The Canadian clowning method developed by Richard Pochinko and furthered by his former apprentice, Sue Morrison, combines European and Native American clowning techniques.", "In this tradition, masks are made of clay while the creator's eyes are closed.", "A mask is made for each direction of the medicine wheel.", "During this process, the clown creates a personal mythology that explores their personal experiences.The circus clown tradition developed out of earlier comedic roles in theatre or ''Varieté'' shows during the 19th to mid 20th centuries.", "This recognizable character features outlandish costumes, distinctive makeup, colorful wigs, exaggerated footwear, and colorful clothing, with the style generally being designed to entertain large audiences.The first mainstream clown role was portrayed by Joseph Grimaldi (who also created the traditional whiteface make-up design).", "In the early 1800s, he expanded the role of Clown in the harlequinade that formed part of British pantomimes, notably at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and the Sadler's Wells and Covent Garden theatres.", "He became so dominant on the London comic stage that harlequinade Clowns became known as \"Joey\", and both the nickname and Grimaldi's whiteface make-up design are still used by other clowns.The comedy that clowns perform is usually in the role of a fool whose everyday actions and tasks become extraordinary—and for whom the ridiculous, for a short while, becomes ordinary.", "This style of comedy has a long history in many countries and cultures across the world.", "Some writers have argued that due to the widespread use of such comedy and its long history it is a need that is part of the human condition.The modern clowning school of comedy in the 21st century diverged from white-face clown tradition, with more of an emphasis on personal vulnerability and heightened sexuality.=== Origin ===The ''clown'' character developed out of the zanni ''rustic fool'' characters of the early modern commedia dell'arte, which were themselves directly based on the ''rustic fool'' characters of ancient Greek and Roman theatre.", "Rustic buffoon characters in Classical Greek theater were known as ''sklêro-paiktês'' (from ''paizein'': ''to play (like a child)'') or ''deikeliktas'', besides other generic terms for ''rustic'' or ''peasant''.", "In Roman theater, a term for clown was ''fossor'', literally ''digger; labourer''.Joseph Grimaldi as \"Joey\" the Clown, c. 1810The English word ''clown'' was first recorded c. 1560 (as ''clowne, cloyne'') in the generic meaning ''rustic, boor, peasant''.", "The origin of the word is uncertain, perhaps from a Scandinavian word cognate with ''clumsy''.", "It is in this sense that ''Clown'' is used as the name of fool characters in Shakespeare's ''Othello'' and ''The Winter's Tale''.", "The sense of ''clown'' as referring to a professional or habitual fool or jester developed soon after 1600, based on Elizabethan ''rustic fool'' characters such as Shakespeare's.The harlequinade developed in England in the 17th century, inspired by Arlecchino and the commedia dell'arte.", "It was here that ''Clown'' came into use as the given name of a stock character.", "Originally a foil for Harlequin's slyness and adroit nature, Clown was a buffoon or bumpkin fool who resembled less a jester than a comical idiot.", "He was a lower class character dressed in tattered servants' garb.The now-classical features of the clown character were developed in the early 1800s by Joseph Grimaldi, who played Clown in Charles Dibdin's 1800 pantomime ''Peter Wilkins: or Harlequin in the Flying World'' at Sadler's Wells Theatre, where Grimaldi built the character up into the central figure of the harlequinade.===Modern circuses ===The circus clown developed in the 19th century.", "The modern circus derives from Philip Astley's London riding school, which opened in 1768.Astley added a clown to his shows to amuse the spectators between equestrian sequences.", "American comedian George L. Fox became known for his clown role, directly inspired by Grimaldi, in the 1860s.Tom Belling senior (1843–1900) developed the ''red clown'' or ''Auguste'' (''Dummer August'') character c. 1870, acting as a foil for the more sophisticated ''white clown''.", "Belling worked for Circus Renz in Vienna.", "Belling's costume became the template for the modern stock character of circus or children's clown, based on a lower class or ''hobo'' character, with red nose, white makeup around the eyes and mouth, and oversized clothes and shoes.", "The clown character as developed by the late 19th century is reflected in Ruggero Leoncavallo's 1892 opera ''Pagliacci'' (''Clowns'').Belling's ''Auguste'' character was further popularized by Nicolai Poliakoff's ''Coco'' in the 1920s to 1930s.The English word ''clown'' was borrowed, along with the circus clown act, by many other languages, such as French ''clown'', Russian (and other Slavic languages) кло́ун, Greek κλόουν, Danish/Norwegian ''klovn'', Romanian ''clovn'' etc.Italian retains ''Pagliaccio'', a Commedia dell'arte zanni character, and derivations of the Italian term are found in other Romance languages, such as French ''Paillasse'', Spanish ''payaso'', Catalan/Galician ''pallasso'', Portuguese ''palhaço'', Greek παλιάτσος, Turkish ''palyaço'', German ''Pajass'' (via French) Yiddish פּאַיאַץ (''payats''), Russian пая́ц, Romanian ''paiață''.=== 20th-century North America ===In the early 20th century, with the disappearance of the rustic simpleton or village idiot character of everyday experience, North American circuses developed characters such as the tramp or hobo.", "Examples include Marceline Orbes, who performed at the Hippodrome Theater (1905), Charlie Chaplin's ''The Tramp'' (1914), and Emmett Kelly's ''Weary Willie'' based on hobos of the Depression era.", "Another influential tramp character was played by Otto Griebling during the 1930s to 1950s.", "Red Skelton's Dodo the Clown in ''The Clown'' (1953), depicts the circus clown as a tragicomic stock character, \"a funny man with a drinking problem\".In the United States, Bozo the Clown was an influential ''Auguste'' character since the late 1950s.", "''The Bozo Show'' premiered in 1960 and appeared nationally on cable television in 1978.McDonald's derived its mascot clown, Ronald McDonald, from the ''Bozo'' character in the 1960s.", "Willard Scott, who had played ''Bozo'' during 1959–1962, performed as the mascot in 1963 television spots.", "The McDonald's trademark application for the character dates to 1967.Based on the ''Bozo'' template, the US custom of birthday clown, private contractors who offer to perform as clowns at children's parties, developed in the 1960s to 1970s.", "The strong association of the (''Bozo''-derived) clown character with children's entertainment as it has developed since the 1960s also gave rise to Clown Care or ''hospital clowning'' in children's hospitals by the mid-1980s.", "Clowns of America International (established 1984) and World Clown Association (established 1987) are associations of semi-professionals and professional performers.The shift of the ''Auguste'' or ''red clown'' character from his role as a foil for the white in circus or pantomime shows to a ''Bozo''-derived standalone character in children's entertainment by the 1980s also gave rise to the evil clown character, with the attraction of clowns for small children being based in their fundamentally threatening or frightening nature.", "The fear of clowns, particularly circus clowns, has become known by the term \"coulrophobia.\"" ], [ "Types", "There are different types of clowns portrayed around the world.", "They include* Auguste* Blackface* Buffoon* Harlequin* Jester* Mime artist* Pierrot* Pueblo* Rodeo clown* Tramp* Whiteface=== Circus ====== Pierrot and Harlequin ===The classical pairing of the White Clown with Auguste in modern traditionhas a precedent in the pairing of Pierrot and Harlequin in the Commedia dell'arte.Originally, Harlequin's role was that of a light-hearted, nimble and astute servant, paired with the sterner and melancholic Pierrot.In the 18th-century English Harlequinade, Harlequin was now paired with Clown.As developed by Joseph Grimaldi around 1800, Clown became the mischievous and brutish foil for the more sophisticated Harlequin, who became more of a romantic character.", "The most influential such pair in Victorian England were the Payne Brothers, active during the 1860s and 1870s.===White and Auguste ===Les Rossyann, ''white clown'' and clumsy ''Auguste'' from FranceThe ''white clown'', or ''clown blanc'' in French, is a sophisticated character, as opposed to the clumsy Auguste.", "The two types are also distinguished as the ''sad clown'' (blanc) and ''happy clown'' (Auguste).The Auguste face base makeup color is a variation of pink, red, or tan rather than white.", "Features are exaggerated in size, and are typically red and black in color.", "The mouth is thickly outlined with white (called the muzzle) as are the eyes.", "Appropriate to the character, the Auguste can be dressed in either well-fitted garb or a costume that does not fit – oversize or too small, either is appropriate.", "Bold colors, large prints or patterns, and suspenders often characterize Auguste costumes.The Auguste character-type is often an anarchist, a joker, or a fool.", "He is clever and has much lower status than the whiteface.", "Classically the whiteface character instructs the Auguste character to perform his bidding.", "The Auguste has a hard time performing a given task, which leads to funny situations.", "Sometimes the Auguste plays the role of an anarchist and purposefully has trouble following the whiteface's directions.", "Sometimes the Auguste is confused or is foolish and makes errors less deliberately.The ''contra-auguste'' plays the role of the mediator between the white clown and the Auguste character.", "He has a lower status than the white clown but a higher status than the Auguste.", "He aspires to be more like the white clown and often mimics everything the white clown does to try to gain approval.", "If there is a contra-auguste character, he often is instructed by the whiteface to correct the Auguste when he is doing something wrong.G.L.", "Fox, the original Humpty Dumpty, c. 1860sThere are two major types of clowns with whiteface makeup:The classic ''white clown'' is derived from the Pierrot character.", "His makeup is white, usually with facial features such as eyebrows emphasized in black.", "He is the more intelligent and sophisticated clown, contrasting with the rude or grotesque ''Auguste'' types.", "Francesco Caroli and Glenn \"Frosty\" Little are examples of this type.", "The second type of whiteface is the buffoonish clown of the ''Bozo'' type, known as ''Comedy'' or ''Grotesque Whiteface''.", "This type has grotesquely emphasized features, especially a red nose and red mouth, often with partial (mostly red) hair.", "In the comedic partnership of Abbott and Costello, Bud Abbot would have been the classic whiteface and Lou Costello the comedy whiteface or Auguste.Traditionally, the whiteface clown uses ''clown white'' makeup to cover the entire face and neck, leaving none of the underlying natural skin visible.", "In the European whiteface makeup, the ears are painted red.Whiteface makeup was originally designed by Joseph Grimaldi in 1801.He began by painting a white base over his face, neck and chest before adding red triangles on the cheeks, thick eyebrows and large red lips set in a mischievous grin.", "Grimaldi's design is used by many modern clowns.", "According to Grimaldi's biographer Andrew McConnell Stott, it was one of the most important theatrical designs of the 1800s.America's first great whiteface clown was stage star George \"G.L.\"", "Fox.", "Inspired by Grimaldi, Fox popularised the Humpty Dumpty stories throughout the U.S. in the 1860s.=== Scary and Evil ===The scary clown, also known as the evil clown or killer clown, is a subversion of the traditional comic clown character, in which the playful trope is instead depicted in a more disturbing nature through the use of horror elements and dark humor.", "The character can be seen as playing on the sense of unease felt by those with coulrophobia, the fear of clowns.", "The modern archetype of the evil clown was popularized by DC Comics character the Joker starting in 1940 and again by Pennywise in Stephen King's novel ''IT'', which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience.", "In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of a clown, named \"Pennywise\", and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most.=== Character ===The character clown adopts an eccentric character of some type, such as a butcher, a baker, a policeman, a housewife or hobo.", "Prime examples of this type of clown are the circus tramps Otto Griebling and Emmett Kelly.", "Red Skelton, Harold Lloyd, Buster Keaton, Charlie Chaplin, Rowan Atkinson and Sacha Baron Cohen would all fit the definition of a character clown.The character clown makeup is a comic slant on the standard human face.", "Their makeup starts with a flesh tone base and may make use of anything from glasses, mustaches and beards to freckles, warts, big ears or strange haircuts.The most prevalent character clown in the American circus is the ''hobo'', ''tramp'' or ''bum'' clown.", "There are subtle differences in the American character clown types.", "The primary differences among these clown types is attitude.", "According to American circus expert Hovey Burgess, they are:* The Hobo: Migratory and finds work where he travels.", "Down on his luck but maintains a positive attitude.", "* The Tramp: Migratory and does not work where he travels.", "Down on his luck and depressed about his situation.", "* The Bum: Non-migratory and non-working." ], [ "Organizations", "The World Clown Association is a worldwide organization for clowns, jugglers, magicians, and face painters.", "It holds an annual convention, mainly in the United States.Clowns of America International is a Minnesota-based non-profit clown arts membership organization which aims \"to share, educate, and act as a gathering place for serious minded amateurs, semiprofessionals, and professional clowns\".", "'''Clowns International''' is a British clowning organisation dating back to the 1940s.", "It is responsible for the Clown Egg Register." ], [ "Terminology", "=== Roles and skills ===In the circus, a clown might perform other circus roles or skills.", "Clowns may perform such skills as tightrope, juggling, unicycling, Master of Ceremonies, or ride an animal.", "Clowns may also \"sit in\" with the orchestra.", "Other circus performers may also temporarily stand in for a clown and perform their skills in clown costume.=== Frameworks ===Frameworks are the general outline of an act that clowns use to help them build out an act.", "Frameworks can be loose, including only a general beginning and ending to the act, leaving it up to the clown's creativity to fill in the rest, or at the other extreme a fully developed script that allows very little room for creativity.Shows are the overall production that a clown is a part of, it may or may not include elements other than clowning, such as in a circus show.", "In a circus context, clown shows are typically made up of some combination of ''entrées, side dishes, clown stops, track gags, gags'' and ''bits''.=== Gags, bits and business ===* '''Business''' – the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character.", "* '''Gag''' – very short piece of clown comedy that, when repeated within a ''bit'' or ''routine'', may become a ''running gag''.", "Gags are, loosely, the jokes clowns play on each other.", "A gag may have a beginning, a middle, and an end – or may not.", "Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower.", "* '''Bit''' – the clown's sketch or routine, made up of one or more gags either worked out and timed before going on stage, or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material=== Menu ===* '''Entrée''' — clowning acts lasting 5–10 minutes.", "Typically made up of various gags and bits, usually within a clowning framework.", "Entrées almost always end with a ''blow-off'' — the comedic ending of a show segment, bit, gag, stunt, or routine.", "* '''Side dish''' — shorter feature act.", "Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the ''entrée,'' typically lasting 1–3 minutes.", "Typically made up of various gags and bits, side dishes are usually within a clowning framework.", "Side dishes almost always end with a ''blow-off.", "''=== Interludes ===''Clown Stops'' or ''interludes'' are the brief appearances of clowns in a circus while the props and rigging are changed.", "These are typically made up of a few ''gags'' or several ''bits''.", "Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle, and an end to them, invariably culminating in a blow-off.", "These are also called ''reprises'' or ''run-ins'' by many, and in today's circus they are an art form in themselves.", "Originally they were bits of ''business'' usually parodying the preceding act.", "If for instance there had been a tightrope walker the reprise would involve two chairs with a piece of rope between and the clown trying to imitate the ''artiste'' by trying to walk between them, with the resulting falls and cascades bringing laughter from the audience.", "Today, interludes are far more complex, and in many modern shows the clowning is a thread that links the whole show together.=== Prop stunts ===Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the ''too-many-clowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car'' stunt; doing just about anything with a rubber chicken, tripping over one's own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor), or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or clown bicycles.", "Individual prop stunts are generally considered individual bits." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Joseph-Grimaldi-head.jpg|Joseph Grimaldi as Clown, showing his own make-up design (1820)File:Actor in clown costume - Weir Collection.jpg|Actor in a clown costume ()File:SAND Maurice Masques et bouffons 05.jpg|The Italian of c. 1600 (Maurice Sand, ''Masques et bouffons (Comedie Italienne)'', 1860)File:Paillasse.jpg|The French character (1885 engraving)File:Chuchin the clown.jpg|''Chuchín'' (José de Jesus Medrano), a famous Mexican circus clown from the late 1960s to 1984File:Arm & Hammer Brand Soda poster ca.", "1900.jpg|A circus clown in an ''Arm & Hammer Brand Soda'' advertisement poster ()File:Auguste clown with a pie at a parade.jpg|Clowns are often associated with the pie-in-the-face gag.", "An auguste clown holds a pie at a parade.File:Paul Cézanne- Pierrot and Harlequin.JPG|''Pierrot and Harlequin'' by Paul Cézanne (1898)File:Smilie 2.JPG|Smilie The ClownFile:Geclown.jpg|Swedish actor Gösta Ekman senior (1890-1938) as a whiteface clown in the play ''Han som får örfilarna'' (He Who Gets Slapped) by Leonid Andreyev (1926)File:Lasse Beischer (2686825990).jpg|Typical aspects of an Auguste; white muzzle and eyes (Swedish actor in a performance of , 2008 photograph)File:Inger-Nilsson-1970-in-Helsinki.jpg|10-year-old Swedish actress Inger Nilsson during her visit to Helsinki, Finland in February 1970; she is here seen with the Finnish clown Onni Gideon in Helsinki Ice HallFile:Bozo's Circus 1968.JPG|1968 postcard, main cast of ''Bozo's Circus'' (WGN-TV); left to right, ''Ringmaster Ned'' (Ned Locke), ''Mr.", "Bob'' (bandleader Bob Trendler), ''Bozo the Clown'' (Bob Bell), ''Oliver O. Oliver'' (Ray Rayner), ''Sandy the Clown'' (Don Sandburg)File:Aquatic team with clowns at Kirk Kove (I0005668).tif|Aquatic team with clowns at Kirk Kove, 1959File:Colorful Clown 3.jpg|Toddles The ClownFile:Clown chili peppers.jpg|Clown at a Memorial Day parade, 2004File:Clown dusseldorf.jpg|Clown of DüsseldorfFile:Motley (PSF).png|a person attached or owing service to a household to provide casual entertainment and commonly dressed in motley with cap, bells, and baubleFile:Joker.jpg|Joker ClownFile:Carnival Joker.jpg|Carnival JokerFile:AU Wien, Prater, arlekin 1, 2011.08.05 (4) COR.jpg|A sculpture of a clown at the Wurstelprater amusement park, Vienna" ], [ "See also", "* List of clowns* Bouffon* Clown car" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Quotes by and about Clowns* Collection: \"Clowns\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Coffea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Coffea''''' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae.", "''Coffea'' species are shrubs or small trees native to tropical and southern Africa and tropical Asia.", "The seeds of some species, called coffee beans, are used to flavor various beverages and products.", "The fruits, like the seeds, contain a large amount of caffeine, and have a distinct sweet taste.", "The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa.", "The coffee trade relies heavily on two of the over 120 species, ''Coffea arabica'' (commonly known simply as \"Arabica\"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and ''Coffea canephora'' (known as \"Robusta\"), which accounts for about 20–40%.", "Both coffee species are vulnerable to shifting growing zones caused by climate change, likely to result in a decline in production in some of the most important growing regions." ], [ "Cultivation and use", "Freshly harvested coffee cherries''Coffea'' fruits, Bali There are over 120 species of ''Coffea'', which is grown from seed.", "The two most popular are ''Coffea arabica'' (commonly known simply as \"Arabica\"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and ''Coffea canephora'' (known as \"Robusta\"), which accounts for about 20–40%. ''", "C. arabica'' is preferred for its sweeter taste, while ''C.", "canephora'' has a higher caffeine content.", "''C.", "arabica'' has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and was the result of a hybrid between ''C.", "canephora'' and ''C.", "eugenioides''.The trees produce edible red or purple fruits, which are described either as epigynous berries or as indehiscent drupes.", "The fruit is often referred to as a \"coffee cherry,\" and it contains two seeds, called \"coffee beans.\"", "Despite these terms, coffee is neither a true cherry (the fruit of certain species in the genus ''Prunus'') nor a true bean (seeds from plants in the family ''Fabaceae'').In about 5–10% of any crop of coffee fruits, only a single bean is found.", "Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean.When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of .", "Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.The tree of ''Coffea arabica'' will grow fruits after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, although up to 100 is possible.", "The white flowers are highly scented.", "The fruit takes about nine months to ripen.", "''Coffea'' flowerPollen grains of Coffee plant''Coffea'' fruit cross section''Coffea racemosa'' fruits''Coffea arabica'' beans germinating''Coffea arabica'' flowersRipe ''Coffea arabica'' fruitsBeans inside a ''Coffea arabica'' fruit''Coffea'' branches" ], [ "Ecology", "The caffeine in coffee beans serves as a toxic substance protecting the seeds of the plant, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory.", "Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers.", "Not all ''Coffea'' species contain caffeine, and the earliest species had little or no caffeine content.", "Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of ''Coffea'' in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa.", "Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera ''Theobroma'' (cacao) and ''Camellia'' (tea).", "This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution.", "The fruit and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make coffee cherry tea and coffee-leaf tea.", "The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (''Hypothenemus hampei'') and the coffee leafminer (''Leucoptera caffeina'').Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, ''Dalcera abrasa'', turnip moth and some members of the genus ''Endoclita'', including ''E.", "damor'' and ''E.", "malabaricus''." ], [ "Research", "New species of ''Coffea'' are still being identified in the 2000s.", "In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including ''C.", "ambongensis'', ''C.", "boinensis'', ''C.", "labatii'', ''C.", "pterocarpa'', ''C.", "bissetiae,'' and ''C.", "namorokensis.", "''In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon.", "''Coffea charrieriana'', which is caffeine-free, and ''Coffea anthonyi''.", "By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination.In 2011, ''Coffea'' absorbed the twenty species of the former genus ''Psilanthus'' due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera.", "Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: ''Coffea'' with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; ''Psilanthus'' with a long corolla tube and included anthers.", "However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence.", "This transfer expanded ''Coffea'' from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia.In 2014, the coffee genome was published, with more than 25,000 genes identified.", "This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants.In 2017, a robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published.", "In addition to resolving the relationships of ''Coffea'' species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.In 2020 a technique of DNA fingerprinting, or genetic authentication of plant material was proven effective for coffee.", "For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and SSR marker analysis.", "This technique or ones similar may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee." ], [ "Species", "# ''Coffea abbayesii'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea affinis'' De Wild.# ''Coffea alleizettii'' Dubard# ''Coffea ambanjensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea ambongenis'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis# ''Coffea andrambovatensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea ankaranensis'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis# ''Coffea anthonyi'' Stoff.", "& F.Anthony# ''Coffea arabica'' L.# ''Coffea arenesiana'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea augagneurii'' Dubard# ''Coffea bakossii'' Cheek & Bridson# ''Coffea benghalensis'' B.Heyne ex Schult.# ''Coffea bertrandii'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea betamponensis'' Portères & J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea bissetiae'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea boinensis'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea boiviniana'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea bonnieri'' Dubard# ''Coffea brassii'' (J.-F.Leroy) A.P.Davis# ''Coffea brevipes'' Hiern# ''Coffea bridsoniae'' A.P.Davis & Mvungi# ''Coffea buxifolia'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea canephora'' (''\"Coffea robusta\"'') Pierre ex A.Froehner# ''Coffea carrissoi'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea charrieriana'' Stoff.", "& F.Anthony# ''Coffea cochinchinensis'' Pierre ex Pit.# ''Coffea commersoniana'' (Baill.)", "A.Chev.# ''Coffea congensis'' A.Froehner# ''Coffea costatifructa'' Bridson# ''Coffea coursiana'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea dactylifera'' Robbr.", "& Stoff.# ''Coffea decaryana'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea dubardii'' Jum.# ''Coffea ebracteolata'' (Hiern) Brenan# ''Coffea eugenioides'' S.Moore# ''Coffea fadenii'' Bridson# ''Coffea farafanganensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea floresiana'' Boerl.# ''Coffea fotsoana'' Stoff.", "& Sonké# ''Coffea fragilis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea fragrans'' Wall.", "ex Hook.f.# ''Coffea gallienii'' Dubard# ''Coffea grevei'' Drake ex A.Chev.# ''Coffea heimii'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea homollei'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea horsfieldiana'' Miq.# ''Coffea humbertii'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea humblotiana'' Baill.# ''Coffea humilis'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea jumellei'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea kapakata'' (A.Chev.)", "Bridson# ''Coffea kianjavatensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea kihansiensis'' A.P.Davis & Mvungi# ''Coffea kimbozensis'' Bridson# ''Coffea kivuensis'' Lebrun# ''Coffea labatii'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea lancifolia'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea lebruniana'' Germ.", "& Kester# ''Coffea leonimontana'' Stoff.# ''Coffea leroyi'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea liaudii'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis# ''Coffea liberica'' Hiern# ''Coffea ligustroides'' S.Moore# ''Coffea littoralis'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea lulandoensis'' Bridson# ''Coffea mabesae'' (Elmer) J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea macrocarpa'' A.Rich.# ''Coffea madurensis'' Teijsm.", "& Binn.", "ex Koord.# ''Coffea magnistipula'' Stoff.", "& Robbr.# ''Coffea malabarica'' (Sivar., Biju & P.Mathew) A.P.Davis# ''Coffea mangoroensis'' Portères# ''Coffea mannii'' (Hook.f.)", "A.P.Davis# ''Coffea manombensis'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea mapiana'' Sonké, Nguembou & A.P.Davis# ''Coffea mauritiana'' Lam.# ''Coffea mayombensis'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea mcphersonii'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea melanocarpa'' Welw.", "ex Hiern# ''Coffea merguensis'' Ridl.# ''Coffea millotii'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea minutiflora'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea mogenetii'' Dubard# ''Coffea mongensis'' Bridson# ''Coffea montekupensis'' Stoff.# ''Coffea montis-sacri'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea moratii'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea mufindiensis'' Hutch.", "ex Bridson# ''Coffea myrtifolia'' (A.Rich.", "ex DC.)", "J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea namorokensis'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea neobridsoniae'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea neoleroyi'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea perrieri'' Drake ex Jum.", "& H.Perrier# ''Coffea pervilleana'' (Baill.)", "Drake# ''Coffea pocsii'' Bridson# ''Coffea pseudozanguebariae'' Bridson# ''Coffea pterocarpa'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea racemosa'' Lour.# ''Coffea rakotonasoloi'' A.P.Davis# ''Coffea ratsimamangae'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea resinosa'' (Hook.f.)", "Radlk.# ''Coffea rhamnifolia'' (Chiov.)", "Bridson# ''Coffea richardii'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea sahafaryensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea sakarahae'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea salvatrix'' Swynn.", "& Philipson# ''Coffea sambavensis'' J.-F.Leroy ex A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea sapinii'' (De Wild.)", "A.P.Davis# ''Coffea schliebenii'' Bridson# ''Coffea semsei'' (Bridson) A.P.Davis# ''Coffea sessiliflora'' Bridson# ''Coffea stenophylla'' G.Don# ''Coffea tetragona'' Jum.", "& H.Perrier# ''Coffea togoensis'' A.Chev.# ''Coffea toshii'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea travancorensis'' Wight & Arn.# ''Coffea tricalysioides'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea tsirananae'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea vatovavyensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea vavateninensis'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea vianneyi'' J.-F.Leroy# ''Coffea vohemarensis'' A.P.Davis & Rakotonas.# ''Coffea wightiana'' Wall.", "ex Wight & Arn.# ''Coffea zanguebariae'' Lour." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* World Checklist of Rubiaceae* Coffee & Conservation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cycling" ], [ "Introduction", "European city bike.Children riding a bike in Ghana.", "'''Cycling''', also known as '''bicycling''' or '''biking''', is the activity of riding a bicycle or other type of cycle.", "It encompasses the use of human-powered vehicles such as balance bikes, unicycles, tricycles, and quadricycles.", "Cycling is practised around the world for purposes including transport, recreation, exercise, and competitive sport." ], [ "History", "Cycling became popularlised in Europe and North America in the latter part and especially the last decade of the 19th century.", "Today, over 50 percent of the human population knows how to ride a bike.===War===The bicycle has been used as a method of reconnaissance as well as transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones.", "In this it has taken over many of the functions of horses in warfare.", "In the Second Boer War, both sides used bicycles for scouting.", "In World War I, France, Germany, Australia and New Zealand used bicycles to move troops.", "In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march or \"roll\" through Malaya in World War II.", "Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne \"Cycle-commandos\" with folding bikes.In the Vietnam War, communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.The last country known to maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was Switzerland, which disbanded its last unit in 2003." ], [ "Equipment", "Video of a recreational cycling ride in Alabama.In many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle.", "These have frames with relaxed geometry, protecting the rider from shocks of the road and easing steering at low speeds.", "Utility bicycles tend to be equipped with accessories such as mudguards, pannier racks and lights, which extends their usefulness on a daily basis.", "Since the bicycle is so effective as a means of transportation, various companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly shop to children on bicycles.", "Certain countries rely heavily on bicycles and their culture has developed around the bicycle as a primary form of transport.", "In Europe, Denmark and the Netherlands have the most bicycles per capita and most often use bicycles for everyday transport.Road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly.", "The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, making use of stronger muscles (particularly the gluteus maximus) and reducing air resistance at high speed.Road bikes are designed for speed and efficiency on paved roads.", "They are characterized by their lightweight frames, skinny tires, drop handlebars, and narrow saddles.", "Road bikes are ideal for racing, long-distance riding, and fitness training.Other common types of bikes include gravel bikes, designed for use on gravel roads or trails, but with the ability to ride well on pavement, mountain bikes which are designed for more rugged, undulating terrain, and e-bikes which provide some level of motorized assist for the rider.", "There are additional variations of bikes and types of biking as well.The price of a new bicycle can range from US$50 to more than US$20,000 (the highest priced bike in the world is the custom Madone by Damien Hirst, sold at US$500,000), depending on quality, type and weight (the most exotic road bicycles can weigh as little as 3.2 kg (7 lb)).", "However, UCI regulations stipulate a legal race bike cannot weigh less than 6.8 kg (14.99 lbs).", "Being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying.The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered.", "A middle grade dérailleur is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes are equipped with hub gears.", "If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing, a triple-chainrings crankset gear system may be preferred.", "Otherwise, the relatively lighter, simpler, and less expensive double chainring is preferred, even on high-end race bikes.", "Much simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available.Many road bikes, along with mountain bikes, include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via a cleat, enabling the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push.", "Other possible accessories for the bicycle include front and rear lights, bells or horns, child carrying seats, cycling computers with GPS, locks, bar tape, fenders (mud-guards), baggage racks, baggage carriers and pannier bags, water bottles and bottle cages.For basic maintenance and repairs cyclists can carry a pump (or a CO2 cartridge), a puncture repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers and a set of allen keys.", "Cycling can be more efficient and comfortable with special shoes, gloves, and shorts.", "In wet weather, riding can be more tolerable with waterproof clothes, such as cape, jacket, trousers (pants) and overshoes and high-visibility clothing is advisable to reduce the risk from motor vehicle users.Items legally required in some jurisdictions, or voluntarily adopted for safety reasons, include bicycle helmets, generator or battery operated lights, reflectors, and audible signalling devices such as a bell or horn.", "Extras include studded tires and a bicycle computer.Bikes can also be heavily customized, with different seat designs and handle bars, for example.", "Gears can also be customized to better suit the rider's strength in relation to the terrain." ], [ "Skills", "Many schools and police departments run educational programs to instruct children in bicycle handling skills, especially to introduce them to the rules of the road as they apply to cyclists.", "In some countries these may be known as bicycle rodeos, or operated as schemes such as Bikeability in the UK.", "Education for adult cyclists is available from organizations such as the League of American Bicyclists.Beyond simply riding, another skill is riding efficiently and safely in traffic.", "One popular approach to riding in motor vehicle traffic is vehicular cycling, occupying road space as car does.", "Alternately, in countries such as Denmark and the Netherlands, where cycling is popular, cyclists are often segregated into bike lanes at the side of, or more often separate from, main highways and roads.", "Many primary schools participate in the national road test in which children individually complete a circuit on roads near the school while being observed by testers." ], [ "Infrastructure", "A bike lane in Amsterdam.", "Bike lanes are dedicated for cyclists and provide shelter from vehicle traffic.Niigata, Japan.|alt=Hundreds of bicycles, grouped in rectangular parking places with driving paths in between.Bicycle stands outside the Centre for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Cambridge.", "Many students at the university opt to travel by bicycle.Cyclists, pedestrians and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts.", "Some jurisdictions give priority to motorized traffic, for example setting up one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads.", "Others share priority with cyclists so as to encourage more cycling by applying varying combinations of traffic calming measures to limit the impact of motorized transport, and by building bike lanes, bike paths and cycle tracks.", "The provision of cycling infrastructure varies widely between cities and countries, particularly since cycling for transportation almost entirely occurs in public streets.", "And, the development of computer vision and street view imagery has provided significant potential to assess infrastructure for cyclists.In jurisdictions where motor vehicles were given priority, cycling has tended to decline while in jurisdictions where cycling infrastructure was built, cycling rates have remained steady or increased.", "Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur.", "In Shanghai, where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transport, bicycle travel on a few city roads was banned temporarily in December 2003.In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using bicycle stands, lockable mini-garages, and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft.", "Local governments promote cycling by permitting bicycles to be carried on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles.", "Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling.Extensive cycling infrastructure may be found in some cities.", "Such dedicated paths in some cities often have to be shared with in-line skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians.", "Dedicated cycling infrastructure is treated differently in the law of every jurisdiction, including the question of liability of users in a collision.", "There is also some debate about the safety of the various types of separated facilities.Bicycles are considered a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and relatively shorter distances when used for transport (compared to recreation).", "Case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate this kind of functional cycling in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.A number of cities, including Paris, London and Barcelona, now have successful bike hire schemes designed to help people cycle in the city.", "Typically these feature utilitarian city bikes which lock into docking stations, released on payment for set time periods.", "Costs vary from city to city.", "In London, initial hire access costs £2 per day.", "The first 30 minutes of each trip is free, with £2 for each additional 30 minutes until the bicycle is returned.Utrecht.In the Netherlands, many roads have one or two separate cycleways alongside them, or cycle lanes marked on the road.", "On roads where adjacent bike paths or cycle tracks exist, the use of these facilities is compulsory, and cycling on the main carriageway is not permitted.", "Some 35,000 km of cycle-track has been physically segregated from motor traffic, equal to a quarter of the country's entire 140,000 km road network.", "A quarter of all trips in the country are made on bicycles, one quarter of them to work.", "Even the prime minister goes to work by bicycle, when weather permits.", "This saves the lives of 6,000 citizens per year, prolongs life expectancy by 6 months, saves the country 20 million dollars per year, and prevents 150 grams of from being emitted per kilometer of cycling." ], [ "Types", "===Utility===A bicycle loaded with tender coconuts for sale in Karnataka, India.|alt=A bicycle loaded with so many green fruits that the rear wheel can not be seen.Utility cycling refers both to cycling as a mode of daily commuting transport as well as the use of a bicycle in a commercial activity, mainly to transport goods, mostly accomplished in an urban environment.The postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles.", "The British Royal Mail first started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the UK, 25,700 in Germany, 10,500 in Hungary and 7000 in Sweden.", "In Australia, Australia Post has also reintroduced bicycle postal deliveries on some routes due to an inability to recruit sufficient licensed riders willing to use their uncomfortable motorbikes.", "The London Ambulance Service has recently introduced bicycling paramedics, who can often get to the scene of an incident in Central London more quickly than a motorized ambulance.The use of bicycles by police has been increasing, since they provide greater accessibility to bicycle and pedestrian zones and allow access when roads are congested.", "In some cases, bicycle officers have been used as a supplement or a replacement for horseback officers.Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries.", "In the UK and North America, as their first jobs, generations of teenagers have worked at delivering newspapers by bicycle.", "London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers.", "Most cities in the West, and many outside it, support a sizeable and visible industry of cycle couriers who deliver documents and small packages.", "In India, many of Mumbai's Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver home cooked lunches to the city's workers.", "In Bogotá, Colombia the city's largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles.", "Even the car industry uses bicycles.", "At the huge Mercedes-Benz factory in Sindelfingen, Germany workers use bicycles, color-coded by department, to move around the factory.===Recreational=======Bicycle touring====In the Netherlands, bicycles are freely available for use in the alt=A white bicycle parked in the grass.", "Tour de Fat group ride in alt=Many bicyclists with colorful clothesBicycles are used for recreation at all ages.", "Bicycle touring, also known as cyclotourism, involves touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure.", "Bicycle tourism has been one of the most popular sports for recreational benefit.", "A brevet or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride.One popular Dutch pleasure is the enjoyment of relaxed cycling in the countryside of the Netherlands.", "The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails and cycle tracks where cyclists are not bothered by cars and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling recreation.", "Many Dutch people subscribe every year to an event called ''fietsvierdaagse'' — four days of organised cycling through the local environment.", "Paris–Brest–Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over and imposes a 90-hour time limit.", "Similar if smaller institutions exist in many countries.A study conducted in Taiwan improved the environmental quality for bicyclist tourists which demonstrated greater health benefits in tourists and even in natives.", "The number of bicyclists in Taiwan increased from 700,000 in 2008 to 5.1 million in 2017.Thus, this resulted in more and safer bicycle routes to be established.", "When cycling, cyclists take into account the safety on the road, bicycle lanes, smooth roads, diverse scenery, and ride length.", "Thus, the environment plays a huge role in people's decision factor to use bicycle touring more.", "This study used many questionnaires and conducted statistical analysis to come up with the conclusion of cyclists' top 5 factors that they consider before making a decision to bike are: safety, lighting facility, design of lanes, the surrounding landscape, and how clean the environment is.", "Thus, after improving these 5 factors, they found much more recreational benefits to bicycle tourism.====Organized rides====Many cycling clubs hold organized rides in which bicyclists of all levels participate.", "The typical organized ride starts with a large group of riders, called the mass, bunch or even peloton.", "This will thin out over the course of the ride.", "Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill level to take advantage of drafting.Most organized rides, for example cyclosportives (or gran fondos), Challenge Rides or reliability trials, and hill climbs include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements.", "Rides usually consist of several different routes, sorted by mileage, and with a certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools.", "Routes can vary by as much as .San Jose Bike Party in San Jose, California (July 2019).Some organized rides are entirely social events.", "One example is the monthly San Jose Bike Party which can reach attendance of one to two thousand riders in Summer months.====Mountain====Mountain biking began in the 1970s, originally as a downhill sport, practised on customized cruiser bicycles around Mount Tamalpais.", "Most mountain biking takes place on dirt roads, trails and in purpose-built parks.", "Downhill mountain biking has just evolved in the recent years and is performed at places such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park.", "Slopestyle, a form of downhill, is when riders do tricks such as tailwhips, 360s, backflips and front flips.There are several disciplines of mountain biking besides downhill, including: cross country (often referred to as XC), all mountain, trail, free ride, and newly popular enduro.In 2020, due to COVID-19, mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$1000.====Other====The Marching and Cycling Band HHK from Haarlem (the Netherlands) is one of the few marching bands around the world which also performs on bicycles.===Racing===Tour de France cyclists racing.alt=A black-and-white picture of a man on an old bicycle.", "Another man is holding or pushing the bicycle.A peloton of professional bicycle racers on the Golden Gate Bridge.|alt=A group of bicyclist following a car.Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world.", "Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries.", "Large races became popular during the 1890s \"Golden Age of Cycling\", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well.", "At one point, almost every major city in the US had a velodrome or two for track racing events, however since the middle of the 20th century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain.", "The most famous of all bicycle races is the Tour de France.", "This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world.In 1899, Charles Minthorn Murphy became the first man to ride his bicycle a mile in under a minute (hence his nickname, Mile-a-Minute Murphy), which he did by drafting a locomotive at New York's Long Island.As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed.", "Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways.", "They range from the one-day road race, criterium, and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's Grand Tours.", "Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in 1934 after Marcel Berthet set a new hour record in his ''Velodyne streamliner'' (49.992 km on 18 November 1933).", "Track bicycles are used for track cycling in Velodromes, while cyclo-cross races are held on outdoor terrain, including pavement, grass, and mud.", "Cyclocross races feature human-made features such as small barriers which riders either bunny hop over or dismount and walk over.", "Time trial races, another form of road racing require a rider to ride against the clock.", "Time trials can be performed as a team or as a single rider.", "Bikes are changed for time trial races, using aero bars.", "In the past decade, mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport.Professional racing organizations place limitations on the bicycles that can be used in the races that they sanction.", "For example, the Union Cycliste Internationale, the governing body of international cycle sport (which sanctions races such as the Tour de France), decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules which prohibit racing bicycles weighing less than 6.8 kilograms (14.96 pounds).", "The UCI rules also effectively ban some bicycle frame innovations (such as the recumbent bicycle) by requiring a double triangle structure." ], [ "Activism", "Metropolitan Police patrolling on bikes in London.Many broad and correlated themes run in bicycle activism: one is about advocating the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport, and another is about the creation of conditions to permit and/or encourage bicycle use, both for utility and recreational cycling.", "Although the first emphasizes the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use, is relatively undisputed, the second is the subject of much debate.Critical Mass, 29 April 2005.|alt=Many cyclists on a road, all going in the same direction.It is generally agreed that improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation (including greater provision for cycle carriage on such services) create conditions to encourage bicycle use.", "However, there are different opinions on the role of various types of cycling infrastructure in building bicycle-friendly cities and roads.Some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisers) seek the construction of bike paths, cycle tracks and bike lanes for journeys of all lengths and point to their success in promoting safety and encouraging more people to cycle.", "Some activists, especially those from the vehicular cycling tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of such facilities with suspicion.", "They favor a more holistic approach based on the 4 'E's: ''education'' (of everyone involved), ''encouragement'' (to apply the education), ''enforcement'' (to protect the rights of others), and ''engineering'' (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so).", "Some groups offer training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic.Critical Mass is an event typically held on the last Friday of every month in cities around the world where bicyclists take to the streets ''en masse''.", "While the ride was founded with the idea of drawing attention to how unfriendly the city was to bicyclists, the leaderless structure of Critical Mass makes it impossible to assign it any one specific goal.", "In fact, the purpose of Critical Mass is not formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and traveling as a group through city streets.There is a long-running cycle helmet debate among activists.", "The most heated controversy surrounds the topic of compulsory helmet use.It is paradoxical that in many developing countries cycling is in decline as bicycles are replaced by motorbikes and cars, while in many developed countries cycling is on the rise.=== Equality ===Within western societies the demographic of those who cycle is often not representative of broader society.", "Research by TfL in London, UK, suggests that cyclists in London are typically 'white, under 40, male, with medium to high household income.'", "Studies from large-scale representative data from Germany show that people with higher levels of education cycle substantially more often than those with lower levels of education.", "Even for trips of the same distance and among people from the same city with the same income level, those with higher education cycle more.", "As a result, there are various forms of activism focused on diversifying the cycling community.", "Inspired by the Black Lives Matter movement are organizations such as Street Riders NYC that seek to protest while on bicycles about systemic racism and police brutality.", "An incidental experience for Street Riders NYC protest participants is the inequity in where safe bicycling infrastructure exists by neighbourhood, which is interpreted as a form of classism within cycling and urbanism.", "The bicycle has acted as a means for women's liberation and thus has links to feminism." ], [ "Associations", "Headquarters of the Union Cycliste Internationale in Switzerland.Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, bike maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.)", "and for more global goals (energy conservation, pollution reduction, promotion of fitness).", "Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways.", "In the United States, the League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national Good Roads Movement.", "Their model for political organization, as well as the paved roads for which they argued, facilitated the growth of the automobile.In Europe, the European Cyclists' Federation represents around 70 local, regional and national civil society organisations across more than 40 countries that work to promote cycling as a mode of transport and leisure.As a sport, cycling is governed internationally by the Union Cycliste Internationale in Switzerland, USA Cycling (merged with the United States Cycling Federation in 1995) in the United States, (for upright bicycles) and by the International Human Powered Vehicle Association (for other HPVs, or human-powered vehicles).", "Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European level by the European Cyclists' Federation, with associated members from Great Britain, Japan and elsewhere.", "Regular conferences on cycling as transport are held under the auspices of Velo City; global conferences are coordinated by Velo Mondial." ], [ "Cycling as a means of transportation", "Cycling is widely regarded as an effective and efficient mode of transportation optimal for short to moderate distances.Bicycles provide numerous possible benefits in comparison with motor vehicles, including the sustained physical exercise involved in cycling, easier parking, increased maneuverability, and access to roads, bike paths and rural trails.", "Cycling also offers a reduced consumption of fossil fuels, less air and noise pollution, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and greatly reduced traffic congestion.", "These have a lower financial cost for users as well as for society at large (negligible damage to roads, less road area required).", "By fitting bicycle racks on the front of buses, transit agencies can significantly increase the areas they can serve.Among the disadvantages of cycling are the requirement of bicycles (excepting tricycles or quadricycles) for the rider to have certain level of basic skill to remain upright, the reduced protection in crashes in comparison to motor vehicles, often longer travel time (except in densely populated areas), vulnerability to weather conditions, difficulty in transporting passengers, and the fact that a basic level of fitness is required for cycling moderate to long distances." ], [ "Health effects", "Cycling provides a variety of health benefits and reduces the risk of cancers, heart disease, and diabetes that are prevalent in sedentary lifestyles.", "Cycling on stationary bikes have also been used as part of rehabilitation for lower limb injuries, particularly after hip surgery.", "Individuals who cycle regularly have also reported mental health improvements, including less perceived stress and better vitality.The health benefits of cycling outweigh the risks, when cycling is compared to a sedentary lifestyle.", "A Dutch study found that cycling can extend lifespans by up to 14 months, but the risks equated to a reduced lifespan of 40 days or less.", "Mortality rate reduction was found to be directly correlated to the average time spent cycling, totaling to approximately 6500 deaths prevented by cycling.", "Cycling in the Netherlands is often safer than in other parts of the world, so the risk-benefit ratio will be different in other regions.", "Overall, benefits of cycling or walking have been shown to exceed risks by ratios of 9:1 to 96:1 when compared with no exercise at all, including a wide variety of physical and mental outcomes.===Exercise===alt=A man with sports clothes and a white helmet on a bicycle on a road.The physical exercise gained from cycling is generally linked with increased health and well-being.", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), physical inactivity is second only to tobacco smoking as a health risk in developed countries, and is associated with 20-30% increased risk of various cancers, heart disease, and diabetes and tens of billions of dollars of healthcare costs.", "The WHO's 2009 report suggests that increasing physical activity is a public health \"best buy\", and that cycling is a \"highly suitable activity\" for this purpose.", "The charity Sustrans reports that investment in cycling provision can give a 20:1 return from health and other benefits.", "It has been estimated that, on average, approximately 20 life-years are gained from the health benefits of road bicycling for every life-year lost through injury.Bicycles are often used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health.", "Recent studies on the use of cycling for commutes have shown that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular outcomes by 11%, with slightly more risk reduction in women than in men.", "In addition, cycling is especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs who are unable to pursue sports that cause impact to the knees and other joints.", "Since cycling can be used for the practical purpose of transportation, there can be less need for self-discipline to exercise.Cycling while seated is a relatively non-weight bearing exercise that, like swimming, does little to promote bone density.", "Cycling up and out of the saddle, on the other hand, does a better job by transferring more of the rider's body weight to the legs.", "However, excessive cycling while standing can cause knee damage It used to be thought that cycling while standing was less energy efficient, but recent research has proven this not to be true.", "Other than air resistance, there is no wasted energy from cycling while standing, if it is done correctly.Cycling on a stationary cycle is frequently advocated as a suitable exercise for rehabilitation, particularly for lower limb injury, owing to the low impact which it has on the joints.", "In particular, cycling is commonly used within knee rehabilitation programs, to strengthen the quadriceps muscles with minimal stress on the knee ligaments.", "Further stress of the knee can be relieved by changing seat heights and pedal position to improve the rehabilitation.", "Cycling is also used for rehabilitation after hip surgery to manage soft-tissue healing, control swelling and pain, and allow a larger range of motion to the nearby muscles earlier during recovery.", "As a result, many institutions have established a rehabilitation protocol that involves stationary cycling as part of the recovery process.", "One such protocol offered by Mayo Clinic recommends 2–4 weeks of cycling on an upright stationary bike following hip arthroscopy, starting from 5 minutes per session and slowly increasing to 30 minutes per session.", "The goal of these sessions are to reduce joint inflammation and maintain the widest range of motion possible with limited pain.", "Bike at Prins Hendrikkade, Amsterdam.As a response to the increased global sedentary lifestyles and consequent overweight and obesity, one response that has been adopted by many organizations concerned with health and environment is the promotion of Active travel, which seeks to promote walking and cycling as safe and attractive alternatives to motorized transport.", "Given that many journeys are for relatively short distances, there is considerable scope to replace car use with walking or cycling, though in many settings this may require some infrastructure modification, particularly to attract the less experienced and confident.An Italian study assessed the impact of cycling for commute on major non-communicable diseases and public healthcare costs.", "Using a health economic assessment model, the study found a lower incidence of type 2 diabetes, acute myocardial infarction, and stroke in individuals that cycled compared to those that did not actively commute.", "This model estimated that public healthcare costs would reduce by 5% over a 10-year period.Illinois designated cycling as its official state exercise in 2007.=== Mental health ===The effects of cycling on overall mental health have often been studied.", "A European study surveying participants from seven cities about self-perceived health based on primary modes of transportation reported favorable results in the bicycle use population.", "The bicycle use group reported predominantly good self-perceived health, less perceived stress, better mental health, better vitality, and less loneliness.", "The study attributed these results to possible economic benefits and senses of both independence and identity as a member of a cyclist community.", "An English study recruiting non-cyclist older adults aged 50 to 83 to participate as either conventional pedal bike cyclists, electrically assisted e-bike cyclists, or a non-cyclist control group in outdoor trails measured cognitive function through executive function, spatial reasoning, and memory tests and well-being through questionnaires.", "The study did not find significant differences in spatial reasoning or memory tests.", "It did, however, find that both cyclists groups had improved executive function and well-being, both with greater improvement in the e-bike group.", "This suggested that non-physical factors of cycling such as independence, engagement with the outdoor environment, and mobility play a greater role in improving mental health.A 15-month randomized controlled trial in the U.S. examined the impact of self-paced cycling on cognitive function in institutionalized older adults without cognitive impairment.", "Researchers used three cognitive assessments: Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Fuld object memory evaluation, and symbol digit modality test.", "The study found that long-term cycling for at least 15 minutes per day in older adults without cognitive impairment had a protective effect on cognition and attention.Cycling has also been shown to be effective adjunct therapy in certain mental health conditions." ], [ "Bicycle safety", "Virgin Mary venerated as the holy protector of bicyclists on the roads of the mountainous Basque Country.|alt=A statue, covered with flowers.Cycling suffers from a perception that it is unsafe.", "This perception is not always backed by hard numbers, because of under reporting of crashes and lack of bicycle use data (amount of cycling, kilometers cycled) which make it hard to assess the risk and monitor changes in risks.In the UK, fatality rates per mile or kilometre are slightly less than those for walking.", "In the US, bicycling fatality rates are less than 2/3 of those walking the same distance.", "However, in the UK for example the fatality and serious injury rates ''per hour of travel'' are just over double for cycling than those for walking.Despite the risk factors associated with bicycling, cyclists have a lower overall mortality rate when compared to other groups.", "A Danish study in 2000 found that even after adjustment for other risk factors, including leisure time physical activity, those who did not cycle to work experienced a 39% higher mortality rate than those who did.Injuries (to cyclists, from cycling) can be divided into two types:* Physical trauma (extrinsic)* Overuse (intrinsic)===Physical trauma===Acute physical trauma includes injuries to the head and extremities resulting from falls and collisions.", "Most cycle deaths result from a collision with a car or heavy goods vehicle.", "Drivers are at fault in the majority of these crashes.", "Segregated cycling infrastructure reduces the rate of crashes between bicycles and motor vehicles.Although a majority of bicycle collisions occur during the day, bicycle lighting is recommended for safety when bicycling at night to increase visibility.Taroko Gorge in Taiwan.Bicycles in Helsinki (Finland).===Overuse injuries===Of a study of 518 cyclists, a large majority reported at least one overuse injury, with over one third requiring medical treatment.", "The most common injury sites were the neck (48.8%) and the knees (41.7%), as well as the groin/buttocks (36.1%), hands (31.1%), and back (30.3%).", "Women were more likely to suffer from neck and shoulder pain than men.Many cyclists suffer from overuse injuries to the knees, affecting cyclists at all levels.", "These are caused by many factors:*Incorrect bicycle fit or adjustment, particularly the saddle.", "*Incorrect adjustment of clipless pedals.", "*Too many hills, or too many miles, too early in the training season.", "*Poor training preparation for long touring rides.", "*Selecting too high a gear.", "A lower gear for uphill climb protects the knees, even though muscles may be well able to handle a higher gear.Overuse injuries, including chronic nerve damage at weight bearing locations, can occur as a result of repeatedly riding a bicycle for extended periods of time.", "Damage to the ulnar nerve in the palm, carpal tunnel in the wrist, the genitourinary tract or bicycle seat neuropathy may result from overuse.", "Recumbent bicycles are designed on different ergonomic principles and eliminate pressure from the saddle and handlebars, due to the relaxed riding position.Note that overuse is a relative term, and capacity varies greatly between individuals.", "Someone starting out in cycling must be careful to increase length and frequency of cycling sessions slowly, starting for example at an hour or two per day, or a hundred miles or kilometers per week.", "Bilateral muscular pain is a normal by-product of the training process, whereas unilateral pain may reveal \"exercise-induced arterial endofibrosis\".", "Joint pain and numbness are also early signs of overuse injury.A Spanish study of top triathletes found those who cover more than 186 miles (300 km) a week on their bikes have less than 4% normal looking sperm, where normal adult males would be expected to have from 15% to 20%.===Saddle related===Much work has been done to investigate optimal bicycle saddle shape, size and position, and negative effects of extended use of less than optimal seats or configurations.Excessive saddle height can cause posterior knee pain, while setting the saddle too low can cause pain in the anterior of the knee.", "An incorrectly fitted saddle may eventually lead to muscle imbalance.", "A 25 to 35-degree knee angle is recommended to avoid an overuse injury.Although cycling is beneficial to health, men can be negatively affected by cycling more than three hours a week due to the significant weight on their perineum, an area located between the scrotum and the anus which hold some of the nerves and arteries that pass to the penis.", "This weight for continuous hours a week can cause men to experience numbness or tingling which can lead to them losing the ability to achieve an erection due to reduced blood flow; which 13% of males did experience in a study by Norwegian researchers who gathered data from 160 men participating in a long-distance bike tour.", "Fitting a proper sized seat can prevent this effect.", "In extreme cases, pudendal nerve entrapment can be a source of intractable perineal pain.", "Some cyclists with induced pudendal nerve pressure neuropathy gained relief from improvements in saddle position and riding techniques.The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has investigated the potential health effects of prolonged bicycling in police bicycle patrol units, including the possibility that some bicycle saddles exert excessive pressure on the urogenital area of cyclists, restricting blood flow to the genitals.", "Their study found that using bicycle seats without protruding noses reduced pressure on the groin by at least 65% and significantly reduced the number of cases of urogenital paresthesia.", "A follow-up found that 90% of bicycle officers who tried the no-nose seat were using it six months later.", "NIOSH recommends that riders use a no-nose bicycle seat for workplace bicycling.Despite rumors to the contrary, there is no scientific evidence linking cycling with testicular cancer.===Exposure to air pollution===One concern is that riding in traffic may expose the cyclist to higher levels of air pollution, especially cyclists regularly traveling on or along busy roads.", "Some authors have claimed this to be untrue, showing that the pollutant and irritant count within cars is consistently higher, presumably because of limited circulation of air within the car and due to the air intake being directly in the stream of other traffic.", "Other authors have found small or inconsistent differences in concentrations but claim that exposure of cyclists is higher due to increased minute ventilation and is associated with minor biological changes.", "A 2010 study estimated that the gained life expectancy from the health benefits of cycling (approximately 3–14 months gained) greatly exceeded the lost life expectancy from air pollution (approximately 0.8–40 days lost).", "However, a systematic review comparing the effects of air pollution exposure on the health of cyclists was conducted, but the authors concluded that the differing methodologies and measuring parameters of each study made it difficult to compare results and suggested a more holistic approach was needed to accomplish this.", "The significance of the associated health effect, if any, is unclear but probably much smaller than the health impacts associated with accidents and the health benefits derived from additional physical activity." ], [ "See also", "* Cycling mobility* History of cycling* Outline of bicycles* Bicycle culture* Cycle sport* Masters cycling* Fancy Women Bike Ride* List of films about bicycles and cycling" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carbohydrate" ], [ "Introduction", "Lactose is a disaccharide found in animal milk.", "It consists of a molecule of D-galactose and a molecule of D-glucose bonded by beta-1-4 glycosidic linkage.A '''carbohydrate''' () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or may not be different from ''n''), which does not mean the H has covalent bonds with O (for example with , H has a covalent bond with C but not with O).", "However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (e.g., uronic acids, deoxy-sugars such as fucose), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates (e.g.", "formaldehyde and acetic acid).The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of '''saccharide''' (), a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose.", "The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.", "Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.", "While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix ''-ose'', which was originally taken from the word glucose (), and is used for almost all sugars, e.g.", "fructose (fruit sugar), sucrose (cane or beet sugar), ribose, lactose (milk sugar), etc.Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms.", "Polysaccharides serve as an energy store (e.g.", "starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g.", "cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods).", "The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g.", "ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA.", "The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA.", "Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.Carbohydrates are central to nutrition and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods.", "Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta.", "Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables.", "Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes.Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber.", "Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating bowel movements.", "Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin, which feed some bacteria in the microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids." ], [ "Terminology", "In scientific literature, the term \"carbohydrate\" has many synonyms, like \"sugar\" (in the broad sense), \"saccharide\", \"ose\", \"glucide\", \"hydrate of carbon\" or \"polyhydroxy compounds with aldehyde or ketone\".", "Some of these terms, especially \"carbohydrate\" and \"sugar\", are also used with other meanings.In food science and in many informal contexts, the term \"carbohydrate\" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts).", "This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans.Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term \"carbohydrate\" (or \"carbohydrate by difference\") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol.", "This includes chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, which are not normally considered carbohydrates.", "It also includes dietary fiber which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute food energy in humans, even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it did (i.e., as if it were a digestible and absorbable carbohydrate such as a sugar).In the strict sense, \"sugar\" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in human food." ], [ "History", "The history of the discovery regarding carbohydrates dates back around 10,000 years ago in Papua New Guinea during the cultivation of Sugarcane during the Neolithic agricultural revolution .", "The term \"carbohydrate\" was first proposed by German chemist Carl Schmidt (chemist) in 1844.In 1856, glycogen, a form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist Claude Bernard." ], [ "Structure", "Formerly the name \"carbohydrate\" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula C''m'' (H2O)''n''.", "Following this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH2O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for glycolaldehyde.", "Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula.", "For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this.", "For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as: ''N''-acetyl (e.g.", "chitin), sulfate (e.g.", "glycosaminoglycans), carboxylic acid and deoxy modifications (e.g.", "fucose and sialic acid).Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula (CH2O)''n'' where ''n'' is three or more.", "A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)''x''(C=O)–(CHOH)''y''–H, that is, an aldehyde or ketone with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group.", "Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehydes.", "However, some biological substances commonly called \"monosaccharides\" do not conform to this formula (e.g.", "uronic acids and deoxy-sugars such as fucose) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g.", "formaldehyde CH2O and inositol (CH2O)6).The open-chain form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a closed ring form where the aldehyde/ketone carbonyl group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a hemiacetal with a new C–O–C bridge.Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in a large variety of ways.", "Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed.", "For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetyl glucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose." ], [ "Division", "Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type.", "They may be classified according to their degree of polymerization, and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.+ The major dietary carbohydrates Class(degree of polymerization) Subgroup Components Sugars (1–2) Monosaccharides Glucose, galactose, fructose, xylose Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose, isomaltulose, trehalose Polyols Sorbitol, mannitol Oligosaccharides (3–9) Malto-oligosaccharides Maltodextrins Other oligosaccharides Raffinose, stachyose, fructo-oligosaccharides Polysaccharides (>9) Starch Amylose, amylopectin, modified starches Non-starch polysaccharides Glycogen, Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectins, Hydrocolloids" ], [ "Monosaccharides", "D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6.The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar.Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates.", "They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups.", "The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H2O)n, literally a \"carbon hydrate\".", "Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids.", "The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes.===Classification of monosaccharides===185px185pxThe α and β anomers of glucose.", "Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β).Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness.", "If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose.", "Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on.", "These two systems of classification are often combined.", "For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone).Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereo centers with two possible configurations each (R or S).", "Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula.", "Using Le Bel-van't Hoff rule, the aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H2O)6, of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 24=16 possible stereoisomers.", "In the case of glyceraldehydes, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers.", "1, 3-dihydroxyacetone, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule with no stereo centers.", "The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar.", "The \"D-\" and \"L-\" prefixes should not be confused with \"d-\" or \"l-\", which indicate the direction that the sugar rotates plane polarized light.", "This usage of \"d-\" and \"l-\" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry.===Ring-straight chain isomerism===Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms.", "Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring.", "The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called anomers.", "In the ''α anomer'', the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CH2OH side branch.", "The alternative form, in which the CH2OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the ''β anomer''.===Use in living organisms===Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature as it is the product of photosynthesis in plants) and in biosynthesis.", "When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often polysaccharides.", "In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells.", "In plants, starch is used for the same purpose.", "The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose, is a structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae.", "Ribose is a component of RNA.", "Deoxyribose is a component of DNA.", "Lyxose is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart.", "Ribulose and xylulose occur in the pentose phosphate pathway.", "Galactose, a component of milk sugar lactose, is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and in glycoproteins in many tissues.", "Mannose occurs in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins.", "Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen.", "Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight." ], [ "Disaccharides", "Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide.", "It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right).Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide, the simplest kind of polysaccharide.", "Examples include sucrose and lactose.", "They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other.", "The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11.Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable.Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants.", "It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule.", "The systematic name for sucrose, ''O''-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things:* Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose* Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose and fructose is a furanose* How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose.", "* The ''-oside'' suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond.Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk.", "The systematic name for lactose is ''O''-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose.", "Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4).", "Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides.", "If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose." ], [ "Nutrition", "Grain products: rich sources of carbohydratesCarbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods.", "Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals.", "Lower amounts of digestible carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods as these foods have more fiber, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit.", "Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose.Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy.", "Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy.", "Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first.", "In ''Escherichia coli'', for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the ''lac'' operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie).", "Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy.", "Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans.", "These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists.", "Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose.", "Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber.", "Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.The Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of dietary energy from whole-grain carbohydrates.", "The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates).", "A 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease.===Classification===Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex.", "However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous.", "The term ''complex carbohydrate'' was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication ''Dietary Goals for the United States'' (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior).", "However, the report put \"fruit, vegetables and whole-grains\" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides.", "This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients).", "The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides).In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates.", "Some simple carbohydrates (e.g.", "fructose) raise blood glucose rapidly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), raise blood sugar slowly.", "The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.", "Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into \"available carbohydrates\", which are absorbed in the small intestine and \"unavailable carbohydrates\", which pass to the large intestine, where they are subject to fermentation by the gastrointestinal microbiota.The USDA's ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010'' call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from whole grain sources and the rest are from enriched.The glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion.", "They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels.", "Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods.", "The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.=== Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction ===Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.", "A \"meta-analysis, of moderate quality,\" included as adverse effects of the diet halitosis, headache and constipation.Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced.", "An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that \"when calorie intake is held constant ... body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.\"", "In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet.", "The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a \"metabolic advantage\", is not supported by clinical evidence.", "Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk.Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control.", "There is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing type 1 diabetes.", "The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy.", "Through celebrity endorsement during the early 21st century, it became a fad diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable side effects, such as low energy levels and increased hunger, insomnia, nausea, and gastrointestinal discomfort.", "The British Dietetic Association named it one of the \"top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018\"." ], [ "Sources", "Glucose tabletsMost dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose).", "Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey.", "Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California.+ Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g) Food item Carbohydrate, total, including dietary fiber Total sugars Free fructose Free glucose Sucrose Ratio of fructose/glucose Sucrose as proportion of total sugars (%) Fruits Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 19.9 Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.7 63.5 Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 1.0 20.0 Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9 0.93 0.15 Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 1.1 1 Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 1.1 50.4 Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.9 56.7 Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 2.1 8.0 Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 1.1 60.8 Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.66 16.2 Vegetables Beet, red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.51.0 96.2 Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 1.0 77 Red pepper, sweet 6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 1.2 0.0 Onion, sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.9 14.3 Sweet potato20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.9 60.3 Yam 27.9 0.5 Sugar cane 13–18 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0 11–16 1.0 high Sugar beet 17–18 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 16–17 1.0 high Grains Corn, sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.61 15.0 The carbohydrate value is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the \"dietary fiber\"." ], [ "Metabolism", "Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms.", "Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids.", "Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration.", "Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of energy, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal).", "The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage.", "Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP.", "Organisms capable of anaerobic and aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen (aerobic) to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.===Catabolism===Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy.", "There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called glycoside hydrolases.", "The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism.", "A 2 ATP investment is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to Glucose 6-Phosphate (G6P) and Fructose 6-Phosphate (F6P) to Fructose 1,6-biphosphate (FBP), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly.", "In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present." ], [ "Carbohydrate chemistry", "Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry.", "Some of the main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are:* Amadori rearrangement* Carbohydrate acetalisation* Carbohydrate digestion* Cyanohydrin reaction* Koenigs–Knorr reaction* Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation* Nef reaction* Wohl degradation" ], [ "See also", "* Bioplastic* Carbohydrate NMR* Gluconeogenesis – A process where glucose can be synthesized by non-carbohydrate sources.", "* Glycobiology* Glycogen* Glycoinformatics* Glycolipid* Glycome* Glycomics* Glycosyl* Macromolecule* Saccharic acid" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime)* IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature* Carbohydrates detailed* Carbohydrates and Glycosylation – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology* Functional Glycomics Gateway, a collaboration between the Consortium for Functional Glycomics and Nature Publishing Group" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CSS Virginia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CSS ''Virginia''''' was the first steam-powered ironclad warship built by the Confederate States Navy during the first year of the American Civil War; she was constructed as a casemate ironclad using the razéed (cut down) original lower hull and engines of the scuttled steam frigate .", "''Virginia'' was one of the participants in the Battle of Hampton Roads, opposing the Union's in March 1862.The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between ironclads." ], [ "USS ''Merrimack'' becomes CSS ''Virginia''", "When the Commonwealth of Virginia seceded from the Union in 1861, one of the important US military bases threatened was Gosport Navy Yard (now Norfolk Naval Shipyard) in Portsmouth, Virginia.", "Accordingly, orders were sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into Confederate hands.", "On the afternoon of 17 April, the day Virginia seceded, Engineer in Chief B. F. Isherwood managed to get the frigate's engines lit.", "However, the previous night secessionists had sunk light boats between Craney Island and Sewell's Point, blocking the channel.", "On 20 April, before evacuating the Navy Yard, the U. S. Navy burned ''Merrimack'' to the waterline and sank her to preclude capture.", "When the Confederate government took possession of the fully provisioned yard, the base's new commander, Flag Officer French Forrest, contracted on May 18 to salvage the wreck of the frigate.", "This was completed by May 30, and she was towed into the shipyard's only dry dock (today known as Drydock Number One), where the burned structures were removed.The wreck was surveyed and her lower hull and machinery were discovered to be undamaged.", "Stephen Mallory, Secretary of the Navy decided to convert ''Merrimack'' into an ironclad, since she was the only large ship with intact engines available in the Chesapeake Bay area.", "Preliminary sketch designs were submitted by Lieutenants John Mercer Brooke and John L. Porter, each of whom envisaged the ship as a casemate ironclad.", "Brooke's general design showed the bow and stern portions submerged, and his design was the one finally selected.", "The detailed design work would be completed by Porter, who was a trained naval constructor.", "Porter had overall responsibility for the conversion, but Brooke was responsible for her iron plate and heavy ordnance, while William P. Williamson, Chief Engineer of the Navy, was responsible for the ship's machinery.===Reconstruction as an ironclad===Display showing of iron armor backed by of woodThe hull's burned timbers were cut down past the vessel's original waterline, leaving just enough clearance to accommodate her large, twin-bladed screw propeller.", "A new fantail and armored casemate were built atop a new main deck, and a v-shaped (bulwark) was added to her bow, which attached to the armored casemate.", "This forward and aft main deck and fantail were designed to stay submerged and were covered in iron plate, built up in two layers.", "The casemate was built of of oak and pine in several layers, topped with two layers of iron plating oriented perpendicular to each other, and angled at 36 degrees from horizontal to deflect fired enemy shells.From reports in Northern newspapers, ''Virginia''s designers were aware of the Union plans to build an ironclad and assumed their similar ordnance would be unable to do much serious damage to such a ship.", "It was decided to equip their ironclad with a ram, an anachronism on a 19th-century warship.", "''Merrimack'''s steam engines, now part of ''Virginia'', were in poor working order; they had been slated for replacement when the decision was made to abandon the Norfolk naval yard.", "The salty Elizabeth River water and the addition of tons of iron armor and pig iron ballast, added to the hull's unused spaces for needed stability after her initial refloat, and to submerge her unarmored lower levels, only added to her engines' propulsion issues.", "As completed, ''Virginia'' had a turning radius of about and required 45 minutes to complete a full circle, which would later prove to be a major handicap in battle with the far more nimble ''Monitor''.", "''Merrimack'' is rebuilt into ''Virginia''The ironclad's casemate had 14 gun ports, three each in the bow and stern, one firing directly along the ship's centerline, the two others angled at 45° from the center line; these six bow and stern gun ports had exterior iron shutters installed to protect their cannon.", "There were four gun ports on each broadside; their protective iron shutters remained uninstalled during both days of the Battle of Hampton Roads.", "''Virginia''s battery consisted of four muzzle-loading single-banded Brooke rifles and six smoothbore Dahlgren guns salvaged from the old ''Merrimack''.", "Two of the rifles, the bow and stern pivot guns, were caliber and weighed each.", "They fired a shell.", "The other two were cannon of about , one on each broadside.", "The 9-inch Dahlgrens were mounted three to a side; each weighed approximately and could fire a shell up to a range of (or 1.9 miles) at an elevation of 15°.", "Both amidship Dahlgrens nearest the boiler furnaces were fitted-out to fire heated shot.", "On her upper casemate deck were positioned two anti-boarding/personnel 12-pounder Howitzers.", "''Virginia''s commanding officer, Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan, arrived to take command only a few days before her first sortie; the ironclad was placed in commission and equipped by her executive officer, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones." ], [ "Battle of Hampton Roads", "Chromolithograph depicting the Battle of Hampton RoadsThe Battle of Hampton Roads began on March 8, 1862, when ''Virginia'' engaged the blockading Union fleet.", "Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the new ironclad still had workmen on board when she sailed into Hampton Roads with her flotilla of five CSN support ships: (serving as ''Virginia''s tender) and , , , and .CSS ''Virginia'' ramming and sinking USS ''Cumberland''The first Union ship to be engaged by ''Virginia'' was the all-wood, sail-powered , which was first crippled during a furious cannon exchange, and then rammed in her forward starboard bow by ''Virginia''.", "As ''Cumberland'' began to sink, the port side half of ''Virginia''s iron ram was broken off, causing a bow leak in the ironclad.", "Seeing what had happened to ''Cumberland'', the captain of ordered his frigate into shallower water, where she soon grounded.", "''Congress'' and ''Virginia'' traded cannon fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged ''Congress'' finally surrendered.", "While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''.", "Outraged at such a breach of war protocol, in retaliation ''Virginia''s now angry captain, Commodore Franklin Buchanan, gave the order to open fire with hot-shot on the surrendered ''Congress'' as he rushed to ''Virginia''s exposed upper casemate deck, where he was injured by enemy rifle fire.", "''Congress'', now set ablaze by the retaliatory shelling, burned for many hours into the night, a symbol of Confederate naval power and a costly wake-up call for the all-wood Union blockading squadron.", "''Virginia'' did not emerge from the battle unscathed, however.", "Her hanging port side anchor was lost after ramming ''Cumberland''; the bow was leaking from the loss of the ram's port side half; shot from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and the shore-based Union batteries had riddled her smokestack, reducing her boilers' draft and already slow speed; two of her broadside cannon (without shutters) were put out of commission by shell hits; a number of her armor plates had been loosened; both of ''Virginia''s cutters had been shot away, as had both 12-pounder anti-boarding/anti-personnel howitzers, most of the deck stanchions, railings, and both flagstaffs.", "Even so, the now-injured Buchanan ordered an attack on , which had run aground on a sandbar trying to escape ''Virginia''.", "However, because of the ironclad's draft (fully loaded), she was unable to get close enough to do any significant damage.", "It being late in the day, ''Virginia'' retired from the conflict with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the remaining Union blockaders.Later that night, arrived at Union-held Fort Monroe.", "She had been rushed to Hampton Roads, still not quite complete, all the way from the Brooklyn Navy Yard, in hopes of defending the force of wooden ships and preventing \"the rebel monster\" from further threatening the Union's blockading fleet and nearby cities, like Washington, D.C.", "While under tow, she nearly foundered twice during heavy storms on her voyage south, arriving in Hampton Roads by the bright firelight from the still-burning triumph of ''Virginia''s first day of handiwork.The next day, on March 9, 1862, the world's first battle between ironclads took place.", "The smaller, nimbler, and faster ''Monitor'' was able to outmaneuver the larger, slower ''Virginia'', but neither ship proved able to do any severe damage to the other, despite numerous shell hits by both combatants, many fired at virtually point-blank range.", "''Monitor'' had a much lower freeboard and only its single, rotating, two-cannon gun turret and forward pilothouse sitting above her deck, and thus was much harder to hit with ''Virginia''s heavy cannon.", "After hours of shell exchanges, ''Monitor'' finally retreated into shallower water after a direct shell hit to her armored pilothouse forced her away from the conflict to assess the damage.", "The captain of the ''Monitor'', Lieutenant John L. Worden, had taken a direct gunpowder explosion to his face and eyes, blinding him, while looking through the pilothouse's narrow, horizontal viewing slits.", "''Monitor'' remained in the shallows, but as it was late in the day, ''Virginia'' steamed for her home port, the battle ending without a clear victor.", "The captain of ''Virginia'' that day, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones, received advice from his pilots to depart over the sandbar toward Norfolk until the next day.", "Lieutenant Jones wanted to continue the fight, but the pilots emphasized that the ''Virginia'' had \"nearly three miles to run to the bar\" and that she could not remain and \"take the ground on a falling tide.\"", "To prevent running aground, Lieutenant Jones reluctantly moved the ironclad back toward port.", "''Virginia'' retired to the Gosport Naval Yard at Portsmouth, Virginia, and remained in drydock for repairs until April 4, 1862.In the following month, the crew of ''Virginia'' were unsuccessful in their attempts to break the Union blockade.", "The blockade had been bolstered by the hastily ram-fitted paddle steamer , and SS ''Illinois'' as well as the and , which had been repaired.", "''Virginia'' made several sorties back over to Hampton Roads hoping to draw ''Monitor'' into battle.", "''Monitor'', however, was under strict orders not to re-engage; the two combatants would never battle again.On April 11, the Confederate Navy sent Lieutenant Joseph Nicholson Barney, in command of the paddle side-wheeler , along with ''Virginia'' and five other ships in full view of the Union squadron, enticing them to fight.", "When it became clear that Union Navy ships were unwilling to fight, the CS Navy squadron moved in and captured three merchant ships, the brigs ''Marcus'' and ''Sabout'' and the schooner ''Catherine T. Dix''.", "Their ensigns were then hoisted \"Union-side down\" to further taunt the Union Navy into a fight, as they were towed back to Norfolk, with the help of .By late April, the new Union ironclads USRC ''E.", "A. Stevens'' and had also joined the blockade.", "On May 8, 1862, ''Virginia'' and the James River Squadron ventured out when the Union ships began shelling the Confederate fortifications near Norfolk, but the Union ships retired under the shore batteries on the north side of the James River and on Rip Raps island.===Destruction of CSS ''Virginia''===''Destruction of the rebel vessel ''Merrimac'' off Craney Island, May 11, 1862,'' by Currier and Ives On May 10, 1862, advancing Union troops occupied Norfolk.", "Since ''Virginia'' was now a steam-powered heavy battery and no longer an ocean-going cruiser, her pilots judged her not seaworthy enough to enter the Atlantic, even if she were able to pass the Union blockade.", "''Virginia'' was also unable to retreat further up the James River due to her deep draft (fully loaded).", "In an attempt to reduce it, supplies and coal were dumped overboard, even though this exposed the ironclad's unarmored lower hull; this was still not enough to make a difference.", "Without a home port and no place to go, ''Virginia''s new captain, flag officer Josiah Tattnall III, reluctantly ordered her destruction in order to keep the ironclad from being captured.", "This task fell to Lieutenant Jones, the last man to leave ''Virginia'' after her cannons had been safely removed and carried to the Confederate Marine Corps base and fortifications at Drewry's Bluff.", "Early on the morning of May 11, 1862, off Craney Island, fire and powder trails reached the ironclads magazine and she was destroyed by a great explosion.", "What remained of the ship settled to the bottom of the harbor.", "Only a few remnants of ''Virginia'' have been recovered for preservation in museums; reports from the era indicate that her wreck was heavily salvaged following the war.", "''Monitor'' was lost on December 31 of the same year, when the vessel was swamped by high waves in a violent storm while under tow by the tug USS ''Rhode Island'' off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.", "Sixteen of her 62-member crew were either lost overboard or went down with the ironclad, while many others were saved by lifeboats sent from ''Rhode Island''.", "Subsequently, in August 1973, the wreckage was located on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean about southeast of Cape Hatteras.", "Her upside-down turret was raised from beneath her deep, capsized wreck years later with the remains of two of her crew still aboard; they were later buried with full military honors on March 8, 2013, at Arlington National Cemetery in Washington, D.C." ], [ "Historical names", "Although the Confederacy renamed the ship, she is still frequently referred to by her Union name.", "When she was first commissioned into the United States Navy in 1856, her name was ''Merrimack,'' with the ''K''; the name was derived from the Merrimack River near where she was built.", "She was the second ship of the U. S. Navy to be named for the Merrimack River, which is formed by the confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee rivers at Franklin, New Hampshire.", "The Merrimack flows south across New Hampshire, then eastward across northeastern Massachusetts before finally emptying in the Atlantic at Newburyport, Massachusetts.After raising, restoring, and outfitting as an ironclad warship, the Confederacy bestowed on her the name ''Virginia''.", "Nonetheless, the Union continued to refer to the Confederate ironclad by either its original name, ''Merrimack'', or by the nickname \"The Rebel Monster\".", "In the aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads, the names ''Virginia'' and ''Merrimack'' were used interchangeably by both sides, as attested to by various newspapers and correspondence of the day.", "Navy reports and pre-1900 historians frequently misspelled the name as \"Merrimac\", which was actually an unrelated ship, hence \"the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''\".", "Both spellings are still in use in the Hampton Roads area." ], [ "Memorial, heritage", "*A large exhibit at the Jamestown Exposition held in 1907 at Sewell's Point was the \"Battle of the ''Merrimac'' and ''Monitor'',\" a large diorama that was housed in a special building.", "*A small community in Montgomery County, Virginia, near where the coal burned by the Confederate ironclad was mined, is now known as Merrimac.", "*The October 8, 1867, issue of the ''Norfolk Virginian'' newspaper carried a prominent classified advertisement in the paper's \"Private Sales\" section for the salvaged iron ram of CSS ''Virginia''.", "The ad states:A RELIC OF WAR FOR SALE: The undersigned has had several offers for the IRON PROW!", "of the first iron-clad ever built, the celebrated Ram and Iron Clad Virginia, formerly the Merrimac.", "This immense RELIC WEIGHS 1,340 POUNDS, wrought iron, and as a sovereign of the war, and an object of interest as a revolution in naval warfare, would suit a Museum, State Institute, or some great public resort.", "Those desiring to purchase will please address D. A. UNDERDOWN, Wrecker, care of ''Virginian'' Office, Norfolk, Va.:It is unclear from the above whether this was the first iron ram that broke off and lodged in the starboard bow of the sinking USS ''Cumberland,'' during the first day of the Battle of Hampton Roads, or was the second iron ram affixed to ''Virginia''s bow at the time she was run aground and destroyed to avoid capture by Union forces; no further mention has been found concerning the final disposition of this historic artifact.Anchor of CSS ''Virginia'' at its former location at the American Civil War Museum*Other pieces of ''Virginia'' did survive and are on display at the Mariners' Museum in Newport News and the American Civil War Museum in Richmond, where one of her anchors resides on its front lawn.", "*In 1907, an armor plate from the ship was melted down and used in the casting of the Pokahuntas Bell for the Jamestown Exposition.", "*Starting around 1883, numerous souvenirs, made from recently salvaged iron and wood raised from ''Virginia''s sunken hulk, found a ready and willing market among eastern seaboard residents who remembered the historic first battle between ironclads.", "Various tokens, medals, medalets, sectional watch fobs, and other similar metal keepsakes are known to have been struck by private mints in limited quantities.", "Known examples still exist today, being held in both public and private collections, rarely coming up for public auction.", "Nine examples made from ''Virginia''s iron and copper can be found cataloged in great detail, with front and back photos, in David Schenkman's 1979 numismatic booklet listed in the Reference section (below).", "*The name of the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagement, with both Virginia and federal funds, also reflects the more recent version." ], [ "See also", "* Bibliography of American Civil War naval history" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* **********Nelson, James L. (2004).", "''The Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimack'' '', HarperCollins Publishers, New York, .", "* *Park, Carl D., (2007) ''Ironclad Down, USS ''Merrimack''-CSS ''Virginia'', From Construction to Destruction'', Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.", ".", "**Quarstein, John V. (2000).", "''C.S.S.", "''Virginia'', Mistress of Hampton Roads'', self-published for the Virginia Civil War Battles and Leaders Series by H. E. Howard, Inc. **Schenkman, David, (1979).", "''Tokens & Medals Commemorating the Battle Between the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac'' '' (sic), Hampton, Virginia, 28-page booklet (the second in a series of Special Articles on the Numismatics of The Commonwealth of Virginia), Virginia Numismatic Association.", "No ISSN or ISBN.", "* *Smith, Gene A., (1998).", "''Iron and Heavy Guns, Duel Between the ''Monitor'' and ''Merrimac'' '' (sic), Abilene, Texas, McWhiney Foundation Press, .", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* 82 pages.", "* Baxter, James Phinney (1968). ''", "The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship'', Archon Books, p. 398.", "*Besse, Sumner B., ''C.", "S. Ironclad Virginia and U. S. Ironclad Monitor'', Newport News, Virginia, The Mariner's Museum, 1978..*DeKay, James, (1997) ''Monitor'', Ballantine Books, New York, NY.", "* * ." ], [ "External links", "* Library of Virginia* Virginia Historical Society* Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia* Website devoted to the CSS ''Virginia''* Hampton Roads Visitor Guide* USS ''Monitor'' Center and Exhibit , Newport News, Virginia* Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Virginia* Hampton Roads Naval Museum * Civil War Naval History* Fort Wool History* Roads to the Future – I-664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Canon''' or '''Canons''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Canon (fiction), the material accepted as officially written by an author or an ascribed author* Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture** Western canon, the body of high culture literature, music, philosophy, and works of art that is highly valued in the West * Canon of proportions, a formally codified set of criteria deemed mandatory for a particular artistic style of figurative art* Canon (music), a type of composition* Canon (hymnography), a type of hymn used in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.", "* ''Canon'' (album), a 2007 album by Ani DiFranco* ''Canon'' (film), a 1964 Canadian animated short* ''Canon'' (game), an online browser-based strategy war game* ''Canon'' (manga), by Nikki* Canonical plays of William Shakespeare* ''The Canon'' (Natalie Angier book), a 2007 science book by Natalie Angier* ''The Canon'' (podcast), concerning film* ''The Cannons'', an indie band" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* Canon Inc., a Japanese imaging and optical products corporation* Château Canon (disambiguation), a number of wineries* UBM Canon, a media company headquartered in Los Angeles" ], [ "People", "* Canon (rapper) (born Aaron McCain, 1989)* Fernando Canon (1860–1938), Filipino revolutionary general, poet, inventor, engineer, musician and chess player* Lou Canon, stage name of Leanne Greyerbiehl, a Canadian indie pop singer-songwriter" ], [ "Places", "* Canon, Georgia, United States* Canons Park, London, United Kingdom* Canon Row, a street in Westminster, London* Cañon City, Colorado, United States* Cañon Fiord, on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada* Canon Rock, an island in Northern Ireland" ], [ "Religion", "* Religious text: some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.", "* Biblical canon, a set of texts regarded by a Christian or Jewish community as part of the Bible*Canon law, the whole judicial system in Christian churches** Canon (canon law), a law or ordinance promulgated by a synod, ecumenical council, or individual bishop (within the canon law system of that Church).", "* Canon (clergy), a title of certain Christian priests** Canon regular, a priest who lives in community under a rule* Canon (hymnography), a kind of hymn in Eastern Orthodox Christianity* Pāli Canon, scriptures of Theravāda Buddhism (these include the ''Sutta Pitaka'', the ''Vinaya Pitaka'' and the ''Abhidhamma Pitaka'')" ], [ "Other uses", "* Canon (basic principle), an accepted body of rules* Canon, in bellfounding, one or more hanging loops cast integrally with the crown* ''The Canon of Medicine'', a 1025 CE medical encyclopedia by Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna)* Canon Yaoundé, a Cameroonian association football club based in the capital city of Yaoundé* Canons High School, Edgware, Greater London" ], [ "See also", "* Canaan, a region in the Ancient Near East* Cannon (disambiguation)* Canonical, standard or referential form; includes many examples of canons* Canonization, the act of a pope's declaring a deceased person a saint* Canyon (disambiguation)* Kanon (disambiguation)* Kanoon (disambiguation)* Qanun (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''', informally known as the '''LDS Church''' or '''Mormon Church''', is a restorationist, nontrinitarian Christian denomination that is the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement.", "The church is headquartered in the United States in Salt Lake City, Utah and has established congregations and built temples worldwide.", "According to the church, it has over 17 million members and over 72,000 full-time volunteer missionaries.", "The church was the fourth-largest Christian denomination in the United States as of 2012, and reported over 6.8 million US members .The church was founded as the Church of Christ in western New York, in 1830 by Joseph Smith during the Second Great Awakening.", "Under Smith's leadership, the church's headquarters moved successively to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois.", "After Smith's 1844 death and a resultant succession crisis, the majority of his followers sided with Brigham Young, who led the church to its current headquarters in Salt Lake City.", "Young and his successors continued the church's growth, first throughout the Intermountain West, and more recently as a national and international organization.Church theology includes the Christian doctrine of salvation through Jesus Christ, and his substitutionary atonement on behalf of mankind.", "The church has an open canon of four scriptural texts: the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants (D&C), and the Pearl of Great Price.", "Other than the Bible, the majority of the church canon consists of material the church's members believe to have been revealed by God to Joseph Smith, including commentary and exegesis about the Bible, texts described as lost parts of the Bible, and other works believed to be written by ancient prophets, including the Book of Mormon.", "Because of doctrinal differences, many Christian groups consider the church to be distinct and separate from mainstream Christianity.Members of the church, known as Latter-day Saints or Mormons, believe that the church president is a modern-day \"prophet, seer, and revelator\" and that Jesus Christ, under the direction of God the Father, leads the church by revealing his will and delegating his priesthood keys to its president.", "The president heads a hierarchical structure descending from areas to stakes and wards.", "The church has a volunteer clergy at the local and regional levels; wards are led by bishops, who are drawn from the membership of the wards themselves.", "Male members may be ordained to the priesthood, provided they are living the standards of the church.", "Women are not ordained to the priesthood, but occupy leadership roles in some church organizations.Both men and women may serve as missionaries.", "The church maintains a large missionary program that proselytizes and conducts humanitarian services worldwide.", "The church also funds and participates in humanitarian projects independent of its missionary efforts.", "Members adhere to church laws of sexual purity, health, fasting, and Sabbath observance, and contribute ten percent of their income to the church in tithing.", "The church teaches ordinances through which adherents make covenants with God, including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament, priesthood ordination, endowment and celestial marriage.The church has been criticized throughout its history.", "Modern criticisms include disputes over the church's historical claims, treatment of minorities, and finances.", "The church's practice of polygamy (plural marriage) was controversial until it was curtailed in 1890 and officially rescinded in 1904." ], [ "History", "Joseph Smith, first president of the Church of ChristThe history of the church can be divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, which is in common with all churches associated with the Latter Day Saint movement, (2) a pioneer era under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th-century successors, and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century as Utah achieved statehood.===Beginnings===Joseph Smith formally organized the church as the Church of Christ, on April 6, 1830, in western New York; the church's name was later changed to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.", "Initial converts were drawn to the church in part because of the newly published Book of Mormon, a self-described chronicle of indigenous American prophets that Smith said he had translated from golden plates.Smith intended to establish the New Jerusalem in North America, called Zion.", "In 1831, the church moved to Kirtland, Ohio, and began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri, where Smith planned to eventually move the church headquarters.", "However, in 1833, Missouri settlers violently expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County.", "The church attempted to recover the land through a paramilitary expedition, but did not succeed.", "Nevertheless, the church flourished in Kirtland as Smith published new revelations and the church built the Kirtland Temple, culminating in a dedication of the building similar to the day of Pentecost.", "The Kirtland era ended in 1838, after a financial scandal rocked the church and caused widespread defections.", "Smith regrouped with the remaining church in Far West, Missouri, but tensions soon escalated into violent conflicts with the old Missouri settlers.", "Believing the Latter Day Saints to be in insurrection, the Missouri governor ordered that they be \"exterminated or driven from the State\".", "In 1839, the Latter Day Saints converted a swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River into Nauvoo, Illinois, which became the church's new headquarters.Carthage Jail, where Joseph Smith was killed in 1844Nauvoo grew rapidly as missionaries sent to Europe and elsewhere gained new converts who then flooded into Nauvoo.", "Meanwhile, Smith introduced polygamy to his closest associates.", "He also established ceremonies, which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, to allow righteous people to become gods in the afterlife, and a secular institution to govern the Millennial kingdom.", "He also introduced the church to a full accounting of his First Vision, in which he claimed that two heavenly \"personages\" appeared to him at age 14.This vision would come to be regarded by the LDS Church as the most important event in human history since the resurrection of Jesus.On June 27, 1844, Smith and his brother, Hyrum, were killed by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, while being held on charges of treason.", "Because Hyrum was Joseph's designated successor, their deaths caused a succession crisis, and Brigham Young assumed leadership over a majority of the church's membership.", "Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was the president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in Smith's church.Other splinter groups followed other leaders around this time.", "These groups have no affiliation with the LDS Church, however they share a common heritage in their early church history.", "Collectively, they are called the Latter Day Saint movement.", "The largest of these smaller groups is the Community of Christ, based in Independence, Missouri, followed by the Church of Jesus Christ, based in Monongahela, Pennsylvania.", "Like the LDS Church, these faiths believe in Joseph Smith as a prophet and founder of their religion.", "They also accept the Book of Mormon, and most accept at least some version of the Doctrine and Covenants.", "However, they tend to disagree to varying degrees with the LDS Church concerning doctrine and church leadership.===Pioneer era===Brigham Young led the LDS Church from 1844 until his death in 1877.For two years after Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents.", "Brigham Young led his followers, later called the Mormon pioneers, westward to Nebraska and then in 1847 on to what later became the Utah Territory, which at the time had been part of the indigenous lands of the Ute, Goshute, and Shoshone nations, and claimed by Mexico until 1848.Around 80,000 settlers arrived between 1847 and 1869, who then branched out and colonized a large region now known as the Mormon Corridor.", "Meanwhile, efforts to globalize the church began in earnest around this time, with missionaries being sent off to the Sandwich Islands (present-day Hawaii), India, Chile, Australia, China, South Africa, and all over Europe.Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity, and initially governed both the church and the state as a theocratic leader.", "He also publicized the practice of plural marriage in 1852.Modern research suggests that around 20 percent of Mormon families may have participated in the practice.19th century painting of Mormon pioneers crossing the plains of NebraskaBy 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of accusations involving polygamy and the theocratic rule of the Utah Territory by Young.", "The Utah Mormon War ensued from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the relatively peaceful invasion of Utah by the United States Army.", "The most notable instance of violence during this conflict was the Mountain Meadows massacre, in which leaders of a local Mormon militia ordered the massacre of a civilian emigrant party who was traveling through Utah during the escalating military tensions.", "After the massacre was discovered, the church became the target of significant media criticism for it.After the Army withdrew, Young agreed to step down from power and be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial governor, Alfred Cumming.", "Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory.", "Coterminously, tensions between Mormon settlers and indigenous tribes continued to escalate as settlers began colonizing a growing area of tribal lands.", "While Mormons and indigenous peoples made attempts at peaceful coexistence, skirmishes ensued from about 1849 to 1873 culminating in the armed conflicts of Walkara's War, the Bear River Massacre, and the Black Hawk War.After Young's death in 1877, he was followed in the church presidency by John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff successively, who resisted efforts by the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages.", "In 1878, the United States Supreme Court, in ''Reynolds v. United States'', decreed that \"religious duty\" to engage in plural marriage was not a valid defense to prosecutions for violating state laws against polygamy.", "Conflict between Mormons and the U.S. government escalated to the point that, in 1890, Congress disincorporated the LDS Church and seized most of its assets.", "Soon thereafter, Woodruff issued a manifesto that officially suspended the performance of new polygamous marriages in the United States.", "Relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896.Relations further improved after 1904, when church president Joseph F. Smith again disavowed polygamy before the United States Congress and issued a \"Second Manifesto\", calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease.", "Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy.", "Some fundamentalist groups with relatively small memberships have broken off and continue to practice polygamy, but the Church distances itself from them.===Modern times===The Washington D.C. Temple, completed in 1974, was the first built in the eastern half of the United States since 1846.During the 20th century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization.", "In 2000, the church reported over 60,000 missionaries and global church membership stood at just over 11 million.", "Nominal worldwide membership surpassed 16 million in 2018.Slightly under half of church membership lives within the United States.The church has become a strong proponent of the nuclear family and at times played a prominent role in political matters, including opposition to MX Peacekeeper missile bases in Utah and Nevada, the Equal Rights Amendment, legalized gambling, same-sex marriage, and physician-assisted death.A number of official changes have taken place to the organization during the modern era.", "In 1978, the church reversed its previous policy of excluding black men of African descent from the priesthood, which had been in place since 1852; members of all races can now be ordained to the priesthood.", "Also, since the early 1900s, the church has instituted a Priesthood Correlation Program to centralize church operations and bring them under a hierarchy of priesthood leaders.", "During the Great Depression, the church also began operating a church welfare system, and it has conducted humanitarian efforts in cooperation with other religious organizations such as Catholic Relief Services, as well as secular organizations like Care International.During the second half of the 20th century and beginnings of the 21st, the church has responded to various challenges to its doctrine and authority.", "Challenges have included rising secularization, challenges to the correctness of the translation of the Book of Abraham, and primary documents forged by Mark Hofmann purporting to contradict important aspects of official early church history.", "The church's positions regarding homosexuality, women, and black people have all been publicly criticized during this timeframe.For over 100 years, the church was a major sponsor of Scouting programs for boys, particularly in the United States.", "The LDS Church was the largest chartered organization in the Boy Scouts of America, having joined the Boy Scouts of America as its first charter organization in 1913.In 2020, the church ended its relationship with the BSA and began an alternate, religion-centered youth program, which replaced all other youth programs.", "Prior to leaving the Scouting program, LDS Scouts made up nearly 20 percent of all enrolled Boy Scouts, more than any other church." ], [ "Beliefs", "Latter-day Saints believe in the resurrection of Jesus, as depicted in this replica of Bertel Thorvaldsen's ''Christus'' statue located in the North Visitors' Center on Temple Square in Salt Lake City.===Nature of God===LDS Church theology includes the belief in a Godhead composed of God the Father, his son, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost as three separate persons who share a unity of purpose or will; however, they are viewed as three distinct beings.", "This is in contrast with the predominant Christian view, which holds that God is a Trinity of three distinct persons in one essence.", "The Latter-day Saint conception of the Godhead is similar to what contemporary Christian theologians call ''social trinitarianism.''", "The church also believes that God the Father and his son, Jesus Christ, are separate beings with bodies of flesh and bone, while the Holy Ghost lacks such a physical body.According to statements by church leaders, God sits at the head of the human family and is married to a Heavenly Mother, who is the mother of human spirits.", "However, church leaders have also categorically discouraged prayers to her and counseled against speculation regarding her.===Jesus Christ===Church members believe in Jesus Christ as the literal Son of God and Messiah, his crucifixion as a conclusion of a sin offering, and his subsequent resurrection.", "However, Latter-day Saints reject the ecumenical creeds and the definition of the Trinity.", "Jesus is also seen as the elder brother of all who live in this world.The church teaches that Jesus performed a substitutionary atonement; in contrast with other Christian denominations, the church teaches this atonement began in the garden of Gethsemane and continued to his crucifixion (rather than the orthodox belief that the crucifixion alone was the physical atonement).", "The church also teaches that Christ appeared to other peoples after his death, including spirits of the dead in the spirit world, and indigenous Americans.The church also teaches that Jesus is the true founder and leader of the church itself.", "The physical establishment of the church by Smith in 1830 is seen as simply the reestablishment of the same primitive church that existed under Jesus and his Apostles.", "Similarly, the church teaches that Jesus leads the church presently through its apostles and prophets, especially its current president.====Comparison with Nicene Christianity====The LDS Church shares various teachings with other branches of Christianity.", "These include a belief in the Bible, the divinity of Jesus, and his atonement and resurrection.", "LDS theology also includes belief in the doctrine of salvation through Jesus alone, restorationism, millennialism, continuationism, conditional substitutionary atonement or penal substitution, and a form of apostolic succession.Nevertheless, the LDS Church differs from other churches within contemporary Christianity in other ways.", "Differences between the LDS Church and most of traditional Christianity include disagreement about the nature of God, belief in a theory of human salvation that includes three heavens, a doctrine of exaltation which includes the ability of humans to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife, a belief in continuing revelation and an open scriptural canon, and unique ceremonies performed privately in temples, such as the endowment and sealing ceremonies.", "A number of major Christian denominations view the LDS Church as standing apart from creedal Christianity.", "However, church members self-identify as Christians.The faith itself views other modern Christian faiths as having departed from true Christianity by way of a general apostasy and maintains that it is a restoration of 1st-century Christianity and the only true and authorized Christian church.", "Church leaders assert it is the only true church and that other churches do not have the authority to act in Jesus' name.===Cosmology and plan of salvation===marriage in the Manti Utah Temple.", "The church teaches that marriages, or sealings, performed in their temples may continue after death.The church's cosmology and plan of salvation include the doctrines of a pre-existence, an earthly mortal existence, three degrees of heaven and exaltation.According to these doctrines, every human spirit is a spiritual child of a Heavenly Father and each has the potential to continue to learn, grow, and progress in the eternities, eventually achieving eternal life, which is to become one with God in the same way that Jesus Christ is one with the Father, thus allowing the children of God to become divine beings—that is, gods—themselves.", "This view on the doctrine of theosis is also referred to as becoming a \"joint-heir with Christ\".", "The process by which this is accomplished is called exaltation, a doctrine which includes the reunification of the mortal family after the resurrection and the ability to have spirit children in the afterlife and inherit a portion of God's kingdom.", "To obtain this state of godhood, the church teaches that one must have faith in Jesus Christ, repent of his or her sins, strive to keep the commandments faithfully, and participate in ordinances.According to LDS Church theology, men and women may be sealed to one another so that their marital bond continues into the eternities.", "Children may also be sealed to their biological or adoptive parents to form permanent familial bonds, thus allowing all immediate and extended family relations to endure past death.", "The most significant LDS ordinances may be performed via proxy in behalf of those who have died, such as baptism for the dead.", "The church teaches that all will have the opportunity to hear and accept or reject the gospel of Jesus Christ, either in this life or the next.Within church cosmology, the fall of Adam and Eve is seen positively.", "The church teaches that it was essential to allow humankind to experience separation from God, to exercise full agency in making decisions for their own happiness.===Restorationism===Adherents believe that Joseph Smith was called to be a modern-day prophet through a visitation from God the Father and Jesus Christ.|rightThe LDS Church teaches that, subsequent to the death of Jesus and his original apostles, his church, along with the authority to act in Jesus Christ's name and the church's attendant spiritual gifts, were lost, due to a combination of external persecutions and internal heresies.", "The restoration—as represented by the church began by Joseph Smith—refers to a return of the authentic priesthood power, spiritual gifts, ordinances, living prophets and revelation of the primitive Church of Christ.", "This restoration is associated with a number of events which are understood to have been necessary to re-establish the early Christian church found in the New Testament, and to prepare the earth for the Second Coming of Jesus.", "In particular, Latter-day Saints believe that angels appeared to Joseph Smith and a limited number of his associates, and bestowed various priesthood authorities on them.===Leadership===The church is led by a president, who is considered a \"prophet, seer, and revelator.\"", "Within the church, he is referred to as \"the Prophet\" or the \"President of the Church.\"", "He is considered the only person who is authorized to receive revelation from God on behalf of the whole world or entire church.", "As such, the church teaches that he is essentially infallible when speaking on behalf of God—although the exact circumstances when his pronouncements should be considered authoritative are debated within the church.", "In any case, modern declarations with broad doctrinal implications are often issued by joint statement of the First Presidency; they may be joined by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as well.", "Church members believe Joseph Smith was the first modern-day prophet.Normally, the Prophet and two other ordained apostles he chooses as counselors form the First Presidency, the presiding body of the church; twelve other apostles form the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.", "When a president dies, his successor is chosen from the remaining apostles, and is invariably the longest-tenured of the group.", "Apostles are chosen by the church president after the death of an existing apostle.", "Following the death of church president Thomas S. Monson on January 2, 2018, senior apostle Russell M. Nelson was announced as president on January 16.===Home and family===A Vietnamese family in Cambodia having a Family Home Evening with LDS missionariesThe church and its members consider marriage and family highly important, with emphasis placed on large, nuclear families.", "In 1995, the church's First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve issued \"The Family: A Proclamation to the World\", which asserts the importance of a heterosexual, nuclear family.", "The proclamation defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman and stated that the family unit is \"central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children.\"", "The document further says that \"gender is an essential characteristic of individual premortal, mortal, and eternal identity and purpose,\" that the father and mother have differing roles as \"equal partners\" (with the father presiding) in raising children, and that successful marriages and families, founded upon the teachings of Jesus Christ, can last eternally.", "The proclamation also promotes specific roles essential to maintaining the strength of the family unit—the roles of a husband and father as the family's breadwinner and spiritual leader and those of a wife and mother as a nurturing caregiver.", "Both parents are charged with the duties of childrearing.", "Senior church leaders have continued to emphasize conservative teachings on marriage and gender to the present time.LDS Church members are encouraged to set aside one evening each week, typically Monday, to spend together in \"Family Home Evening\" (FHE), which typically consists of gathering as a family to study the faith's gospel principles, and other family activities.", "Daily family prayer is also encouraged.===Sources of doctrine===leftThe theology of the LDS Church consists of a combination of biblical doctrines with modern revelations and other commentary by LDS leaders, particularly Joseph Smith.", "The most authoritative sources of theology are the faith's canon of four religious texts, called the \"standard works\".", "Included in the standard works are the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the D&C and the Pearl of Great Price.The Book of Mormon is a foundational sacred book for the church; the terms \"Mormon\" and \"Mormonism\" come from the book itself.", "The LDS Church teaches that the Angel Moroni told Smith about golden plates containing the record, guided him to find them buried in the Hill Cumorah, and provided him the means of translating them from Reformed Egyptian.", "It claims to give a history of the inhabitants from a now-extinct society living on the American continent and their distinct Judeo-Christian teachings.", "The Book of Mormon is very important to modern Latter-day Saints, who consider it the world's most perfect text.The Bible, also part of the church's canon, is believed to be the word of God—subject to an acknowledgment that its translation may be incorrect, or that authoritative sections may have been lost over the centuries.", "Most often, the church uses the Authorized King James Version.", "Two extended portions of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible have been canonized and are thus considered authoritative.", "Additionally, over 600 of the more doctrinally significant verses from the translation are included as excerpts in the current LDS Church edition of the Bible.", "Other revelations from Smith are found in the D&C, and in the Pearl of Great Price.Another source of authoritative doctrine is the pronouncements of the current Apostles and members of the First Presidency.", "The church teaches that the First Presidency and the Quorum of Twelve Apostles are prophets and that they are therefore authorized teachers of God's word.In addition to doctrine given by the church as a whole, individual members of the church believe that they can also receive personal revelation from God in conducting their lives, and in revealing truth to them, especially about spiritual matters.", "Generally, this is said to occur through thoughts and feelings from the Holy Ghost, in response to prayer.", "Similarly, the church teaches its members may receive individual guidance and counsel from God through blessings from priesthood holders.", "In particular, patriarchal blessings are considered special blessings that are received only once in the recipient's life, which are recorded, transcribed, and archived." ], [ "Practices", "===Rituals===In the church, an ordinance is a sacred rite or ceremony that has spiritual and symbolic meanings, and acts as a means of conveying divine grace.", "Ordinances are physical acts which signify or symbolize an underlying spiritual act; for some ordinances, the spiritual act is the finalization of a covenant between the ordinance recipient and God.", "Ordinances are generally performed under priesthood authority.The ordinance of baptism is believed to bind its participant to Jesus Christ, who saves them in their imperfection if they continually keep their promises to him.", "Baptism is performed by immersion, and is typically administered to children starting at age eight.Church members believe that through the ordinances of temple sealing and temple endowment, anyone can reach the highest level of salvation in the celestial kingdom and eternally live in God's presence, continue as families, become gods, create worlds, and make spirit children over whom they will govern.Other ordinances performed in the church include confirmation, the sacrament (analogous to the Eucharist or holy communion), and priesthood ordination.===Diet and health===The LDS Church asks its members to adhere to a dietary code called the Word of Wisdom, in which they abstain from the consumption of alcohol, coffee, tea, tobacco, and illicit or harmful substances.", "The Word of Wisdom also encourages the consumption of herbs and grains along with the moderate consumption of meat.When Joseph Smith published the Word of Wisdom in 1833, it was considered only advice; violation did not restrict church membership.", "During the 1890s, though, church leaders started emphasizing the Word of Wisdom more.", "In 1921, church president Heber J.", "Grant made obeying the Word of Wisdom a requirement to engage in worship inside of the faith's temples.", "From that time, church leadership has emphasized the forbidding of coffee, tea, tobacco, and alcohol, but not the other guidelines concerning meat, grains, and herbs.", "In 2019, the church further clarified through its ''New Era'' magazine that the usage of marijuana and opioids is prohibited except as prescribed by a competent physician for medical purposes.===Sexuality===Church members are expected to follow a moral code called the law of chastity, which prohibits adultery, homosexual behavior, and sexual relations before or outside of marriage.", "As part of the law of chastity, the church strongly opposes pornography, and considers masturbation an immoral act.", "Law of chastity violations can be grounds for church discipline; resulting penalties may include having access to the temple and sacrament revoked.", "Dating is forbidden until the age of 16.===Tithing and other donations===Church members are expected to donate one-tenth of their income to support the operations of the church.", "After initially relying on a communal lifestyle known as the law of consecration throughout most of the 1830s, the church created the law of tithing in July 1838 when the membership was concentrated in Missouri.", "Church members would frequently tithed by giving ten percent of their livestock and produce; nowadays donations are generally done with money.Annual donations were estimated to total $7 billion to $33 billion USD donated in 2012 (equivalent to $ billion to $ billion in ).", "In order to qualify for participation in temple ordinances (which Latter-day Saints believe are necessary for their salvation), paying a full tithe is a requirement, regardless of one's temporal circumstances.", "Members are also encouraged to fast (abstain from food and drink) on the first Sunday of each month for two consecutive meals.", "They donate at least the cost of the two skipped meals of the fast as a \"fast offering\", which the church uses to assist people in need and expand its humanitarian efforts.Local leadership is not paid, and is expected to tithe as well.", "Full-time missionaries, however, are not expected to pay tithing as they are usually paying to be a missionary.===Missionary service===Missionaries typically commit to 18–24 months of full-time service.Starting in the late 1960s, serving a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission became expected for all able-bodied LDS young men.", "Missionaries do not choose where they serve or the language in which they will proselytize, and are expected to fund their missions themselves or with the aid of their families.", "Prospective male missionaries must be at least 18 years old and no older than 25, and have completed secondary school.", "Missionary service is not compulsory, nor is it required for young men to retain their church membership.Unmarried women 19 years and older may also serve as missionaries, generally for a term of 18 months.", "There is no maximum age for missionary service for women.Retired couples are also encouraged to serve missions, and may serve from 6–23 months terms.", "Unlike younger missionaries, these senior missionaries may serve in non-proselytizing capacities such as humanitarian aid workers or family history specialists.", "Other men and women who desire to serve a mission, but may not be able to perform full-time service in another state or country due to health issues, may serve in a non-proselytizing mission.", "They might assist at Temple Square in Salt Lake City or aid in the seminary system in schools.All proselytizing missionaries are organized geographically into administrative areas called missions.", "The efforts in each mission are directed by an older adult male mission president.", "As of July 2020, there were 407 missions of the church.===Sabbath day observance===Church members are expected to set aside Sundays as a day of rest and worship.", "Typically, weekly worship meetings occur solely on Sundays.", "Shopping and recreation are discouraged on Sundays as well." ], [ "Worship and meetings", "===Weekly meetings===Interior view of a typical weekly Sunday sacrament meeting in Provo, UtahMeetings for worship and study are held at meetinghouses, which are typically utilitarian in character.", "The main focus of Sunday worship is the Sacrament meeting, where the sacrament is passed to church members; sacrament meetings also include prayers, the singing of hymns by the congregation or choir, and impromptu or planned sermons by church members.", "Also included in weekly meetings are times for Sunday School, or separate instructional meetings based on age and gender, including the Relief Society for women.Church congregations are organized geographically.", "Members are generally expected to attend the congregation with their assigned geographical area; however, some geographical areas also provide separate congregations for young single adults, older single adults, or for speakers of alternate languages.", "For Sunday services, the church is grouped into either larger congregations known as wards, or smaller congregations known as branches.", "Regional church organizations, encompassing multiple congregations, include stakes, missions, districts and areas.The church's Young Men and Young Women organizations meet at the meetinghouse once a week, on a day other than Sunday, where the youth participate in activities.===Temple worship===The Salt Lake TempleIn LDS theology, a temple is considered to be a holy building, dedicated as a \"House of the Lord\" and held as more sacred than a typical meetinghouse or chapel.", "In temples, church members participate in ceremonies that are considered the most sacred in the church, including marriage, and an endowment ceremony that includes a washing and anointing, receiving a temple garment, and making covenants with God.", "Baptisms for the dead—as well as other temple ordinances on behalf of the dead—are performed in the temples as well.Temples are considered by church members to be the most sacred structures on earth, and as such, operating temples are not open to the public.", "Then after the temple is dedicated, permission to enter is reserved only for church members who pass periodic interviews with ecclesiastical leaders and receive a special recommendation card, called a temple recommend, that they present upon entry.", "Church members are instructed not to share details about temple ordinances with non-members or even converse about them outside the temple itself.", "As of May 2023, there are 177 operating temples worldwide.In order to perform ordinances in temples on behalf of deceased family members, the church emphasizes genealogical research, and encourages its lay members to participate in genealogy.It operates FamilySearch, the largest genealogical organization in the world.===Conferences===Twice each year (the first weekend of April and October), general authorities address the worldwide church through general conference.", "General conference sessions are translated into as many as 80 languages and are broadcast from the 21,000-seat Conference Center in Salt Lake City.", "During this conference, church members formally acknowledge, or \"sustain\", the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as prophets, seers, and revelators.Individual stakes also hold formal conferences within their own boundaries biannually; wards hold conferences annually." ], [ "Organization and structure", "===Name and legal entities===The church teaches that it is a continuation of the Church of Christ established in 1830 by Joseph Smith.", "This original church underwent several name changes during the 1830s, being called the Church of Christ and the Church of Jesus Christ; in 1834, the name was officially changed to the Church of the Latter Day Saints.", "In April 1838, the name was officially changed to \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints\".", "After Smith died, Brigham Young and the largest body of Smith's followers incorporated the LDS Church in 1851 by legislation of the State of Deseret under the name \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\", which included a hyphenated \"Latter-day\" and a British-style lower-case ''d''.Common informal names for the church include the LDS Church, the Latter-day Saints, and the Mormons.", "The term ''Mormon Church'' is in common use.", "The church requests that the official name be used when possible or, if necessary, shortened to \"the Church\", \"the Church of Jesus Christ\", or \"Latter-day Saints\".", "In August 2018, church president Russell M. Nelson asked members of the church and others to cease using the terms \"LDS\", \"Mormon\" and \"Mormonism\" to refer to the church, its membership, or its belief system and instead to call the church by its full and official name.", "Subsequent to this announcement, the church's premier vocal ensemble, the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, was officially renamed and became the \"Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square\".", "Reaction to the name change policy has been mixed.Legally, the church currently functions as a corporation sole, incorporated in Utah.Intellectual Reserve is a nonprofit corporation wholly owned by the church, which holds the church's intellectual property, such as copyrights, trademarks, and other media.===Priesthood hierarchy and church service===Russell M. Nelson, President of the LDS Church The LDS Church is organized in a hierarchical priesthood structure administered by its male members.", "Members of the church-wide leadership are called general authorities.", "They exercise both ecclesiastical and administrative leadership over the church and direct the efforts of regional leaders down to the local level.", "General authorities and mission presidents work full-time for the church, and typically receive stipends from church funds or investments.", "As well as speaking in general conference, general authorities speak to church members in local congregations throughout the world; they also speak to youth and young adults in broadcasts and at the Church Educational System (CES) schools, such as Brigham Young University (BYU).", "Local congregations are typically led by bishops, who perform similar functions to pastors in the Protestant tradition, or parish priests in the Roman Catholic Church.All males who are living the standards of the church are generally considered for the priesthood and are ordained to the priesthood as early as age 11.Ordination occurs by a ceremony where hands are laid on the head of the one ordained.", "The priesthood is divided into an order for young men aged 11 years and older (called the Aaronic priesthood) and an order for men 18 years of age and older (called the Melchizedek priesthood).", "Additional authorities within the priesthood – called priesthood keys – are extended to holders of certain church leadership callings.Some church leaders and scholars have spoken of women holding or exercising priesthood power.", "However, women are not formally ordained to the priesthood, and they do not participate in public functions administered by the priesthood—such as passing the Sacrament, giving priesthood blessings, or holding leadership positions over congregations as a whole.", "Since 2013, the Ordain Women organization has sought formal priesthood ordination for women.", "In 2019, LDS women received the right to serve as witnesses for baptism, a role previously reserved for male priesthood holders.Each active church member is expected to receive a calling, or position of assigned responsibility within the church.", "Church members are expected to neither ask for specific callings, nor decline callings that are extended to them by their leaders.", "Leadership positions in the church's various congregations are filled through the calling system, and the vast majority of callings are filled on a volunteer basis.", "Members volunteer general custodial work for local church facilities.===Programs and organizations===The campus of Brigham Young University, in Provo, Utah, one of several educational institutions sponsored by the churchUnder the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five organizations that fill various roles in the church: Relief Society, the Young Men and Young Women organizations, Primary, and Sunday School.", "Women serve as presidents and counselors in the presidencies of the Relief Society, Young Women, and Primary, while men serve as presidents and counselors of the Young Men and Sunday School.", "The church also operates several programs and organizations in the fields of proselytizing, education, and church welfare such as LDS Humanitarian Services.", "Many of these organizations and programs are coordinated by the Priesthood Correlation Program, which is designed to provide a systematic approach to maintain worldwide consistency, orthodoxy, and control of the church's ordinances, doctrines, organizations, meetings, materials, and other programs and activities.The church operates CES, which includes BYU, BYU–Idaho, BYU–Hawaii, and Ensign College.", "The church also operates Institutes of Religion near the campuses of many colleges and universities.", "For high-school aged youth, the church operates a four-year Seminary program, which provides religious classes for students to supplement their secular education.", "The church also sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund, which provides educational opportunities to students from developing nations.The church's Family History Library is the world's largest library dedicated to genealogical researchThe church's welfare system, initiated in 1930 during the Great Depression, provides aid to the poor.", "Leaders ask members to fast once a month and donate the money they would have spent on those meals to help the needy, in what is called a fast offering.", "Money from the program is used to operate Bishop's storehouses, which package and store food at low cost.", "Distribution of funds and food is administered by local bishops.", "The church also distributes money through its Philanthropies division to disaster victims worldwide.Other church programs and departments include Family Services, which provides adoption resource referrals, marital and family counseling, psychotherapy, and addiction counseling; the LDS Church History Department, which collects church history and records; and the Family History Department, which administers the church's large family history efforts, including FamilySearch, the world's largest family history library and organization.", "Other facilities owned and operated by the church include Temple Square, the Church Office Building, the Church Administration Building, the Church History Library and the Granite Mountain Records Vault.===Finances===Since 1941, the church has been classified by the IRS as a 501(c)(3) organization and is therefore tax-exempt.", "Donations are tax-deductible in the United States.", "The church has not released church-wide financial statements since 1959.In the absence of official statements, people interested in knowing the church's financial status and behavior, including both members of the church and people outside the church, have attempted to estimate or guess.In 1997, ''Time'' magazine called the LDS Church one of the world's wealthiest churches per capita.", "The church has stated that its for-profit, non-profit, and educational subsidiary entities are all audited by professionals independent from other church entities.Deseret Book Company headquarters in Salt Lake CityThe church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings.", "It has been estimated that during the 2010s its net worth increased by about $15 billion per year ($ billion in ), and by $22 billion during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "According to a 2020 estimate by ''The Wall Street Journal'', the LDS Church's investment fund had a net worth of around $100 billion.The church's assets are held in a variety of holding companies, subsidiary corporations, and for-profit companies including: Bonneville International, KSL, Deseret Book Company, and holding companies for cattle ranches and farms in at least 12 U.S. States, Canada, New Zealand, and Argentina.", "Also included are banks and insurance companies, hotels and restaurants, real estate development, forestry and mining operations, and transportation and railway companies.", "Investigative journalism from the Truth & Transparency Foundation in 2022 suggests the church may be the owner of the most valuable real estate portfolio in the United States, with a minimum market value of $15.7 billion.", "The church has also invested in for-profit business and real estate ventures such as City Creek Center.", "The Church-owned investment firm Ensign Peak Advisors publicly reports management of $37.8 billion of financial securities, as of 2020.By summer 2023 assets including \"international shares as well as bonds, hybrid investments, real estate and major stakes in private equity\" were estimated to exceed $163 billion." ], [ "Culture", "Due to the differences in lifestyle promoted by church doctrine and history, members of the church have developed a distinct culture.", "It is primarily concentrated in the Intermountain West.Many of the church's more distinctive practices follow from their adherence to the Word of Wisdom—which includes abstinence from tobacco, alcohol, coffee, and tea—and their observance of Sabbath-day restrictions on recreation and shopping.", "Common, distinctive cuisine includes funeral potatoes and Jello salad.", "Cultural taboos exist on piercings and tattoos and the church counsels against the use of crosses as symbols of worship.===Media and arts===Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square has received various awards and travelled extensively since its inception.LDS-themed media includes cinema, fiction, websites, and graphical art such as photography and paintings.", "The church owns a chain of bookstores called Deseret Book, which provide a channel through which publications are sold; church leaders have authored books and sold them through the publishing arm of the bookstore.", "BYU TV, the church-sponsored television station, also airs on several networks.", "The church also produces several pageants annually depicting various events of the primitive and modern-day church.", "Its Easter pageant ''Jesus the Christ'' has been identified as the \"largest annual outdoor Easter pageant in the world\".", "The church encourages entertainment without violence, sexual content, or vulgar language; many church members specifically avoid rated-R movies.The church's official choir, the Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square, was formed in the mid-19th century and performs in the Salt Lake Tabernacle.", "They have travelled to more than 28 countries, and are considered one of the most famous choirs in the world.", "The choir has received a Grammy Award, four Emmy Awards, two Peabody Awards, and the National Medal of Arts.===Political involvement===Church president Thomas S. Monson (left) and apostle Dallin H. Oaks (right) presenting U.S. president Barack Obama with his genealogy at the Oval Office in July 2009 The LDS Church states it generally takes no partisan role in politics, but encourages its members to play an active role as responsible citizens in their communities, including becoming informed about issues and voting.", "The church maintains that the faith's values can be found among many political parties.", "It also generally does not take sides in global conflicts.A 2012 Pew Center on Religion and Public Life survey indicates that 74 percent of U.S. members lean towards the Republican Party.", "Some liberal members say they feel that they have to defend their worthiness due to political differences.", "Democrats and those who lean Democrat made up 18% of church members surveyed in the 2014 Pew Research Center's Religious Landscape Survey.The official church stance on staying out of politics does not include if there are instances of what church leaders deem to be moral issues, or issues the church believes \"directly affect its mission, teachings or operations.\"", "It has previously opposed same-sex marriage in California Prop 8, supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against homosexual persons in housing and employment, opposed gambling, opposed storage of nuclear waste in Utah, and supported an approach to U.S. immigration policy as outlined in the Utah Compact.", "It also opposed a ballot initiative legalizing medicinal marijuana in Utah, but supported a possible alternative to it.", "In 2019 and 2021, the church stated its opposition to the Equality Act, which would prohibit discrimination in the United States on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, but supports alternate legislation that it says would protect both LGBTQ rights and religious freedom.", "In 2022, the church stated its support for the Respect for Marriage Act—which codified same-sex marriage as legal in the United States—due to the \"protections for religious freedom\" it includes.In the 117th United States Congress, there are nine LDS Church members, including all six members of Utah's congressional delegation, all of whom are Republicans.", "Utah's current governor, Spencer Cox, is also a church member, as are supermajorities in both houses of the Utah State Legislature.", "Church member and current U.S.", "Senator Mitt Romney was the Republican Party's nominee in the U.S. 2012 presidential election." ], [ "Demographics", "Pew 2014 U.S.", "Religious Landscape StudyLDS (U.S.)U.S. Avg.Married66%49%Divorced or separated7%11%Have children under 1841%31%Attendance at religious services (weekly or more)77%40%The church reports a worldwide membership of 17 million.", "The church's definition of \"membership\" includes all persons who were ever baptized, or whose parents were members while the person was under the age of eight (called \"members of record\"), who have neither been excommunicated nor asked to have their names removed from church records.", "As of December 2011, approximately 8.3 million members reside outside the United States.Pew Research Center 2014 Survey: EthnicityLDS (U.S.)U.S. (2020)White85%62%Black1%12%Latino8%12%Asian1%6%Other/Multiracial5%21%According to its statistics, the church is the fourth largest religious body in the United States.", "Although the church does not publish attendance figures, researchers estimate that attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million.", "Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46 percent of membership, Latin America 38 percent, and members in the rest of the world 16 percent.", "The 2012 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey, conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International, found that approximately 2 percent of the U.S. adult population self-identified as Mormon.Membership is concentrated geographically in the Intermountain West, in a specific region sometimes known as the ''Mormon corridor''.", "Church members and some others from the United States colonized this region in the mid-to-late 1800s, dispossessing several indigenous tribes in the process.The church saw prodigious numerical growth in the latter half of the 20th century, but the growth has since leveled off.The church experienced rapid numerical growth in the 20th century, especially in the 1980s and 1990s.", "In the 21st century, however, church membership growth has slowed.", "In 2022, eight of the top ten nations with the highest LDS membership growth rate were in Africa, and Latino people are one of the fastest growing ethnic groups with millions of LDS adherents in Latin American countries.In the United States, church members tend to be more highly educated than the general population.", "The racial and ethnic composition of membership in the United States is one of the least diverse in the country.", "Church membership is predominantly white; the membership of blacks is significantly lower than the general U.S. population.The LDS Church does not release official statistics on church activity, but it is likely that only approximately 40 percent of its recorded membership in the United States and 30 percent worldwide regularly attend weekly Sunday worship services.", "A 2016 survey found a majority (54%) of millennials raised in the church had disaffiliated.", "Activity rates vary with age, and disengagement occurs most frequently between age 16 and 25.Young single adults are more likely to become inactive than their married counterparts, and women tend to be more active than men." ], [ "Humanitarian services", "U.S. Navy sailors moving LDS Church–donated humanitarian supplies to Beirut, Lebanon, in 2006The LDS Church is widely known for providing worldwide humanitarian service.", "The church's welfare and humanitarian efforts are coordinated by Philanthropies, a church department under the direction of the Presiding Bishopric.", "Welfare efforts, originally initiated during the Great Depression, provide aid for the poor, financed by donations from church members.", "Philanthropies is also responsible for philanthropic (that is, not tithing or fast offering) donations to the LDS Church and other affiliated charities, such as the Church History Library, the Church Educational System (and its subsidiary organizations), the Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square and funds for LDS missionaries.", "Donations are also used to operate bishop's storehouses, which package and store food for lower-income people at low cost, and provide other local services.", "In 2016, the church reported that it had spent a total of $1.2 billion on humanitarian aid over the previous 30 years.Church humanitarian aid includes organizing food security, clean water, mobility, and healthcare initiatives, operating thrift stores, maintaining a service project website, and directly funding or partnering with other organizations.", "The church reports that the value of all charitable donations in 2021 was $906 million.", "Independent reporting has found that the Church's charity organization, LDS Charities, gave a total of $177 million from 2008 to 2020.The church also distributes money and aid to disaster victims worldwide.", "In 2017, the church partnered with Catholic Relief Services and other organizations to provide aid to several African and Middle Eastern nations.", "In 2010, it partnered with Islamic Relief to help victims of flooding in Pakistan.", "Latter-day Saint Charities (a branch of the church's welfare department) increased food production during the COVID-19 pandemic and donated healthcare supplies to 16 countries affected by the crisis.", "The church has donated $4 million to aid refugees fleeing from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "In 2022, the church gave $32 million to the United Nations World Food Programme, in its largest one-time donation to a humanitarian organization to that point." ], [ "Criticism and controversy", "The LDS Church has been subject to criticism and the subject of controversy since its early years in New York and Pennsylvania.Modern criticism of the church includes disputed claims, allegations of historical revisionism by the church, child sexual abuse, anti-gay teachings, racism, and sexism.", "Notable 20th-century critics include Jerald and Sandra Tanner and historian Fawn Brodie.===Child sexual abuse===The church has been criticized for a number of alleged abuses perpetrated by local church leadership.", "In other cases, church leaders have been criticized for allegedly failing to properly report abuse to law enforcement, failing to keep records of sexual abuse claims which were reported through its Helpline phone number, and for citing clergy-penitent privilege laws when they do not testify in court or divulge information obtained through spiritual confessions.===Scriptures===In the late 1820s, criticism centered on the claim by Joseph Smith to have been led to a set of gold plates from which the Book of Mormon was reputedly translated.Mainstream archaeological, historical, and scientific communities have discovered little to support the existence of the civilizations described in the Book of Mormon, and do not consider it to be an actual record of historical events.", "Scholars have pointed out a number of anachronisms within the text.", "They argue that no evidence of a reformed Egyptian language has ever been discovered; the Book of Mormon explicitly claims to have been written in reformed Egyptian, and so the non-existence of this language would challenge the book's claims about its own origin.", "Also, general archaeological and genetic evidence has not supported the book's statements about any known indigenous peoples of the Americas.Since its publication in 1842, the Book of Abraham (currently published as part of the canonical Pearl of Great Price) has also been a major source of controversy.", "Numerous non-Mormon Egyptologists, beginning in the late 19th century, have disagreed with Joseph Smith's explanations of the book's facsimiles.", "Translations of the original papyri—by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists—do not match the text of the Book of Abraham as purportedly translated by Joseph Smith.", "Indeed, the transliterated text from the recovered papyri and facsimiles published in the Book of Abraham contain no direct references to Abraham.", "Scholars have also asserted that damaged portions of the papyri were reconstructed incorrectly by Smith or his associates.===Polygamy===Mormon polygamists in prison at the Utah Penitentiary, Polygamy (called plural marriage within the church) was practiced by church leaders for more than half of the 19th century, and practiced publicly from 1852 to 1890 by between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families.", "It was instituted privately in the 1830s by founder Joseph Smith and announced publicly in 1852 at the direction of Brigham Young.For over 60 years, the church and the United States were at odds over the issue: at one point, the Republican platform referenced \"the twin relics of barbarism—polygamy and slavery.\"", "The church defended the practice as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government aggressively sought to eradicate it;in 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which prohibited plural marriage in the territories.In 1890, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially terminated the practice in the United States, though it did not dissolve existing polygamous marriages of any couples, some of which continued to cohabit into the 1950s.", "Some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages in Canada and Mexico, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued a \"Second Manifesto,\" calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease.", "Several small fundamentalist groups, seeking to continue the practice, split from the LDS Church, but the mainline church now excommunicates members found practicing polygamy and distances itself from those fundamentalist groups.===Minorities=======Black people====Green Flake, an enslaved Black man reported to have driven the first wagon of LDS pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley in 1847The teachings, attitudes, and practices of top LDS Church leaders towards Black people have changed significantly from its founding years to the modern times, and the church has faced criticism and controversy on these topics.", "Joseph Smith allowed several black men to be ordained as priests during his presidency, but also taught that the dark skin of people of Black African ancestry was a sign of a curse from God.", "Both Smith and Brigham Young taught that Black people were subject to the Biblical curse of Ham, and curse of Cain.", "Both made statements in support of Black enslavement, and Young legalized Black slavery while acting as Utah territory's governor.From 1844 to 1978, the church barred Black women and men from participating in temple ordinances necessary for the highest level of salvation; prevented most men of Black African descent from being ordained to the church's lay, all-male priesthood; supported racial segregation in its communities and schools; taught that righteous Black people would be made White after death; and opposed interracial marriage.", "Leaders taught on many occasions during this time that Black people were less righteous in the pre-existence.", "The temple and priesthood racial restrictions were lifted by top leaders in 1978 following public pressure during the United States' civil rights movement.", "In 2013 the church directly disavowed its previous teachings on race for the first time.", "In 2018, the Church formed an alliance with the NAACP in an effort to improve race relations.====Native American people====Artistic depiction of Joseph Smith preaching to Native Americans in IllinoisOver the past two centuries, the relationship between Native American people and the LDS Church has included friendly ties, displacement, battles, slavery, education placement programs, official and unofficial discrimination, and criticism.", "Church leadership and publications taught that Native Americans are descendants of Lamanites, a dark-skinned and cursed people from the Book of Mormon.", "More recently, LDS researchers and publications generally favor a smaller geographic footprint of Lamanite descendants.", "There is no direct support amongst mainstream historians and archaeologists for the historicity of the Book of Mormon or Middle Eastern origins for any Native American peoples.Soon after Mormons colonized the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, Native American child slaves became a vital source of their labor, and were exchanged as gifts.", "The settlers initially had some peaceful relations, but because resources were scarce in the desert, hostilities broke out with the local Native Americans.", "According to LDS Church Historian Marlin K. Jensen as more LDS immigrants arrived and took over the land of Native nations, \"Resources the Indians had relied on for generations diminished, and in time they felt forced to resist and fight for their own survival ... the land and cultural birthright Indians once possessed in the Great Basin were largely taken from them.\"", "Within 50 years of Mormon settlement, the population of Utah's Native Americans was reduced by almost 90%.The church ran an Indian Placement Program between the 1950s and the 1990s, wherein indigenous children were adopted by white church members.", "Criticism resulted during and after the program, including claims of improper assimilation and even abuse.", "However, many of the involved students and families praised the program.", "Church leaders taught for decades that Native Americans' darker skin would be made lighter due to their righteousness.====LGBT people====Protesters in front of the Newport Beach California Temple voicing their opposition to the church's support of Prop 8The church's policies and treatment of sexual minorities and gender minorities have long been the subject of external criticism, as well as internal controversy and disaffection by members.", "Because of its ban against same-sex sexual activity and same-sex marriage, the LDS church taught for decades that any adherents attracted to the same sex could and should change that through sexual orientation change efforts and righteous striving.", "The church provided therapy and programs for attempting to change sexual orientation.Current teachings and policies leave homosexual members with the options of: attempts to change their sexual orientation, entering a mixed-orientation opposite-sex marriage, or lifelong celibacy.", "Some have argued that church teachings against homosexuality and the treatment of LGBT members by other adherents and leaders have contributed to their elevated rates of PTSD and depression, as well as suicide and teen homelessness.", "The church's decades-long, political involvement opposing US same-sex marriage laws has further garnered criticism and protests.Baptismal candidates considering gender-affirming surgery are not allowed to be baptized, and those who have already had one need special clearance from the First Presidency through the local full-time mission president before baptism.", "Undergoing a \"trans-sexual operation\" (including gender-affirming surgery like chest surgery (i.e.", "top surgery) may imperil the membership of a current church member.", "Ordinances after baptism such as receiving the priesthood and temple endowments are only done according to birth sex.", "Members that gender express through clothing or a pronoun change differing from the sex assigned at their birth will receive membership restrictions and a notation on their membership records.===Criticism of Joseph Smith===In the 1830s, the church was heavily criticized for Smith's handling of a banking failure in Kirtland, Ohio.", "After the Mormons migrated west, there was fear and suspicion about the LDS Church's political and military power in Missouri, culminating in the 1838 Mormon War and the Mormon Extermination Order (Missouri Executive Order 44) by Governor Lilburn Boggs.", "In the 1840s, criticism of the church included its theocratic aspirations in Nauvoo, Illinois.", "Criticism of the practice of plural marriage and other doctrines Smith taught were published in the ''Nauvoo Expositor'' in 1844.After Smith took a leading role in having the paper's printing press destroyed, he was charged with treason and jailed.", "While he awaited trial, an angry mob stormed the jailhouse and shot him fatally.In modern popular opinion, non-Mormons in the U.S. generally consider Smith a \"charlatan, scoundrel, and heretic.\"", "''The Book of Mormon'' musical relentlessly mocks his account of the golden plates.", "In 2007, Christopher Hitchens, writing in Slate magazine, lambasted Smith as a mountebank, charlatan, and fraud (and the church itself as a \"ridiculous cult\" and a \"racket\" that became a religion).===Financial controversy===The church's failure to make its finances public has drawn criticism from commentators who consider its practices too secretive.", "The church has fought to keep its internal financial information out of the public record.In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over $100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); that it failed to use the funds for charitable purposes and instead used them in for-profit ventures; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds.", "In response, the church's First Presidency stated that \"the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves,\" and that \"a portion\" of funds received by the church are \"methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve for the future\".", "The church has not directly addressed the fund's size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate.", "The disclosure of Ensign Peak has led to criticism that the church's wealth may be excessive.The church has transferred more than 1 billion dollars of tithing collected in Canada, tax-free, to church universities over a 15-year period.", "In October 2022, ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' announced that while the church publicly claimed to have donated US$1.35 billion to charity between 2008 and 2020, its private financial reports showed that it donated only US$0.177 billion.In February 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a $5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP.", "The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple shell companies from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency.", "The church released a statement that in 2000 EP \"received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio.\"", "After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP \"adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Mormonism* Christianity in the United States* Index of articles related to the LDS Church* List of attacks against Latter-day Saint churches* List of missions of the LDS Church* Mormon (word)* Mormonism and Islam* Mormonism and Judaism* List of new religious movements* List of temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===Official church websites===* ChurchofJesusChrist.org – official church website* ComeUntoChrist.org – official church website, with information about basic beliefs (formerly Mormon.org).===Other sites===* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Chemical thermodynamics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chemical thermodynamics''' is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.", "Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties, but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the ''spontaneity'' of processes.The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics.", "Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the \"fundamental equations of Gibbs\" can be derived.", "From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics.", "This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics." ], [ "History", "J. Willard Gibbs - founder of ''chemical thermodynamics''In 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, in his ''Mechanical Theory of Heat'', suggested that the principles of thermochemistry, e.g.", "the heat evolved in combustion reactions, could be applied to the principles of thermodynamics.", "Building on the work of Clausius, between the years 1873-76 the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous one being the paper ''On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances''.", "In these papers, Gibbs showed how the first two laws of thermodynamics could be measured graphically and mathematically to determine both the thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical reactions as well as their tendencies to occur or proceed.", "Gibbs’ collection of papers provided the first unified body of thermodynamic theorems from the principles developed by others, such as Clausius and Sadi Carnot.During the early 20th century, two major publications successfully applied the principles developed by Gibbs to chemical processes and thus established the foundation of the science of chemical thermodynamics.", "The first was the 1923 textbook ''Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances'' by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall.", "This book was responsible for supplanting the chemical affinity with the term free energy in the English-speaking world.", "The second was the 1933 book ''Modern Thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs'' written by E. A. Guggenheim.", "In this manner, Lewis, Randall, and Guggenheim are considered as the founders of modern chemical thermodynamics because of the major contribution of these two books in unifying the application of thermodynamics to chemistry." ], [ "Overview", "The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation.", "In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes:#Chemical reactions#Phase changes#The formation of solutionsThe following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics:*Internal energy (''U'')*Enthalpy (''H'')*Entropy (''S'')*Gibbs free energy (''G'')Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.", "'''The three laws of thermodynamics''' (global, unspecific forms):1.The energy of the universe is constant.2.In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in entropy of the universe.3.The entropy of a perfect crystal (well ordered) at 0 Kelvin is zero." ], [ "Chemical energy", "'''Chemical energy''' is the energy that can be released when chemical substances undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction.", "Breaking and making chemical bonds involves energy release or uptake, often as heat that may be either absorbed by or evolved from the chemical system.Energy released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between chemical substances (\"reactants\") is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants.", "This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical system.", "It can be calculated from , the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules related to the bond energies of the molecules under consideration, and , the internal energy of formation of the product molecules.", "The change in internal energy is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume (at STP condition), as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter.", "However, at constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat is usually not equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy.", "(The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the widely tabulated enthalpies of formation are used.", ")A related term is the heat of combustion, which is the chemical energy released due to a combustion reaction and of interest in the study of fuels.", "Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its energy release is similar (though assessed differently than for a hydrocarbon fuel — see food energy).In chemical thermodynamics, the term used for the chemical potential energy is chemical potential, and sometimes the Gibbs-Duhem equation is used." ], [ "Chemical reactions", "In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which create entropy in the universe unless they are at equilibrium or are maintained at a \"running equilibrium\" through \"quasi-static\" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work.", "Even for homogeneous \"bulk\" systems, the free-energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy.", "If the quantities { ''N''''i'' }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes.===Gibbs function or Gibbs Energy===For an unstructured, homogeneous \"bulk\" system, there are still various ''extensive'' compositional variables { ''N''''i'' } that ''G'' depends on, which specify the composition (the amounts of each chemical substance, expressed as the numbers of molecules present or the numbers of moles).", "Explicitly,:For the case where only ''PV'' work is possible,:a restatement of the fundamental thermodynamic relation, in which ''μi'' is the chemical potential for the ''i''-th component in the system:The expression for d''G'' is especially useful at constant ''T'' and ''P'', conditions, which are easy to achieve experimentally and which approximate the conditions in living creatures:===Chemical affinity===While this formulation is mathematically defensible, it is not particularly transparent since one does not simply add or remove molecules from a system.", "There is always a ''process'' involved in changing the composition; e.g., a chemical reaction (or many), or movement of molecules from one phase (liquid) to another (gas or solid).", "We should find a notation which does not seem to imply that the amounts of the components ( ''N''''i'' ) can be changed independently.", "All real processes obey conservation of mass, and in addition, conservation of the numbers of atoms of each kind.Consequently, we introduce an explicit variable to represent the degree of advancement of a process, a progress variable ''ξ'' for the ''extent of reaction'' (Prigogine & Defay, p. 18; Prigogine, pp.", "4–7; Guggenheim, p. 37.62), and to the use of the partial derivative ∂''G''/∂''ξ'' (in place of the widely used \"Δ''G''\", since the quantity at issue is not a finite change).", "The result is an understandable expression for the dependence of d''G'' on chemical reactions (or other processes).", "If there is just one reaction:If we introduce the ''stoichiometric coefficient'' for the ''i-th'' component in the reaction::(negative for reactants), which tells how many molecules of ''i'' are produced or consumed, we obtain an algebraic expression for the partial derivative:where we introduce a concise and historical name for this quantity, the \"affinity\", symbolized by '''A''', as introduced by Théophile de Donder in 1923.", "(De Donder; Progogine & Defay, p. 69; Guggenheim, pp.", "37, 240) The minus sign ensures that in a spontaneous change, when the change in the Gibbs free energy of the process is negative, the chemical species have a positive affinity for each other.", "The differential of ''G'' takes on a simple form that displays its dependence on composition change:If there are a number of chemical reactions going on simultaneously, as is usually the case,:with a set of reaction coordinates { ξ''j'' }, avoiding the notion that the amounts of the components ( ''N''''i'' ) can be changed independently.", "The expressions above are equal to zero at thermodynamic equilibrium, while they are negative when chemical reactions proceed at a finite rate, producing entropy.", "This can be made even more explicit by introducing the reaction ''rates'' d''ξ''''j''/d''t''.", "For every ''physically independent'' ''process'' (Prigogine & Defay, p. 38; Prigogine, p. 24)::This is a remarkable result since the chemical potentials are intensive system variables, depending only on the local molecular milieu.", "They cannot \"know\" whether temperature and pressure (or any other system variables) are going to be held constant over time.", "It is a purely local criterion and must hold regardless of any such constraints.", "Of course, it could have been obtained by taking partial derivatives of any of the other fundamental state functions, but nonetheless is a general criterion for (−''T'' times) the entropy production from that spontaneous process; or at least any part of it that is not captured as external work.", "(See ''Constraints'' below.", ")We now relax the requirement of a homogeneous \"bulk\" system by letting the chemical potentials and the affinity apply to any locality in which a chemical reaction (or any other process) is occurring.", "By accounting for the entropy production due to irreversible processes, the equality for d''G'' is now replaced by:or:Any decrease in the Gibbs function of a system is the upper limit for any isothermal, isobaric work that can be captured in the surroundings, or it may simply be dissipated, appearing as ''T'' times a corresponding increase in the entropy of the system and its surrounding.", "Or it may go partly toward doing external work and partly toward creating entropy.", "The important point is that the ''extent of reaction'' for a chemical reaction may be coupled to the displacement of some external mechanical or electrical quantity in such a way that one can advance only if the other also does.", "The coupling may occasionally be ''rigid'', but it is often flexible and variable.===Solutions===In solution chemistry and biochemistry, the Gibbs free energy decrease (∂''G''/∂''ξ'', in molar units, denoted cryptically by Δ''G'') is commonly used as a surrogate for (−''T'' times) the global entropy produced by spontaneous chemical reactions in situations where no work is being done; or at least no \"useful\" work; i.e., other than perhaps ± ''P'' d''V''.", "The assertion that all ''spontaneous reactions have a negative ΔG'' is merely a restatement of the second law of thermodynamics, giving it the physical dimensions of energy and somewhat obscuring its significance in terms of entropy.", "When no useful work is being done, it would be less misleading to use the Legendre transforms of the entropy appropriate for constant ''T'', or for constant ''T'' and ''P'', the Massieu functions −''F/T'' and −''G/T'', respectively." ], [ "Non-equilibrium", "Generally the systems treated with the conventional chemical thermodynamics are either at equilibrium or near equilibrium.", "Ilya Prigogine developed the thermodynamic treatment of open systems that are far from equilibrium.", "In doing so he has discovered phenomena and structures of completely new and completely unexpected types.", "His generalized, nonlinear and irreversible thermodynamics has found surprising applications in a wide variety of fields.The non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how ordered structures e.g.", "the biological systems, can develop from disorder.", "Even if Onsager's relations are utilized, the classical principles of equilibrium in thermodynamics still show that linear systems close to equilibrium always develop into states of disorder which are stable to perturbations and cannot explain the occurrence of ordered structures.Prigogine called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes which take place because of the exchange of energy between the system and its environment and because they disappear if that exchange ceases.", "They may be said to live in symbiosis with their environment.The method which Prigogine used to study the stability of the dissipative structures to perturbations is of very great general interest.", "It makes it possible to study the most varied problems, such as city traffic problems, the stability of insect communities, the development of ordered biological structures and the growth of cancer cells to mention but a few examples.===System constraints===In this regard, it is crucial to understand the role of walls and other ''constraints'', and the distinction between ''independent'' processes and ''coupling''.", "Contrary to the clear implications of many reference sources, the previous analysis is not restricted to homogeneous, isotropic bulk systems which can deliver only ''P''d''V'' work to the outside world, but applies even to the most structured systems.", "There are complex systems with many chemical \"reactions\" going on at the same time, some of which are really only parts of the same, overall process.", "An ''independent'' process is one that ''could'' proceed even if all others were unaccountably stopped in their tracks.", "Understanding this is perhaps a \"thought experiment\" in chemical kinetics, but actual examples exist.A gas-phase reaction at constant temperature and pressure which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume.", "Inside a cylinder closed with a piston, it can proceed only by doing work on the piston.", "The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves out, and conversely if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards.Similarly, a redox reaction might occur in an electrochemical cell with the passage of current through a wire connecting the electrodes.", "The half-cell reactions at the electrodes are constrained if no current is allowed to flow.", "The current might be dissipated as Joule heating, or it might in turn run an electrical device like a motor doing mechanical work.", "An automobile lead-acid battery can be recharged, driving the chemical reaction backwards.", "In this case as well, the reaction is not an independent process.", "Some, perhaps most, of the Gibbs free energy of reaction may be delivered as external work.The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate can drive the force-times-distance work delivered by living muscles, and synthesis of ATP is in turn driven by a redox chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which involves the transport of ions across the membranes of these cellular organelles.", "The coupling of processes here, and in the previous examples, is often not complete.", "Gas can leak slowly past a piston, just as it can slowly leak out of a rubber balloon.", "Some reaction may occur in a battery even if no external current is flowing.", "There is usually a coupling coefficient, which may depend on relative rates, which determines what percentage of the driving free energy is turned into external work, or captured as \"chemical work\", a misnomer for the free energy of another chemical process." ], [ "See also", "*Thermodynamic databases for pure substances*laws of thermodynamics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Library of Congress Catalog No.", "60-5597* * Library of Congress Catalog No.", "67-29540* Library of Congress Catalog No.", "67-20003* *" ], [ "External links", "* Chemical Thermodynamics - University of North Carolina* ''Chemical energetics'' (Introduction to thermodynamics and the First Law)* ''Thermodynamics of chemical equilibrium'' (Entropy, Second Law and free energy)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Standard works" ], [ "Introduction", "Quadruple Combination format of the ''Standard Works''The '''Standard Works''' of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church, the largest in the Latter Day Saint movement) are the four books that currently constitute its open scriptural canon.", "The four books of the standard works are:* The Authorized King James Version as the official scriptural text of the Bible (other versions of the Bible are used in non-English-speaking countries)* The Book of Mormon, subtitled since 1981 ''\"Another Testament of Jesus Christ\"''* The Doctrine and Covenants (D&C)* The Pearl of Great Price (containing the Book of Moses, the Book of Abraham, Joseph Smith–Matthew, Joseph Smith–History, and the Articles of Faith)The ''Standard Works'' are printed and distributed by the LDS Church both in a single binding called a ''quadruple combination'' and as a set of two books, with the Bible in one binding, and the other three books in a second binding called a ''triple combination''.", "Current editions of the ''Standard Works'' include a number of non-canonical study aids, including a Bible dictionary, photographs, maps and gazetteer, topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, and excerpts from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.The scriptural canon is \"open\" due to the Latter-day Saint belief in continuous revelation.", "Additions can be made to the scriptural canon with the \"common consent\" of the church's membership.", "Other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement reject some of the ''Standard Works'' or add other scriptures, such as the Book of the Law of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel." ], [ "Differences in canonicity across sects", "Canons of various Latter Day Saint denominations reject some of the ''Standard Works'' canonized by the LDS Church or have included additional works.", "For instance, the Bickertonite sect does not consider the Pearl of Great Price or Doctrine and Covenants to be scriptural.", "Rather, they believe that the New Testament scriptures contain a true description of the church as established by Jesus Christ, and that both the King James Version of the Bible and the Book of Mormon are the inspired word of God.", "Some Latter Day Saint denominations accept earlier versions of the ''Standard Works'' or work to develop corrected translations.", "Others have purportedly received additional revelations.The Community of Christ points to Jesus Christ as the living Word of God, and it affirms the Bible, along with the Book of Mormon, as well as its own regularly appended version of Doctrines and Covenants as scripture for the church.", "While it publishes a version of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible—which includes material from the Book of Moses—the Community of Christ also accepts the use of other English translations of the Bible, such as the standard King James Version and the New Revised Standard Version.Like the aforementioned Bickertonites, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) rejects the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price, as well as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, preferring to use only the King James Bible and the Book of Mormon as doctrinal standards.", "The Book of Commandments is accepted as being superior to the Doctrine and Covenants as a compendium of Joseph Smith's early revelations, but is not accorded the same status as the Bible or the Book of Mormon.The Word of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel are two related books considered to be scriptural by Fettingite factions that separated from the Temple Lot church.", "Both books contain revelations allegedly given to former Church of Christ (Temple Lot) Apostle Otto Fetting by an angelic being who claimed to be John the Baptist.", "The latter title (120 messages) contains the entirety of the former's material (30 msgs.)", "with additional revelations (90 msgs.)", "purportedly given to William A. Draves by this same being, after Fetting's death.", "Neither are accepted by the larger Temple Lot body of believers.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) considers the Bible (when correctly translated), the Book of Mormon, and editions of the Doctrine and Covenants published prior to Joseph Smith's death (which contained the Lectures on Faith) to be inspired scripture.", "They also hold the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible to be inspired, but do not believe modern publications of the text are accurate.", "Other portions of The Pearl of Great Price, however, are not considered to be scriptural—though are not necessarily fully rejected either.", "The Book of Jasher was consistently used by both Joseph Smith and James Strang, but as with other Latter Day Saint denominations and sects, there is no official stance on its authenticity, and it is not considered canonical.This sect likewise holds as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the ''Revelations of James J. Strang''.An additional work called The Book of the Law of the Lord is also accepted as inspired scripture by the Strangites.", "They likewise hold as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the ''Revelations of James J. Strang''.", "Among other things, this text contains his purported \"Letter of Appointment\" from Joseph Smith and his translation of the Voree plates.The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the following as scripture: the Inspired Version of the Bible (including the Book of Moses and Joseph Smith–Matthew), the Book of Mormon, and the 1844 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants (including the Lectures on Faith).", "However, the revelation on tithing (section 107 in the 1844 edition; 119 in modern LDS editions) is emphatically rejected by members of this church, as it is not believed to be given by Joseph Smith.", "The Book of Abraham is rejected as scripture, as are the other portions of the Pearl of Great Price that do not appear in the Inspired Version of the Bible.Many Latter Day Saint denominations have also either adopted the Articles of Faith or at least view them as a statement of basic theology.", "(They are considered scriptural by the larger LDS church and are included in The Pearl of Great Price.)", "At times, the Articles have been adapted to fit the respective belief systems of various faith communities." ], [ "Continuing revelation", "Under the LDS Church's doctrine of continuing revelation, Latter-day Saints believe in the principle of revelation from God to his children.", "Individual members are entitled to divine revelation for confirmation of truths, gaining knowledge or wisdom, meeting personal challenges, and so forth.", "Parents are entitled to revelation for raising their families.Church members believe that divine revelation for the direction of the entire church comes from God to the President of the Church, who they consider to be a prophet in the same sense as Noah, Abraham, Moses, Peter, and other biblical leaders.", "When other members of the First Presidency or Quorum of the Twelve speak as \"moved upon by the Holy Ghost\", it \"shall be scripture, shall be the will of the Lord, shall be the mind of the Lord, shall be the word of the Lord, shall be the voice of the Lord, and the power of God unto salvation.\"", "Members are encouraged to ponder these revelations and pray to determine for themselves the truthfulness of doctrine.===Adding to the canon of scripture===The D&C teaches that \"all things must be done in order, and by common consent in the church\".", "This applies to adding new scripture.", "LDS Church president Harold B. Lee taught \"The only one authorized to bring forth any new doctrine is the President of the Church, who, when he does, will declare it as revelation from God, and it will be so accepted by the Council of the Twelve and sustained by the body of the Church.\"", "There are several instances of this happening in the LDS Church:*June 9, 1830: First conference of the church, The Articles and Covenants of the Church of Christ, now known as D&C 20.If the Bible and Book of Mormon were not sustained on April 6 then they were by default when the Articles and Covenants were sustained.", "(see D&C 20:8-11)*August 17, 1835: Select revelations from Joseph Smith were unanimously accepted as scripture.", "These were later printed in the D&C.", "*October 10, 1880: The Pearl of Great Price was unanimously accepted as scripture.", "Also at that time, other revelations in the Doctrine and Covenants – which had not been accepted as scripture in 1835 because they were received after that date – were unanimously accepted as scripture.", "*October 6, 1890: Official Declaration 1 was accepted unanimously as scripture.", "It later began to be published in the Doctrine and Covenants.", "*April 3, 1976: Two visions (one received by Joseph Smith and the other by Joseph F. Smith) were accepted as scripture and added to the Pearl of Great Price.", "(The two visions were later moved to the D&C as sections 137 and 138.", ")*September 30, 1978: Official Declaration 2 was accepted unanimously as scripture.", "It immediately was added to the Doctrine and Covenants.When a doctrine undergoes this procedure, the LDS Church treats it as the word of God, and it is used as a standard to compare other doctrines.", "Lee taught:It is not to be thought that every word spoken by the General Authorities is inspired, or that they are moved upon by the Holy Ghost in everything they speak and write.", "Now you keep that in mind.", "I don't care what his position is, if he writes something or speaks something that goes beyond anything that you can find in the standard works, unless that one be the prophet, seer, and revelator—please note that one exception—you may immediately say, \"Well, that is his own idea!\"", "And if he says something that contradicts what is found in the standard works (I think that is why we call them \"standard\"—it is the standard measure of all that men teach), you may know by that same token that it is false; regardless of the position of the man who says it.As quoted in Quadruple combination opened to the Book of Isaiah (note the cross references between Biblical and Latter-day Saint scripture in the footnotes)." ], [ "The Bible", "English-speaking Latter-day Saints typically study a custom edition of the King James Version of the Bible (KJV), which includes custom chapter headings, footnotes referencing books in the Standard Works, and select passages from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.Though the KJV was always commonly used, it was officially adopted in the 1950s when J. Reuben Clark, of the church's First Presidency, argued extensively that newer translations, such as Revised Standard Version of 1952, were of lower quality and less compatible with LDS tradition.", "After publishing its own KJV edition in 1979, the First Presidency announced in 1992 that the KJV was the church's official English Bible, stating \"while other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations.\"", "In 2010 this was written into the church's ''Handbook'', which directs official church policy and programs.A Spanish version, with a similar format and using a slightly revised version of the 1909 Reina-Valera translation, was published in 2009.Latter-day Saints in other non-English speaking areas may use other versions of the Bible.Though the Bible is part of the LDS canon and members believe it to be the word of God, they believe that omissions and mistranslations are present in even the earliest known manuscripts.", "They claim that the errors in the Bible have led to incorrect interpretations of certain passages.", "Thus, as church founder Joseph Smith explained, the church believes the Bible to be the word of God \"as far as it is translated correctly\".", "The church teaches that \"the most reliable way to measure the accuracy of any biblical passage is not by comparing different texts, but by comparison with the Book of Mormon and modern-day revelations\".The manuscripts of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible state that \"the Songs of Solomon are not inspired scripture,\" and therefore it is not included in LDS canon and rarely studied by members of the LDS Church.", "However, it is still printed in every version of the King James Bible published by the church.===The Apocrypha===Although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV, the LDS Church does not currently use the Apocrypha as part of its canon.", "Joseph Smith taught that while the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha was not to be relied on for doctrine, it was potentially useful when read with a spirit of discernment.===Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible===Joseph Smith translated selected verses of the Bible, working by subject.", "His complete work is known as the ''Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible'', or the ''Inspired Version''.", "Although this selected translation is not generally quoted by church members, the English Bible issued by the church and commonly used by Latter-day Saints contains cross-references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing longer excerpts from it.", "Excerpts that were too long to include in the Bible appendix are included in the Pearl of Great Price as the Book of Moses (for Genesis 1:1-6:13) and Joseph Smith-Matthew (for Matthew 23:39-24:51 and Mark 13)." ], [ "The Book of Mormon", "Cover page of The Book of Mormon from an original 1830 edition, by Joseph Smith(Image from the U.S. Library of Congress ''Rare Book and Special Collections Division''.", ")Latter-day Saints consider the Book of Mormon a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible.", "It contains a record of God's dealings with the prophets and ancient inhabitants of the Americas.", "The introduction to the book asserts that it \"contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel.", "The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation.", "Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon.", "\"Segments of the Book of Mormon provide an account of the culture, religious teachings, and civilizations of some of the groups who immigrated to the New World.", "One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C., and afterward separated into two nations, identified in the book as the Nephites and the Lamanites.", "Some years after their arrival, the Nephites met with a similar group, the Mulekites who left the Middle East during the same period.", "An older group arrived in America much earlier, when the Lord confounded the tongues at the Tower of Babel.", "This group is known as the Jaredites and their story is condensed in the Book of Ether.", "The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his resurrection.", "This account presents the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and offers men peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come.", "The latter segments of the Book of Mormon detail the destruction of these civilizations, as all were destroyed except the Lamanites.", "The book asserts that the Lamanites are among the ancestors of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.According to his record, Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon by gift and power of God through a set of interpreters later referred to as the Urim and Thummim.", "Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon.", "The Three Witnesses testified to have seen an angel present the gold plates and to have heard God bear witness to its truth.", "Eight others stated that Joseph Smith showed them the plates and that they handled and examined them." ], [ "The Doctrine and Covenants", "The church's D&C is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements given to the modern church by past church presidents.", "This record contains points of church doctrine and direction on church government.", "The book has existed in numerous forms, with varying content, throughout the history of the church and has also been published in differing formats by the various Latter Day Saint denominations.", "When the church chooses to canonize new material, it is typically added to the Doctrine and Covenants; the most recent changes were made in 1981." ], [ "The Pearl of Great Price", "The Pearl of Great Price is a selection of material produced by Joseph Smith and deals with many significant aspects of the faith and doctrine of the church.", "Many of these materials were initially published in church periodicals in the early days of the church.The Pearl of Great Price contains five sections:* Selections from the Book of Moses: portions of the Book of Genesis from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.", "* The Book of Abraham: a translation from papyri acquired by Smith in 1835, dealing with Abraham's journeys in Egypt.", "The work contains many distinctive Mormon doctrines such as exaltation.", "* Joseph Smith–Matthew: portions of the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Mark from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.", "* Joseph Smith–History: a first-person narrative of Smith's life before the founding of the church.", "The material is taken from ''Documentary History of the Church'' and is based on a history written by Smith in 1838.", "* The Articles of Faith: concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of Mormonism composed by Smith in 1842." ], [ "Church instruction", "Historically, in the church's Sunday School and Church Educational System (CES) classes, the standard works have been studied and taught in a four-year rotation::Year One: Old Testament (also includes some coverage of related topics in the Book of Moses and Book of Abraham from the Pearl of Great Price):Year Two: New Testament:Year Three: Book of Mormon:Year Four: Doctrine and Covenants and Church HistoryHowever, church leaders have emphasized that members should not restrict their study of the standard works to the particular book being currently studied in Sunday School or other religious courses.", "Specifically, church president Ezra Taft Benson taught:At present, the Book of Mormon is studied in our Sunday School and seminary classes every fourth year.", "This four-year pattern, however, must ''not'' be followed by Church members in their personal and family study.", "We need to read daily from the pages of that book ....In November 2014, the church announced changes in the curriculum to be used within CES, including the church's four institutions of higher education, such as Brigham Young University.", "The church's seminary program will retain the current four-year rotation of study.", "Beginning in the fall of 2015, incoming institute of religion and CES higher education students will be required to take four new cornerstone courses::Jesus Christ and the Everlasting Gospel:Foundations of the Restoration:The Teachings and Doctrine of the Book of Mormon:The Eternal FamilyThe church's intent is to further integrate the teachings found in the Standard Works with that of church leaders and other current sources." ], [ "Table of canonicity", "All the denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement listed below use the same canon of the Book of Mormon.", "Other uses and content vary among their respective canons.+ Books The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) Community of Christ (RLDS) Church of Jesus Christ (Brickertonite) Church of Christ (Temple Lot) Church of Christ (Fettingite) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) Doctrine and CovenantsBook of Commandments Moroni's visit to Joseph Smith Conferral of Aaronic priesthood by John the Baptist To Three Witnesses To Parley P. Pratt and Ziba Peterson Property division Location of Zion at Jackson County, Missouri Prayer of Joseph Smith; keys of the kingdom To William E. McLellin Testimony of the Book of Commandments To Orson Hyde, Luke S. Johnson, Lyman E. Johnson, and William E. McLellin; bishops; parents Assignments for John Whitmer Stewardship; equality Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon called to preach Bishops Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible Explanation of 1 Corinthians 7:14; salvation of children Missionary work; families of missionaries Jesus Christ; resurrection; degrees of glory; origin of Satan Explanation of certain verses in Revelation United Order; equality To Jared Carter To Stephen Burnett and Eden Smith To Jesse Gause; on 18 Mar 1833 its application was transferred to Frederick G. Williams Obedience; United Order; equality Husbands and fathers; widows and orphans Priesthood Letter from Joseph Smith to W. W. Phelps; United Order; One Mighty and Strong; equality Parable of the Tares explained Prophecy of war and calamity The \"olive leaf\"; \"Lord's message of peace\" A \"Word of Wisdom\" Keys of the kingdom; First Presidency The Apocrypha To Frederick G. Williams John's record of Christ; intelligence; innocence of children To Hyrum Smith, Reynolds Cahoon, and Jared Carter; construction of various buildings commanded Kirtland Temple to be built; purpose of temples Division of property Saints in Jackson County, Missouri; temple to be built in Jackson County Promises and warnings; martyrs; when war is justified; forgiving enemies To John Murdock Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to preach gospel; Rigdon to be Smith's spokesman; welfare of Orson Hyde and John Gould Redemption of Zion; parables; United States and the U.S. Constitution; Saints to seek redress Minutes for first high council meeting Redemption of Zion; organization of Zion's Camp United Order Redemption of Zion; purpose of Kirtland Temple; peace To Warren A. Cowdery; Second Coming Priesthood; quorums To Lyman Sherman Dedicatory prayer for Kirtland Temple Visitation of Jesus Christ to accept Kirtland Temple; conferral of priesthood keys; coming of Moses, Elias, and Elijah temporal needs of the church To Thomas B. Marsh; Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; First Presidency Answers to questions on the Book of Isaiah Concerning David W. Patten Name of the church; stakes; temple to be built at Far West, Missouri Adam-ondi-Ahman Concerning William Marks, Newel K. Whitney, and Oliver Granger; property; sacrifice Vacancies in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles filled Tithing Council on the Disposition of the Tithes Prayer and prophecies of Joseph Smith; why many are called but few chosen Destiny of Joseph Smith Letter to church; duty in relation to their persecutors Nauvoo Temple and Nauvoo House to be built; baptism for the dead Saints in Iowa To Brigham Young Letter to church; baptism for the dead Letter to church; baptism for the dead Distinguishing the nature of angels and disembodied spirits Various items of instruction; corporeal nature of God and Jesus Christ; intelligence; seer stones Various items of instruction; celestial marriage; eternal life Plural marriage; celestial marriage; sealing power; exaltation Original \"Appendix\"; Second Coming; missionary work secular governments and laws in general Martyrdom of Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith Organization of Mormon pioneer westward journey Salvation for the dead; salvation of little children Jesus Christ preached to spirits in prison; salvation for the dead Cessation of plural marriage 1978 Revelation on Priesthood: cessation of priesthood restrictions based on race God's words to Moses Yes(Pearl of Great Price) Prophecy of Enoch Yes(Pearl of Great Price) General meeting of the quorums of the church to consider the labors of the committee charged with organizing publication of the revelations into a book Declaration on marriage; one spouse only Tithing Calling of William Marks Priesthood ordination of other races Changes in leadership positions Foreign missions Instructions to the elders Branch and district presidents Changes in leadership positions Duties of quorums Lamoni College; church publications; relations with the LDS Church; doctrinal tracts; interpretation of various scriptures; gospel boat; branch in Detroit Changes in leadership positions Patriarchs; foreign missions Quorums Sanitarium Organization and colonization Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions Presiding Bishopric Presiding Bishop Missionary work Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions; unity Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions; work toward Zion Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions; Zion Changes in leadership positions; counsel Commendation; urge to work Changes in leadership positions; counsel New President of the Church named Changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions; unity commended Changes in leadership positions; stewardship Changes in leadership positions; counsel Changes in leadership positions; relationship between ministerial programs; prepare to build temple at Independence Clarification of 149 Changes in leadership positions; counsel on culture; Independence Temple preparation; ecology Changes in leadership positions; reconciliation New precedent on presidential succession; presidential successor named; changes in leadership positions; reconciliation New President of the Church; changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach Changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach Changes in leadership positions; counsel on witness Purpose of Independence Temple; priesthood opened to women; changes in leadership positions Changes in leadership positions; unity; humility Changes in leadership positions; the spiritual life Changes in leadership positions; trusting the Spirit; Independence Temple accepted New President of the Church named Proclaim peace; reach out; patience; embrace differences; respect tradition Be a prophetic people; diversity; tithing Strive for peace; missionary work; use and misuse of scripture; equality; generosity Effects of baptism, confirmation, and sacrament of the Lord's Supper; cultural awareness and sensitivity; flexibility in number of quorums of seventy; accelerate evangelism Expand community, promote peace, and end poverty; tithing; unity in diversity; act in accordance to beliefs Pearl of Great PriceBook of Moses Book of Abraham Joseph Smith–Matthew Joseph Smith–History Articles of Faith Inspired Inspired Inspired Latter Day Saint movement other religious textThe Word of the Lord The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel Lectures on Faith Book of Jasher No - not considered canonical The Book of the Law of the Lord Letter of Appointment" ], [ "See also", "* Book of Joseph, untranslated scripture from Joseph Smith Papyri* Kinderhook plates, incomplete non-canonized translation made by Joseph Smith* Lectures on Faith, decanonized in 1921* List of non-canonical revelations in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Quadruple Combination: Official Edition of the Standard Works (King James Bible, the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and Pearl of Great Price) in PDF format, including footnotes, chapter headings and supplemental material.", "* Official Edition of the LDS standard works with cross references and study helps*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''' (LDS Church) has three main periods, described generally as:# the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, which is in common with most Latter Day Saint movement churches;# the \"pioneer era\" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th-century successors;# the modern era beginning in the early 20th century as the practice of polygamy was discontinued and many members sought reintegration into U.S. society.The LDS Church originated in the burned-over district within Western New York.", "Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in this region during the Second Great Awakening.", "Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of inscriptions found on a set of golden plates buried near his home in Upstate New York by an Indigenous American prophet named Moroni.On April 6, 1830, at the home of Peter Whitmer in Fayette, New York, Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ, and grew rapidly under Smith’s leadership.", "The main body of the church moved first to Kirtland, Ohio, in the early 1830s, then to Missouri in 1838, where the 1838 Mormon War with other Missouri settlers ensued.", "On October 27, 1838, Lilburn W. Boggs, the Governor of Missouri, signed Missouri Executive Order 44, which called to expel adherents from the state.", "Approximately 15,000 Mormons fled to Illinois after their surrender at Far West on November 1, 1838.After fleeing from Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, which grew rapidly.", "When Smith was killed, Nauvoo had a population of about 12,000 people, nearly all members of Smith's church.", "After his death, a succession crisis ensued and the majority voted to accept the Quorum of the Twelve, led by Brigham Young, as the church's leading body.After suffering persecution in Illinois, Young left Nauvoo in 1846 and led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, to Salt Lake Valley.", "The Mormon pioneers then branched out to pioneer a large state called Deseret, establishing colonies that spanned from Canada to Mexico.Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity and governed his followers as a theocratic leader, assuming both political and religious positions.", "He also publicized the previously secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy.", "By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Latter-day Saints and other Americans, largely as a result of the teachings on polygamy and theocracy.", "During the Utah War, from 1857 to 1858, the United States Army conducted an invasion of Utah, after which Young agreed to be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial Governor, Alfred Cumming.The church, however, still wielded significant political power in Utah Territory.", "Even after Young died in 1877, many members continued the practice of polygamy despite opposition by the United States Congress.", "When tensions with the U.S. government came to a head in 1890, the church officially abandoned the public practice of polygamy in the United States and eventually stopped performing official polygamous marriages altogether after a Second Manifesto in 1904.Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating members who were found to be practicing polygamy, and today seeks to actively distance itself from polygamist fundamentalist groups.During the 20th century, the church became an international organization.", "The church first began engaging with mainstream American culture, and then with international cultures.", "It engaged especially in Latin American countries by sending out thousands of missionaries.", "The church began publicly supporting monogamy and the nuclear family, and at times played a role in political matters.", "One of the official changes to the organization during the modern era was the participation of black members in temple ceremonies, which began in 1978, reversing a policy originally instituted by Young.", "The church has also gradually changed its temple ceremony.", "There continue to be periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church." ], [ "Early history (1820s to 1846)", "Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in this region during the Second Great Awakening.", "Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon.", "He stated that the book was a translation of characters from an ancient script called reformed Egyptian that he stated was inscribed on gold plates which had been buried near his residence in western New York by an indigenous American prophet.", "Smith said he had been given the plates from the angel Moroni.On April 6, 1830, in western New York, Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ.", "The church rapidly gained a following who viewed Smith as their prophet.", "In late 1830, Smith envisioned a \"City of Zion\", a utopian city in Native American lands near Independence, Missouri.", "In October 1830, he sent his Assistant President, Oliver Cowdery, and others on a mission to the area.", "Passing through Kirtland, Ohio, the missionaries converted a congregation of Disciples of Christ led by Sidney Rigdon, and in 1831, Smith decided to temporarily move his followers to Kirtland until lands in the Missouri area could be purchased.", "In the meantime, the church's headquarters remained in Kirtland from 1831 to 1838 and there the church built its first temple and continued to grow in membership from 680 to 17,881 members.While the main church body was in Kirtland, many of Smith's followers attempted to establish settlements in Missouri but were met with resistance from other Missourians who believed Mormons were abolitionists or who distrusted their political ambitions.", "After Smith and other Mormons in Kirtland emigrated to Missouri in 1838, hostilities escalated into the 1838 Mormon War, culminating in adherents being expelled from the state under an Extermination Order signed by Lilburn W. Boggs, the governor of Missouri.After Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois as the new church headquarters, and served as the city's mayor and leader of the Nauvoo Legion.", "As church leader, Smith also instituted the then-secret practice of plural marriage and taught a political system he called \"theodemocracy\", to be led by a Council of Fifty which had secretly and symbolically anointed him king of this millennial theodemocracy.Joseph Smith (pictured), founder of the church, and his brother Hyrum were killed in Carthage, Illinois, by a mob on June 27, 1844On June 7, 1844, a newspaper called the ''Nauvoo Expositor'', edited by dissident Mormon William Law, issued a scathing criticism of polygamy and the Nauvoo theocratic government, including a call for church reform based on earlier Mormon principles.", "In response to the newspaper's publication, Smith and the Nauvoo City Council declared the paper a public nuisance, and ordered the press destroyed.", "The town marshal carried out the order during the evening of June 10.The destruction of the press led to charges of riot against Smith and other members of the council.", "After Smith surrendered on the charges, he was also charged with treason against Illinois.", "While in state custody, he and his brother Hyrum Smith, who was second in line to the church presidency, were killed in a firefight with an angry mob attacking the jail on June 27, 1844.After Smith's death, a succession crisis ensued.", "In this crisis a number of church leaders campaigned to lead the church.", "Most adherents voted on August 8, 1844, to accept the leadership of Brigham Young, the senior apostle.", "Later, adherents bolstered their succession claims by referring to a March 1844 meeting in which Joseph committed the \"keys of the kingdom\" to a group of members within the Council of Fifty that included the apostles.In addition, by the end of the 1800s, several of Young's followers had published reminiscences recalling that during Young's August 8 speech, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, which they attributed to the power of God." ], [ "Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1900)", "===Migration to Utah and colonization of the West===Map showing the westward exodus of the LDS church between 1846 and 1869.Also shown is a portion of the route followed by the Mormon Battalion and the path followed by the handcart companies to the Mormon Trail.Under the leadership of Brigham Young, church leaders planned to leave Nauvoo, Illinois in April 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February.", "They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City.The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the Mormon pioneers and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the Mormon Trail.", "The arrival of the Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day.Locations of major LDS settlements in North America prior to 1890.Included are major cities founded by LDS settlers who later abandoned the area.Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather in Utah in the following decades.", "Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in many deaths.", "Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico.", "Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include San Bernardino, California, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Mesa, Arizona.===Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership===Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see succession crisis).", "Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Young was sustained as a member of the First Presidency on December 25, 1847, and then as President of the Church on October 8, 1848.In the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded the area to the United States.", "As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to Washington, D.C. with a proposal to create a vast State of Deseret, of which Young would be the first governor.", "Instead, Congress created the much smaller Utah Territory in 1850, and Young was appointed governor in 1851.Because of his religious position, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time.For most of the 19th century, the LDS Church maintained an ecclesiastical court system parallel to federal courts, and required Mormons to use the system exclusively for civil matters, or face church discipline.===Mormon Reformation===In 1856–1858, the church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation.", "In 1855, a drought struck the flourishing territory.", "Very little rain fell, and dependable mountain streams ran very low.", "An infestation of grasshoppers and crickets destroyed whatever crops the Mormons had managed to salvage.", "During the winter of 1855–56, flour and other basic necessities were very scarce and costly.In September 1856, as the drought continued, the trials and difficulties led to an explosion of religious fervor.", "Jedediah M. Grant, a counselor in the First Presidency and a well-known conservative voice in the extended community, preached three days of fiery sermons to the people of Kaysville, Utah territory.", "He called for repentance and a general recommitment to moral living and religious teachings.", "500 people presented themselves for \"re-baptism\" — a symbol of their determination to reform their lives.", "The message spread from Kaysville to surrounding Mormon communities.", "Church leaders traveled around the territory, expressing their concern about signs of spiritual decay and calling for repentance.", "Members were asked to seal their rededication with re-baptism.Several sermons Willard Richards and George A. Smith had given earlier in the history of the church had touched on the concept of blood atonement, suggesting that apostates could become so enveloped in sin that the voluntary shedding of their own blood might increase their chances of eternal salvation.", "On September 21, 1856, while calling for sincere repentance, Brigham Young took the idea further, and stated:I know that there are transgressors, who, if they knew themselves and the only condition upon which they can obtain forgiveness, would beg of their brethren to shed their blood, that the smoke might ascend to God as an offering to appease the wrath that is kindled against them, and that the law might have its course.", "''Journal of Discourses'' 4:43.This belief became ingrained in the church's public image during that period and drew widespread ridicule in Eastern newspapers, particularly in connection with the practice of polygamy.", "The notion faced consistent criticism from numerous Mormons and was ultimately disavowed as an official doctrine by the LDS Church in 1978.Nevertheless, in contemporary times, critics of the church and some popular writers continue to associate a formal doctrine of blood atonement with the Church.Throughout the winter, special meetings were held and Mormons were urged to adhere to the commandments of God and the practices and precepts of the church.", "Preaching placed emphasis on the practice of plural marriage, adherence to the Word of Wisdom, attendance at church meetings, and personal prayer.", "On December 30, 1856, the entire all-Mormon territorial legislature was re-baptized for the remission of their sins, and confirmed under the hands of the Twelve Apostles.", "As time went on, however, the sermons became intolerant and hysterical.===Utah War and Mountain Meadows massacre===In 1857–1858, the church was involved in an armed conflict with the U.S. government, now known as the Utah War.", "The settlers and the United States government battled for hegemony over the culture and government of the territory.", "Tensions over the Utah War, the murder of Mormon apostle Parley P. Pratt in Arkansas, and threats of violence from the Baker-Fancher wagon train (and possibly other factors), resulted in rogue Mormon settlers in southern Utah massacring a wagon train from Arkansas, known as Mountain Meadows massacre.", "The result of the Utah War was the succeeding of the governorship of the Utah territory from Brigham Young to Alfred Cumming, an outsider appointed by President James Buchanan.===Brigham Young's later years===The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the United Order numerous times, most recently during the Mormon Reformation.", "In 1874, Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he now called the \"United Order of Enoch\" in at least 200 Mormon communities, beginning in St. George, Utah on February 9, 1874.In Young's Order, producers typically transferred ownership of their property to the Order itself.", "All members within the order would then collectively partake in the cooperative's net income, often distributed in proportion to the value of the property initially contributed.", "Occasionally, members received wages for their labor on the shared property.", "Much like Joseph Smith's United Order, Young's Order had a brief existence.", "By the time Young passed away in 1877, most of these United Orders had faltered.", "As the 19th century drew to a close, these Orders had effectively become extinct.Brigham Young died in August 1877.After his death, the First Presidency was not reorganized until 1880, when Young was succeeded by John Taylor, who in the interim had served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.===Polygamy and the United States \"Mormon question\"===For several decades, polygamy was preached as God's law.", "Brigham Young, the church’s second president, had 56 wives during his life; many other church leaders were also polygamists.This early practice of polygamy caused conflict between church members and the broader American society.", "In 1854, the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and slavery as the \"twin relics of barbarism.\"", "In 1862, the U.S. Congress enacted the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, signed by Abraham Lincoln, which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by $500 or five years in prison.", "The law also permitted the confiscation of church property without compensation.", "However, this law was not enforced by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts.", "Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place.", "In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the American Civil War.In 1874, after the war, Congress passed the Poland Act, which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons.", "In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in 1878 by the United States Supreme Court in the case of ''Reynolds v. United States''.", "After ''Reynolds'', Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the Edmunds Act in 1882.The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place.", "The Act also vacated the Utah territorial government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist.", "Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial.In 1887, Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and confiscated the church's property.", "By this time, many church leaders had gone into hiding to avoid prosecution, and half the Utah prison population was composed of polygamists.Church leadership officially ended the practice in the United States in 1890, based on a decree of church president Wilford Woodruff called the 1890 Manifesto." ], [ "20th century", "The church's modern era began soon after it renounced polygamy in 1890.Prior to the 1890 Manifesto, church leaders had been in hiding, many ecclesiastical matters had been neglected, and the church organization itself had been disincorporated.", "With the reduction in federal pressure afforded by the Manifesto, however, the church began to re-establish its institutions.===Post-Manifesto polygamy and the Second Manifesto===The 1890 Manifesto did not, itself, eliminate the practice of new plural marriages, as they continued to occur clandestinely, mostly with church approval and authority.", "In addition, most Mormon polygamists and every polygamous general authority continued to cohabit with their polygamous wives.", "Mormon leaders, including Woodruff, maintained that the Manifesto was a temporary expediency designed to enable Utah to obtain statehood and that at some future date, the practice would soon resume.", "Nevertheless, the 1890 Manifesto provided the church breathing room to obtain Utah's statehood, which it received in 1896 after a campaign to convince the American public that Mormon leaders had abandoned polygamy and intended to stay out of politics.Despite being admitted to the United States, Utah was initially unsuccessful in having its elected representatives and senators seated in the United States Congress.", "In 1898, Utah elected general authority B.H.", "Roberts to the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat.", "Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy.", "In 1903, the Utah legislature selected Reed Smoot, also an LDS Church general authority but also a monogamist, as its first senator.", "From 1904 to 1907, the United States Senate conducted a series of Congressional hearings on whether Smoot should be seated.", "Eventually, the Senate granted Smoot a seat and allowed him to vote.", "However, the hearings raised controversy as to whether polygamy had actually been abandoned as claimed in the 1890 Manifesto, and whether the LDS Church continued to exercise influence on Utah politics.", "In response to these hearings, church president Joseph F. Smith issued a Second Manifesto denying that any post-Manifesto marriages had the church's sanction, and announcing that those entering such marriages in the future would be excommunicated.The Second Manifesto did not annul existing plural marriages within the church, and the church tolerated some degree of polygamy into at least the 1930s.", "However, eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from Mormon fundamentalist groups still practicing polygamy.Gordon B. Hinckley, \"What Are People Asking About Us?", "\", ''Ensign'', November 1998, p. 70.In modern times, members of the Mormon religion do not practice polygamy.===Involvement in national politics=======Relationship to the women's suffrage movement====In 1870, the Utah Territory had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the U.S. Congress revoked in 1887 as part of the Edmunds-Tucker Act.As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights.", "Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist Emmeline B.", "Wells, editor of the ''Woman's Exponent'', a Utah feminist newspaper.", "Wells, who was both a feminist and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse.", "National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah's progressive stand on women's rights, and the church's stand on polygamy.In 1890, after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah's feminism more directly, and in 1891, Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in Salt Lake City, attended by such national feminist leaders as Susan B. Anthony and Anna Howard Shaw.", "The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in 1889 as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in 1890 became the National American Woman Suffrage Association), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascent state of Utah should enfranchise women.", "In 1896, Utah became the third state in the U.S. to grant women the right to vote.====Debate over temperance and prohibition====The LDS Church was actively involved in support of the temperance movement in the 19th century, and later the prohibition movement under the presidency of Heber J. Grant.====Relationship with socialism and communism====Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with socialism in its various forms.", "In the earliest days of Mormonism, Joseph Smith had established a form of Christian communalism, an idea made popular during the Second Great Awakening, combined with a move toward theocracy.", "Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communalism as the United Order, or the law of consecration.", "While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of Utah during the theocratic political leadership of Brigham Young.", "Some aspects of secular socialism also found a place in the political views of Joseph Smith.", "He ran for President of the United States on a platform that included a nationalized bank aimed at addressing the abuses of private banks.As a secular political leader in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced collective farms to support those lacking property, ensuring sustenance for the poor and their families.", "Upon reaching Utah, Brigham Young guided the church leadership in advocating for collective industry ownership.", "In 1876, a circular issued by them emphasized the importance of wealth distribution for liberty, warning against tyranny, oppression, and the vices arising from unequal wealth distribution.", "The circular, signed by the Quorum of the Twelve and the First Presidency, cautioned that continuous wealth concentration among the rich and deepening poverty among the poor could lead the nation toward disaster.In addition to religious socialism, many Mormons in Utah were interested in the secular socialist movement that began in America during the 1890s.", "During the 1890s to the 1920s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the Socialist Party of America in 1901, elected about 100 socialists to state offices in Utah.", "An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon.", "Many early socialists visited the Church's cooperative communities in Utah with great interest and were well received by the church leadership.", "Prominent early socialists such as Albert Brisbane, Victor Prosper Considerant, Plotino Rhodakanaty, Edward Bellamy, and Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman showed great interest in the successful cooperative communities of the church in Utah.", "For example, while doing research for what would become a best selling socialist novel, ''Looking Backward'', Edward Bellamy toured the Church's cooperative communities in Utah and visited with Lorenzo Snow for a week.", "Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman also wrote a book, though this one non-fiction, after visiting the Church in Utah.", "Their book was titled ''The Latter Day Saints: A Study of the Mormons in the Light of Economic Conditions'', which discussed the Church from a Marxist perspective.", "Socialist Plotino Rhodakanaty also became a prominent early church member in Mexico, after being baptized by a group of missionaries which included Moses Thatcher.", "Thatcher kept in touch with Rhodakanaty for years following and was himself perhaps the most prominent member of the church to have openly identified himself as a socialist supporter.Albert Brisbane and Victor Prosper Considerant also visited the church in Utah during its early years, prompting Considerant to note that \"thanks to a certain dose of socialist solidarity, the Mormons have in a few years attained a state of unbelievable prosperity\".", "Attributing the peculiar socialist attitudes of the early Mormons to their success in the desert of the western United States was common even among those who were not themselves socialist.", "For instance, in his book History of Utah, 1540–1886, Hubert Howe Bancroft points out that the Mormons \"while not communists, the elements of socialism enter strongly into all their relations, public and private, social, commercial, and industrial, as well as religious and political.", "This tends to render them exclusive, independent of the gentiles and their government, and even in some respects antagonistic to them.", "They have assisted each other until nine out of ten own their farms, while commerce and manufacturing are to large extent cooperative.", "The rights of property are respected; but while a Mormon may sell his farm to a gentile, it would not be deemed good fellowship for him to do so.", "\"While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the church was more circumspect about Marxist Communism because of its acceptance of violence as a means to achieve revolution.", "From the time of Joseph Smith, the church had taken a favorable view as to the American Revolution and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government, however the church viewed the revolutionary nature of Leninist Communism as a threat to the United States Constitution, which the church saw as divinely inspired to ensure the agency of man.", "In 1936, the First Presidency issued a statement which stated in part that “to support Communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a Communist or supporter of Communism.", "... No loyal American citizen and no faithful church member can be a Communist.” The strident atheism of Marxist thought may have also been considered incompatible with the church’s fundamentally religious worldview.In later years, such leaders as Ezra Taft Benson would take a stronger anti-Communist position publicly, his anti-Communism often being anti-leftist in general.", "However, Benson's views often brought embarrassment to the church leadership, and when Benson was sent to Europe on a mission for the church, many believed this was a way of getting Benson out of the US where his right-wing views were a point of embarrassment for the church.", "While publicly claiming that this was not the reason for Benson's call to Europe, church president Joseph Fielding Smith wrote a letter to Congressman Ralph Harding stating that \"It would be better for him and for the church and all concerned, if he would settle down to his present duties and let all political matters take their course.", "He is going to take a mission to Europe in the near future and by the time he returns I hope he will get all the political notions out of his system.\"", "In another letter written in response to questions about how long Benson would be on his mission to Europe from U.S. Under-Secretary of State Averell Harriman, the church's first counselor in the First Presidency, Hugh B.", "Brown, responded: \"If I had my way, he'll never come back!\".", "Later, Benson would become church president and backed off of his political rhetoric.", "Toward the end of his presidency, the church even began to discipline church members who had taken Benson's earlier hardline right-wing speeches too much to heart, some of whom claimed that the church had excommunicated them for adhering too closely to Benson's right-wing ideology.===Institutional reforms=======Developments in Church financing====Soon after the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church was in a dire financial condition.", "It was recovering from the U.S. crackdown on polygamy, and had difficulty reclaiming property that had been confiscated during polygamy raids.", "Meanwhile, there was a national recession beginning in 1893.By the late 1890s, the church was about $2 million in debt, and near bankruptcy.", "In response, Lorenzo Snow, then President of the Church, conducted a campaign to raise the payment of tithing, of which less than 20% of LDS had been paying during the 1890s.", "After a visit to Saint George, Utah, which had a much higher-than-average percentage of full 10% tithe-payers, Snow felt that he had received a revelation.", "As a result of Snow's vigorous campaign, tithing payment increased dramatically from 18.4% in 1898 to an eventual peak of 59.3% in 1910.From that time, payment of tithing has been a requirement for temple worship within the faith.During this timeframe, changes were made in stipends for bishops and general authorities.", "Bishops once received a 10% stipend from tithing funds, but are now purely volunteer.", "General authorities receive stipends, and formerly received loans from church funds.====Changes to meeting schedule====In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings occurred every Sunday morning and evening, with additional gatherings throughout the week.", "This structure was convenient for Utah Saints, as they typically resided within walking distance of a church building.", "However, outside of Utah, this meeting schedule presented logistical challenges.", "In 1980, the church implemented the \"Consolidated Meeting Schedule,\" consolidating most church meetings into a three-hour block on Sundays.In 2019, the meeting schedule was condensed into a two-hour block, with meetings during the second hour alternating between Sunday School and gendered (Relief Society / Priesthood) meetings.====Changes to missionary service====In 1982, the First Presidency announced that the length of service of male full-time missionaries would be reduced to 18 months.", "In 1984, a little more than two years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months.Starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations.", "Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own.", "The amount paid into the fund does not vary by location; therefore, missionaries serving in low-cost-of-living-areas effectively subsidize missionaries serving in areas with higher costs.====Changes to church hierarchy and structure====During the 1960s, the church pursued a Priesthood Correlation Program, which streamlined and centralized the structure of the church.", "It had begun earlier in 1908, as the Correlation Program.", "The program increased church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings.During this time period, priesthood editorial oversight was established of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines.In 1911, the church adopted the Scouting program for its male members of appropriate age.The Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928–1937) re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as \"priesthood auxiliaries\" with reduced autonomy.===LDS multiculturalism===As the church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture but were not essential to Mormonism.", "During and after the civil rights movement, the church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the Anglo-American mainstream, carried racist and neocolonialist connotations.", "The mid-20th century saw the church critiqued over its positions on Black and Native American matters, especially the institution's bias towards European standards or norms at the expense and disregard of other racial or ethnic backgrounds' identity and humanity.====The church and black people====The cause of some of the church's most damaging publicity had to do with the church's policy of discrimination against black people.", "Black people were always officially welcome in the church, and Joseph Smith established an early precedent for it by ordaining black males to the Priesthood.", "Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as a candidate for the presidency of the United States.", "At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy for the belief that black people were the cursed descendants of Cain, a belief which was commonly held in his day.", "In 1849, church doctrine taught that while black people could be baptized, black men could not be ordained to the Priesthood and black people could not enter LDS temples.", "Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination.By the late 1960s, the church had expanded into Brazil, the Caribbean, and the nations of Africa, but it was also being criticized for its policy of racial discrimination.", "In the case of Africa and the Caribbean, the church had not yet begun large-scale missionary efforts in most areas.", "There were large groups of people who desired to join the church in Ghana and Nigeria and there were also many faithful church members who were of African descent in Brazil.", "On June 9, 1978, under the administration of Spencer W. Kimball, the church's leadership changed the long-standing policy.Today, there are many black members of the church, and there are also many predominantly black congregations.", "In the Salt Lake City area, black members have organized branches of an official church auxiliary which is called the Genesis Groups.====The church and Native Americans====Founder Joseph Smith preaching to Native Americans in Illinois.During the post-World War II period, the church also began to focus on expansion into a number of Native American cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity.", "These peoples were called \"Lamanites\", because they were all believed to descend from the Lamanite group in the ''Book of Mormon''.", "In 1947, the church began the Indian Placement Program, where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in anglo Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture.In 1955, the church began ordaining black Melanesians to the Priesthood.Member of the Shivwits Band of Paiutes, in 1875, being baptized by Mormon Missionaries.The church's policy toward Native Americans also came under fire during the 1970s.", "In particular the Indian Placement Program was criticized as neocolonial.", "In 1977, the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the church was using its influence to push children into joining the program.", "However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs.", "One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture.", "By the late 1980s, the program had been in decline, and in 1996, it was discontinued.", "In 2016, three lawsuits against the LDS Church were filed in the Navajo Nation District Court, alleging that participants in the program were sexually abused in their foster homes.", "The church asked for the lawsuits to be dismissed on jurisdictional grounds, arguing that the alleged abuse took place outside the reservation.In 1981, the church published a new LDS edition of the Standard Works that changed a passage in ''The Book of Mormon'' that Lamanites (considered by many Latter-day Saints to be Native Americans) will \"become white and delightsome\" after accepting the gospel of Jesus Christ.", "Instead of continuing the original reference to skin color, the new edition replaced the word \"white\" with the word \"pure\".===Doctrinal reforms and influences===In 1927, the church implemented its \"Good Neighbor policy\", whereby it removed any suggestion in church literature, sermons, and ordinances that its members should seek vengeance on US citizens or governments, particularly for the assassinations of its founder Joseph Smith and his brother, Hyrum.", "The church also reformed the temple ordinance around this time to remove such references.====Evolution====The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church.", "The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in 1909, which marked the centennial of Charles Darwin's birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, ''On the Origin of Species''.", "On that year, the First Presidency led by Joseph F. Smith as president, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of creationism, and calling human evolution one of the \"theories of men\", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil.Soon after the 1909 statement, Joseph F. Smith professed in an editorial that \"the church itself has no philosophy about the ''modus operandi'' employed by the Lord in His creation of the world.", "\"In 1925, as a result of publicity from the \"Scopes Monkey Trial\" concerning the right to teach evolution in Tennessee public schools, the First Presidency reiterated its 1909 stance, stating that \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity.", "\"In the early 1930s there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and general authority B. H. Roberts and some members of the Council of the Twelve Apostles over attempts by B. H. Roberts to reconcile the fossil record with the scriptures by introducing a doctrine of pre-Adamite creation, and backing up this speculative doctrine using geology, biology, anthropology, and archeology.", "More conservative members of the Twelve Apostles, including Joseph Fielding Smith, rejected his speculation because it contradicted the idea that there was no death until after the fall of Adam.", "James E. Talmage published a book through the LDS Church that explicitly stated that organisms lived and died on this earth before the earth was fit for human habitation.The debate over pre-Adamites has been interpreted by LDS proponents of evolution as a debate about organic evolution.", "This view, based on the belief that a dichotomy of thought on the subject of evolution existed between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, has become common among pro-evolution members of the church.", "As a result, the ensuing 1931 statement has been interpreted by some as official permission for members to believe in organic evolution.Later, Joseph Fielding Smith published his book ''Man: His Origin and Destiny'', which denounced evolution without qualification.", "Similar statements of denunciation were made by Bruce R. McConkie, who in 1980 denounced evolution as one of \"the seven deadly heresies.\"", "Evolution was also denounced by the conservative apostle Ezra Taft Benson, who in 1975 called on church members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a \"falsehood\" on a par with socialism, rationalism, and humanism.A dichotomy of opinion exists among church members today.", "Largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of conservative church members.", "A minority accept evolution, supported in part by the debate between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, in part by a large amount of scientific evidence, and in part by Joseph F. Smith's words that \"the church itself has no philosophy about the ''modus operandi'' employed by the Lord in His creation of the world.\"", "Meanwhile, Brigham Young University, the largest private university owned and operated by the church, not only teaches evolution to its biology majors, but has also done significant research in evolution.", "BYU-I, another church-run school, also teaches it.A 2018 study in ''PLOS One'' researched the attitudes toward evolution of Latter-day Saint undergraduates.", "The study revealed that there has been a recent shift of attitude towards evolution among LDS undergraduates, from antagonistic to more accepting.", "The researchers cited examples of more acceptance of fossil and geological records, as well as an acceptance of the old age of the earth.", "The researchers attributed this attitude change to several factors including primary-school exposure to evolution and a reduction in the number of anti-evolution statements from the First Presidency.====Reacting to pluralism====The church was opposed to the Equal Rights Amendment.In 1995, the church issued The Family: A Proclamation to the World.The church opposes same-sex marriage, but does not object to rights regarding hospitalization and medical care, fair housing and employment rights, or probate rights, so long as these do not infringe on the integrity of the family or the constitutional rights of churches and their adherents to administer and practice their religion free from government interference.", "The church supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against gay men and lesbians in housing and employment, calling them \"common-sense rights.", "\"Some church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations, including Evergreen International, Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons, North Star, Disciples2, Wildflowers, Family Fellowship, GLYA (Gay LDS Young Adults), LDS Reconciliation, Gamofites and the Guardrail foundation.", "Church leaders have met with people from Evergreen International, Inc. and several gay rights leaders.====Challenges to fundamental church doctrine====In 1967, a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the Metropolitan Museum of Art that appear to be the manuscripts from which Joseph Smith said to have translated the Book of Abraham in 1835.These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871.Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified as ''The Book of the Dead'', an ancient Egyptian funerary text.", "Moreover, the scholars' translations of the scrolls disagreed with Smith's purported translation.", "This discovery forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith's translations were literal one-to-one translations.In the early 1980s, the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript, which came to be known as the \"Salamander Letter\", received much publicity.", "This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named Mark Hofmann, alleged that the ''Book of Mormon'' was given to Joseph Smith by a being that changed itself into a salamander, not by an angel as the official church history recounted.", "The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still significantly publicized and even printed in the church's official magazine, the ''Ensign''.", "The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in 1985, and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries.====Mormon dissidents and scholars====In 1989, George P. Lee, a Navajo member of the First Quorum of the Seventy who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated.", "The church action occurred not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the effect it had on Native American culture.", "In October 1994, Lee confessed to, and was convicted of, sexually molesting a 13-year-old girl in 1989.It is not known if church leaders had knowledge of this crime during the excommunication process.In the late 1980s, the administration of Ezra Taft Benson formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings.", "The existence of this committee was first publicized by an anti-Mormon ministry in 1991, when it was referred to in a memo dated July 19, 1990 leaked from the office of the church's Presiding Bishopric.At the 1992 Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar Lavina Fielding Anderson accused the Committee of being \"an internal espionage system,\" which prompted Brigham Young University professor and moderate Mormon scholar Eugene England to \"accuse that committee of undermining the Church,\" a charge for which he later publicly apologized.", "The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the committee.", "The Church explained that the Committee \"provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism.", "\"Official concern about the work of dissident scholars within the church led to the excommunication or disfellowshipping of six such scholars, dubbed the September Six, in September 1993.===Latter-day Saint public relations===Pre-1995 LDS Church logoIn the 1960s, the church formed the Church Information Service with the goal of being ready to respond to media inquiries and generate positive media coverage.", "The organization kept a photo file to provide photos to the media for such events as Temple dedications.", "It also worked to get stories covering Family Home Evening, the church welfare plan and the church's youth activities in various publications.As part of the church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the church began to moderate its earlier anti–Roman Catholic rhetoric.", "In Bruce R. McConkie's 1958 edition of ''Mormon Doctrine'', he had stated his unofficial opinion that the Catholic Church was part of \"the church of the devil\" and \"the great and abominable church\" because it was among organizations that misled people away from following God's laws.", "In his 1966 edition of the same book, the specific reference to the Catholic Church was removed.According to Riess and Tickle, early Mormons rarely quoted from the Book of Mormon in their speeches and writings.", "It was not until the 1980s that it was cited regularly in speeches given by LDS Church leaders at the biannual general conferences.", "In 1982, the LDS Church subtitled the Book of Mormon \"Another Testament of Jesus Christ.\"", "Apostle Boyd K. Packer stated that the scripture now took its place \"beside the Old Testament and the New Testament.", "Riess and Tickle assert that the introduction of this subtitle was intended to emphasize the Christ-centered nature of the Book of Mormon.", "They assert that the LDS \"rediscovery of the Book of Mormon in the late twentieth century is strongly connected to their renewed emphasis on the person and nature of Jesus Christ.", "\"LDS Church logo from 1995 - 2020In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words \"JESUS CHRIST\" in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words \"The Church of\" and \"of Latter-day Saints\"." ], [ "21st century", "On January 1, 2000, the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles released a proclamation entitled \"The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles\".", "This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the church's official view regarding Christ.The church has participated in several interfaith cooperation initiatives.", "The church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network.", "The church has also participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other churches.", "Lastly, the church has agreed not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy.In 2004, the church endorsed an amendment to the United States Constitution banning homosexual marriage.", "The church also announced its opposition to political measures that \"confer legal status on any other sexual relationship\" than a \"man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife.", "\"On November 5, 2015, an update letter to LDS Church leaders for the Church Handbook was leaked.", "The policy banned a \"child of a parent living in a same-gender relationship\" from baby blessings, baptism, confirmation, priesthood ordination, and missionary service until the child was not living with their homosexual parent(s), was \"of legal age\", and \"disavowed the practice of same-gender cohabitation and marriage\", in addition to receiving approval from the Office of the First Presidency.", "The policy update also added that entering a same-sex marriage as a type of \"apostasy\", mandating a disciplinary council.", "The next day, in a video interview, apostle D. Todd Christofferson clarified that the policy was \"about love\" and \"protecting children\" from \"difficulties, challenges, conflicts\" where \"parents feel one way and the expectations of the Church are very different\".", "On November 13, the First Presidency released a letter clarifying that the policy applied \"only to those children whose primary residence is with a couple living in a same-gender marriage or similar relationship\" and that for children residing with parents in a same-sex relationship who had already received ordinances the policy would not require that \"privileges be curtailed or that further ordinances be withheld\".", "The next day around 1,500 members gathered across from the Church Office Building to submit their resignation letters in response to the policy change with thousands more resigning online in the weeks after Two months later, in a satellite broadcast, apostle Russell M. Nelson stated that the policy change was \"revealed to President Monson\" in a \"sacred moment\" when \"the Lord inspired him ... to declare ... the will of the Lord\".", "In April 2019, the church—then led by Nelson—reversed these policies, citing efforts to be more accepting to people of all kinds of backgrounds.For over 100 years, the church was a major sponsor of Scouting programs for boys, particularly in the United States.", "The LDS Church was the largest chartered organization in the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), having joined the BSA as its first charter organization in 1913.In 2020, the church ended its relationship with the BSA and began an alternate, religion-centered youth program, which replaced all other youth programs.", "Prior to leaving the Scouting program, LDS Scouts made up nearly 20 percent of all enrolled Boy Scouts, more than any other church.===Legal entities and merger===In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in the United States by the Edmunds–Tucker Act because of the church's practice of polygamy.", "For more than the next hundred years, the church as a whole operated as an unincorporated entity.", "During that time, tax-exempt corporations of the LDS Church included the ''Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints'', which managed non-ecclesiastical real estate and other holdings; and the ''Corporation of the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints'', which governed temples, other sacred buildings, and the church's employees.", "By 2021, the two had been merged into one corporate entity, legally named \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "\"===Ensign Peak Advisors===In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over $100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); that it failed to use the funds for charitable purposes and instead used them in for-profit ventures; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds.", "In response, the church's First Presidency stated that \"the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves,\" and that \"a portion\" of funds received by the church are \"methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve for the future\".", "The church has not directly addressed the fund's size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate.In February 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a $5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP.", "The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple shell companies from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency.", "The church released a statement that in 2000 EP \"received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio.\"", "After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP \"adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report.\"" ], [ "See also", "*Church History Museum*Christian communism*Criticism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*Cunning Folk Traditions and the Latter Day Saint Movement*''History of the Church'' (Joseph Smith)*History of the Latter Day Saint movement*Latter Day Saint Historians*List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement*List of historic sites of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*Mormon studies*Mormonism and history*Mormonism and Pacific Islanders*Restoration movement*Restorationism (Christian primitivism)*''Saints: The Story of the Church of Jesus Christ in the Latter Days''*The Joseph Smith Papers*Temperance organizations*Utah-Idaho Sugar Company" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Allen, James and Leonard, Glen M. (1976, 1992) ''The Story of the Latter-day Saints''; Deseret Book; *Arrington, Leonard J.", "(1979).", "''The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints''; University of Illinois Press; (1979; Paperback, 1992)*Arrington, Leonard J.", "(1958).", "''Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830-1900''; University of Illinois Press; (1958; Hardcover, October 2004).", "*Givens, Terryl L. ''The Latter-day Saint Experience in America (The American Religious Experience)'' Greenwood Press, 2004..**May, Dean L. ''Utah: A People's History''.", "Bonneville Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1987..*Quinn, D. Michael (1985), \" LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890-1904 ,\" ''Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought'' 18.1 (Spring 1985): 9–105.", "*Roberts, B. H. (1930).", "''A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I'' 6 volumes; Brigham Young University Press; (1930; Hardcover 1965) (out of print)*Smith, Joseph (1902–32).", "''History of the Church'', 7 volumes; Deseret Book Company; (1902–1932; Paperback, 1991)*." ], [ "External links", "*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, '' Saints: The Story of The Church of Jesus Christ in the Latter Days'' (LDS Church, 2018).", "*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, '' Chronology of Church History'' (LDS Church, 2000).", "*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, '' Our Heritage: A Brief History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints'' (LDS Church, 1996).", "* Annotated Early History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (BOAP, 2000) * Mormon Studies - A site dedicated to the academic and cultural study of Mormonism.", "Contains useful essays on aspects of Church history.", "* ''The Joseph Smith Papers'' The official website of the forthcoming scholarly collection of extant Joseph Smith documents.", "* Mormon Times Studies and Doctrine of LDS Church History* Stanley B. Kimball Sources of Mormon History in Illinois—digitized pdf of ''Sources of Mormon history in Illinois, 1839-48: an annotated catalog of the microfilm collection at Southern Illinois University'' compiled by Stanley B. Kimball." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Christian eschatology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christian eschatology''', is a minor branch of study within Christian theology which deals with the doctrine of the \"last things\", especially the Second Coming of Christ, or Parousia.", "Eschatology – the word derives from two Greek roots meaning \"last\" () and \"study\" (-) – involves the study of \"end things\", whether of the end of an individual life, of the end of the age, of the end of the world, or of the nature of the Kingdom of God.", "Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology focuses on the ultimate destiny of individual souls and of the entire created order, based primarily upon biblical texts within the Old and New Testaments.Christian eschatology looks to study and discuss matters such as death and the afterlife, Heaven and Hell, the Second Coming of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, the rapture, the tribulation, millennialism, the end of the world, the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and New Earth in the world to come.Eschatological passages appear in many places in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testaments.", "Many extra-biblical examples of eschatological prophecies also exist, as well as extra-biblical ecclesiastical traditions relating to the subject." ], [ "History", "Eschatology within early Christianity originated with the public life and preaching of Jesus.", "Jesus Himself referred to His Second Coming numerous times in the gospels: just a few examples are Matthew 24:27; Matthew 24:37–39; Matthew 26:64; Mark 14:62.Christian eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, informed by Biblical texts such as the Olivet discourse (recorded in Matthew 24–25, Mark 13, and Luke 21), The Sheep and the Goats, and other discourses of end times by Jesus, with the doctrine of the Second Coming discussed by Paul the Apostle in his epistles, both the authentic and the disputed ones.", "Other eschatological doctrines can be found in the Epistle of James, the First Epistle of Peter, and the First Epistle of John.", "According to some scholars, the Second Epistle of Peter explains that God is patient and has not yet brought about the Second Coming of Christ, in order that more people will have the chance to reject evil and find salvation (3:3–9); therefore, it calls on Christians to wait patiently for the Parousia and to study scripture.", "Other scholars, however, believe that the New Testament epistles are an exhortation to the early church believers to patiently expect the imminent return of Christ, predicted by Himself on several occasions in the gospels.", "The First Epistle of Clement, written by Pope Clement I in ca.", "95, criticizes those who had doubts about the faith because the Second Coming had, in his view, not yet occurred.Christian eschatology is also discussed by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD) in his epistles, then given more consideration by the Christian apologist, Justin Martyr (c. 100–165).", "Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of Tertullian (c. 160–225), and was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after by Origen (c. 185–254).", "The word was used first by the Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius (1612–1686) but only came into general usage in the 19th century.The growing modern interest in eschatology is tied to developments in Anglophone Christianity.", "Puritans in the 18th and 19th centuries were particularly interested in a postmillennial hope which surrounded Christian conversion.", "This would be contrasted with the growing interest in premillennialism, advocated by dispensational figures such as J. N. Darby.", "Both of these strands would have significant influences on the growing interests in eschatology in Christian missions and in Christianity in West Africa and Asia.", "However, in the 20th century, there would be a growing number of German scholars such as Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg who would likewise be interested in eschatology.In the 1800s, a group of Christian theologians inclusive of Ellen G. White, William Miller and Joseph Bates began to study eschatological implications revealed in the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation.", "Their interpretation of Christian eschatology resulted in the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist church." ], [ "Christian eschatological views", "The following approaches arose from the study of Christianity's most central eschatological document, the Book of Revelation, but the principles embodied in them can be applied to all prophecy in the Bible.", "They are by no means mutually exclusive and are often combined to form a more complete and coherent interpretation of prophetic passages.", "Most interpretations fit into one, or a combination, of these approaches.", "The alternate methods of prophetic interpretation, Futurism and Preterism which came from Jesuit writings, were brought about to oppose the Historicism interpretation which had been used from Biblical times that Reformers used in teaching that the Antichrist was the Papacy or the power of the Roman Catholic Church.===Preterism===Preterism is a Christian eschatological view that interprets some (partial preterism) or all (full preterism) prophecies of the Bible as events which have already happened.", "This school of thought interprets the Book of Daniel as referring to events that happened from the 7th century BC until the first century AD, while seeing the prophecies of Revelation as events that happened in the first century AD.", "Preterism holds that Ancient Israel finds its continuation or fulfillment in the Christian church at the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.Historically, preterists and non-preterists have generally agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy, ''Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi'' (published in 1614), during the Counter-Reformation.===Historicism===Historicism, a method of interpretation of biblical prophecies, associates symbols with historical persons, nations or events.", "It can result in a view of progressive and continuous fulfillment of prophecy covering the period from biblical times to what they view as a possible future Second Coming of Christ.", "Most Protestant Reformers from the Reformation into the 19th century held historicist views.===Futurism===In Futurism, parallels may be drawn with historical events, but most eschatological prophecies are chiefly referring to events which have not yet been fulfilled, but will take place at the end of the age and the end of the world.", "Most prophecies will be fulfilled during a time of global chaos known as the Great Tribulation and afterwards.", "Futurist beliefs usually have a close association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism.===Idealism===Idealism (also called the spiritual approach, the allegorical approach, the nonliteral approach, and many other names) in Christian eschatology is an interpretation of the Book of Revelation that sees all of the imagery of the book as symbols.Jacob Taubes writes that idealist eschatology came about as Renaissance thinkers began to doubt that the Kingdom of Heaven had been established on earth, or would be established, but still believed in its establishment.", "Rather than the Kingdom of Heaven being present in society, it is established subjectively for the individual.F.", "D. Maurice interpreted the Kingdom of Heaven idealistically as a symbol representing society's general improvement, instead of a physical and political kingdom.", "Karl Barth interprets eschatology as representing existential truths that bring the individual hope, rather than history or future-history.", "Barth's ideas provided fuel for the Social Gospel philosophy in America, which saw social change not as performing \"required\" good works, but because the individuals involved felt that Christians could not simply ignore society's problems with future dreams.Different authors have suggested that the Beast represents various social injustices, such as exploitation of workers, wealth, the elite, commerce, materialism, and imperialism.", "Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast.", "Other scholars identify the Beast with the Roman empire of the first century AD, but recognize that the Beast may have significance beyond its identification with Rome.", "For example, Craig R. Koester says \"the vision of the beast speaks to the imperial context in which Revelation was composed, but it does so with images that go beyond that context, depicting the powers at work in the world in ways that continue to engage readers of subsequent generations.\"", "And his comments on the whore of Babylon are more to the point: \"The whore of Babylon is Rome, yet more than Rome.\"", "It \"is the Roman imperial world, which in turn represents the world alienated from God.\"", "As Stephen Smalley puts it, the beast represents \"the powers of evil which lie behind the kingdoms of this world, and which encourage in society, at any moment in history, compromise with the truth and opposition to the justice and mercy of God.", "\"It is distinct from Preterism, Futurism and Historicism in that it does not see any of the prophecies (except in some cases the Second Coming, and Final Judgment) as being fulfilled in a literal, physical, earthly sense either in the past, present or future, and that to interpret the eschatological portions of the Bible in a historical or future-historical fashion is an erroneous understanding.===Comparison of Futurist, Preterist and Historicist beliefs===Eschatological TopicFuturist beliefPreterist beliefHistoricist beliefEras of biblical prophesyFuturists typically anticipate a future period of time when biblical prophecies will be fulfilled.Preterists typically argue that most (Partial Preterism), or all (Full Preterism) biblical prophecies were fulfilled during the earthly ministry of Jesus and the generation immediately proceeding it, concluding with the siege and destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD.Historicists typically understand the prophecies to be continuous from the times of the prophets to the present day and beyond.", "'The 144,000' Revelation 7Various interpretations of a literal number of 144,000, including: 144,000 Evangelical Jews at the end of the world, or 144,000 Christians at the end of the world.A symbolic number signifying the saved, representing completeness, perfection (The number of Israel; 12, squared and multiplied by 1,000, representing the infinite = 144,000).", "This symbolises God's Holy Army, redeemed, purified and complete.A symbolic number representing the saved who are able to stand through the events of 6:17.Locusts released from the Abyss Revelation 9A demonic host released upon the earth at the end of the world.A demonic host released upon Israel during the siege of Jerusalem 66–70 AD.", "The Muslim Arab hordes that overran North Africa, the Near East, and Spain during the 6th to 8th centuries.Large Army from the Euphrates, an army of 'myriads of myriads' Revelation 9:13–16Futurists frequently translate and interpret the Greek phrase 'myriads of myriads' as meaning a 'double myriad', from which they develop the figure of 200 million.", "Futurists frequently assign this army of 200 million to China, which they believe will attack Israel in the future.", "Many Bibles employ a Futurist interpretation of the original Greek when they adopt the figure of 200 million.Others, such as John Walvoord and Tim Lahaye, see these 200 million beings as 200 million demons who are commanded to kill 1/3 of the Earth's population.", "Preterists hold to the original Greek description of a large army consisting of 'myriads of myriads', as a reference to the large pagan army, which would attack Israel during the Siege of Jerusalem from 66 to 70 AD.", "The source of this pagan army from beyond the Euphrates is a symbolic reference to Israel's history of being attacked and judged by pagan armies from beyond the Euphrates.", "Some of the Roman units employed during the siege of Jerusalem were assigned from this area.The Muslim Arab hordes that overran North Africa, the Near East, and Spain during the 6th to 8th centuries.", "'The Two Witnesses' Revelation 11:1–12Two people who will preach in Jerusalem at the end of the world.The two witnesses and their miracles symbolize the ministries of Moses and Elijah, who in turn symbolize 'The Law' and 'The Prophets', the Old Testament witnesses to the righteousness of God.", "When the armies of Rome laid siege to and destroyed Jerusalem in 70 AD, it appeared that the two witnesses had been killed.The two witnesses (AKA \"two olive trees\" and \"two candlesticks\") are the Old and New Testaments.", "'1260 Days' Revelation 11:3A literal 1260 days (3.5 years) at the end of the world during which Jerusalem is controlled by pagan nations.A literal 1260 days (3.5 years) which occurred 'at the end of the world' in 70 AD when the apostate worship at the temple in Jerusalem was decisively destroyed at the hands of the pagan Roman armies following a 3.5-year Roman campaign in Judea and Samaria.", "The two witnesses appeared to be dead for 3.5 years during the siege of Jerusalem but were miraculously resurrected as the Early Church.Various interpretations'The Woman and the Dragon' Revelation 12:1–6A future conflict between the State of Israel and Satan.Symbolic of the Old Covenant Church, the nation of Israel (Woman) giving birth to the Christ child.", "Satan (the Dragon) was determined to destroy the Christ child.", "The Woman (the early church), fled Jerusalem before its destruction in 70 AD.The Dragon represents Satan and any earthly power he uses.", "The woman represents God's true church before and after Christ's birth, death, and resurrection.", "The Woman flees to the desert away from the dominant power of the 1260 years.", "'The Beast out of the Sea' Revelation 13:1–8The Anti-Christ, or the empire of the Anti-Christ, persecuting Christians.The Roman Empire, persecuting the early church during the rule of Nero.", "The sea symbolizing the Mediterranean and the nations of the Roman Empire.The Beast is the earthly power supported by the Dragon (Satan).", "It is the Papal power during the same 42 months mentioned above.", "'The Beast out of the Earth' 'The False Prophet' Revelation 13:11–18The False Prophet who assists the Anti-Christ.The apostate rulers of the Jewish people, who joined in union with the Roman Empire to persecute the early church.The first is the U.S.", "The second is a future religio-political power in which everyone is forced by the first power to receive the mark of the beast.", "'The Number of the beast, 666' Revelation 13:18The number identifying the future empire of the Anti-Christ, persecuting Christians.", "In Hebrew calculations the total sum of Emperor Nero's name, 'Nero Caesar', equated to 666.The number more broadly symbolises the Roman Empire and its persecution of the early church.", "The number 666 also symbolises an apostate ruler as King Solomon was, who collected 666 talents of gold annually.", "1 Kings 10:14Various interpretations.Armageddon Revelation 16:16A future literal battle at Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, Israel.Megiddo is used as a symbol of God's complete victory over His enemies.", "The battle of Armageddon occurred 2000 years ago when God used the pagan armies of Rome to comprehensively destroy the apostate worship at the temple in Jerusalem.", "Revelation 16:16 Judges 5:19 2 Kings 9:27A symbolic name concerning the ongoing battle between Jesus and Satan.Mystery Babylon The Great Harlot Revelation 17:1–5Futurists compose various interpretations for the identity of 'Mystery Babylon' such as the US, the Vatican, or the UN.The corrupted city of Jerusalem, who united with pagan nations of the world in their idolatrous practices and participated in persecuting the faithful Old Covenant priests and prophets, and the early church of the New Covenant.", "Matthew 23:35–37A virtuous woman represents God's true church.", "A whore represents an apostate church.", "Typically, ''Mystery Babylon'' is understood to be the esoteric apostasies, and ''Great Harlot'' is understood to be the popular apostasies.", "Both types of apostasies are already at work, ensnaring the unwary.Seven heads and ten horns Revelation 17:9–11Futurists compose various interpretations.One interpretation for the ten horns is an alliance of ten nations that work for the Anti-Christ.As the Bible text explains, the seven heads are seven mountains.", "This is a direct reference to the Seven hills of Rome.", "It is also noted that the seven hills 'refer to seven kings'.", "This is a reference to the Caesars of Rome.", "At the time of the writing of the Revelation, five Caesars had already fallen (Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, Tiberius Caesar, Caligula and Claudius Caesar), 'One is' (Nero, the sixth Caesar, was on the throne as John was writing the Revelation), and the seventh 'has not yet come'.", "(Galba, the seventh Caesar, reigned for less than 7 months).", "Various interpretations.The Thousand Years The Millennium Revelation 20:1–3The Millennium is a literal, future 1,000-year reign of Christ following the destruction of God's enemies.The Millennium is the current, ongoing rise of God's Kingdom.", "The Millennium is a symbolic time frame, not a literal time frame.", "Preterists believe the Millennium has been ongoing since the earthly ministry and ascension of Christ and the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD and is ongoing today.", "Daniel 2:34–35The time period between Christ's Second Advent and the rapture of all the righteous, both living and formerly dead, from off earth and the third Advent which brings the New Jerusalem and the saints to the planet.", "While the saved are gone, the planet is inhabited only by Satan and his hosts, for all the wicked are dead.", "'The Rapture' Revelation 4:1The Rapture is a future removal of the faithful Christian church from earth.Preterists generally recognize a future 'Second Coming' of Christ, as described in Acts 1:11 and 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17.However, they distinguish this from Revelation 4:1 which is construed by Futurists as describing a 'Rapture' event that is separate from the 'Second Coming'.", "'The Great Tribulation' Revelation 4:1The 'Great Tribulation' is a future period of God's judgement on earth.The 'Great Tribulation' occurred 2000 years ago when apostate Israel was judged and destroyed by God, culminating in the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem at the hands of the pagan armies of the Roman Empire.", "The early Church was delivered from this period of judgment because it heeded the warning of Jesus in Matthew 24:16 to flee Jerusalem when it saw the pagan armies of Rome approaching.", "'The Abomination that causes desolation' Matthew 24:15The Abomination that causes desolation is a future system of idolatrous worship based at the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.The Abomination that causes desolation was the pagan armies of Rome destroying the apostate system of worship at the Temple in Jerusalem 2000 years ago.", "'Gog and Magog invasion' Ezekiel 38Ezekiel 38 refers to a future invasion of Israel by Russia and its allies, resulting in a miraculous deliverance by God.Ezekiel 38 refers to the Maccabees' miraculous defeat of the Seleucids in the 2nd century B.C.", "As Chilton notes, 'The word ''chief'' is, in the Hebrew, ''rosh'', and according to this view, it does not pertain to Russia.===Preterism v. Historicism===Expositors of the traditional Protestant interpretation of Revelation known as Historicism have often maintained that Revelation was written in AD 96 and not AD 70.Edward Bishop Elliott, in the ''Horae Apocalypticae'' (1862), argues that John wrote the book in exile on Patmos \"at the close of the reign of Domitian; that is near the end of the year 95 or beginning of 96\".", "He notes that Domitian was assassinated in September 96.Elliot begins his lengthy review of historical evidence by quoting Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp.", "Polycarp was a disciple of the Apostle John.", "Irenaeus mentions that the Apocalypse was seen \"no very long time ago but almost in our own age, toward the end of the reign of Domitian\".Other historicists have seen no significance in the date that Revelation was written, and have even held to an early date while Kenneth L. Gentry Jr., makes an exegetical and historical argument for the pre-AD 70 composition of Revelation.===Historicism v. Futurism===The division between these interpretations can be somewhat blurred.", "Most futurists are expecting a rapture of the Church, an antichrist, a Great Tribulation and a second coming of Christ in the near future.", "But they also accept certain past events, such as the rebirth of the State of Israel and the reunification of Jerusalem as prerequisites to them, in a manner which the earlier historicists have done with other dates.", "Futurists, who do not normally use the day-year principle, interpret the Prophecy of Seventy Weeks in Daniel 9:24 as years, just as historicists do.", "Most historicists have chosen timelines, from beginning to end, entirely in the past, but some, such as Adam Clarke, have timelines which also commenced with specific past events, but require a future fulfillment.", "In his commentary on Daniel 8:14 published in 1831, he stated that the 2,300-year period should be calculated from 334 BC, the year Alexander the Great began his conquest of the Persian Empire.", "His calculation resulted in the year 1966.He seems to have overlooked the fact that there is no \"year zero\" between BC and AD dates.", "For example, the year following 1 BC is 1 AD.", "Thus his calculations should have required an additional year, ending in 1967.He was not anticipating a literal regathering of the Jewish people prior to the second coming of Christ.", "But the date is of special significance to futurists since it is the year of Jerusalem's capture by Israeli forces during the Six-Day War.", "His commentary on Daniel 7:25 contains a 1260-year period commencing in 755 AD and ending in 2015." ], [ "Major theological positions", "===Premillennialism===Premillennialism can be divided into two common categories: Historic Premillennialism and Dispensational Premillennialism.", "Historic Premillennialism is usually associated with post-tribulation \"rapture\" and does not see a strong distinction between ethnic Israel and the Church.", "Dispensational Premillennialism can be associated with any of the three rapture views but is often associated with a pretribulation rapture.", "Dispensationalism also sees a stronger distinction between ethnic Israel and the Church.Premillennialism usually posits that Christ's second coming will inaugurate a literal thousand-year earthly kingdom.", "Christ's return will coincide with a time of great tribulation.", "At this time, there will be a resurrection of the people of God who have died, and a rapture of the people of God who are still living, and they will meet Christ at his coming.", "A thousand years of peace will follow (the millennium), during which Christ will reign and Satan will be imprisoned in the Abyss.", "Those who hold to this view usually fall into one of the following three categories:====Pretribulation rapture====Pretribulationists believe that the second coming will be in two stages separated by a seven-year period of tribulation.", "At the beginning of the tribulation, true Christians will rise to meet the Lord in the air (the Rapture).", "Then follows a seven-year period of suffering in which the Antichrist will conquer the world and persecute those who refuse to worship him.", "At the end of this period, Christ returns to defeat the Antichrist and establish the age of peace.", "This position is supported by a scripture which says, \"God did not appoint us to wrath, but to obtain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ.\"", "1 Thess 5:9====Midtribulation rapture====Midtribulationists believe that the Rapture will take place at the halfway point of the seven-year tribulation, i.e.", "after years.", "It coincides with the \"abomination of desolation\"—a desecration of the temple where the Antichrist puts an end to the Jewish sacrifices, sets up his own image in the temple, and demands that he be worshiped as God.", "This event begins the second, most intense part of the tribulation.Some interpreters find support for the \"midtrib\" position by comparing a passage in Paul's epistles with the book of Revelation.", "Paul says, \"We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet.", "For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed\" (1 Cor 15:51–52).", "Revelation divides the great tribulation into four sets of increasingly catastrophic judgments: the Seven Seals, the Seven Trumpets, the Seven Thunders (Rev 10:1–4) and the Seven Bowls, in that order.", "If the \"last trumpet\" of Paul is equated with the last trumpet of Revelation and the revelation of the scroll of the Seven Thunders, the Rapture would be in the middle of the Tribulation.", "(Not all interpreters agree with this literal interpretation of the chronology of Revelation, however.", ")====Posttribulation rapture====Posttribulationists hold that Christ will not return until the end of the tribulation.", "Christians, rather than being raptured at the beginning of the tribulation, or halfway through, will live through it and suffer for their faith during the ascendancy of the Antichrist.", "Proponents of this position believe that the presence of believers during the tribulation is necessary for a final evangelistic effort during a time when external conditions will combine with the Gospel message to bring great numbers of converts into the Church in time for the beginning of the Millennium.===Postmillennialism===Postmillennialism is an interpretation of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation which sees Christ's second coming as occurring ''after'' the \"Millennium\", a Golden Age in which Christian ethics prosper.", "The term subsumes several similar views of the end times, and it stands in contrast to premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism.Postmillennialism holds that Jesus Christ establishes his kingdom on earth through his preaching and redemptive work in the first century and that he equips his church with the gospel, empowers her by the Spirit, and charges her with the Great Commission (Matt 28:19) to disciple all nations.", "Postmillennialism expects that eventually the vast majority of people living will be saved.", "Increasing gospel success will gradually produce a time in history prior to Christ's return in which faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will prevail in the affairs of men and of nations.", "After an extensive era of such conditions Jesus Christ will return visibly, bodily, and gloriously, to end history with the general resurrection and the final judgment after which the eternal order follows.Postmillennialism was a dominant theological belief among American Protestants who promoted reform movements in the 19th and 20th century such as abolitionism and the Social Gospel.", "Postmillennialism has become one of the key tenets of a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism.", "It has been criticized by 20th century religious conservatives as an attempt to immanentize the eschaton.===Amillennialism===Amillennialism, in Christian eschatology, involves the rejection of the belief that Jesus will have a literal, thousand-year-long, physical reign on the earth.", "This rejection contrasts with premillennial and some postmillennial interpretations of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation.The amillennial view regards the \"thousand years\" mentioned in Revelation 20 as a symbolic number, not as a literal description; amillennialists hold that the millennium has already begun and is identical with the current church age.", "Amillennialism holds that while Christ's reign during the millennium is spiritual in nature, at the end of the church age, Christ will return in final judgment and establish a permanent reign in the new heaven and new earth.Many proponents dislike the name \"amillennialism\" because it emphasizes their differences with premillennialism rather than their beliefs about the millennium.", "\"Amillennial\" was actually coined in a pejorative way by those who hold premillennial views.", "Some proponents also prefer alternate terms such as ''nunc-millennialism'' (that is, now-millennialism) or ''realized millennialism'', although these other names have achieved only limited acceptance and usage." ], [ "Death and the afterlife", "===Jewish beliefs at the time of Jesus===There were different schools of thought on the afterlife in Judea during the first century AD.", "The Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah (the first five books of the Old Testament) as authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or any resurrection of the dead.", "The Pharisees, who accepted the Torah as well as additional scriptures, believed in the resurrection of the dead; it is known to have been a major point of contention between the two groups.", "The Pharisees based their belief on Biblical passages such as Daniel 12:2 which says: \"Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt.", "\"===The intermediate state===Some traditions (notably, the Seventh-day Adventists) teach that the soul sleeps after death and will not awaken until the resurrection of the dead.", "Others believe the soul goes to an intermediate place where it will live consciously until the resurrection of the dead.By \"soul\", Seventh-day Adventist theologians mean the physical person (monism), and that no component of human nature survives death.", "Therefore, each human will be \"recreated\" at resurrection.", "One scripture frequently used to substantiate the assertion that souls experience mortality is found in the Book of Ezekiel: \"Behold, all souls are Mine; The soul of the father as well as the soul of the son is Mine.", "The soul who sins shall die.\"", "(Ezekiel 18:4)===Purgatory===This alludes to the Catholic belief in a spiritual state known as Purgatory during which souls not condemned to Hell but not completely pure go through a final process of purification before their full acceptance into Heaven.The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC)'' says::Each man receives his eternal retribution in his immortal soul at the very moment of his death, in a particular judgment that refers his life to Christ: either entrance into the blessedness of heaven—through a purification or immediately—or immediate and everlasting damnation.", "(Sect.", "1022)Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism do not believe in Purgatory as such, but the Orthodox Church posits a period of continued sanctification after death.", "While the Eastern Orthodox Church rejects the term ''purgatory'', it acknowledges an intermediate state after death and before final judgment, and offers prayer for the dead.", "In general, Protestant churches reject the Catholic doctrine of purgatory (although some teach the existence of an intermediate state).", "The general Protestant view is that the Bible, from which Protestants exclude deuterocanonical books such as 2 Maccabees, contains no overt, explicit discussion of purgatory." ], [ "The Great Tribulation", "===The end comes at an unexpected time===There are many passages in the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, which speak of a time of terrible tribulation such as has never been known, a time of natural and human-made disasters on an awesome scale.", "Jesus said that at the time of his coming, \"There will be great tribulation, such as has not been since the beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever will be.", "And unless those days were shortened, no flesh would be saved; but for the elect's sake, those days will be shortened.\"", "Matt 24:21–22Furthermore, the Messiah's return and the tribulation that accompanies it will come at a time when people are not expecting it:Paul echoes this theme, saying, \"For when they say, 'Peace and safety!'", "then sudden destruction comes upon them.", "\"===The abomination of desolation===The abomination of desolation (or desolating sacrilege) is a term found in the Hebrew Bible, in the book of Daniel.", "The term is used by Jesus Christ in the Olivet discourse, according to both the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark.", "In the Matthew account, Jesus is presented as quoting Daniel explicitly.", ": Matthew 24:15–26 (ESV) \"So when you see the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains.", "\": Mark 13:14 (ESV) \"But when you see the abomination of desolation standing where it ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains.", "\"This verse in the Olivet Discourse also occurs in the Gospel of Luke.", ": Luke 21:20–21 (ESV) \"But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near.", "Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains...\"Many biblical scholars conclude that Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 are prophecies after the event about the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 by the Roman general Titus (see Dating of the Gospel of Mark).Preterist Christian commentators believe that Jesus quoted this prophecy in Mark 13:14 as referring to an event in his \"1st century disciples'\" immediate future, specifically the pagan Roman forces during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.Futurist Christians consider the \"Abomination of Desolation\" prophecy of Daniel mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 as referring to an event in the end time future, when a 7-year peace treaty will be signed between Israel and a world ruler called \"the man of lawlessness\", or the \"Antichrist\" affirmed by the writings of the Apostle Paul in 2 Thessalonians.Other scholars conclude that the Abomination of Desolation refers to the Crucifixion, an attempt by the emperor Hadrian to erect a statue to Jupiter in the Jewish temple, or an attempt by Caligula to have a statue depicting him as Zeus built in the temple.===The Prophecy of Seventy Weeks===Many interpreters calculate the length of the tribulation at seven years.", "The key to this understanding is the \"seventy weeks prophecy\" in the book of Daniel.", "The Prophecy of Seventy Septets (or literally 'seventy times seven') appears in the angel Gabriel's reply to Daniel, beginning with verse 22 and ending with verse 27 in the ninth chapter of the Book of Daniel, a work included in both the Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Bible; as well as the Septuagint.", "The prophecy is part of both the Jewish account of history and Christian eschatology.The prophet has a vision of the angel Gabriel, who tells him, \"Seventy weeks are determined for your people and for your holy city (i.e., Israel and Jerusalem).\"", "Dan 9:24 After making a comparison with events in the history of Israel, many scholars have concluded that each day in the seventy weeks represents a year.", "The first sixty-nine weeks are interpreted as covering the period until Christ's first coming, but the last week is thought to represent the years of the tribulation which will come at the end of this age, directly preceding the millennial age of peace:::The people of the prince who is to come will destroy the city and the sanctuary.", "The end of it will be with a flood, and till the end of the war, desolations are determined.", "Then he will confirm a covenant with many for one week.", "But in the middle of the week, he will bring an end to sacrifice and offering.", "And on the wing of abominations will be one who makes desolate, even until the consummation which is determined is poured out on the desolate.", "Dan 9:26–27This is an obscure prophecy, but in combination with other passages, it has been interpreted to mean that the \"prince who is to come\" will make a seven-year covenant with Israel that will allow the rebuilding of the temple and the reinstitution of sacrifices, but \"in the middle of the week\", he will break the agreement and set up an idol of himself in the temple and force people to worship it—the \"abomination of desolation\".", "Paul writes:::Let no-one deceive you by any means, for that day will not come unless the falling away comes first, and the man of sin is revealed, the son of perdition, who opposes and exalts himself above all that is called God or that is worshiped, so that he sits as God in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God.", "2 Thess 2:3–4" ], [ "Rapture", "The rapture is an eschatological term used by certain Christians, particularly within branches of North American evangelicalism, referring to an end time event when all Christian believers—living and dead—will rise into Heaven and join Christ.", "Some adherents believe this event is predicted and described in Paul's First Epistle to the Thessalonians in the Bible, where he uses the Greek ''harpazo'' (ἁρπάζω), meaning to snatch away or seize.", "Though it has been used differently in the past, the term is now often used by certain believers to distinguish this particular event from the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to Earth mentioned in Second Thessalonians, Gospel of Matthew, First Corinthians, and Revelation, usually viewing it as preceding the Second Coming and followed by a thousand-year millennial kingdom.", "Adherents of this perspective are sometimes referred to as premillennialist dispensationalists, but amongst them there are differing viewpoints about the exact timing of the event.The term \"rapture\" is especially useful in discussing or disputing the exact timing or the scope of the event, particularly when asserting the \"pre-tribulation\" view that the rapture will occur before, not during, the Second Coming, with or without an extended Tribulation period.", "The term is most frequently used among evangelical and fundamentalist Christians in the United States.", "Other, older uses of \"rapture\" were simply as a term for any mystical union with God or for eternal life in Heaven with God.There are differing views among Christians regarding the timing of Christ's return, such as whether it will occur in one event or two, and the meaning of the aerial gathering described in 1 Thessalonians 4.Many Christians do not subscribe to rapture-oriented theological views.", "Though the term \"rapture\" is derived from the text of the Latin Vulgate of 1 Thess.", "4:17—\"we will be caught up\", (Latin: rapiemur), Catholics, as well as Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Lutherans and most Reformed Christians, do not generally use \"rapture\" as a specific theological term, nor do any of these bodies subscribe to the premillennialist dispensationalist theological views associated with its use, but do believe in the phenomenon—primarily in the sense of the elect gathering with Christ in Heaven after his Second Coming.", "These denominations do not believe that a group of people is left behind on earth for an extended Tribulation period after the events of 1 Thessalonians 4:17.Pre-tribulation rapture theology originated in the eighteenth century, with the Puritan preachers Increase Mather and Cotton Mather, and was popularized extensively in the 1830s by John Nelson Darby and the Plymouth Brethren, and further in the United States by the wide circulation of the Scofield Reference Bible in the early 20th century.", "Some, including Grant Jeffrey, maintain that an earlier document called Ephraem or Pseudo-Ephraem already supported a pre-tribulation rapture." ], [ "The Second Coming", "Icon of the Second Coming.", "Greek, ca.", "1700 AD.=== Signs of Christ's return ===The Bible states:::Now when He had spoken these things, while they watched, He was taken up, and a cloud received Him out of their sight.", "And while they looked steadfastly toward heaven as He went up, behold, two men stood by them in white apparel, who also said, \"Men of Galilee, why do you stand gazing up into heaven?", "This same Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will so come in like manner as you saw Him go into heaven.\"", "Acts 1:9–11Many, but not all, Christians believe:# The coming of Christ will be instantaneous and worldwide.", "\"For as the lightning comes from the east and flashes to the west, so also will the coming of the Son of Man be.\"", "~ Matthew 24:27# The coming of Christ will be visible to all.", "\"Then the sign of the Son of Man will appear in heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.\"", "Matthew 24:30# The coming of Christ will be audible.", "\"And He will send His angels with a great sound of a trumpet, and they will gather together His elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to the other.\"", "Matthew 24:31# The resurrection of the righteous will occur first.", "\"For the Lord Himself will descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God.", "And the dead in Christ will rise first.\"", "~ 1 Thessalonians 4:16# In one single event, the saved who are alive at Christ's coming will be caught up together with the resurrected to meet the Lord in the air.", "\"Then we who are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air.", "And thus we shall always be with the Lord.\"", "~ 1 Thessalonians 4:17=== Last Day Counterfeits ===In Matthew 24 Jesus states:::For then there will be great tribulation, such as has not been since the beginning of the world until this time, no, nor ever shall be.", "For false christs and false prophets will rise and show great signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, even the elect.", "Matthew 24:21, 24 NKJVThese false Christs will perform great signs and are no ordinary people \"For they are spirits of demons, performing signs, which go out to the kings of the earth and of the whole world, to gather them to the battle of that great day of God Almighty.\"", "(Revelation 16:14) Satan's angels will also appear as godly clergymen, and Satan will appear as an angel of light.", "\"For such are false apostles, deceitful workers, transforming themselves into apostles of Christ.", "And no wonder!", "For Satan himself transforms himself into an angel of light.", "Therefore it is no great thing if his ministers also transform themselves into ministers of righteousness, whose end will be according to their works.\"", "(2 Corinthians 11:13–15)===The Marriage of the Lamb===After Jesus meets his followers \"in the air\", the marriage of the Lamb takes place: \"Let us be glad and rejoice and give him glory, for the marriage of the Lamb has come, and his wife has made herself ready.", "And to her was granted that she should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and bright, for the fine linen is the righteous acts of the saints\" Rev 19:7–8.Christ is represented throughout Revelation as \"the Lamb\", symbolizing the giving of his life as an atoning sacrifice for the people of the world, just as lambs were sacrificed on the altar for the sins of Israel.", "His \"wife\" appears to represent the people of God, for she is dressed in the \"righteous acts of the saints\".", "As the marriage takes place, there is a great celebration in heaven which involves a \"great multitude\" Rev 19:6." ], [ "Resurrection of the dead", "===Doctrine of the resurrection predates Christianity===The word ''resurrection'' comes from the Latin ''resurrectus,'' which is the past participle of ''resurgere,'' meaning ''to rise again.''", "Although the doctrine of the resurrection comes to the forefront in the New Testament, it predates the Christian era.", "There is an apparent reference to the resurrection in the book of Job, where Job says, \"I know that my redeemer lives, and that he will stand at the latter day upon the earth.", "And though... worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh I will see God\" Job 19:25–27.Again, the prophet Daniel writes, \"Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, some to shame and everlasting contempt\" Dan 12:2.Isaiah says: \"Your dead will live.", "Together with my dead body, they will arise.", "Awake and sing, you who dwell in dust, for your dew is like the dew of herbs, and the earth will cast out the dead\" Isa.", "26:19.This belief was still common among the Jews in New Testament times, as exemplified by the passage which relates the raising of Lazarus from the dead.", "When Jesus told Lazarus' sister, Martha, that Lazarus would rise again, she replied, \"I know that he will rise again in the resurrection at the last day\" Jn 11:24.Also, one of the two main branches of the Jewish religious establishment, the Pharisees, believed in and taught the future resurrection of the body cf Acts 23:1–8.===Two resurrections===An interpretation of the New Testament is the understanding that there will be two resurrections.", "Revelation says: \"Blessed and holy is he who has part in the first resurrection.", "Over such, the second death has no power, but they will be priests of God and of Christ, and will reign with him a thousand years\" Rev 20:6.The rest of the dead \"did not live again until the thousand years were finished\" Rev 20:5.Despite this, there are various interpretations: :According to the premillennial post-tribulational position there will two physical resurrections, separated by a literal thousand years (one in the Second Coming along with the Rapture; another after a literal 1,000 year reign).", ":According to premillennial pre-tribulationists, there will be three further physical resurrections (one in the Rapture at the beginning of tribulation; another in the Second Coming at the final tribulation; and the last one after a literal 1,000 year reign).", "They claim that the ''first resurrection'' includes the resurrection in the Rapture, and that the resurrection in the Second Coming, the ''second resurrection,'' would be after the 1,000 year reign.", ":According to premillennial mid-tribulationists, too, there will be three physical resurrections (one in the rapture at the middle of tribulation; another in the Second Coming at the end of the tribulation; and the last one after a literal 1,000 year reign).", "And the ''first resurrection'' would be the resurrection in the Rapture, and the resurrection in the Second Coming, the ''second resurrection,'' would be after the 1,000 year reign.", ":According to amillennial position there will are two resurrections.", "The ''first resurrection'' would be in a spiritual sense (the resurrection of the soul), according to Paul and John as participation, right now, in the resurrection of Christ through faith and baptism, according to Colossians 2:12 and Colossians 3:1 as occurring within the millennium interpreted as an indefinite period between the foundation of the Church and the Second Coming of Christ, the ''second resurrection'' would be the general resurrection (the resurrection of the body) that would occur at the time of Jesus' return.===The resurrection body===The Gospel authors wrote that our resurrection bodies will be different from those we have now.", "Jesus said, \"In the resurrection, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like the angels of God in heaven\" Mt 22:30.Paul adds, \"So also is the resurrection of the dead: the body... is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body\" 1 Co. 15:42–44.According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church the body after resurrection is changed into a spiritual, imperishable body:In some ancient traditions, it was held that the person would be resurrected at the same spot where they died and were buried (just as in the case of Jesus' resurrection).", "For example, in the early medieval biography of St Columba written by Adomnan of Iona, Columba at one point prophesies to a penitent at the monastery on Iona that his resurrection would be in Ireland and not in Iona, and this penitent later died at a monastery in Ireland and was buried there.===Other views===Although Martin Luther personally believed and taught resurrection of the dead in combination with soul sleep, this is not a mainstream teaching of Lutheranism and most Lutherans traditionally believe in resurrection of the body in combination with the immortal soul.Several churches, such as the Anabaptists and Socinians of the Reformation, then Seventh-day Adventist Church, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and theologians of different traditions reject the idea of the immortality of a non-physical soul as a vestige of Neoplatonism, and other pagan traditions.", "In this school of thought, the dead remain dead (and do not immediately progress to a Heaven, Hell, or Purgatory) until a physical resurrection of some or all of the dead occurs at the end of time.", "Some groups, Christadelphians in particular, consider that it is not a universal resurrection, and that at this time of resurrection that the Last Judgment will take place.===Armageddon===Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to \"the plain of Megiddo\", most probably simply meaning \"the plain next to the city\".", "None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs.", "The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in Revelation 16:16 also makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, but instead seems to predict only that \"they (will gather) the kings together to .... Armageddon\".", "The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the \"place called Armageddon\" is \"for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty\".", "Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location.", "R. J. Rushdoony says, \"There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo.", "This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place.\"", "Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew ''moed'' (), meaning \"assembly\".", "Thus, \"Armageddon\" would mean \"Mountain of Assembly,\" which Jordan says is \"a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion.", "\"The traditional viewpoint interprets this biblical prophecy to be symbolic of the progression of the world toward the \"great day of God, the Almighty\" in which the great looming mountain of God's just and holy wrath is poured out against unrepentant sinners, led by Satan, in a literal end-of-the-world final confrontation.", "Armageddon is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies.", "The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of His elect, Israel, at Megiddo, also called the Valley of Josaphat.Christian scholar William Hendriksen says:" ], [ "The Millennium", "Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for \"a thousand years\"), or ''chiliasm'' (from the Greek equivalent), is the belief that a Golden Age or Paradise will occur on Earth prior to the final judgment and future eternal state of the \"World to Come\".Christian millennialism developed out of a Christian interpretation of Jewish apocalypticism.", "Christian millennialist thinking is primarily based upon the Book of Revelation, specifically 20:1–4, which describes the vision of an angel who descended from heaven with a large chain and a key to a bottomless pit, and captured Satan, imprisoning him for a thousand years:The Book of Revelation then describes a series of judges who are seated on thrones, as well as his vision of the souls of those who were beheaded for their testimony in favor of Jesus and their rejection of the mark of the beast:Thus, Revelation characterizes a millennium where Christ and the Father will rule over a theocracy of the righteous.", "While there are an abundance of biblical references to such a kingdom of God throughout the Old and New Testaments, this is the only reference in the Bible to such a period lasting one thousand years.", "The literal belief in a thousand-year reign of Christ is a later development in Christianity, as it does not seem to have been present in first century texts." ], [ "The End of the World and the Last Judgment", "===Satan released===According to the Bible, the Millennial age of peace all but closes the history of planet Earth.", "However, the story is not yet finished: \"When the thousand years have expired, Satan will be released from his prison and will go out to deceive the nations which are in the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together to battle, whose number is as the sand of the sea.\"", "Rev 20:7–8There is continuing discussion over the identity of Gog and Magog.", "In the context of the passage, they seem to equate to something like \"east and west\".", "There is a passage in Ezekiel, however, where God says to the prophet, \"Set your face against Gog, of the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal, and prophesy against him.\"", "Ezek 38:2 Gog, in this instance, is the name of a person of the land of Magog, who is ruler (\"prince\") over the regions of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal.", "Ezekiel says of him: \"You will ascend, coming like a storm, covering the land like a cloud, you and all your troops and many peoples with you...\" Ezek 38:2Despite this huge show of force, the battle will be short-lived, for Ezekiel, Daniel, and Revelation all say that this last desperate attempt to destroy the people and the city of God will end in disaster: \"I will bring him to judgment with pestilence and bloodshed.", "I will rain down on him and on his troops, and on the many peoples who are with him: flooding rain, great hailstones, fire and brimstone.\"", "Ezek 38:22 Revelation concurs: \"Fire came down from God out of heaven and devoured them.\"", "Rev 20:9 It may be that the images of fire raining down are an ancient vision of modern weapons, others would say a supernatural intervention by God, yet others that they refer to events in history, and some would say they are symbolic of larger ideas and should not be interpreted literally.===The Last Judgment===Following the defeat of Gog, the last judgment begins: \"The devil, who deceived them, was cast into the lake of fire and brimstone where the beast and the false prophet are, and they will be tormented day and night forever and ever\" Rev 20:10.Satan will join the Antichrist and the False Prophet, who were condemned to the lake of fire at the beginning of the Millennium.Following Satan's consignment to the lake of fire, his followers come up for judgment.", "This is the \"second resurrection\", and all those who were not a part of the first resurrection at the coming of Christ now rise up for judgment:John had earlier written, \"Blessed and holy is he who has part in the first resurrection.", "Over such the second death has no power\" Rev 20:6.Those who are included in the Resurrection and the Rapture are excluded from the final judgment, and are not subject to the second death.", "Due to the description of the seat upon which the Lord sits, this final judgment is often referred to as the Great White Throne Judgment.A decisive factor in the Last Judgement will be the question, if the corporal works of mercy were practiced or not during lifetime.", "They rate as important acts of charity.", "Therefore, and according to the biblical sources (Matt 5:31–46), the conjunction of the Last Judgement and the works of mercy is very frequent in the pictorial tradition of Christian art." ], [ "New Heaven and New Earth", "Phillip Medhurst CollectionBut, in accordance with his promise, we wait for new heavens and a new earth, where righteousness is at home.===New Jerusalem===The focus turns to one city in particular, the New Jerusalem.", "Once again, we see the imagery of the marriage: \"I, John, saw the holy city, New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband\" Rev 21:2.In the New Jerusalem, God \"will dwell with them, and they will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God...\" Rev 21:3.As a result, there is \"no temple in it, for the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are its temple.\"", "Nor is there a need for the sun to give its light, \"for the glory of God illuminated it, and the Lamb is its light\" Rev 21:22–23.The city will also be a place of great peace and joy, for \"God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.", "There will be no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying; and there will be no more pain, for the former things have passed away\" Rev 21:4.====Description====The city itself has a large wall with twelve gates in it which are never shut, and which have the names of the twelve tribes of Israel written on them.", "Each of the gates is made of a single pearl, and there is an angel standing in each one.", "The wall also has twelve foundations which are adorned with precious stones, and upon the foundations are written the names of the twelve apostles.", "The gates and foundations are often interpreted as symbolizing the people of God before and after Christ.The city and its streets are pure gold, but not like the gold we know, for this gold is described as being like clear glass.", "The city is square in shape, and is twelve thousand furlongs long and wide (fifteen hundred miles).", "If these are comparable to earthly measurements, the city will cover an area about half the size of the contiguous United States.", "The height is the same as the length and breadth, and although this has led most people to conclude that it is shaped like a cube, it could also be a pyramid.===The Tree of Life===''The tree of life'', a print from the Phillip Medhurst Collection of Bible illustrations in the possession of Revd.", "Philip De Vere at St. George's Court, Kidderminster, EnglandThe city has a river which proceeds \"out of the throne of God and of the Lamb\".", "Next to the river is the tree of life, which bears twelve fruits and yields its fruit every month.", "The last time we saw the tree of life was in the Garden of Eden Gen 2:9.God drove Adam and Eve out from the garden, guarding it with cherubim and a flaming sword, because it gave eternal life to those who ate of it In the New Jerusalem, the tree of life reappears, and everyone in the city has access to it.", "Genesis says that the earth was cursed because of Adam's sin, but the author of John writes that in the New Jerusalem, \"there will be no more curse\".The ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology'' (Baker, 1984) says:" ], [ "See also", "* 1 Maccabees* 2,300-day prophecy* Christian views on Hades* Consistent eschatology* Daniel Chapter 11* Daniel's final vision* The Day of the Lord* Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse* Four kingdoms of Daniel* Inaugurated eschatology* Katechon* Last Roman Emperor* List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events* Messianism* Millenarianism* Progressive dispensationalism* Realized eschatology* Third Temple* Unfulfilled Christian religious predictions* Ussher chronology" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chicago White Sox" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chicago White Sox''' are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago.", "The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division.", "The team is owned by Jerry Reinsdorf, and plays its home games at Guaranteed Rate Field, located on Chicago's South Side.", "The White Sox are one of two MLB teams based in Chicago, the other being the Chicago Cubs of the National League (NL) Central division.The White Sox originated in the Western League, founded as the '''Sioux City Cornhuskers''' in , moving to Saint Paul, Minnesota as the '''St.", "Paul Saints''', and ultimately relocating to Chicago in .", "The '''Chicago White Stockings''' were one of the American League's eight charter franchises when the AL asserted major league status in .", "The team, which shortened its name to the White Sox in , originally played their home games at South Side Park before moving to Comiskey Park in , where they played until .", "They moved into their current home, which was originally also known as Comiskey Park like its predecessor and later carried sponsorship from U.S. Cellular, for the 1991 season.The White Sox won their first World Series, the 1906 World Series against the Cubs, with a defense-oriented team dubbed \"the Hitless Wonders\", and later won the 1917 World Series against the New York Giants.", "Their next appearance, the 1919 World Series, was marred by the Black Sox Scandal in which eight members of the White Sox were found to have conspired with gamblers to fix games and lose the World Series to the Cincinnati Reds.", "In response, the new Commissioner of Baseball, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned the players from the league for life.", "The White Sox have only made two World Series appearances since the scandal.", "The first came in 1959, where they lost to the Los Angeles Dodgers, before they finally won their third championship in 2005 against the Houston Astros.", "The 88 seasons it took the White Sox to win the World Series stands as the second longest MLB championship drought of all time, after the Cubs' 108 seasons.From 1901 to 2023, the White Sox have an overall win-loss record of ()." ], [ "History", "\"Black Sox\" team photoEd Walsh holds the record for lowest career earned run average (ERA), 1.82.The White Sox originated as the Sioux City Cornhuskers of the Western League, a minor league under the parameters of the National Agreement with the National League.", "In 1894, Charles Comiskey bought the Cornhuskers and moved them to St. Paul, Minnesota, where they became the St. Paul Saints.", "In 1900, with the approval of Western League president Ban Johnson, Charles Comiskey moved the Saints into his hometown neighborhood of Armour Square, where they became the Chicago White Stockings, the former name of Chicago's National League team, the Orphans (now the Chicago Cubs).In 1901, the Western League broke the National Agreement and became the new major league American League.", "The first season in the AL ended with a White Stockings championship.", "However, that would be the end of the season, as the World Series did not begin until 1903.The franchise, now known as the Chicago White Sox, made its first World Series appearance in 1906, beating the crosstown Cubs in six games.The White Sox won a third pennant and a second World Series in 1917, beating the New York Giants in six games with help from stars Eddie Cicotte and \"Shoeless\" Joe Jackson.", "The Sox were heavily favored in the 1919 World Series, but lost to the Cincinnati Reds in eight games.", "Huge bets on the Reds fueled speculation that the series had been fixed.", "A criminal investigation went on in the 1920 season, and although all players were acquitted, commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned eight of them for life, in what was known as the Black Sox Scandal.", "This set the franchise back, as they did not win another pennant for 40 years.The White Sox did not finish in the upper half of the American League again until after founder Charles Comiskey died and passed ownership of the club to his son, J. Louis Comiskey.", "They finished in the upper half most years between 1936 and 1946, under the leadership of manager Jimmy Dykes, with star shortstop Luke Appling (known as \"Ol' Aches and Pains\") and pitcher Ted Lyons, who both had their numbers 4 and 16 retired.After J. Louis Comiskey died in 1939, ownership of the club was passed down to his widow, Grace Comiskey.", "The club was later passed down to Grace's children Dorothy and Chuck in 1956, with Dorothy selling a majority share to a group led by Bill Veeck after the 1958 season.", "Veeck was notorious for his promotional stunts, attracting fans to Comiskey Park with the new \"exploding scoreboard\" and outfield shower.", "In 1961, Arthur Allyn, Jr. briefly owned the club before selling to his brother John Allyn.Al López, manager of the \"Go-Go Sox\"From 1951 to 1967, the White Sox had their longest period of sustained success, scoring a winning record for 17 straight seasons.", "Known as the \"Go-Go White Sox\" for their tendency to focus on speed and getting on base versus power hitting, they featured stars such as Minnie Miñoso, Nellie Fox, Luis Aparicio, Billy Pierce, and Sherm Lollar.", "From 1957 to 1965, the Sox were managed by Al López.", "The Sox finished in the upper half of the American League in eight of his nine seasons, including six years in the top two of the league.", "In 1959, the White Sox ended the New York Yankees' dominance over the American League, and won their first pennant since the ill-fated 1919 campaign.", "Despite winning game one of the 1959 World Series 11–0, they fell to the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games.During the late 1960s and 1970s, the White Sox struggled to win games and attract fans.", "The team played a total of 20 home games at Milwaukee County Stadium in the 1968 and 1969 seasons.", "Allyn and Bud Selig agreed to a handshake deal that would give Selig control of the club and move them to Milwaukee, but it was blocked by the American League.", "Selig instead bought the Seattle Pilots and moved them to Milwaukee (where they would become the Milwaukee Brewers, putting enormous pressure on the American League to place a team in Seattle.", "A plan was in place for the Sox to move to Seattle and for Charlie Finley to move his Oakland A's to Chicago.", "However, the city had a renewed interest in the Sox after the 1972 season, and the American League instead added the expansion Seattle Mariners.", "The 1972 White Sox had the lone successful season of this era, as Dick Allen wound up winning the American League MVP award.", "Bill Veeck returned as owner of the Sox in 1975, and despite not having much money, they managed to win 90 games in 1977, with a team known as the \"South Side Hitmen\".However, the team's fortunes plummeted afterwards, plagued by 90-loss teams and scarred by the notorious 1979 Disco Demolition Night promotion.", "Veeck was forced to sell the team, rejecting offers from ownership groups intent on moving the club to Denver and eventually agreeing to sell it to Ed DeBartolo, the only prospective owner who promised to keep the White Sox in Chicago.", "However, DeBartolo was rejected by the owners, and the club was then sold to a group headed by Jerry Reinsdorf and Eddie Einhorn.", "The Reinsdorf era started off well, with the team winning their first division title in 1983, led by manager Tony La Russa and stars Carlton Fisk, Tom Paciorek, Ron Kittle, Harold Baines, and LaMarr Hoyt.", "During the 1986 season, La Russa was fired by announcer-turned-general manager Ken Harrelson.", "La Russa went on to manage in six World Series (winning three) with the Oakland A's and St. Louis Cardinals, ending up in the Hall of Fame as the second-winningest manager of all time.Harold Baines at the plate in 1986Frank Thomas in 1997The White Sox struggled for the rest of the 1980s, as Chicago fought to keep them in town.", "Reinsdorf wanted to replace the aging Comiskey Park, and sought public funds to do so.", "When talks stalled, a strong offer was made to move the team to Tampa, Florida.", "Funding for a new ballpark was approved in an 11th-hour deal by the Illinois State Legislature on June 30, 1988, with the stipulation that it had to be built on the corner of 35th and Shields, across the street from the old ballpark, as opposed to the suburban ballpark the owners had designed.", "Architects offered to redesign the ballpark to a more \"retro\" feel that would fit in the city blocks around Comiskey Park; however, the ownership group was set on a 1991 open date, so they kept the old design.", "The new ballpark opened in 1991 under the name new Comiskey Park.", "The park, renamed in 2003 as U.S. Cellular Field and in 2016 as Guaranteed Rate Field, underwent many renovations in the early 2000s to give it a more retro feel.The White Sox were fairly successful in the 1990s and early 2000s, with 12 winning seasons from 1990 to 2005.First baseman Frank Thomas became the face of the franchise, ending his career as the White Sox's all-time leader in runs, doubles, home runs, total bases, and walks.", "Other major players included Robin Ventura, Ozzie Guillén, Jack McDowell, and Bobby Thigpen.", "The Sox won the West division in 1993, and were in first place in 1994, when the season was canceled due to the 1994 MLB Strike.In 2004, Ozzie Guillén was hired as manager of his former team.", "After finishing second in 2004, the Sox won 99 games and the Central Division title in 2005, behind the work of stars Paul Konerko, Mark Buehrle, A. J. Pierzynski, Joe Crede, and Orlando Hernández.", "They started the playoffs by sweeping the defending champion Boston Red Sox in the ALDS, and beat the Angels in five games to win their first pennant in 46 years, due to four complete games by the White Sox rotation.", "The White Sox went on to sweep the Houston Astros in the 2005 World Series, giving them their first World Championship in 88 years.Guillén had marginal success during the rest of his tenure, with the Sox winning the Central Division title in 2008 after a one-game playoff with the Minnesota Twins.", "Guillén left the White Sox after the 2011 season and was replaced by former teammate Robin Ventura.", "The White Sox finished the 2015 season, their 115th in Chicago, with a 76–86 record, a three-game improvement over 2014.The White Sox recorded their 9,000th win in franchise history by the score of 3–2 against the Detroit Tigers on September 21, 2015.Ventura returned in 2016, with a young core featuring José Abreu, Adam Eaton, José Quintana, and Chris Sale.", "Ventura resigned after the 2016 season, in which the White Sox finished 78–84.Rick Renteria, the 2016 White Sox bench coach, was promoted to the role of manager.tie-breaker game against the Minnesota Twins for a spot in the 2008 playoffs.Prior to the start of the 2017 season, the White Sox traded Sale to the Boston Red Sox and Eaton to the Washington Nationals for prospects including Yoán Moncada, Lucas Giolito and Michael Kopech, signaling the beginning of a rebuilding period.", "During the 2017 season, the White Sox continued their rebuild when they made a blockbuster trade with their crosstown rival, the Chicago Cubs, in a swap that featured the Sox sending pitcher José Quintana to the Cubs in exchange for four prospects headlined by outfielder Eloy Jiménez and pitcher Dylan Cease.", "This was the first trade between the White Sox and Cubs since the 2006 season.During the 2018 season, relief pitcher Danny Farquhar suffered a brain hemorrhage while he was in the dugout between innings.", "Farquhar remained out of action for the rest of the season and just recently got medically cleared to return to baseball, despite some doctors doubting that he would make a full recovery.", "Also occurring during the 2018 season, the White Sox announced that the club would be the first Major League Baseball team to entirely discontinue use of plastic straws, in ordinance with the \"Shedd the Straw\" campaign by Shedd Aquarium.", "The White Sox broke an MLB record during their 100-loss campaign of 2018, but broke the single-season strikeout record in only a year after the Milwaukee Brewers broke the record in the 2017 season.", "On December 3, 2018, head trainer Herm Schneider retired after 40 seasons with the team; his new role will be as an advisor on medical issues pertaining to free agency, the amateur draft and player acquisition.", "Schneider will also continue to be a resource for the White Sox training department, including both the major and minor league levels.On August 25, 2020, Lucas Giolito recorded the 19th no-hitter in White Sox history, and the first since Philip Humber's Perfect Game in 2012.Giolito struck out 13 and threw 74 of 101 pitches for strikes.", "He only allowed one baserunner, which was a walk to Erik González in the fourth inning.", "In 2020, the White Sox clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2008, with a record 35–25 in the pandemic-shortened season, but lost to the Oakland Athletics in three games during the Wild Card Series.", "The White Sox also made MLB history by being the first team to go undefeated against left-handed pitching, with a 14–0 record.", "At the end of the season, Renteria and longtime pitching coach Don Cooper were both fired.", "Jose Abreu became the 4th different White Sox player to win the AL MVP joining Dick Allen, Nellie Fox, and Frank Thomas.", "During the 2021 offseason, the White Sox brought back Tony La Russa as their manager for 2021.At the age of 76 when hired, La Russa became the oldest active manager in MLB.On April 14, 2021, Carlos Rodon recorded the teams' 20th no-hitter against the Cleveland Indians.", "Rodon retired the first 25 batters he faced and was saved by an incredible play at first base by first baseman Jose Abreu to get the first out in the 9th before hitting Roberto Pérez which was the only baserunner Rodon allowed.", "Rodon struck out seven and threw 75 of 114 pitches for strikes.", "On June 6, 2021, the White Sox beat the Detroit Tigers 3–0.This also had Tony La Russa winning his 2,764th game as manager passing John McGraw for 2nd on the all time managerial wins list.", "On August 12, 2021, the White Sox faced New York Yankees in the first ever Field of Dreams game in Dyersville, Iowa.", "The White Sox won the game 9–8 on a walk-off two run Home Run by Tim Anderson.", "The homer was the 15th walk-off home run against the Yankees in White Sox history; the first being Shoeless Joe Jackson on July 20, 1919, whose character featured in the movie Field of Dreams.", "On September 23, 2021, the White Sox clinched the American League Central Division for the first time since 2008 against the Cleveland Indians." ], [ "Ballparks", "In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to Tampa Bay (as did the San Francisco Giants), but frantic lobbying on the part of the Illinois governor James R. Thompson and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium.", "Designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a \"multipurpose\" stadium), the new Comiskey Park (redubbed U.S. Cellular Field in 2003 and Guaranteed Rate Field in 2016) was built in a 1960s style, similar to Dodger Stadium and Kauffman Stadium.", "There were ideas for other stadium designs submitted to bring a more neighborhood feel, but ultimately they were not selected.", "The park opened in to positive reaction, with many praising its wide-open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era, such as Rogers Centre in Toronto).", "The park's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans — at the time, an all-time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team.View from the upper deck of then U.S. Cellular Field in 2006In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to the field has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan-friendly.", "Notable renovations of early phases included reorientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul-line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multitiered batter's eye, allowing fans to see out through one-way screens from the center-field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar-style seating on its \"fan deck\"; and renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel.", "The stadium's steel and concrete were repainted dark gray and black.", "In 2016, the scoreboard jumbotron was replaced with a new Mitsubishi Diamondvision HDTV screen.The top quarter of the upper deck was removed in , and a black wrought-metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first eight rows of seats.", "This decreased seating capacity from 47,098 to 40,615; 2005 also had the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and reupholstering) 200 lower-deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat-side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse.", "The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 2005's FUNdamentals Deck, a multitiered structure on the left-field concourse containing batting cages, a small Tee Ball field, speed pitch, and several other children's activities intended to entertain and educate young fans with the help of coaching staff from the Chicago Bulls/Sox Training Academy.", "This structure was used during the 2005 American League playoffs by ESPN and the Fox Broadcasting Company as a broadcasting platform.Designed as a seven-phase plan, the renovations were completed before the 2007 season with the seventh and final phase.", "The most visible renovation in this final phase was replacing the original blue seats with green seats.", "The upper deck already had new green seats put in before the beginning of the 2006 season.", "Beginning with the 2007 season, a new luxury-seating section was added in the former press box.", "This section has amenities similar to those of the Scout Seats section.", "After the 2007 season, the ballpark continued renovation projects despite the phases being complete.", "In July 2019, the White Sox extended the netting to the foul pole.===Previous ballparks===Batting practice at Comiskey Park, 1986The St. Paul Saints first played their games at Lexington Park.", "When they moved to Chicago's Armour Square neighborhood, they began play at the South Side Park.", "Previously a cricket ground, the park was located on the north side of 39th Street (now called Pershing Road) between South Wentworth and South Princeton Avenues.", "Its massive dimensions yielded few home runs, which was to the advantage of the White Sox's Hitless Wonders teams of the early 20th century.After the 1909 season, the Sox moved five blocks to the north to play in the new Comiskey Park, while the 39th Street grounds became the home of the Chicago American Giants of the Negro leagues.", "Billed as the Baseball Palace of the World, it originally held 28,000 seats and eventually grew to hold over 50,000.It became known for its many odd features, such as the outdoor shower and the exploding scoreboard.", "When it closed after the 1990 season, it was the oldest ballpark still in Major League Baseball.===Spring-training ballparks===The White Sox have held spring training in:* Excelsior Springs, Missouri (1901–1902)* Mobile, Alabama (1903); * Marlin Springs, Texas (1904)* New Orleans (1905–1906)* Mexico City, Mexico (1907)* Los Angeles (1908)* San Francisco (Recreation Park, 1909–1910)* Mineral Wells, Texas (1911, 1916–1919)* Waco, Texas (1912, 1920); * Paso Robles, California (1913–1915)* Waxahachie, Texas (1921)* Seguin, Texas (1922–1923)* Winter Haven, Florida.", "(1924)* Shreveport, Louisiana (1925–1928)* Dallas (1929)* San Antonio (1930–1932)* Pasadena, California (1933–1942, 1946–1950)* French Lick, Indiana (1943–1944)* Terre Haute, Indiana (1945)* Palm Springs, California (Palm Springs Stadium, 1951)* El Centro, California (1952–1953); * Tampa, Florida (1954–1959, Plant Field, 1954, Al Lopez Field 1955–1959)* Sarasota, Florida (1960–1997; Payne Park Ed Smith Stadium 1989–97).", "* Tucson, Arizona (Tucson Electric Park, 1998–2008, Cactus League, shared with Arizona Diamondbacks)* Phoenix, Arizona (Camelback Ranch, 2009–present)On November 19, 2007, the cities of Glendale and Phoenix, Arizona, broke ground on the Cactus League's newest spring-training facility.", "Camelback Ranch, the $76 million, two-team facility, is the new home of both the White Sox and the Los Angeles Dodgers for their spring training.", "Aside from state-of-the-art baseball facilities at the 10,000-seat stadium, the location includes residential, restaurant and retail development, a four-star hotel, and an 18-hole golf course.", "Other amenities include of major and minor league clubhouses for the two teams, four major league practice fields, eight minor league practice fields, two practice infields, and parking to accommodate 5,000 vehicles." ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "Over the years, the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes.", "In 1960, they became the first team in the major sports to put players' last names on jerseys for identification purposes.The 1912–1917, 1919–1929, 1931, and 1936–1938 Chicago White Sox logoIn 1912, the White Sox debuted a large \"S\" in a Roman-style font, with a small \"O\" inside the top loop of the \"S\" and a small \"X\" inside the bottom loop.", "This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox.", "With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark-blue logo with the large \"S\" lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the 1940s).", "Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red.Uniform design from 1971 to 1975The White Sox logo in the 1950s and 1960s (actually beginning in the season) was the word \"SOX\" in Gothic script, diagonally arranged, with the \"S\" larger than the other two letters.", "From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951).", "This is the logo associated with the Go-Go Sox era.In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue.", "In 1971, the team's primary color changed from royal blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red.", "The 1971–1975 uniform included red socks.In 1976, the team's uniforms changed again.", "The team's primary color changed back from red to navy.", "The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, and blue on the road.", "The team brought back white socks for the last time in team history.", "The socks featured a different stripe pattern every year.", "The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey.", "Additionally, the team's \"SOX\" logo was changed to a modern-looking \"SOX\" in a bold font, with \"CHICAGO\" written across the jersey.", "Finally, the team's logo featured a silhouette of a batter over the words \"SOX\".Alternate logo, used on the road uniform (1991–2010) and on the black alternate uniform (1993–present).The new uniforms also featured collars and were designed to be worn untucked — both unprecedented.", "Yet by far, the most unusual wrinkle was the option to wear shorts, which the White Sox did for the first game of a doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals in 1976.The Hollywood Stars of the Pacific Coast League had previously tried the same concept, but it was also poorly received.", "Apart from aesthetic issues, as a practical matter, shorts are not conducive to sliding, due to the likelihood of significant abrasions.Upon taking over the team in 1980, new owners Eddie Einhorn and Jerry Reinsdorf announced a contest where fans were invited to create new uniforms for the White Sox.", "The winning entries, submitted by a fan, had the word \"SOX\" written across the front of the jersey in the same font as the cap, inside of a large blue stripe trimmed with red.", "The red and blue stripes were also on the sleeves, and the road jerseys were gray to the home whites.", "In those jerseys, the White Sox won 99 games and the AL West championship in 1983, the best record in the majors.After five years, those uniforms were retired and replaced with a more basic uniform that had \"White Sox\" written across the front in script, with \"Chicago\" on the front of the road jersey.", "The cap logo was also changed to a cursive \"C\", although the batter logo was retained for several years.For a midseason 1990 game at Comiskey Park, the White Sox appeared once in a uniform based on that of the 1917 White Sox.", "They then switched their regular uniform style once more.", "In September, for the final series at the old Comiskey Park, the White Sox rolled out a new logo, a simplified version of the 1949–63 Gothic \"SOX\" logo.", "They also introduced a uniform with black pinstripes, also similar to the Go-Go Sox era uniform.", "The team's primary color changed back to black, this time with silver trim.", "The team also introduced a new sock logo—a white silhouette of a sock centered inside a white outline of a baseball diamond—which appeared as a sleeve patch on the away uniform until 2010 (switched to the \"SOX\" logo in 2011), and on the alternate black uniform since 1993.With minor modifications (i.e., occasionally wearing vests, black game jerseys), the White Sox have used this style ever since.During the 2012 and 2013 seasons, the White Sox wore their throwback uniforms at home every Sunday, starting with the 1972 red-pinstriped throwback jerseys worn during the 2012 season, followed by the 1982–86 uniforms the next season.", "In the 2014 season, the \"Winning Ugly\" throwbacks were promoted to full-time alternate status, and are now worn at home on Sundays.", "In one game during the 2014 season, the Sox paired their throwbacks with a cap featuring the batter logo instead of the wordmark \"SOX\"; this is currently their batting-practice cap prior to games in the throwback uniforms.In 2021, to commemorate the Field of Dreams game, the White Sox wore special uniforms honoring the 1919 team.", "That same year, the White Sox wore \"City Connect\" alternate uniforms introduced by Nike, featuring an all-black design with silver pinstripes, and \"Southside\" wordmark in front." ], [ "Awards and accolades", "Eddie Murphy, John \"Shano\" Collins, Joe Jackson, Happy Felsch, and Nemo Leibold in their dugout during the 1917 World Series===World Series championships===SeasonManagerRegular season recordWorld Series opponentWorld Series recordRef 1906 Fielder Jones 93–58 Chicago Cubs 4–2 1917 Pants Rowland 100–54 New York Giants 4–2 2005 Ozzie Guillén 99–63 Houston Astros 4–0 '''3 World Championships'''===American League championships===''Note: American League Championship Series began in 1969''SeasonManagerRegular season recordAL Runner-Up/ALCS opponentGames ahead/ALCS recordRef 1900 Charles Comiskey 82-53 Milwaukee Brewers 2.0 1901 Clark Griffith 83–53 Boston Americans 4.0 1906 Fielder Jones 93–58 New York Highlanders 3.0 1917 Pants Rowland 100–54 Boston Red Sox 9.0 1919 Kid Gleason 88–52 Cleveland Indians 3.5 1959 Al López 94–60 Cleveland Indians 5.0 2005 Ozzie Guillén 99–63 Los Angeles Angels 4–1 '''7 American League Championships'''===Award winners===Luis Aparicio (1956–62, 1968–70)Luke Appling (1930–43, 1945–50)Carlton Fisk (1981–1993)Nellie Fox (1950–1963)Shoeless Joe Jackson (1915–1920)Ted Lyons (1923–1942, 1946)Minnie Miñoso (1951–57, 1960–61, 1964, 1976, 1980)====Most Valuable Player====*1959 – Nellie Fox*1972 – Dick Allen*1993 – Frank Thomas*1994 – Frank Thomas*2020 - Jose Abreu====Cy Young Award====*1959 – Early Wynn (MLB)*1983 – LaMarr Hoyt (AL)*1993 – Jack McDowell (AL)====Rookie of the Year Award====*1951 – Orestes \"Minnie\" Miñoso (Sporting News)*1956 – Luis Aparicio*1963 – Gary Peters*1966 – Tommie Agee*1983 – Ron Kittle*1985 – Ozzie Guillén*2014 – José Abreu====Manager of the Year Award====*1983 – Tony La Russa*1990 – Jeff Torborg*1993 – Gene Lamont*2000 – Jerry Manuel*2005 – Ozzie Guillén===Team captains===*Willie Kamm 1927–1928*Art Shires 1929*Luke Appling 1930–1950*Ozzie Guillén 1990–1997*Carlton Fisk 1990–1993*Paul Konerko 2006–2014===Retired numbers===The White Sox have retired a total of 12 jersey numbers: 11 worn by former White Sox and number 42 in honor of Jackie Robinson.Luis Aparicio's No.", "11 was issued at his request for 11-time Gold Glove winner shortstop Omar Vizquel (because No.", "13 was used by manager Ozzie Guillén; Vizquel, like Aparicio and Guillen, play(ed) shortstop and all share a common Venezuelan heritage).", "Vizquel played for team in 2010 and 2011.Also, Harold Baines had his No.", "3 retired in 1989; it has since been 'unretired' 3 times in each of his subsequent returns.====Out of circulation, but not retired====* '''6:''' Since Charley Lau's death in 1984, no White Sox player or coach (except Lau disciple Walt Hriniak, the Chicago White Sox's hitting coach from 1989 to 1995) has worn his No.", "6 jersey, although it has not been officially retired.", "* '''13:''' Since Ozzie Guillén left as manager of the White Sox, no Sox player or coach has worn his No.", "13 jersey, although it is not officially retired.===Baseball Hall of Famers======Ford C. Frick Award recipients===" ], [ "Players and personnel", "===Roster======Front office and key personnel===Bill Veeck, White Sox owner (1959–61, 1975–80) who revolutionized baseball by introducing many innovations in promotion '''Chicago White Sox key personnel''' Chairman Jerry Reinsdorf Senior Executive Vice President Howard Pizer General Manager Chris GetzAssistant General ManagerJeremy HaberSenior Director of Baseball OperationsDan FabianDirector of Baseball AnalyticsMatt KoenigDirector of Baseball OperationsDaniel Zien Senior Vice President, Administration Tim Buzard Senior Vice President, Stadium Operations Terry Savarise Senior Vice President, Communications Scott Reifert Senior Vice President, Sales and Marketing Brooks BoyerVice President, General CounselJohn Corvino Head Groundskeeper Roger Bossard Spanish Language Interpreter Billy Russo Public Address Announcer Gene Honda Organist Lori Moreland*Source:" ], [ "Culture", "===Nicknames===The White Sox were originally known as the White Stockings, a reference to the original name of the Chicago Cubs.", "To fit the name in headlines, local newspapers such as the ''Chicago Tribune'' abbreviated the name alternatively to Stox and Sox.", "Charles Comiskey would officially adopt the White Sox nickname in the club's first years, making them the first team to officially use the \"Sox\" name.", "The Chicago White Sox are most prominently nicknamed \"the South Siders\", based on their particular district within Chicago.", "Other nicknames include the synonymous \"Pale Hose\"; \"the ChiSox\", a combination of \"Chicago\" and \"Sox\", used mostly by the national media to differentiate them between the Boston Red Sox (BoSox); and \"the Good Guys\", a reference to the team's one-time motto \"Good guys wear black\", coined by broadcaster Ken Harrelson.", "Most fans and Chicago media refer to the team as simply \"the Sox\".", "The Spanish language media sometimes refer to the team as ''Medias Blancas'' for \"White Socks.", "\"Several individual White Sox teams have received nicknames over the years:*The 1906 team was known as the '''Hitless Wonders''' due to their .230 batting average, worst in the American League.", "Despite their hitting woes, the Sox would beat the crosstown Cubs for their first world title.", "*The 1919 White Sox are known as the '''Black Sox''' after eight players were banned from baseball for fixing the 1919 World Series.", "*The 1959 White Sox were referred to as the '''Go-Go White Sox''' due to their speed-based offense.", "The period from 1951 to 1967, in which the White Sox had 17 consecutive winning seasons, is sometimes referred to as the Go-Go era.", "*The 1977 team was known as the '''South Side Hitmen''' as they contended for the division title after finishing last the year before.", "*The 1983 White Sox became known as the '''Winning Ugly White Sox''' in response to Texas Rangers manager Doug Rader's derisive comments that the White Sox \"...weren't playing well.", "They're winning ugly.\"", "The Sox went on to win the 1983 American League West division on September 17.===Mascots===SouthpawFrom 1961 until 1991, lifelong Chicago resident Andrew Rozdilsky performed as the unofficial yet popular mascot \"Andy the Clown\" for the White Sox at the original Comiskey Park.", "Known for his elongated \"Come on you White Sox\" battle cry, Andy got his start after a group of friends invited him to a Sox game in 1960, where he decided to wear his clown costume and entertain fans in his section.", "That response was so positive that when he won free 1961 season tickets, he decided to wear his costume to all games.", "Comiskey Park ushers eventually offered free admission to Rozdilsky.", "Starting in 1981, the new ownership group led by Jerry Reinsdorf introduced a twosome, called Ribbie and Roobarb, as the official team mascots, and banned Rozdilsky from performing in the lower seating level.", "Ribbie and Roobarb were very unpopular, as they were seen as an attempt to get rid of the beloved Andy the Clown.In 1988, the Sox got rid of Ribbie and Roobarb; Andy the Clown was not permitted to perform in the new Comiskey Park when it opened in 1991.In the early 1990s, the White Sox had a cartoon mascot named Waldo the White Sox Wolf that advertised the \"Silver and Black Pack\", the team's kids' club at the time.", "The team's current mascot, SouthPaw, was introduced in 2004 to attract young fans.===Fight and theme songs===Nancy Faust became the White Sox organist in 1970, a position she held for 40 years.", "She was one of the first ballpark organists to play pop music, and became known for her songs playing on the names of opposing players (such as Iron Butterfly's \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" for Pete Incaviglia).", "Her many years with the White Sox established her as one of the last great stadium organists.", "Since 2011, Lori Moreland has served as the White Sox organist.Similar to the Boston Red Sox with \"Sweet Caroline\" (and two songs named \"Tessie\"), and the New York Yankees with \"Theme from New York, New York\", several songs have become associated with the White Sox over the years.", "They include:*\"Let's Go Go Go White Sox\" by Captain Stubby and the Buccaneers – A tribute to the \"Go-Go White Sox\" of the late 1950s, this song serves as the unofficial fight song of the White Sox.", "In 2005, scoreboard operator Jeff Szynal found a record of the song and played it for a \"Turn Back the Clock\" game against the Los Angeles Dodgers, whom the Sox played in the 1959 World Series.", "After catcher A. J. Pierzynski hit a walk-off home run, they kept the song around, as the White Sox went on to win the 2005 World Series.", "*\"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye\" by Steam – Organist Nancy Faust played this song during the 1977 pennant race when a Kansas City Royals pitcher was pulled, and it became an immediate hit with White Sox fans.", "Faust is credited with making the song a stadium anthem and saving it from obscurity.", "To this day, the song remains closely associated with the White Sox, who play it when the team forces a pitching change, and occasionally on Sox home runs and victories.", "*\"Sweet Home Chicago\" – The Blues Brothers version of this Robert Johnson blues standard is played after White Sox games conclude.", "*\"Thunderstruck\" by AC/DC – One of the most prominent songs for the White Sox player introductions, the team formed a bond with AC/DC's hit song in 2005 and it has since become a staple at White Sox home games.", "The White Sox front office has tried replacing the song several times in an attempt to \"shake things up\", but White Sox fans have always showed their displeasure with new songs and have successfully gotten the front office to keep the fan-favorite song.", "*\"Don't Stop Believin'\" by Journey – During the 2005 season, the White Sox adopted the 1981 Journey song as their rally song after catcher A.J.", "Pierzynski suggested it be played through U.S. Cellular Field's speakers.", "During the 2005 World Series, the White Sox invited Journey's lead singer, Steve Perry, to Houston and allowed him to celebrate with the team on the field after the series-clinching sweep of the Houston Astros.", "Perry also performed the song with members of the team during the team's victory parade in Chicago.", "*\"Don't Stop the Party\" by Pitbull – After every White Sox home run at Guaranteed Rate Field, Pitbull's \"Don't Stop the Party\" played over the loudspeakers." ], [ "Rivalries", "=== Crosstown Classic ===Fielder Jones of the White Sox hits the ball against Cubs at West Side Grounds, 1905The Chicago Cubs are the crosstown rivals of the White Sox, a rivalry that some made fun of prior to the White Sox's 2005 title because both of them had extremely long championship droughts.", "The nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the 1906 World Series, in which the White Sox upset the favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until , when interleague play was introduced.", "In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games.", "The White Sox currently led the regular-season series 48–39, winning the last four seasons in a row.", "The BP Crosstown Cup was introduced in 2010 and the White Sox won the first three seasons (2010–2012) until the Cubs first won the Cup in 2013 by sweeping the season series.", "The White Sox won the Cup the next season and retained the Cup the following two years (series was a tie - Cup remains with defending team in the event of a tie).", "The Cubs took back the Cup in 2017.Two series sweeps have occurred since interleague play began, both by the Cubs in 1998 and 2013.An example of this volatile rivalry is the game played between the White Sox and the Cubs at U.S. Cellular Field on May 20, 2006.White Sox catcher A. J. Pierzynski was running home on a sacrifice fly by center fielder Brian Anderson and smashed into Cubs catcher Michael Barrett, who was blocking home plate.", "Pierzynski lost his helmet in the collision, and slapped the plate as he rose.", "Barrett stopped him, and after exchanging a few words, punched Pierzynski in the face, causing a melee to ensue.", "Brian Anderson and Cubs first baseman John Mabry got involved in a separate confrontation, although Mabry was later determined to be attempting to be a peacemaker.", "After 10 minutes of conferring following the fight, the umpires ejected Pierzynski, Barrett, Anderson, and Mabry.", "As Pierzynski entered his dugout, he pumped his arms, causing the sold-out crowd at U.S. Cellular Field to erupt in cheers.", "When play resumed, White Sox second baseman Tadahito Iguchi blasted a grand slam to put the White Sox up 5–0 on their way to a 7–0 win over their crosstown rivals.", "While other major league cities and metropolitan areas have two teams co-exist, all of the others feature at least one team that began playing there in 1961 or later, whereas the White Sox and Cubs have been competing for their city's fans since 1901.=== Historical ===A historical regional rival was the St. Louis Browns.", "Through the 1953 season, the two teams were located fairly close to each other (including the 1901 season when the Browns were the Milwaukee Brewers), and could have been seen as the American League equivalent of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry, being that Chicago and St. Louis have for years been connected by the same highway (U.S. Route 66 and now Interstate 55).", "The rivalry has been somewhat revived at times in the past, involving the Browns' current identity, the Baltimore Orioles, most notably in 1983.The current Milwaukee Brewers franchise were arguably the White Sox's main and biggest rival, due to the proximity of the two cities (resulting in large numbers of White Sox fans who would regularly be in attendance at the Brewers' former home, Milwaukee County Stadium), and with the teams competing in the same American League division for the 1970 and 1971 seasons and then again from 1994 to 1997.The rivalry has since cooled off, however, when the Brewers moved to the National League in 1998.However, with the start of the 2023 season, all teams will play each other at least once a year, leading to the Brewers-White Sox series to return on a yearly basis.=== Divisional =======Minnesota Twins====The rivalry between the White Sox and Minnesota Twins developed during the 2000s, as the two teams consistently battled for the AL Central Crown.", "The Twins won the division in 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, and 2009, with the Sox winning in 2000, 2005, and 2008, many of those years their rival was the division runner-up.", "The teams met in the 2008 American League Central tie-breaker game, which was necessitated by the two clubs finishing the season with identical records.", "The White Sox won this game 1–0 on a Jim Thome home run.", "The rivalry re-emerged in the 2020s, with the Twins winning the AL Central in 2020 by a single game over the White Sox and Cleveland Indians, and the Sox and Twins have continued to compete for the division title since that point.====Detroit Tigers====The series between the White Sox and Detroit Tigers is one of the oldest active rivalries in the league today.", "Both teams joined the American League in 1901 after being charter members of the original Western League.", "Both have actively played one another annually for over 120 seasons.", "As is often the case between professional sports teams located Chicago or Detroit; there usually exists a rivalry as such with the Bulls-Pistons rivalry of the NBA.", "Despite playing one another for over 2,200 games; both teams have yet to meet in the postseason in their 122-year series.===Community Outreach===In 1990, then new White Sox owners Eddie Einhorn and Jerry Reinsdorf began Chicago White Sox Charities, a 501(c) (3) charitable organization that is the team's philanthropic arm, donating over $27 million over time to a plethora of Chicago organizations.", "White Sox Charities began centering on early childhood literacy programs, then expanded to focusing on encouraging high school graduation and college matriculation so the team can monitor its success.", "It also supports children at risk as well as promotes wellness and health." ], [ "Home attendance", "===Comiskey Park==='''Home attendance at Comiskey Park''' '''Year''' '''Total attendance''' '''Game average''' '''League rank''' '''Ref''' 2000 1,947,799 24,047 20th 2001 1,766,172 21,805 26th 2002 1,676,911 20,703 23rd ===U.S.", "Cellular Field==='''Home attendance at U.S. Cellular Field''' '''Year''' '''Total attendance''' '''Game average''' '''League rank''' '''Ref''' 2003 1,939,524 23,945 21st 2004 1,930,537 23,834 21st 2005 2,342,833 28,924 17th 2006 2,957,414 36,511 9th 2007 2,684,395\t 33,141 15th 2008 2,500,648 30,496 16th 2009 2,284,163 28,200 16th 2010 2,194,378 27,091 17th 2011 2,001,117 24,705 20th 2012 1,965,955\t 24,271 24th 2013 1,768,413 21,832 24th 2014 1,650,821 20,381 28th 2015 1,755,810 21,677 27th 2016 1,746,293 21,559 26th ===Guaranteed Rate Field==='''Home attendance at Guaranteed Rate Field''' '''Year''' '''Total attendance''' '''Game average''' '''League rank''' '''Ref''' 2017 1,629,470 20,117 27th 2018 1,608,817 19,862 25th 2019 1,649,775 20,622 24th 2020 – – – 2021 1,596,385\t 19,708 13th" ], [ "Broadcasting", "===Radio===Elson in the 1940sThe White Sox did not sell exclusive rights for radio broadcasts from radio's inception until 1944, instead having local stations share rights for games, and after WGN (720) was forced to abdicate their rights to the team in the 1943 after 16 seasons due to children's programming commitments from their network, Mutual.", "The White Sox first granted exclusive rights in 1944, and bounced between stations until 1952, when they started having all games broadcast on WCFL (1000).", "Throughout this period of instability, one thing remained constant, the White Sox play-by-play announcer, Bob Elson.", "Known as the \"Commander\", Elson was the voice of the Sox from 1929 until his departure from the club in 1970.In 1979, he was the recipient of the Ford Frick Award, and his profile is permanently on display in the National Baseball Hall of Fame.After the 1966 season, radio rights shifted from WCFL to WMAQ (670).", "An NBC-owned and -operated station until 1988 when Westinghouse Broadcasting purchased it after NBC's withdrawal from radio, it was the home of the Sox until the 1996 season, outside of a team nadir in the early '70s, where it was forced to broker time on suburban La Grange's WTAQ (1300) and Evanston's WEAW-FM (105.1) to have their play-by-play air in some form (though WEAW transmitted from the John Hancock Center, FM radio was not established as a band for sports play-by-play at the time), and a one-season contract on WBBM (780) in 1981.After Elson's retirement in 1970, Harry Caray began his tenure as the voice of the White Sox, on radio and on television.", "Although best remembered as a broadcaster for the rival Cubs, Caray was very popular with White Sox fans, pining for a \"cold one\" during broadcasts.", "Caray often broadcast from the stands, sitting at a table set up amid the bleachers.", "It became a badge of honor among Sox fans to \"Buy Harry a beer...\" By game's end, one would see a large stack of empty beer cups beside his microphone.", "This only endeared him to fans that much more.", "In fact, he started his tradition of leading the fans in the singing of \"Take Me Out To The Ballgame\" with the Sox.", "Caray, alongside color analyst Jimmy Piersall, was never afraid to criticize the Sox, which angered numerous Sox managers and players, notably Bill Melton and Chuck Tanner.", "He left to succeed Jack Brickhouse as the voice of the Cubs in 1981, where he became a national icon.The White Sox shifted through several announcers in the 1980s, before hiring John Rooney as play-by-play announcer in 1989.In 1992, he was paired with color announcer Ed Farmer.", "In 14 seasons together, the duo became a highly celebrated announcing team, even being ranked by ''USA Today'' as the top broadcasting team in the American League.", "Starting with Rooney and Farmer's fifth season together, Sox games returned to the 1000 AM frequency for the first time in 30 years (now the ESPN owned and operated station WMVP).", "The last game on WMVP was game 4 of the 2005 World Series, with the White Sox clinching their first World Series title in 88 years.", "That also was Rooney's last game with the Sox, as he left to join the radio broadcast team of the St. Louis Cardinals.In 2006, radio broadcasts returned to 670 AM, this time on the sports radio station WSCR owned by CBS Radio (WSCR took over the 670 frequency in August 2000 as part of a number of shifts among CBS Radio properties to meet market ownership caps).", "Ed Farmer became the play-by-play man after Rooney left, joined in the booth by Chris Singleton from 2006 to 2007 and then Steve Stone in 2008.In 2009, Darrin Jackson became the color announcer for White Sox radio, where he remains today.", "Farmer and Jackson were joined by pregame/postgame host Chris Rogney.The Chicago White Sox Radio Network currently has 18 affiliates in three states.", "As of recently, White Sox games are also broadcast in Spanish with play-by-play announcer Hector Molina joined in the booth by Billy Russo.", "Formerly broadcasting on ESPN Deportes Radio via WNUA, games are now broadcast in Spanish on WRTO (1200).In the 2016 season, the play-by-play rights shifted to Cumulus Media's WLS (890) under a five-year deal, when WSCR acquired the rights to Cubs games after a one-year period on WBBM.", "However, by all counts, the deal was a disaster for the White Sox, as WLS's declining conservative talk format, associated ratings, and management/personnel issues (including said hosts barely promoting the team and its games), and a signal that is weak in the northern suburbs and into Wisconsin, was not a good fit for the team.", "Cumulus also had voluminous financial issues, and by the start of 2018, looked to both file Chapter 11 bankruptcy and restructure their play-by-play deals or depart them, both with local teams and nationally through their Westwood One/NFL deal.The White Sox and Tribune Broadcasting (which has since merged with Nexstar Media Group) then announced a three-year deal for WGN Radio to become the White Sox flagship as of February 14, 2018, just in time for spring training.", "Ed Farmer and Darrin Jackson continued to be on play-by-play, with Andy Masur taking over pregame/postgame duties.", "Ed Farmer died suddenly on April 1, 2020, a long-term battle with polycystic kidney disease, but the team waited to announce his successor due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the uncertainty of the 2020 season going forward.", "On June 30 with the season's structure announced, Masur was confirmed as Farmer's successor for the season.Under Nexstar's new management, WGN decided to pursue a thriftier programming direction, and made no moves to renew the deal at the end of the 2020 season.", "The team thus returned to WMVP (now managed by Good Karma Brands, which also owns Brewers flagship WTMJ) for a multi-year agreement to start with the 2021 season.", "In a surprising turn of events, WMVP and the team announced on December 4, 2020, that Len Kasper, the longtime television play-by-play voice of the Cubs, would move to the South Side and become the radio play-by-play voice of the White Sox.", "The agreement has flexibility which allows Kasper to do some television games on NBC Sports Chicago on days when Jason Benetti has other national commitments.===Television===White Sox games appeared sporadically on television throughout the first half of the 20th century, most commonly announced by Jack Brickhouse on WGN-TV (channel 9).", "Starting in 1968, Jack Drees took play-by-play duties as the Sox were broadcast on WFLD (channel 32).", "After 1972, Harry Caray (joined by Jimmy Piersall in 1977) began double duty as a TV and radio announcer for the Sox, as broadcasts were moved to channel 44, WSNS-TV, from 1972 to 1980, followed by one year on WGN-TV.Don Drysdale became the play-by-play announcer in 1982, as the White Sox began splitting their broadcasts between WFLD and the new regional cable television network, Sportsvision.", "Ahead of its time, Sportsvision had a chance to gain huge profits for the Sox.", "However, few people would subscribe to the channel after being used to free-to-air broadcasts for many years, along with Sportsvision being stunted by the city of Chicago's wiring for cable television taking much longer than many markets because of it being an area where over-the-air subscription services were still more popular, resulting in the franchise losing around $300,000 a month.", "While this was going on, every Cubs game was on WGN, with Harry Caray becoming the national icon he never was with the White Sox.", "The relatively easy near-national access to Cubs games versus Sox games in this era, combined with the popularity of Caray and the Cubs being owned by the Tribune Company, is said by some to be the main cause of the Cubs' advantage in popularity over the Sox.Harrelson in the broadcast booth in 2007Three major changes to White Sox broadcasting occurred in 1989-1991: in 1989, with the city finally fully wired for cable service, Sportsvision was replaced by SportsChannel Chicago (itself eventually turning into Fox Sports Net Chicago), which varied over its early years as a premium sports service and basic cable channel.", "In 1990, over-the-air broadcasts shifted back to WGN.", "And in 1991, Ken Harrelson became the play-by-play announcer of the White Sox.", "One of the most polarizing figures in baseball, \"Hawk\" has been both adored and scorned for his emotive announcing style.", "His history of calling out umpires has earned him reprimands from the MLB commissioner's office, and he has been said to be the most biased announcer in baseball.", "However, Harrelson has said that he is proud of being \"the biggest homer in baseball\", saying that he is a White Sox fan like his viewers.", "The team moved from FSN Chicago to the newly launched NBC Sports Chicago in March 2005, as Jerry Reinsdorf looked to control the rights for his team rather than sell rights to another party; Reinsdorf holds a 40% interest in the network, with 20% of that interest directly owned by the White Sox corporation.Previously, White Sox local television broadcasts were split between two channels: the majority of games were broadcast on cable by NBC Sports Chicago, and remaining games were produced by WGN Sports and were broadcast locally on WGN-TV.", "WGN games were also occasionally picked up by local stations in Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana.", "In the past, WGN games were broadcast nationally on the WGN America superstation, but those broadcasts ended after the 2014 season as WGN America began its transition to a standard cable network.", "WGN Sports-produced White Sox games not carried by WGN-TV were carried by WCIU-TV (channel 26) until the 2015 season, when they moved to MyNetworkTV station WPWR (channel 50).", "That arrangement ended on September 1, 2016, when WGN became an independent station.Prior to 2016, the announcers were the same no matter where the games were broadcast: Harrelson provided play-by-play, and Steve Stone provided color analysis since 2009.Games that are broadcast on NBC Sports Chicago feature pregame and postgame shows, hosted by Chuck Garfein with analysis from Bill Melton and occasionally Frank Thomas.", "In 2016, the team announced an official split of the play-by-play duties, with Harrelson calling road games and the Crosstown Series and Jason Benetti calling home games.", "In 2017, the team announced that the 2018 season will be Harrelson's final in the booth.", "He will call 20 games over the course of the season, after which Benetti will take over full-time play-by-play duties.On January 2, 2019, the White Sox (along with the Chicago Bulls and Chicago Blackhawks) agreed to an exclusive multiyear deal with NBC Sports Chicago, ending the team's broadcasts on WGN-TV following the 2019 season.Prior to the 2024 season, the White Sox named John Schriffen as its new lead television play-by-play announcer, after Benetti departed to join the Detroit Tigers broadcast team." ], [ "Minor league affiliates", "The Chicago White Sox farm system consists of six minor league affiliates.ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Charlotte Knights International League Charlotte, North Carolina Truist Field 1999 Double-A Birmingham Barons Southern League Birmingham, Alabama Regions Field 1986 High-A Winston-Salem Dash South Atlantic League Winston-Salem, North Carolina Truist Stadium 1997 Single-A Kannapolis Cannon Ballers Carolina League Kannapolis, North Carolina Atrium Health Ballpark 2001 Rookie ACL White Sox Arizona Complex League Glendale, Arizona Camelback Ranch 2014 DSL White Sox Dominican Summer League Boca Chica, Santo Domingo Baseball City Complex 1999" ], [ "Silver Chalice subsidiary", "Silver Chalice is a digital and media investment subsidiary of the White Sox with Brooks Boyer as CEO.", "Silver Chalice was co-founded by Jerry Reinsdorf, White Sox executive Brooks Boyer, Jason Coyle and John Burris in 2009.The company first invested in 120 Sports, a digital sports channel, that launched in June 2014.Chalice then partnered with IMG on Campus Insiders, a college sports digital channel, in 2015.These two efforts merged with Sinclair Broadcasting Group's American Sports Network into the new multi-platform network Stadium in September 2017.In May 2023, Sinclair sold its controlling interest in Stadium to Silver Chalice." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Chicago White Sox at the ''Chicago Tribune''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Casuistry" ], [ "Introduction", "''Le grand docteur sophiste'', 1886 illustration of Gargantua by Albert Robida, expressing mockery of his casuist educationIn ethics, '''casuistry''' ( ) is a process of reasoning that seeks to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending abstract rules from a particular case, and reapplying those rules to new instances.", "This method occurs in applied ethics and jurisprudence.", "The term is also used pejoratively to criticise the use of clever but unsound reasoning, especially in relation to moral questions (as in sophistry).", "It has been defined as follows:Study of cases of conscience and a method of solving conflicts of obligations by applying general principles of ethics, religion, and moral theology to particular and concrete cases of human conduct.", "This frequently demands an extensive knowledge of natural law and equity, civil law, ecclesiastical precepts, and an exceptional skill in interpreting these various norms of conduct....", "It remains a common method in applied ethics." ], [ "Etymology", "According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the term and its agent noun \"casuist\", appearing from about 1600, derive from the Latin noun , meaning \"case\", especially as referring to a \"case of conscience\".", "The same source says, \"Even in the earliest printed uses the sense was pejorative\"." ], [ "History", "Casuistry dates from Aristotle (384–322 BC), yet the peak of casuistry was from 1550 to 1650, when the Society of Jesus used case-based reasoning, particularly in administering the Sacrament of Penance (or \"confession\").", "The term became pejorative following Blaise Pascal's attack on the misuse of the method in his ''Provincial Letters'' (1656–57).", "The French mathematician, religious philosopher and Jansenist sympathiser attacked priests who used casuistic reasoning in confession to pacify wealthy church donors.", "Pascal charged that \"remorseful\" aristocrats could confess a sin one day, re-commit it the next, then generously donate to the church and return to re-confess their sin, confident that they were being assigned a penance in name only.", "These criticisms darkened casuistry's reputation in the following centuries.", "For example, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' quotes a 1738 essay by Henry St. John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke to the effect that casuistry \"destroys, by distinctions and exceptions, all morality, and effaces the essential difference between right and wrong, good and evil\"The 20th century saw a revival of interest in casuistry.", "In their book ''The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning'' (1988), Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin argue that it is not casuistry but its abuse that has been a problem; that, properly used, casuistry is powerful reasoning.", "Jonsen and Toulmin offer casuistry as a method for compromising the contradictory principles of moral absolutism and moral relativism.", "In addition, the ethical philosophies of utilitarianism (especially preference utilitarianism) and pragmatism have been identified as employing casuistic reasoning.===Early modernity===The casuistic method was popular among Catholic thinkers in the early modern period.", "Casuistic authors include Antonio Escobar y Mendoza, whose ''Summula casuum conscientiae'' (1627) enjoyed great success, Thomas Sanchez, Vincenzo Filliucci (Jesuit and penitentiary at St Peter's), Antonino Diana, Paul Laymann (''Theologia Moralis'', 1625), John Azor (''Institutiones Morales'', 1600), Etienne Bauny, Louis Cellot, Valerius Reginaldus, and Hermann Busembaum (d. 1668).The progress of casuistry was interrupted toward the middle of the 17th century by the controversy which arose concerning the doctrine of probabilism, which effectively stated that one could choose to follow a \"probable opinion\", that is, supported by a theologian or another, even if it contradicted a more probable opinion or a quotation from one of the Fathers of the Church.Certain kinds of casuistry were criticised by early Protestant theologians, because it was used to justify many of the abuses that they sought to reform.", "It was famously attacked by the Catholic and Jansenist philosopher Blaise Pascal, during the formulary controversy against the Jesuits, in his Provincial Letters as the use of rhetorics to justify moral laxity, which became identified by the public with '''Jesuitism'''; hence the everyday use of the term to mean complex and sophistic reasoning to justify moral laxity.", "By the mid-18th century, \"casuistry\" had become a synonym for attractive-sounding, but ultimately false, moral reasoning.In 1679 Pope Innocent XI publicly condemned sixty-five of the more radical propositions (''stricti mentalis''), taken chiefly from the writings of Escobar, Suarez and other casuists as ''propositiones laxorum moralistarum'' and forbade anyone to teach them under penalty of excommunication.", "Despite this condemnation by a pope, both Catholicism and Protestantism permit the use of ambiguous statements in specific circumstances.===Later modernity===G. E.", "Moore dealt with casuistry in chapter 1.4 of his ''Principia Ethica'', in which he claims that \"the defects of casuistry are not defects of principle; no objection can be taken to its aim and object.", "It has failed only because it is far too difficult a subject to be treated adequately in our present state of knowledge\".", "Furthermore, he asserted that \"casuistry is the goal of ethical investigation.", "It cannot be safely attempted at the beginning of our studies, but only at the end\".Since the 1960s, applied ethics has revived the ideas of casuistry in applying moral reasoning to particular cases in law, bioethics, and business ethics, so casuistry's reputation is somewhat better now.Pope Francis, a Jesuit, has criticized casuistry as \"the practice of setting general laws on the basis of exceptional cases\" in instances where a more holistic approach would be preferred." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Bliton, Mark J.", "(1993).", "The Ethics of Clinical Ethics Consultation: On the Way to Clinical Philosophy (Diss.", "Vanderbilt)* * * * * * Carney, Bridget Mary.", "(1993).", "Modern Casuistry: An Essential But Incomplete Method for Clinical Ethical Decision-Making.", "(Diss., Graduate Theological Union).", "* * Carson, Ronald A.", "(1988).", "\"Paul Ramsey, Principled Protestant Casuist: A Retrospective.\"", "Medical Humanities Review, Vol.", "2, pp. 24–35.", "* Chidwick, Paula Marjorie (1994).", "Approaches to Clinical Ethical Decision-Making: Ethical Theory, Casuistry and Consultation.", "(Diss., U of Guelph)* * * * Drane, J.F.", "(1990).", "\"Methodologies for Clinical Ethics.\"", "Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization, Vol.", "24, pp. 394–404.", "* Dworkin, R.B.", "(1994).", "\"Emerging Paradigms in Bioethics: Symposium.\"", "Indiana Law Journal, Vol.", "69, pp. 945–1122.", "* Elliot, Carl (1992).", "\"Solving the Doctor's Dilemma?\"", "New Scientist, Vol.", "133, pp. 42–43.", "* Emanuel, Ezekiel J.", "(1991).", "The Ends of Human Life: Medical Ethics in a Liberal Polity (Cambridge).", "* Franklin, James (2001).", "The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal (Johns Hopkins), ch.", "4.", "* Gallagher, Lowell (1991).", "Medusa's Gaze: Casuistry and Conscience in the Renaissance (Stanford)* * Green, Bryan S. (1988).", "Literary Methods and Sociological Theory: Case Studies of Simmel and Weber (Albany)* * Houle, Martha Marie (1983).", "The Fictions of Casuistry and Pascal's Jesuit in \"Les Provinciales\" (Diss.", "U California, San Diego)* * * * * Jonsen, Albert R. (1986).", "\"Casuistry\" in J.F.", "Childress and J. Macgvarrie, eds.", "Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics (Philadelphia)* * * Jonsen, Albert R. and Stephen Toulmin (1988).", "The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (California).", "* Keenan, James F., S.J.", "and Thomas A. Shannon.", "(1995).", "The Context of Casuistry (Washington).", "* Kirk, K. (1936).", "Conscience and Its Problems, An Introduction to Casuistry (London)* * * * * Kuczewski, Mark G. (1994).", "Fragmentation and Consensus in Contemporary Neo-Aristotelian Ethics: A Study in Communitarianism and Casuistry (Diss., Duquesne U).", "* * * Long, Edward LeRoy, junior (1954).", "Conscience and Compromise: an Approach to Protestant Casuistry (Philadelphia, Penn.", ": Westminster Press)* * * Mackler, Aaron Leonard.", "Cases of Judgments in Ethical Reasoning: An Appraisal of Contemporary Casuistry and Holistic Model for the Mutual Support of Norms and Case Judgments (Diss., Georgetown U).", "* * * McCready, Amy R. (1992).", "\"Milton's Casuistry: The Case of 'The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce.'", "\" Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Vol.", "22, pp. 393–428.", "* * * * Odozor, Paulinus Ikechukwu (1989).", "Richard A. McCormick and Casuistry: Moral Decision-Making in Conflict Situations (M.A.", "Thesis, St. Michael's College).", "* Pack, Rolland W. (1988).", "Case Studies and Moral Conclusions: The Philosophical Use of Case Studies in Biomedical Ethics (Diss., Georgetown U).", "* Pascal, Blaise (1967).", "The Provincial Letters (London).", "* * Río Parra, Elena del (2008).", "Cartografías de la conciencia española en la Edad de Oro (Mexico).", "* * Seiden, Melvin (1990).", "Measure for Measure: Casuistry and Artistry (Washington).", "* * * Smith, David H. (1991).", "\"Stories, Values, and Patient Care Decisions.\"", "in Charles Conrad, ed.", "The Ethical Nexus: Values in Organizational Decision Making.", "(New Jersey).", "* * * Starr, G. (1971).", "Defoe and Casuistry (Princeton).", "* * Tallmon, James Michael (2001).", "\"Casuistry\" in The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric.", "Ed.", "Thomas O. Sloane.", "New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 83–88.", "* Tallmon, James Michael (1993).", "Casuistry and the Quest for Rhetorical Reason: Conceptualizing a Method of Shared Moral Inquiry (Diss., U of Washington).", "* * Taylor, Richard (1984).", "Good and Evil – A New Direction: A Foreceful Attack on the Rationalist Tradition in Ethics (Buffalo).", "* * * * Toulmin, Stephen (1988).", "\"The Recovery of Practical Philosophy.\"", "The American Scholar, Vol.", "57, pp. 337–352.", "* * * * * Weinstein, Bruce David (1989).", "The Possibility of Ethical Expertise (Diss.", "Georgetown U).", "* * * Wildes, Kevin Wm., S.J.", "(1993).", "The View for Somewhere: Moral Judgment in Bioethics (Diss.", "Rice U).", "* * Zacker, David J.", "(1991).", "Reflection and Particulars: Does Casuistry Offer Us Stable Beliefs About Ethics?", "(M.A.", "Thesis, Western Michigan U).", "*" ], [ "External links", "* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': \"Casuistry\"* Accountancy as computational casuistics, article on how modern compliance regimes in accountancy and law apply casuistry* Mortimer Adler's Great Ideas – Casuistry * Summary of casuistry by Jeramy Townsley* Casuistry – Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy * Casuistry – Oxford Encyclopedia of Rhetoric catalogued at she-philosopher.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese input method" ], [ "Introduction", "Several input methods allow the use of Chinese characters with computers.", "Most allow selection of characters based either on their pronunciation or their graphical shape.", "Phonetic input methods are easier to learn but are less efficient, while graphical methods allow faster input, but have a steep learning curve.Other methods allow users to write characters directly via touchscreens, such as those found on mobile phones and tablet computers." ], [ "History", "An early experimental Chinese radical keyboard using 496 keys for input was developed by researchers of National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan, but was never widely used.Chinese input methods predate the computer.", "One of the early attempts was an electro-mechanical Chinese typewriter Ming kwai () which was invented by Lin Yutang, a prominent Chinese writer, in the 1940s.", "It assigned thirty base shapes or strokes to different keys and adopted a new way of categorizing Chinese characters.", "But the typewriter was not produced commercially and Lin soon found himself deeply in debt.Before the 1980s, Chinese publishers hired teams of workers and selected a few thousand type pieces from an enormous Chinese character set.", "Chinese government agencies entered characters using a long, complicated list of Chinese telegraph codes, which assigned different numbers to each character.", "During the early computer era, Chinese characters were categorized by their radicals or Pinyin romanization, but results were less than satisfactory.In the 1970s to 1980s, large keyboards with thousands of keys were used to input Chinese.", "Each key was mapped to several Chinese characters.", "To type a character, one pressed the character key and then a selection key.", "There were also experimental \"radical keyboards\" with dozens to several hundreds keys.", "Chinese characters were decomposed into \"radicals\", each of which was represented by a key.", "Unwieldy and difficult to use, these keyboards became obsolete after the introduction of Cangjie input method, the first method to use only the standard keyboard and make Chinese touch typing possible.A typical keyboard layout for the Cangjie method, which is based on the United States keyboard layout.Chu Bong-Foo invented a common input method in 1976 with his Cangjie input method, which assigns different \"roots\" to each key on a standard computer keyboard.", "With this method, for example, the character 日 is assigned to the A key, and 月 is assigned to B. Typing them together will result in the character 明 (\"bright\").An electronic dictionary with Cangjie keyboardDespite its steeper learning curve, this method remains popular in Chinese communities that use traditional Chinese characters, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan; the method allows very precise input, thus allowing users to type more efficiently and quickly, provided they are familiar with the fairly complicated rules of the method.", "It was the first method that allowed users to enter more than a hundred Chinese characters per minute.", "Its popularity is also helped by its omnipresence on traditional Chinese computer systems, since Chu has given up its patent in 1982, stating that it should be part of the cultural asset.", "Developers of Chinese systems can adopt it freely, and users do not have the hassle of it being absent on devices with Chinese support.", "Cangjie input programs supporting a large CJK character set have been developed.All methods have their strengths and weaknesses.", "The pinyin method can be learned rapidly but its maximum input rate is limited.", "The Wubi method takes longer to learn, but expert typists can enter text much more rapidly with it than with phonetic methods.", "However, Wubi is proprietary, and a version of it has become freely available only after its inventor lost a patent lawsuit in 1997.Due to these complexities, there is no \"standard\" method.In mainland China, pinyin methods such as Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin are the most popular.", "In Taiwan, use of Cangjie, Dayi, Boshiamy, and bopomofo predominate; and in Hong Kong and Macau, the Cangjie is most often taught in schools, while a few schools teach CKC Chinese Input System.Other methods include handwriting recognition, OCR and speech recognition.", "The computer itself must first be \"trained\" before the first or second of these methods are used; that is, the new user enters the system in a special \"learning mode\" so that the system can learn to identify their handwriting or speech patterns.", "The latter two methods are used less frequently than keyboard-based input methods and suffer from relatively high error rates, especially when used without proper \"training\", though higher error rates are an acceptable trade-off to many users." ], [ "Categories", "=== Phonetic-based ===Interface of a Pinyin input method, showing the need to choose an appropriate word out of a list of options.", "The word typed is \"Wikipedia\" in Mandarin Chinese, but the options shown include (from top to bottom) Wikipedia, Uncyclopedia, Wiki, Crisis, and Rules Violation.The user enters pronunciations that are converted into relevant Chinese characters.", "The user must select the desired character from homophones, which are common in Chinese.", "Modern systems, such as Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin, predict the desired characters based on context and user preferences.", "For example, if one enters the sounds ''jicheng'', the software will type 繼承 (to inherit), but if ''jichengche'' is entered, 計程車 (taxi) will appear.Various Chinese dialects complicate the system.", "Phonetic methods are mainly based on standard pinyin, Zhuyin/Bopomofo, and Jyutping in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, respectively.", "Input methods based on other varieties of Chinese, like Hakka or Minnan, also exist.While the phonetic system is easy to learn, choosing appropriate Chinese characters slows typing speed.", "Most users report a typing speed of fifty characters per minute, though some reach over one hundred per minute.", "With some phonetic IMEs (Input Method Editors), in addition to predictive input based on previous conversions, it is possible for users to create custom dictionary entries for frequently used characters and phrases, potentially lowering the number of characters required to evoke it.==== Shuangpin ====The Microsoft pinyin 2003 shuangpin scheme.Shuangpin (雙拼; 双拼), literally dual spell, is a stenographical phonetic input method based on hanyu pinyin that reduces the number of keystrokes for one Chinese character to two by distributing every vowel and consonant composed of more than one letter to a specific key.", "In most Shuangpin layout schemes such as Xiaohe, Microsoft 2003 and Ziranma, the most frequently used vowels are placed on the middle layer, reducing the risk of repetitive strain injury.Shuangpin is supported by a large number of pinyin input software including QQ, Microsoft Bing Pinyin, Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin.=== Shape-based ===Typing Chinese with the Cangjie input method* Cangjie input method* Simplified Cangjie* Dayi method* Array input method (行列)* Four-corner method* Stroke count method* Wubi method* Zhengma method* Biaoxingma method* ZYQ method (正易全)=== Others ===* Chinese telegraph code (中文電碼)=== Examples of keyboard layouts ===Image:Keyboard layout Zhuyin.svg|A typical keyboard layout for zhuyin on computers, which can be used as an input methodImage:Wubi keyboard.png|The Wubi keyboard which is an input methodImage:Keyboard layout cangjie.png|A typical keyboard layout for Cangjie method, which is based on United States keyboard layout.", "Note the non-standard use of Z as the collision key.Image:Keyboard layout Dayi.svg|A typical keyboard layout for Dayi methodImage:Keyboard layout Chinese Traditional.png|Chinese (traditional) keyboard layout, a US keyboard with Zhuyin, Cangjie and Dayi key labels, which can all be used to input Chinese characters into a computer" ], [ "Software", "* Microsoft IME* Sogou Pinyin* Google Pinyin" ], [ "See also", "* List of input methods for Unix platforms* List of CJK fonts* Chinese language and computers* Japanese language and computers** Japanese input methods* Korean language and computers* Vietnamese language and computers* Han unification* Character amnesia* Chinese character encodings:** Big5** Guobiao code (GB)** Neima (內碼)** Unicode** Telegraph code (電報碼)* Chinese character IT" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* What Does a Chinese Keyboard Look Like?, article by Slate.com* Overview of Input Methods, by Sebastien Bruggeman.", "* 中文輸入法世界 Chinese input method news.", "* The engineering daring that led to the first Chinese personal computer.", "With 1,000s of Chinese characters and limited memory, inventors of the Sinotype III had to push the limits of early machines.", "by Tom Mullaney, June 29, 2021, techcrunch.com* How intensive modding ushered in China’s computer revolution: Early Chinese engineers needed to constantly push against the boundaries of 'alphabetic order,'by Tom Mullaney, October 24, 2021, techcrunch.com* The computer pioneer who built modern China, By Leila McNeill, 19 February 2020, bbc website." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Columbus, Ohio" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Columbus''' ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Ohio.", "With a 2020 census population of 905,748, it is the 14th-most populous city in the U.S., the second-most populous city in the Midwest after Chicago, and the third-most populous U.S. state capital after Phoenix, Arizona and Austin, Texas.", "Columbus is the county seat of Franklin County; it also extends into Delaware and Fairfield counties.", "It is the core city of the Columbus metropolitan area, which encompasses ten counties in central Ohio.", "It had a population of 2,138,926 in 2020, making it the largest metropolitan area entirely in Ohio and 32nd-largest metro area in the U.S.Columbus originated as numerous Native American settlements on the banks of the Scioto River.", "Franklinton, now a city neighborhood, was the first European settlement, laid out in 1797.The city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and laid out to become the state capital.", "The city was named for Italian explorer Christopher Columbus.", "The city assumed the function of state capital in 1816 and county seat in 1824.Amid steady years of growth and industrialization, the city has experienced numerous floods and recessions.", "Beginning in the 1950s, Columbus began to experience significant growth; it became the largest city in Ohio in land and population by the early 1990s.", "Growth has continued in the 21st century, with redevelopment occurring in numerous city neighborhoods, including Downtown.The city has a diverse economy based on education, government, insurance, banking, defense, aviation, food, clothes, logistics, steel, energy, medical research, health care, hospitality, retail and technology.", "The metropolitan area is home to the Battelle Memorial Institute, the world's largest private research and development foundation; Chemical Abstracts Service, the world's largest clearinghouse of chemical information; and the Ohio State University, one of the largest universities in the United States.", "The Greater Columbus area is further home to the headquarters of six Fortune 500 companies, namely Cardinal Health, American Electric Power, L Brands, Nationwide, Bread Financial and Huntington Bancshares." ], [ "Name", "The city of Columbus was named after 15th-century Italian explorer Christopher Columbus at the city's founding in 1812.It is the largest city in the world named for the explorer, who sailed to and settled parts of the Americas on behalf of Isabella I of Castile and Spain.", "Although no reliable history exists as to why Columbus, who had no connection to the city or state of Ohio before the city's founding, was chosen as the name for the city, the book ''Columbus: The Story of a City'' indicates a state lawmaker and local resident admired the explorer enough to persuade other lawmakers to name the settlement Columbus.Since the late 20th century, historians have criticized Columbus for initiating the European conquest of America and for abuse, enslavement, and subjugation of natives.", "Efforts to remove symbols related to the explorer in the city date to the 1990s.", "Amid the George Floyd protests in 2020, several petitions pushed for the city to be renamed.A proposed rename for the city which first garnered notability in 2020 is \"Flavortown\" in honor of celebrity chef Guy Fieri, who was born in Columbus before moving to California; Fieri, though not behind the proposal, expressed flattery and support for the name.", "The name is additionally noted by local media outlets as honoring the city's significance as a test market for various restaurants and as a reference to the city's culinary culture.", "The beer company AB InBev, through its social media page for its brand Bud Light, also backed the rename, offering free hard seltzers for the city if the proposal succeeded.Nicknames for the city have included \"the Discovery City\", \"Arch City\", \"Cap City\", \"Cowtown\", \"The Biggest Small Town in America\" and \"Cbus.\"" ], [ "History", "===Ancient and early history===Shrum Mound in Campbell Memorial ParkBetween 1000 B.C.", "and 1700 A.D., the Columbus metropolitan area was a center to indigenous cultures known as the Mound Builders, including the Adena, Hopewell and Fort Ancient peoples.", "Remaining physical evidence of the cultures are their burial mounds and what they contained.", "Most of Central Ohio's remaining mounds are located outside of Columbus city boundaries, though the Shrum Mound is maintained, now as part of a public park and historic site.", "The city's Mound Street derives its name from a mound that existed by the intersection of Mound and High Streets.", "The mound's clay was used in bricks for most of the city's initial brick buildings; many were subsequently used in the Ohio Statehouse.", "The city's Ohio History Center maintains a collection of artifacts from these cultures.===18th century===Map of the Ohio Country between 1775 and 1794, depicting locations of battles and massacres surrounding the area that would eventually become the U.S. state of OhioThe area including present-day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the nominal control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763.In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, attracted by the fur trade.", "The area was often caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests.", "In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them.", "Fighting for control of the territory in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) became part of the international Seven Years' War (1756-1763).", "During this period, the region routinely suffered turmoil, massacres and battles.", "The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the Ohio Country to the British Empire.Up until the American Revolution, Central Ohio had continuously been the home of numerous indigenous villages.", "A Mingo village was located at the forks of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, with Shawnee villages to the south and Wyandot and Delaware villages to the north.", "Colonial militiamen burned down the Mingo village in 1774 during a raid.====Virginia Military District====After the American Revolution, the Virginia Military District became part of the Ohio Country as a territory of Virginia.", "Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather than finding an empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee and Mingo nations, as well as European traders.", "The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict.", "The decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which finally opened the way for new settlements.", "By 1797, a young surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers.", "An admirer of Benjamin Franklin, Sullivant chose to name his frontier village \"Franklinton.\"", "The location was desirable for its proximity to the navigable rivers – but Sullivant was initially foiled when, in 1798, a large flood wiped out the new settlement.", "He persevered, and the village was rebuilt, though somewhat more inland.After the Revolution, land comprising parts of Franklin and adjacent counties was set aside by the United States Congress for settlement by Canadians and Nova Scotians who were sympathetic to the colonial cause and had their land and possessions seized by the British government.", "The Refugee Tract, consisting of , was long and wide, and was claimed by 67 eligible men.", "The Ohio Statehouse sits on land once contained in the Refugee Tract.===19th century===View of the city from Capital University in 1854After Ohio achieved statehood in 1803, political infighting among prominent Ohio leaders led to the state capital moving from Chillicothe to Zanesville and back again.", "Desiring to settle on a location, the state legislature considered Franklinton, Dublin, Worthington and Delaware before compromising on a plan to build a new city in the state's center, near major transportation routes, primarily rivers.", "As well, Franklinton landowners had donated two plots in an effort to convince the state to move its capital there.", "The two spaces were set to become Capitol Square, including for the Ohio Statehouse and the Ohio Penitentiary.", "Named in honor of Christopher Columbus, the city was founded on February 14, 1812, on the \"High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto most known as Wolf's Ridge.\"", "At the time, this area was a dense forestland, used only as a hunting ground.The city was incorporated as a borough on February 10, 1816.Nine people were elected to fill the municipality's various positions of mayor, treasurer and several others.Between 1816 and 1817, Jarvis W. Pike served as the first appointed mayor.", "Although the recent War of 1812 had brought prosperity to the area, the subsequent recession and conflicting claims to the land threatened the new town's success.", "Early conditions were abysmal, with frequent bouts of fevers, attributed to malaria from the flooding rivers, and an outbreak of cholera in 1833.It led Columbus to create the Board of Health, now part of the Columbus Public Health department.", "The outbreak, which remained in the city from July to September 1833, killed 100 people.Columbus was without direct river or trail connections to other Ohio cities, leading to slow initial growth.", "The National Road reached Columbus from Baltimore in 1831, which complemented the city's new link to the Ohio and Erie Canal, both of which facilitated a population boom.", "A wave of European immigrants led to the creation of two ethnic enclaves on the city's outskirts.", "A large Irish population settled in the north along Naghten Street (presently Nationwide Boulevard), while the Germans took advantage of the cheap land to the south, creating a community that came to be known as the ''Das Alte Südende'' (The Old South End).", "Columbus's German population constructed numerous breweries, Trinity Lutheran Seminary and Capital University.With a population of 3,500, Columbus was officially chartered as a city on March 3, 1834.On that day, the legislature carried out a special act, which granted legislative authority to the city council and judicial authority to the mayor.", "Elections were held in April of that year, with voters choosing John Brooks as the first popularly elected mayor.", "Columbus annexed the then-separate city of Franklinton in 1837.In 1850, the Columbus and Xenia Railroad became the first railroad into the city, followed by the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad in 1851.The two railroads built a joint Union Station on the east side of High Street just north of Naghten (then called North Public Lane).", "Rail traffic into Columbus increased: by 1875, eight railroads served Columbus, and the rail companies built a new, more elaborate station.", "Another cholera outbreak hit Columbus in 1849, prompting the opening of the city's Green Lawn Cemetery.Bird's eye view map of Columbus in 1872On January 7, 1857, the Ohio Statehouse finally opened after 18 years of construction.", "Site construction continued until 1861.Before the abolition of slavery in the Southern United States in 1863, the Underground Railroad was active in Columbus and was led, in part, by James Preston Poindexter.", "Poindexter arrived in Columbus in the 1830s and became a Baptist preacher and leader in the city's African-American community until the turn of the century.During the Civil War, Columbus was a major base for the volunteer Union Army.", "It housed 26,000 troops and held up to 9,000 Confederate prisoners of war at Camp Chase, at what is now the Hilltop neighborhood of west Columbus.", "Over 2,000 Confederate soldiers remain buried at the site, making it one of the North's largest Confederate cemeteries.", "North of Columbus, along the Delaware Road, the Regular Army established Camp Thomas, where the 18th U.S. Infantry organized and trained.By virtue of the Morrill Act of 1862, the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College – which eventually became the Ohio State University – was founded in 1870 on the former estate of William and Hannah Neil.Central Market, pictured here in 1898, operated from 1814 to 1966.By the end of the 19th century, Columbus was home to several major manufacturing businesses.", "The city became known as the \"Buggy Capital of the World,\" thanks to the two dozen buggy factories – notably the Columbus Buggy Company, founded in 1875 by C.D.", "Firestone.", "The Columbus Consolidated Brewing Company also rose to prominence during this time and might have achieved even greater success were it not for the Anti-Saloon League in neighboring Westerville.In the steel industry, a forward-thinking man named Samuel P. Bush presided over the Buckeye Steel Castings Company.", "Columbus was also a popular location for labor organizations.", "In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor in Druid's Hall on South Fourth Street, and in 1890, the United Mine Workers of America was founded at the old City Hall.", "In 1894, James Thurber, who would go on to an illustrious literary career in Paris and New York City, was born in the city.", "Today, Ohio State's theater department has a performance center named in his honor, and his childhood home, the Thurber House, is located in the Discovery District and is on the National Register of Historic Places.===20th century===Downtown Columbus and the Scioto River The city in 1936Columbus earned one of its nicknames, \"The Arch City,\" because of the dozens of wooden arches that spanned High Street at the turn of the 20th century.", "The arches illuminated the thoroughfare and eventually became the means by which electric power was provided to the new streetcars.", "The city tore down the arches and replaced them with cluster lights in 1914 but reconstructed them from metal in the Short North neighborhood in 2002 for their unique historical interest.On March 25, 1913, the Great Flood of 1913 devastated the neighborhood of Franklinton, leaving over 90 people dead and thousands of West Side residents homeless.", "To prevent flooding, the Army Corps of Engineers recommended widening the Scioto River through downtown, constructing new bridges and building a retaining wall along its banks.", "With the strength of the post-World War I economy, a construction boom occurred in the 1920s, resulting in a new civic center, the Ohio Theatre, the American Insurance Union Citadel and to the north, a massive new Ohio Stadium.", "Although the American Professional Football Association was founded in Canton in 1920, its head offices moved to Columbus in 1921 to the New Hayden Building and remained in the city until 1941.In 1922, the association's name was changed to the National Football League.", "Nearly a decade later, in 1931, at a convention in the city, the Jehovah's Witnesses took that name by which they are known today.The effects of the Great Depression were less severe in Columbus, as the city's diversified economy helped it fare better than its Rust Belt neighbors.", "World War II brought many new jobs and another population surge.", "This time, most new arrivals were migrants from the \"extraordinarily depressed rural areas\" of Appalachia, who would soon account for more than a third of Columbus's growing population.", "In 1948, the Town and Country Shopping Center opened in suburban Whitehall, and it is now regarded as one of the first modern shopping centers in the United States.The construction of the Interstate Highway System signaled the arrival of rapid suburb development in central Ohio.", "To protect the city's tax base from this suburbanization, Columbus adopted a policy of linking sewer and water hookups to annexation to the city.", "By the early 1990s, Columbus had grown to become Ohio's largest city in land area and in population.Efforts to revitalize downtown Columbus have had some success in recent decades, though like most major American cities, some architectural heritage was lost in the process.", "In the 1970s, landmarks such as Union Station and the Neil House hotel were razed to construct high-rise offices and big retail space.", "The PNC Bank building was constructed in 1977, as well as the Nationwide Plaza buildings and other towers that sprouted during this period.", "The construction of the Greater Columbus Convention Center has brought major conventions and trade shows to the city.===21st century===Street arches returned to the Short North in late 2002.The Scioto Mile began development along the riverfront, an area that already had the Miranova Corporate Center and The Condominiums at North Bank Park.The 2010 United States foreclosure crisis forced the city to purchase numerous foreclosed, vacant properties to renovate or demolish them – at a cost of tens of millions of dollars.", "In February 2011, Columbus had 6,117 vacant properties, according to city officials.Since 2010, Columbus has been growing in population and economy; from 2010 to 2017, the city added 164,000 jobs, which ranked second in the United States.", "In February and March 2020, Columbus reported its first official cases of COVID-19 and declared a state of emergency, with all nonessential businesses closed statewide.", "There were 69,244 cases of the disease across the city, .", "Later in 2020, protests over the murder of George Floyd took place in the city from May 28 into August.", "Columbus and its metro area have experienced growth in the high-tech manufacturing sector, with Intel announcing plans to construct a $20 billion factory and Honda expanding its presence along with LG Energy Solutions with a $4.4 billion battery manufactory facility in Fayette County.The COVID-19 pandemic muted activity in Columbus, especially in its downtown core, from 2020 to 2022.By late 2022, foot traffic in Downtown Columbus began to exceed pre-pandemic rates; one of the quickest downtown areas to recover in the United States.Main Street Bridge" ], [ "Geography", "Aerial satellite image of ColumbusThe confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers is just northwest of Downtown Columbus.", "Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metropolitan area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek and Darby Creek.", "Columbus is considered to have relatively flat topography thanks to a large glacier that covered most of Ohio during the Wisconsin Ice Age.", "However, there are sizable differences in elevation through the area, with the high point of Franklin County being above sea level near New Albany, and the low point being where the Scioto River leaves the county near Lockbourne.Several ravines near the rivers and creeks also add variety to the landscape.", "Tributaries to Alum Creek and the Olentangy River cut through shale, while tributaries to the Scioto River cut through limestone.", "The numerous rivers and streams beside low-lying areas in Central Ohio contribute to a history of flooding in the region; the most significant was the Great Flood of 1913 in Columbus, Ohio.The city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "Columbus currently has the largest land area of any Ohio city; this is due to Jim Rhodes's tactic to annex suburbs while serving as mayor.", "As surrounding communities grew or were constructed, they came to require access to waterlines, which was under the sole control of the municipal water system.", "Rhodes told these communities that if they wanted water, they would have to submit to assimilation into Columbus.===Neighborhoods===Victorian houses facing Goodale Park in Victorian VillageColumbus has a wide diversity of neighborhoods with different characters, and is thus sometimes known as a \"city of neighborhoods.\"", "Some of the most prominent neighborhoods include the Arena District, the Brewery District, Clintonville, Franklinton, German Village, The Short North and Victorian Village.===Climate===The city's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification ''Dfa'') transitional with the humid subtropical climate to the south characterized by warm, muggy summers and cold, dry winters.", "Columbus is within USDA hardiness zone 6b, bordering on 7a.", "Winter snowfall is relatively light, since the city is not in the typical path of strong winter lows, such as the Nor'easters that strike cities farther east.", "It is also too far south and west for lake-effect snow from Lake Erie to have much effect, although the lakes to the north contribute to long stretches of cloudy spells in winter.The highest temperature recorded in Columbus is , which occurred twice during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s: once on July 21, 1934, and again on July 14, 1936.The lowest recorded temperature was , occurring on January 19, 1994.Columbus is subject to severe weather typical to the Midwestern United States.", "Severe thunderstorms can bring lightning, large hail and on rare occasions tornadoes, especially during the spring and sometimes through fall.", "A tornado that occurred on October 11, 2006, caused F2 damage.", "Floods, blizzards and ice storms can also occur from time to time." ], [ "Demographics", " Historical racial composition 2020 2010 1990 1970 1950 White 57.4% 61.5% 74.4% 81.0% 87.5% —Non-Hispanic 54.3% 59.3% 73.8% 80.4% n/a Black or African American 29.2% 28.0% 22.6% 18.5% 12.4% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 6.3% 5.6% 1.1% 0.6% n/a Asian 5.9% 4.1% 2.4% 0.2% 0.1%Racial distribution in Columbus in 2010: ===2020 census===In the 2020 United States census, there were 905,748 people living in the city, for a population density of 4,109.64 people per square mile (1,586.74/km2).", "There were 415,456 housing units.", "The racial makeup of the city was 57.4% White, 29.2% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American or Alaska Native, and 5.9% Asian.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race made up 6.3% of the population.There were 392,041 households, out of which 25.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.8% were married couples living together, 25.1% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 33.7% had a female householder with no spouse present.", "37.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 3.03.21.0% of the city's population were under the age of 18, 67.5% were 18 to 64, and 11.5% were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 33.3.For every 100 females, there were 97.3 males.According to the U.S. Census American Community Survey, for the period 2016-2020 the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $61,727, and the median income for a family was $76,383.About 18.1% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 26.1% of those under age 18 and 12.0% of those age 65 or over.", "About 67.2% of the population were employed, and 38.5% had a bachelor's degree or higher.+'''Columbus, Ohio – Racial and ethnic composition'''(''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2000Pop 2010% 2000% 2010% White alone (NH)475,897466,615470,70566.89%59.29%51.97%Black or African American alone (NH)172,750217,694256,50924.28%27.66%28.32%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)1,8581,6431,6320.26%0.21%0.18%Asian alone (NH)24,38631,73455,9323.43%4.03%6.18%Pacific Islander alone (NH)3264623250.05%0.06%0.04%Other race alone (NH)1,8242,0325,3690.26%0.26%0.59%Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)16,95822,49445,0972.38%2.86%4.98%Hispanic or Latino (any race)17,47144,35970,1792.46%5.64%7.75%'''Total''''''711,470''''''787,033''''''905,748''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''=== 2010 census ===In the 2010 United States census, there were 787,033 people, 331,602 households and 176,037 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 370,965 housing units at an average density of .The racial makeup of the city included 815,985 races tallied, as some residents recognized multiple races.", "The racial makeup was 61.9% White, 29.1% Black or African American, 1% Native American or Alaska Native, 4.6% Asian, 0.2% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and 3.2% from other races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.9% of the population.===Population makeup===Columbus historically had a significant population of white people.", "In 1900, whites made up 93.4% of the population.", "Although European immigration has declined, the Columbus metropolitan area has recently experienced increases in African, Asian and Latin American immigration, including groups from Mexico, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Somalia and China.", "While the Asian population is diverse, the city's Hispanic community is mainly made up of Mexican Americans, although there is a notable Puerto Rican population.", "Many other countries of origin are represented in lesser numbers, largely due to the international draw of Ohio State University.", "2008 estimates indicate that roughly 116,000 of the city's residents are foreign-born, accounting for 82% of the new residents between 2000 and 2006 at a rate of 105 per week.", "40% of the immigrants came from Asia, 23% from Africa, 22% from Latin America and 13% from Europe.", "The city had the second-largest Somali and Somali American population in the country, as of 2004, as well as the largest expatriate Bhutanese-Nepali population in the world, as of 2018.Due to its demographics, which include a mix of races and a wide range of incomes, as well as urban, suburban and nearby rural areas, Columbus is considered a \"typical\" American city, leading retail and restaurant chains to use it as a test market for new products.", "For similar reasons, the city was chosen as the launch city for the QUBE cable television service.Columbus has maintained a steady population growth since its establishment.", "Its slowest growth, from 1850 to 1860, is primarily attributed to the city's cholera epidemic in the 1850s.According to the 2017 Japanese Direct Investment Survey by the Consulate-General of Japan, Detroit, 838 Japanese nationals lived in Columbus, making it the municipality with the state's second-largest Japanese national population, after Dublin.Columbus is home to a proportional LGBT community, with an estimated 34,952 gay, lesbian or bisexual residents.", "The 2018 American Community Survey (ACS) reported an estimated 366,034 households, 32,276 of which were held by unmarried partners.", "1,395 of these were female householder and female-partner households, and 1,456 were male householder and male-partner households.", "Columbus has been rated as one of the best cities in the country for gays and lesbians to live, and also as the most underrated gay city in the country.", "In July 2012, three years prior to legal same-sex marriage in the United States, the Columbus City Council unanimously passed a domestic partnership registry.====Italian-American community and symbols====The Santa Maria Ship & Museum, a replica, was docked downtown from 1991 to 2014Columbus has numerous Italian Americans, with groups including the Columbus Italian Club, Columbus Piave Club and the Abruzzi Club.", "Italian Village, a neighborhood near Downtown Columbus, has had a prominent Italian American community since the 1890s.The community has helped promote the influence Christopher Columbus had in drawing European attention to the Americas.", "The Italian explorer, erroneously credited with the lands' discovery, has been posthumously criticized by historians for initiating colonization and for abuse, enslavement and subjugation of natives.", "In addition to the city being named for the explorer, its seal and flag depict a ship he used for his first voyage to the Americas, the .", "A similar-size replica of the ship, the Santa Maria Ship & Museum, was displayed downtown from 1991 to 2014.The city's Discovery District and Discovery Bridge are named in reference to Columbus's \"discovery\" of the Americas; the bridge includes artistic bronze medallions featuring symbols of the explorer.", "Genoa Park, downtown, is named after Genoa, the birthplace of Christopher Columbus and one of Columbus's sister cities.The Christopher Columbus Quincentennial Jubilee, celebrating the 500th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage, was held in the city in 1992.Its organizers spent $95 million on it, creating the horticultural exhibition AmeriFlora '92.The organizers also planned to create a replica Native American village, among other attractions.", "Local and national native leaders protested the event with a day of mourning, followed by protests and fasts at City Hall.", "The protests prevented the native village from being exhibited, and annual fasts continued until 1997.A protest also took place during the dedication of the ''Santa Maria'' replica, an event held in late 1991 on the day before Columbus Day and in time for the jubilee.The city has three outdoor statues of the explorer; the statue at City Hall was acquired, delivered and dedicated with the assistance of the Italian American community.", "Protests in 2017 aimed for this statue to be removed, followed by the city in 2018 ceasing to recognize Columbus Day as a city holiday.", "During the 2020 George Floyd protests, petitions were created to remove all three statues and rename the city of Columbus.", "Two of the statues – one at City Hall and the other at Columbus State Community College – were removed, while the city is also looking into changing its flag and seal to remove the reference to Christopher Columbus.", "The future of the third statue, at the Ohio Statehouse, will be discussed in a meeting on July 16.The city was one of eight cities to be offered the ''Birth of the New World'' statue, in 1993.The statue, also of Christopher Columbus, was completed in Puerto Rico in 2016 and is the tallest in the United States – taller than the Statue of Liberty, including its pedestal.", "At least six U.S. cities, including Columbus, rejected it based on its height and design.===Religion===St.", "Joseph Cathedral, seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of ColumbusAccording to the 2019 American Values Atlas, 26% of Columbus metropolitan area residents are unaffiliated with a religious tradition.", "17% of area residents identify as White evangelical Protestants, 14% as White mainline Protestants, 11% as Black Protestants, 11% as White Catholics, 5% as Hispanic Catholics, 3% as other nonwhite Catholics, 2% as other nonwhite Protestants and 2% as Mormons.", "Hindus, Buddhists, Jews and Latino Protestants each made up 1% of the population, while Jehovah's Witnesses, Orthodox Christians, Muslims, Unitarians, and members of New Age or other religions each made up under 0.5% of the population.Places of worship include Baptist, Evangelical, Greek Orthodox, Latter-day Saints, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Quaker, Roman Catholic, and Unitarian Universalist churches.", "Columbus also hosts several Islamic mosques, Jewish synagogues, Buddhist centers, Hindu temples and a branch of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.", "Religious teaching institutions include the Pontifical College Josephinum and several private schools led by Christian organizations." ], [ "Economy", "The AEP Building, headquarters to American Electric PowerColumbus has a generally strong and diverse economy based on education, insurance, banking, fashion, defense, aviation, food, logistics, steel, energy, medical research, health care, hospitality, retail and technology.", "In 2010, it was one of the 10 best big cities in the country, according to Relocate America, a real estate research firm.According to the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, the GDP of Columbus in 2019 was $134 billion (~$ in ).During the Great Recession between 2007 and 2009, Columbus's economy was not impacted as much as the rest of the country, due to decades of diversification work by long-time corporate residents, business leaders and political leaders.", "The administration of former mayor Michael B. Coleman continued this work, although the city faced financial turmoil and had to increase taxes, allegedly due in part to fiscal mismanagement.", "Because Columbus is the state capital, there is a large government presence in the city.", "Including city, county, state and federal employers, government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Columbus.In 2019, the city had six corporations named to the U.S. Fortune 500 list: Alliance Data, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, Huntington Bancshares and Cardinal Health in suburban Dublin.", "Other major employers include schools (e.g., the Ohio State University) and hospitals (among others, Wexner Medical Center and Nationwide Children's Hospital, which are among the teaching hospitals of the Ohio State University College of Medicine), high-tech research and development such as the Battelle Memorial Institute, information/library companies such as OCLC and Chemical Abstracts Service, steel processing and pressure cylinder manufacturer Worthington Industries, financial institutions such as JPMorgan Chase and Huntington Bancshares, as well as Owens Corning.", "Fast-food chains Wendy's and White Castle are also headquartered in the Columbus area.", "Major foreign corporations operating or with divisions in the city include Germany-based Siemens and Roxane Laboratories, Finland-based Vaisala, Tomasco Mulciber Inc., A Y Manufacturing, as well as Switzerland-based ABB and Mettler Toledo.", "The city also has a significant fashion and retail presence, home to companies such as Big Lots, L Brands, Abercrombie & Fitch, DSW and Express.===Food and beverage industry===North MarketNorth Market, a public market and food hall, is located downtown near the Short North.", "It is the only remaining public market of Columbus's original four marketplaces.Numerous restaurant chains are based in the Columbus area, including Charleys Philly Steaks, Bibibop Asian Grill, Steak Escape, White Castle, Cameron Mitchell Restaurants, Bob Evans Restaurants, Max & Erma's, Damon's Grill, Donatos Pizza and Wendy's.", "Wendy's, the world's third-largest hamburger fast-food chain, operated its first store downtown as both a museum and a restaurant until March 2007, when the establishment was closed due to low revenue.", "The company is presently headquartered outside the city in nearby Dublin.", "Budweiser has a major brewery located on the north side, just south of I-270 and Worthington.", "Columbus is also home to many local micro breweries and pubs.", "Asian frozen food manufacturer Kahiki Foods was located on the east side of Columbus, created during the operation of the Kahiki Supper Club restaurant in Columbus.", "The food company now operates in the suburb of Gahanna and has been owned by the South Korean-based company CJ CheilJedang since 2018.Wasserstrom Company, a major supplier of equipment and supplies for restaurants, is located on the north side." ], [ "Arts and culture", "===Landmarks===The Art Deco LeVeque Tower is the city's second-tallest skyscraper.Columbus has over 170 notable buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places; it also maintains its own register, the Columbus Register of Historic Properties, with 82 entries.", "The city also maintains four historic districts not listed on its register: German Village, Italian Village, Victorian Village, and the Brewery District.Construction of the Ohio Statehouse began in 1839 on a plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners.", "This plot formed Capitol Square, which was not part of the city's original layout.", "Built of Columbus limestone from the Marble Cliff Quarry Co., the Statehouse stands on foundations deep that were laid by prison labor gangs rumored to have been composed largely of masons jailed for minor infractions.", "It features a central recessed porch with a colonnade of a forthright and primitive Greek Doric mode.", "A broad and low central pediment supports the windowed astylar drum under an invisibly low saucer dome that lights the interior rotunda.", "There are several artworks within and outside the building, including the ''William McKinley Monument'' dedicated in 1907.Unlike many U.S. state capitol buildings, the Ohio State Capitol owes little to the architecture of the national Capitol.", "During the Statehouse's 22-year construction, seven architects were employed.", "The Statehouse was opened to the legislature and the public in 1857 and completed in 1861, and is located at the intersection of Broad and High streets in downtown Columbus.Within the Driving Park heritage district lies the original home of Eddie Rickenbacker, a World War I fighter pilot ace.", "Built in 1895, the house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.====Demolitions and redevelopment====Demolition has been a common trend in Columbus for a long period of time, and continues into the present day.", "Preservationists and the public have sometimes run into conflict with developers hoping to revitalize an area, and historically with the city and state government, which led programs of urban renewal in the 20th century.===Museums and public art===The Columbus Museum of Art collects and exhibits American and European modern and contemporary art, folk art, glass art, and photography.Columbus has a wide variety of museums and galleries.", "Its primary art museum is the Columbus Museum of Art, which operates its main location as well as the Pizzuti Collection, featuring contemporary art.", "The museum, founded in 1878, focuses on European and American art up to early modernism that includes extraordinary examples of Impressionism, German Expressionism and Cubism.", "Another prominent art museum in the city is the Wexner Center for the Arts, a contemporary art gallery and research facility operated by the Ohio State University.The Ohio History Connection is headquartered in Columbus, with its flagship museum, the Ohio History Center, north of downtown.", "Adjacent to the museum is Ohio Village, a replica of a village around the time of the American Civil War.", "The Columbus Historical Society also features historical exhibits, which focus more closely on life in Columbus.COSI (east entrance pictured) features themed, interactive science exhibits.COSI is a large science and children's museum in downtown Columbus.", "The present building, the former Central High School, was completed in November 1999, opposite downtown on the west bank of the Scioto River.", "In 2009, ''Parents'' magazine named COSI one of the 10 best science centers for families in the country.", "Other science museums include the Orton Geological Museum and the Museum of Biological Diversity, which are both part of the Ohio State University.The Franklin Park Conservatory is the city's botanical garden, which opened in 1895.It features over 400 species of plants in a large Victorian-style glass greenhouse building that includes rain forest, desert and Himalayan mountain biomes.", "The conservatory is located just east of Downtown in Franklin ParkBiographical museums include the Thurber House (documenting the life of cartoonist James Thurber), the Jack Nicklaus Museum (documenting the golfer's career, located on the OSU campus) and the Kelton House Museum and Garden, the latter of which being a historic house museum memorializing three generations of the Kelton family, the house's use as a documented station on the Underground Railroad, and overall Victorian life.The National Veterans Memorial and Museum, which opened in 2018, focuses on the personal stories of military veterans throughout U.S. history.", "The museum replaced the Franklin County Veterans Memorial, which opened in 1955.Other notable museums in the city include the Central Ohio Fire Museum, Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum and the Ohio Craft Museum.===Performing arts===Ohio Theatre, a National Historic LandmarkColumbus is the home of many performing arts institutions including the Columbus Symphony Orchestra, Opera Columbus, BalletMet Columbus, the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra, CATCO, Columbus Children's Theatre, Shadowbox Live, and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra.", "Throughout the summer, the Actors' Theatre of Columbus offers free performances of Shakespearean plays in an open-air amphitheater in Schiller Park in historic German Village.The Columbus Youth Ballet Academy was founded in the 1980s by ballerina and artistic director Shir Lee Wu, a discovery of Martha Graham.", "Wu is now the artistic director of the Columbus City Ballet School.Columbus has several large concert venues, including the Nationwide Arena, Value City Arena, Express Live!, Mershon Auditorium and the Newport Music Hall.In May 2009, the Lincoln Theatre, formerly a center for Black culture in Columbus, reopened after an extensive restoration.", "Not far from the Lincoln Theatre is the King Arts Complex, which hosts a variety of cultural events.", "The city also has several theaters downtown, including the historic Palace Theatre, the Ohio Theatre and the Southern Theatre.", "Broadway Across America often presents touring Broadway musicals in these larger venues.", "The Vern Riffe Center for Government and the Arts houses the Capitol Theatre and three smaller studio theaters, providing a home for resident performing arts companies.====Film====Movies filmed in the Columbus metropolitan area include ''Teachers'' in 1984, ''Tango & Cash'' in 1989, ''Little Man Tate'' in 1991, ''Air Force One'' in 1997, ''Traffic'' in 2000, ''Speak'' in 2004, ''Bubble'' in 2005, ''Liberal Arts'' in 2012, ''Parker'' in 2013, and ''I Am Wrath'' in 2016, ''Aftermath'' in 2017, ''They/Them/Us'' in 2021, and ''Bones and All'' in 2022.The 2018 film ''Ready Player One'' is set in Columbus, though not filmed in the city." ], [ "Sports", "Ohio Stadium, on the campus of Ohio State University, is the 5th-largest non-racing stadium in the world.Nationwide Arena, home of the NHL's Columbus Blue JacketsLower.com Field, the current home of the Columbus Crew+Columbus professional and major NCAA D1 teams Club League Sport Venue (capacity) Founded Titles Average Attendance Ohio State Buckeyes NCAA Football Ohio Stadium (104,851) 1890 8 105,261 Columbus Crew MLS Soccer Lower.com Field (20,371) 1996 3 16,881 Ohio State Buckeyes NCAA Basketball Value City Arena (19,000) 1892 1 16,511 Columbus Blue Jackets NHL Ice hockey Nationwide Arena (18,500) 2000 0 16,659 Columbus Clippers IL Baseball Huntington Park (10,100) 1977 10 9,212 Columbus Crew 2 MLS Next Pro Soccer Historic Crew Stadium (19,968) 2022 1 N/A===Professional teams===Columbus hosts two major league professional sports teams: the Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL), which play at Nationwide Arena, and the Columbus Crew of Major League Soccer (MLS), which play at Lower.com Field.", "The Crew previously played at Historic Crew Stadium, the first soccer-specific stadium built in the United States for a Major League Soccer team.", "The Crew were one of the original members of MLS and won their first MLS Cup in 2008, with a second title in 2020.The Columbus Crew moved into Lower.com Field in the summer of 2021, which will also feature a mixed-use development site named Confluence Village.The Columbus Clippers, the International League affiliate of the Cleveland Guardians, play in Huntington Park, which opened in 2009.The city was home to the Panhandles/Tigers football team from 1901 to 1926; they are credited with playing in the first NFL game against another NFL opponent.", "In the late 1990s, the Columbus Quest won the only two championships during American Basketball League's two-and-a-half season existence.The Ohio Aviators were based in Obetz, Ohio, and began play in the only PRO Rugby season before the league folded.Columbus will also have one of the first teams in the Pro Volleyball Federation which is expected to launch in February 2024.The Columbus Fury will play at Nationwide Arena for their home games.===Ohio State Buckeyes===Columbus is home to one of the nation's most competitive intercollegiate programs, the Ohio State Buckeyes of Ohio State University.", "The program has placed in the top 10 final standings of the Director's Cup five times since 2000–2001, including No.", "3 for the 2002–2003 season and No.", "4 for the 2003–2004 season.", "The university funds 36 varsity teams, consisting of 17 male, 16 female and three co-educational teams.", "In 2007–2008 and 2008–2009, the program generated the second-most revenue for college programs behind the Texas Longhorns of The University of Texas at Austin.The Ohio State Buckeyes are a member of the NCAA's Big Ten Conference, and their football team plays home games at Ohio Stadium.", "The Ohio State–Michigan football game (known colloquially as \"The Game\") is the final game of the regular season and is played in November each year, alternating between Columbus and Ann Arbor, Michigan.", "In 2000, ESPN ranked the Ohio State–Michigan game as the greatest rivalry in North American sports.", "Moreover, \"Buckeye fever\" permeates Columbus culture year-round and forms a major part of Columbus's cultural identity.", "Former New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, an Ohio native who received a master's degree from Ohio State and coached in Columbus, was an Ohio State football fan and major donor to the university who contributed to the construction of the band facility at the renovated Ohio Stadium, which bears his family's name.During the winter months, the Buckeyes basketball and hockey teams are also major sporting attractions.===Other sports===Columbus has a long history in motorsports, hosting the world's first 24-hour car race at the Columbus Driving Park in 1905, which was organized by the Columbus Auto Club.", "The Columbus Motor Speedway was built in 1945 and held its first motorcycle race in 1946.In 2010, the Ohio State University student-built Buckeye Bullet 2, a fuel-cell vehicle, set an FIA world speed record for electric vehicles in reaching 303.025 mph, eclipsing the previous record of 302.877 mph.The annual All American Quarter Horse Congress, the world's largest single-breed horse show, attracts approximately 500,000 visitors to the Ohio Expo Center each October.Columbus hosts the annual Arnold Sports Festival.", "Hosted by Arnold Schwarzenegger, the event has grown to eight Olympic sports and 22,000 athletes competing in 80 events.", "In conjunction with the Arnold Classic, the city hosted three consecutive Ultimate Fighting Championship events between 2007 and 2009, as well as other mixed martial arts events.Westside Barbell, a world-renowned powerlifting gym, is located in Columbus.", "Its founder, Louie Simmons, is known for his popularization of the \"Conjugate Method,\" while he is also credited with inventing training machines for reverse hyper-extensions and belt squats.", "Westside Barbell is known for producing multiple world record holders in powerlifting.The Columbus Bullies were two-time champions of the American Football League (1940–1941).", "The Columbus Thunderbolts were formed in 1991 for the Arena Football League, and then relocated to Cleveland as the Cleveland Thunderbolts; the Columbus Destroyers were the next team of the AFL, playing from 2004 until the league's demise in 2008 and returned for single season in 2019 until the league folded a second time.Ohio Roller Derby (formerly Ohio Roller Girls) was founded in Columbus in 2005 and still competes internationally in Women's Flat Track Derby Association play.", "The team is regularly ranked in the top 60 internationally." ], [ "Parks and attractions", "Audubon nature center at Scioto Audubon Metro Park, the first built close to a major city's downtownColumbus's Recreation and Parks Department oversees about 370 city parks.", "Also in the area are 19 regional parks and the Metro Parks, which are part of the Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District.These parks include Clintonville's Whetstone Park and the Columbus Park of Roses, a rose garden.", "The Chadwick Arboretum on Ohio State's campus features a large and varied collection of plants, while its Olentangy River Wetland Research Park is an experimental wetland open to the public.", "Downtown, the painting ''A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte'' is represented in topiary at Columbus's Topiary Park.", "Also near downtown, the Scioto Audubon Metro Park on the Whittier Peninsula opened in 2009 and includes a large Audubon nature center focused on the birdwatching the area is known for.The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium's collections include lowland gorillas, polar bears, manatees, Siberian tigers, cheetahs and kangaroos.", "Also in the zoo complex is the Zoombezi Bay water park and amusement park.===Fairs and festivals===The Ohio State Fair is held in late July to early August.Annual festivities in Columbus include the Ohio State Fair – one of the largest state fairs in the country – as well as the Columbus Arts Festival and the Jazz & Rib Fest, both of which occur on the downtown riverfront.In mid-May from 2007 to 2018, Columbus was home to Rock on the Range, which was held at Historic Crew Stadium and marketed as America's biggest rock festival.", "The festival, which took place on a Friday, Saturday and Sunday, has hosted Metallica, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Slipknot and other notable bands.", "In May 2019, it was officially replaced by the Sonic Temple Art & Music Festival.During the first weekend in June, the bars of Columbus's North Market District host the Park Street Festival, which attracts thousands of visitors to a massive party in bars and on the street.", "June's second-to-last weekend sees one of the Midwest's largest gay pride parades, Columbus Pride, reflecting the city's sizable gay population.", "During the last weekend of June, Goodale Park hosts ComFest (short for \"Community Festival\"), an immense three-day music festival marketed as the largest non-commercial festival in the U.S., with art vendors, live music on multiple stages, hundreds of local social and political organizations, body painting and beer.Greek Festival is held in August or September at the Greek Orthodox Church downtown.The Hot Times Community Arts & Music Festival, a celebration of music, arts, food and diversity, is held annually in the Olde Towne East neighborhood.The city's largest dining event, Restaurant Week Columbus, is held twice a year in mid-January and mid-July.", "In 2010, more than 40,000 diners went to 40 participating restaurants, and $5,000 (~$ in ) was donated the Mid-Ohio Foodbank on behalf of sponsors and participating restaurants.The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father's Day weekend.", "Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, Juneteenth Ohio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance and entertainment by local and national recording artists.", "The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring local fathers.Around the Fourth of July, Columbus hosts Red, White & Boom!", "on the Scioto riverfront downtown, attracting crowds of over 500,000 people and featuring the largest fireworks display in Ohio.", "The Doo Dah Parade is also held at this time.During Memorial Day Weekend, the Asian Festival is held in Franklin Park.", "Hundreds of restaurants, vendors and companies open up booths, and traditional music is played, martial arts are performed and cultural exhibits are set up.The Jazz & Rib Fest is a free downtown event held each July, featuring jazz artists like Randy Weston, D. Bohannon Clark and Wayne Shorter, along with rib vendors from around the country.The Short North is host to the monthly Gallery Hop, which attracts hundreds to the neighborhood's art galleries (which all open their doors to the public until late at night) and street musicians.", "The Hilltop Bean Dinner is an annual event held on Columbus's West Side that celebrates the city's Civil War heritage near the historic Camp Chase Cemetery.", "At the end of September, German Village throws an annual Oktoberfest celebration that features German food, beer, music and crafts.The Short North also hosts HighBall Halloween and Masquerade on High, a fashion show and street parade that closes down High Street.", "In 2011, in its fourth year, HighBall Halloween gained notoriety as it accepted its first Expy award.", "HighBall Halloween has much to offer for those interested in fashion and the performing and visual arts, or for those who want to celebrate Halloween with food and drinks from all around the city.", "Each year, the event is put on with a different theme.Columbus also hosts many conventions in the Greater Columbus Convention Center, a large convention center on the north edge of downtown.", "Completed in 1993, the convention center was designed by architect Peter Eisenman, who also designed the Wexner Center.===Shopping===Both of the metropolitan area's major shopping centers are located in Columbus: Easton Town Center and Polaris Fashion Place.Developer Richard E. Jacobs built the area's first three major shopping malls in the 1960s: Westland, Northland and Eastland.", "Near Northland Mall was The Continent, an open-air mall in the Northland area, mostly vacant and pending redevelopment.", "Columbus City Center was built downtown in 1988, alongside the first location of Lazarus; this mall closed in 2009 and was demolished in 2011.Easton Town Center was built in 1999 and Polaris Fashion Place in 2001." ], [ "Environment", "The City of Columbus has focused on reducing its environmental impact and carbon footprint.", "In 2020, a citywide ballot measure was approved, giving Columbus an electricity aggregation plan which will supply it with 100% renewable energy by the start of 2023.Its vendor, AEP Energy, plans to construct new wind and solar farms in Ohio to help supply the electricity.The largest sources of pollution in the county, as of 2019, are the Ohio State University's McCracken Power Plant, the landfill operated by the Solid Waste Authority of Central Ohio (SWACO) and the Anheuser-Busch Columbus Brewery.", "Anheuser-Busch has a company-wide goal of reducing emissions by 25% by 2025.Ohio State plans to construct a new heat and power plant, also powered by fossil fuels, but set to reduce emissions by about 30%.", "SWACO manages to capture 75% of its methane emissions to use in producing energy, and is looking to reduce emissions further." ], [ "Government", "===Mayor and city council===Columbus City HallThe city is administered by a mayor and a seven-member unicameral council elected in two classes every two years to four-year terms at large.", "Columbus is the largest city in the United States that elects its city council at large as opposed to districts.", "The mayor appoints the director of safety and the director of public service.", "The people elect the auditor, municipal court clerk, municipal court judges and city attorney.", "A charter commission, elected in 1913, submitted a new charter in May 1914, offering a modified federal form, with a number of progressive features, such as nonpartisan ballot, preferential voting, recall of elected officials, the referendum and a small council elected at large.", "The charter was adopted, effective January 1, 1916.Andrew Ginther has been the mayor of Columbus since 2016.===Government offices===As Ohio's capital and the county seat, Columbus hosts numerous federal, state, county and city government offices and courts.Federal offices include the Joseph P. Kinneary U.S.", "Courthouse, one of several courts for the District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, after moving from 121 E. State St. in 1934.Another federal office, the John W. Bricker Federal Building, has offices for U.S.", "Senator Sherrod Brown, as well as for the Internal Revenue Service, the Social Security Administration and the Departments of Housing & Urban Development and Agriculture.The State of Ohio's capitol building, the Ohio Statehouse, is located in the center of downtown on Capitol Square.", "It houses the Ohio House of Representatives and Ohio Senate.", "It also contains the ceremonial offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, state treasurer and state auditor.", "The Supreme Court, Court of Claims and Judicial Conference are located in the Thomas J. Moyer Ohio Judicial Center downtown by the Scioto River.", "The building, built in 1933 to house 10 state agencies along with the State Library of Ohio, became the Supreme Court after extensive renovations from 2001 to 2004.Franklin County operates the Franklin County Government Center, a complex at the southern end of downtown Columbus.", "The center includes the county's municipal court, common pleas court, correctional center, juvenile detention center and sheriff's office.Near City Hall, the Michael B. Coleman Government Center holds offices for the departments of building and zoning services, public service, development and public utilities.", "Also nearby is 77 North Front Street, which holds Columbus's city attorney office, income-tax division, public safety, human resources, civil service and purchasing departments.", "The structure, built in 1929, was the police headquarters until 1991, and was then dormant until it was given a $34 million renovation from 2011 to 2013.===Emergency services and homeland security===Municipal offices, including the Columbus Division of Police Headquarters, in the city's Civic CenterMunicipal police duties are performed by the Columbus Division of Police, while emergency medical services (EMS) and fire protection are through the Columbus Division of Fire.Ohio Homeland Security operates the Strategic Analysis and Information Center (SAIC) fusion center in Columbus's Hilltop neighborhood.", "The facility is the state's primary public intelligence hub and one of the few in the country that uses state, local, federal and private resources.===Social services and homelessness===Columbus has a history of governmental and nonprofit support for low-income residents and the homeless.", "Nevertheless, the homelessness rate has steadily risen since at least 2007.Poverty and differences in quality of life have grown, as well; Columbus was noted as the second-most economically segregated large metropolitan area in 2015, in a study by the University of Toronto.", "It also ranked 45th of the 50 largest metropolitan areas in terms of social mobility, according to a 2015 Harvard University study." ], [ "Education", "University Hall at the Ohio State University===Colleges and universities===Columbus is the home of two public colleges: the Ohio State University, one of the largest college campuses in the United States, and Columbus State Community College.", "In 2009, Ohio State University was ranked No.", "19 in the country by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' on its list of best public universities, and No.", "56 overall, scoring in the first tier of schools nationally.", "Some of Ohio State's graduate school programs placed in the top 5, including No.", "5 for both best veterinary programs and best pharmacy programs.", "The specialty graduate programs of social psychology was ranked No.", "2, dispute resolution was No.", "5, vocational education was No.", "2, and elementary education, secondary teacher education, administration/supervision was No.", "5.Private institutions in Columbus include Capital University Law School, the Columbus College of Art and Design, Fortis College, DeVry University, Ohio Business College, Miami-Jacobs Career College, Ohio Institute of Health Careers, Bradford School and Franklin University, as well as the religious schools Bexley Hall Episcopal Seminary, Mount Carmel College of Nursing, Ohio Dominican University, Pontifical College Josephinum and Trinity Lutheran Seminary.", "Three major suburban schools also have an influence on Columbus's educational landscape: Bexley's Capital University, Westerville's Otterbein University and Delaware's Ohio Wesleyan University.===Primary and secondary schools===Indianola Junior High School was the first middle school in the U.S.Columbus City Schools (CCS) is the largest district in Ohio, with 55,000 pupils.", "CCS operates 142 elementary, middle and high schools, including a number of magnet schools (which are referred to as alternative schools within the school system).The suburbs operate their own districts, typically serving students in one or more townships, with districts sometimes crossing municipal boundaries.", "The Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus also operates several parochial elementary and high schools.", "The area's second-largest school district is South-Western City Schools, which encompasses southwestern Franklin County, including a slice of Columbus itself.", "Other portions of Columbus are zoned to the Dublin, Hilliard, New Albany-Plain, Westerville and Worthington school districts.There are also several private schools in the area, such as St. Paul's Lutheran School, a K-8 Christian school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Columbus.Some sources determine that the first kindergarten in the United States was established here by Louisa Frankenberg, a former student of Friedrich Fröbel.", "Frankenberg immigrated to the city in 1838 and opened her kindergarten in the German Village neighborhood in that year.", "The school did not work out, so she returned to Germany in 1840.In 1858, Frankenberg returned to Columbus and established another early kindergarten in the city.", "Frankenberg is often overlooked, with Margarethe Schurz instead given credit for her \"First Kindergarten\" she operated for two years.In addition, Indianola Junior High School (now the Graham Elementary and Middle School) became the nation's first junior high school in 1909, helping to bridge the difficult transition from elementary to high school at a time when only 48% of students continued their education after the ninth grade.===Libraries===Main Library of the Columbus Metropolitan Library systemThe Columbus Metropolitan Library (CML) has served central Ohio residents since 1873.The system has 23 locations throughout Central Ohio, with a total collection of 3 million items.", "This library is one of the country's most-used library systems and is consistently among the top-ranked large city libraries according to Hennen's American Public Library Ratings.", "CML was rated the No.", "1 library system in the nation in 1999, 2005 and 2008.It has been in the top four every year since 1999, when the rankings were first published in the ''American Libraries'' magazine, often challenging upstate neighbor Cuyahoga County Public Library for the top spot.===Weekend education===The classes of the Columbus Japanese Language School, a weekend Japanese school, are held in a facility from the school district in Marysville, while the school office is in Worthington.", "Previously it held classes at facilities in the city of Columbus." ], [ "Media", "The Columbus Dispatch Building, 90-year home to the newspaperSeveral weekly and daily newspapers serve Columbus and Central Ohio.", "The major daily newspaper in Columbus is ''The Columbus Dispatch''.", "There are also neighborhood- or suburb-specific papers, such as the Dispatch Printing Company's ''ThisWeek Community News'', the ''Columbus Messenger'', the ''Clintonville Spotlight'' and the ''Short North Gazette''.", "''The Lantern'' and ''1870'' serve the Ohio State University community.", "Alternative arts, culture or politics-oriented papers include ''ALIVE'' (formerly the independent ''Columbus Alive'' and now owned by the ''Columbus Dispatch''), ''Columbus Free Press'' and ''Columbus Underground'' (digital-only).", "The ''Columbus Magazine'', ''CityScene'', ''614 Magazine'' and ''Columbus Monthly'' are the city's magazines.Columbus is the base for 12 television stations and is the 32nd-largest television market as of September 24, 2016.Columbus is also home to the 36th-largest radio market." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Healthcare===Numerous medical systems operate in Columbus and Central Ohio.", "These include OhioHealth, which has three hospitals in the city proper: Grant Medical Center, Riverside Methodist Hospital, and Doctors Hospital; Mount Carmel Health System, which has one hospital among other facilities; the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, which has a primary hospital complex and an east campus in Columbus; and Nationwide Children's Hospital, which is an independently operated hospital for pediatric health care.", "Hospitals in Central Ohio are ranked favorably by the ''U.S.", "News & World Report'', where numerous hospitals are ranked as among the best in particular fields in the United States.", "Nationwide Children's is regarded as among the top 10 children's hospitals in the country, according to the report.===Utilities===Numerous utility companies operate in Central Ohio.", "Within Columbus, power is sourced from Columbus Southern Power, an American Electric Power subsidiary.", "Natural gas is provided by Columbia Gas of Ohio, while water is sourced from the City of Columbus Division of Water.===Transportation=======Local roads, grid and address system====Locations of numbered streets and avenuesThe city's two main corridors since its founding are Broad and High Streets.", "They both traverse beyond the extent of the city; High Street is the longest in Columbus, running (23.4 across the county), while Broad Street is longer across the county, at .The city's street plan originates downtown and extends into the old-growth neighborhoods, following a grid pattern with the intersection of High Street (running north–south) and Broad Street (running east–west) at its center.", "North–south streets run 12 degrees west of due north, parallel to High Street; the avenues (vis.", "Fifth Avenue, Sixth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, and so on) run 12 degrees off from east–west.The address system begins its numbering at the intersection of Broad and High, with numbers increasing in magnitude with distance from Broad or High, as well as cardinal directions used alongside street names.", "Numbered avenues begin with First Avenue, about north of Broad Street, and increase in number as one progresses northward.", "Numbered streets begin with Second Street, which is two blocks west of High Street, and Third Street, which is a block east of High Street, then progress eastward from there.", "Even-numbered addresses are on the north and east sides of streets, putting odd addresses on the south and west sides of streets.", "A difference of 700 house numbers means a distance of about (along the same street).Other major, local roads in Columbus include Main Street, Morse Road, Dublin-Granville Road (SR-161), Cleveland Avenue/Westerville Road (SR-3), Olentangy River Road, Riverside Drive, Sunbury Road, Fifth Avenue and Livingston Avenue.====Highways====I-71, part of the innerbelt around downtown, bridged by numerous overpassesColumbus is bisected by two major Interstate Highways: Interstate 70 running east–west and Interstate 71 running north to roughly southwest.", "They combine downtown for about in an area locally known as \"The Split\", which is a major traffic congestion point, especially during rush hour.", "U.S. Route 40, originally known as the National Road, runs east–west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street to the west.", "U.S. Route 23 runs roughly north–south, while U.S. Route 33 runs northwest-to-southeast.", "The Interstate 270 Outerbelt encircles most of the city, while the newly redesigned Innerbelt consists of the Interstate 670 spur on the north side (which continues to the east past the Airport and to the west where it merges with I-70), State Route 315 on the west side, the I-70/71 split on the south side and I-71 on the east.", "Due to its central location within Ohio and abundance of outbound roadways, nearly all of the state's destinations are within a two- or three-hour drive of Columbus.====Bridges====Discovery BridgeThe Columbus riverfront hosts several bridges.", "The Discovery Bridge connects downtown to Franklinton across Broad Street.", "The bridge opened in 1992, replacing a 1921 concrete arch bridge; the first bridge at the site was built in 1816.The Main Street Bridge opened on July 30, 2010.The bridge has three lanes for vehicular traffic (one westbound and two eastbound) and another separated lane for pedestrians and bikes.", "The Rich Street Bridge opened in July 2012 adjacent to the Main Street Bridge, connecting Rich Street on the east side of the river with Town Street on the west.", "The Lane Avenue Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge that opened on November 14, 2003, in the University District.", "The bridge spans the Olentangy River with three lanes of traffic each way.====Airports====John Glenn Columbus International Airport departure levelThe city's primary airport, John Glenn Columbus International Airport, is on the city's east side.", "Formerly known as Port Columbus, John Glenn provides service to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and Cancun, Mexico (on a seasonal basis), as well as to most domestic destinations, including all the major hubs along with San Francisco, Salt Lake City and Seattle.", "The airport was a hub for discount carrier Skybus Airlines and continues to be home to NetJets, the world's largest fractional ownership air carrier.", "According to a 2005 market survey, John Glenn Columbus International Airport attracts about 50% of its passengers from outside of its radius primary service region.", "It is the 52nd-busiest airport in the United States by total passenger boardings.Rickenbacker International Airport, in southern Franklin County, is a major cargo facility that is used by the Ohio Air National Guard.", "Allegiant Air offers nonstop service from Rickenbacker to Florida destinations.", "Ohio State University Don Scott Airport and Bolton Field are other large general-aviation facilities in the Columbus area.=====Aviation history=====Port Columbus Airport tower and terminal from 1929 to 1958In 1907, 14-year-old Cromwell Dixon built the ''SkyCycle,'' a pedal-powered blimp, which he flew at Driving Park.", "Three years later, one of the Wright brothers' exhibition pilots, Phillip Parmalee, conducted the world's first commercial cargo flight when he flew two packages containing 88 kilograms of silk from Dayton to Columbus in a Wright Model B.Military aviators from Columbus distinguished themselves during World War I.", "Six Columbus pilots, led by top ace Eddie Rickenbacker, achieved 42 \"kills\" – a full 10% of all US aerial victories in the war, and more than the aviators of any other American city.After the war, Port Columbus Airport (now known as John Glenn Columbus International Airport) became the axis of a coordinated rail-to-air transcontinental system that moved passengers from the East Coast to the West.", "TAT, which later became TWA, provided commercial service, following Charles Lindbergh's promotion of Columbus to the nation for such a hub.", "Following the failure of a bond levy in 1927 to build the airport, Lindbergh campaigned in the city in 1928, and the next bond levy passed that year.", "On July 8, 1929, the airport opened for business with the inaugural TAT westbound flight from Columbus to Waynoka, Oklahoma.", "Among the 19 passengers on that flight was Amelia Earhart, with Henry Ford and Harvey Firestone attending the opening ceremonies.In 1964, Ohio native Geraldine Fredritz Mock became the first woman to fly solo around the world, leaving from Columbus and piloting the ''Spirit of Columbus''.", "Her flight lasted nearly a month and set a record for speed for planes under .====Public transit====COTA's Spring Street Terminal, one of its five transit centersUnion Station, the city's rail station from 1897 to 1977Columbus maintains a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA).", "The service operates 41 routes with a fleet of 440 buses, serving approximately 19 million passengers per year.", "COTA operates 23 regular fixed-service routes, 14 express services, a bus rapid transit route, a free downtown circulator, night service, an airport connector and other services.", "LinkUS, an initiative between COTA, the city, and the Mid-Ohio Regional Planning Commission, is planning to add more rapid transit to Columbus, with three proposed corridors operating by 2030, and potentially a total of five by 2050.Intercity bus service is provided at the Columbus Bus Station by Greyhound, Barons Bus Lines, Miller Transportation, GoBus and other carriers.Columbus does not have passenger rail service.", "The city's major train station, Union Station, was a stop along Amtrak's National Limited train service until 1977 and was razed in 1979, and the Greater Columbus Convention Center now stands in its place.", "Until Amtrak's founding in 1971, the Penn Central ran the ''Cincinnati Limited'' to Cincinnati to the southwest (in prior years the train continued to New York City to the east); the ''Ohio State Limited'' between Cincinnati and Cleveland, with Union Station serving as a major intermediate stop (the train going unnamed between 1967 and 1971); and the ''Spirit of St. Louis,'' which ran between St. Louis and New York City until 1971.The station was also a stop along the Pennsylvania Railroad, the New York Central Railroad, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the Norfolk and Western Railway, the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad, and the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad.", "As the city lacks local, commuter or intercity trains, Columbus is now the largest city and metropolitan area in the U.S. without any passenger rail service.", "Numerous proposals to return rail service have been introduced; currently Amtrak plans to restore service to Columbus by 2035.====Cycling network====CoGo bikeshare station in the Arena DistrictCycling as transportation is steadily increasing in Columbus with its relatively flat terrain, intact urban neighborhoods, large student population and off-road bike paths.", "The city has put forth the 2012 Bicentennial Bikeways Plan, as well as a move toward a Complete Streets policy.", "Grassroots efforts such as Bike to Work Week, Consider Biking, Yay Bikes, Third Hand Bicycle Co-op, Franklinton Cycleworks and ''Cranksters'', a local radio program focused on urban cycling, have contributed to cycling as transportation.Columbus also hosts urban cycling \"off-shots\" with messenger-style \"alleycat\" races, as well as unorganized group rides, a monthly Critical Mass ride, bicycle polo, art showings, movie nights and a variety of bicycle-friendly businesses and events throughout the year.", "All this activity occurs despite Columbus's frequently inclement weather.The Main Street Bridge, opened in 2010, features a dedicated bike and pedestrian lane separated from traffic.The city has its own public bicycle system.", "CoGo Bike Share has a network of about 600 bicycles and 80 docking stations.", "PBSC Urban Solutions, a company based in Canada, supplies technology and equipment.", "Bird electric scooters have also been introduced.====Modal share====The city of Columbus has a higher-than-average percentage of households without a car.", "In 2015, 9.8% of Columbus households lacked a car, a number that fell slightly to 9.4% in 2016.The national average was 8.7% in 2016.Columbus averaged 1.55 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "Columbus has 10 sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International.", "Columbus established its first sister city relationship in 1955 with Genoa, Italy.", "To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa, a bronze statue of Christopher Columbus.", "The statue overlooked Broad Street in front of Columbus City Hall from 1955 to 2020; it was removed during the George Floyd protests.List of sister cities:" ], [ "See also", "* Racism in Columbus, Ohio* USS ''Columbus'', two ships named for the city" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * A program that features the history of and literary life in Columbus." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cleveland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cleveland''', officially the '''City of Cleveland''', is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County.", "Located in Northeast Ohio along the southern shore of Lake Erie, it is situated across the U.S. maritime border with Canada and lies approximately west of Pennsylvania.", "Cleveland ranks as the most populous city on Lake Erie, the second-most populous city in Ohio, and the 54th-most populous city in the U.S. with a 2020 population of 372,624.The city anchors the Cleveland metropolitan area, the 33rd-largest in the U.S. at 2.18 million residents, as well as the larger Cleveland–Akron–Canton combined statistical area, the most populous in Ohio and the 17th-largest in the country with a population of 3.63 million in 2020.Cleveland was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River as part of the Connecticut Western Reserve by General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city was named.", "Its location on the river and the lake shore allowed it to grow into a major commercial and industrial metropolis by the late 19th century, attracting large numbers of immigrants and migrants.", "It was among the top 10 largest U.S. cities by population for much of the 20th century, a period which saw the development of the city's cultural institutions.", "By the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down as manufacturing declined and suburbanization occurred.", "The city has since developed a diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts.Cleveland is a port city, connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway.", "Its economy relies on diverse sectors that include higher education, manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, and biomedicals.", "The city serves as the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, as well as several major companies.", "The GDP for the Greater Cleveland MSA was $138.3 billion in 2022.Combined with the Akron MSA, the eight-county Cleveland–Akron metropolitan economy was $176 billion in 2022, the largest in Ohio.Designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, Cleveland is home to several major cultural institutions, including the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Cleveland Public Library, Playhouse Square, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, as well as Case Western Reserve University.", "Known as \"The Forest City\" among many other nicknames, Cleveland serves as the center of the Cleveland Metroparks nature reserve system.", "The city's major league professional sports teams include the Cleveland Browns, the Cleveland Cavaliers, and the Cleveland Guardians." ], [ "History", "=== Establishment ===James G. C. Hamilton's 1888 statue of city founder General Moses CleavelandCleveland was established on July 22, 1796, by surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company when they laid out Connecticut's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city.", "They named the new settlement \"Cleaveland\" after their leader, General Moses Cleaveland, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War.", "Cleaveland oversaw the New England–style design of the plan for what would become the modern downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning to Connecticut, never again to visit Ohio.", "The town's name was often shortened to \"Cleveland\", even by Cleaveland's original surveyors.", "A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by ''The Cleveland Advertiser'' in order to fit the name on the newspaper's masthead.The first permanent European settler in Cleveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River.", "The emerging community served as an important supply post for the U.S. during the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812.Locals adopted Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry as a civic hero and erected a monument in his honor decades later.", "Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer Alfred Kelley, the village of Cleveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814.In spite of the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters, the town's waterfront location proved to be an advantage, giving it access to Great Lakes trade.", "It grew rapidly after the 1832 completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal.", "This key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes connected Cleveland to the Atlantic Ocean via the Erie Canal and Hudson River, and later via the Saint Lawrence Seaway.", "The town's growth continued with added railroad links.", "In 1836, Cleveland, then only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga, was officially incorporated as a city, and John W. Willey was elected its first mayor.", "That same year, it nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two communities.", "Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854.A center of abolitionist activity, Cleveland (code-named \"Station Hope\") was a major stop on the Underground Railroad for escaped African American slaves en route to Canada.", "The city also served as an important center for the Union during the American Civil War.", "Decades later, in July 1894, the wartime contributions of those serving the Union from Cleveland and Cuyahoga County would be honored with the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument on Public Square.=== Growth and expansion ===The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American manufacturing cities and fueled unprecedented growth.", "Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes played an important role in its development as an industrial and commercial center.", "In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, and in 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business.Bird's-eye view of Cleveland in 1877Cleveland's economic growth and industrial jobs attracted large waves of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Ireland.", "Urban growth was accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded better wages and working conditions.", "Between 1881 and 1886, 70 to 80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland.", "The Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899 was one of the more violent instances of labor strife in the city during this period.By 1910, Cleveland had become known as the \"Sixth City\" due to its status at the time as the sixth-largest U.S. city.", "Its businesses included automotive companies Peerless, Chandler, and Winton, maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturing industries in Cleveland included steam cars produced by White and electric cars produced by Baker.", "The city counted major Progressive Era politicians among its leaders, most prominently the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson, who was responsible for the development of the Cleveland Mall Plan.", "The era of the City Beautiful movement in Cleveland architecture, this period saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions.", "The most prominent among them were the Cleveland Museum of Art, which opened in 1916, and the Cleveland Orchestra, established in 1918.English, Italian, Hungarian, Slovene, Polish, and Yiddish, advertising English classes for immigrants in ClevelandIn addition to the large immigrant population, African American migrants from the rural South arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the Great Migration for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from racial discrimination.", "By 1920, the year in which the Cleveland Indians won their first World Series championship, Cleveland had grown into a densely-populated metropolis of 796,841, making it the fifth-largest city in the nation, with a foreign-born population of 30%.At this time, Cleveland saw the rise of radical labor movements, most prominently the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), in response to the conditions of the largely immigrant and migrant workers.", "In 1919, the city attracted national attention amid the First Red Scare for the Cleveland May Day Riots, in which local socialist and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists.", "The riots occurred during the broader strike wave that swept the U.S. that year.Cleveland's population continued to grow throughout the Roaring Twenties.", "The decade saw the establishment of the city's Playhouse Square, and the rise of the risqué Short Vincent.", "The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde Kokoon Arts Club scandalized the city.", "Jazz came to prominence in Cleveland during this period.", "Prohibition first took effect in Ohio in May 1919 (although it was not well-enforced in Cleveland), became law with the Volstead Act in 1920, and was eventually repealed nationally by Congress in 1933.The ban on alcohol led to the rise of speakeasies throughout the city and organized crime gangs, such as the Mayfield Road Mob, who smuggled bootleg liquor across Lake Erie from Canada into Cleveland.Euclid Avenue and East 9th Street with the Hickox Building in 1918The era of the flapper marked the beginning of the golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores Higbee's, Bailey's, the May Company, Taylor's, Halle's, and Sterling Lindner Davis, which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's Fifth Avenue.", "In 1929, Cleveland hosted the first of many National Air Races, and Amelia Earhart flew to the city from Santa Monica, California in the Women's Air Derby.", "The Van Sweringen brothers commenced construction of the Terminal Tower skyscraper in 1926 and oversaw it to completion in 1927.By the time the building was dedicated as part of Cleveland Union Terminal in 1930, the city had a population of over 900,000.Cleveland was hit hard by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression.", "A center of union activity, the city saw significant labor struggles in this period, including strikes by workers against Fisher Body in 1936 and against Republic Steel in 1937.The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.", "In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 at the city's North Coast Harbor, along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown.", "Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.Public Square and the then-new Cleveland Union Terminal in 1930On December 7, 1941, Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and declared war on the U.S. Two of the victims of the attack were Cleveland natives – Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd and ensign William Halloran.", "The attack signaled America's entry into World War II.", "A major hub of the \"Arsenal of Democracy\", Cleveland under Mayor Frank Lausche contributed massively to the U.S. war effort as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation.", "During his tenure, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of the Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority.=== Late 20th and 21st centuries ===After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an economic boom, and businesses declared the city to be the \"best location in the nation\".", "In 1949, the city was named an All-America City for the first time, and in 1950, its population reached 914,808.In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey team, the Barons, became champions of the American Hockey League, and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s.", "As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the \"City of Champions\" in sports at this time.", "Additionally, the 1950s saw the rising popularity of a new music genre that local WJW (AM) disc jockey Alan Freed dubbed \"rock and roll\".Key Tower and the ''Fountain of Eternal Life'' by Marshall FredericksHowever, by the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down, and residents increasingly sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of suburban growth following federally subsidized highways.", "Industrial restructuring, particularly in the steel and automotive industries, resulted in the loss of numerous jobs in Cleveland and the region, and the city suffered economically.", "The burning of the Cuyahoga River in June 1969 brought national attention to the issue of industrial pollution in Cleveland and served as a catalyst for the American environmental movement.Housing discrimination and redlining against African Americans led to racial unrest in Cleveland and numerous other Northern U.S. cities.", "In Cleveland, the Hough riots erupted from July 18 to 24, 1966, and the Glenville Shootout took place on July 23, 1968.In November 1967, Cleveland became the first major American city to elect an African American mayor, Carl B. Stokes, who served from 1968 to 1971 and played an instrumental role in restoring the Cuyahoga River.In December 1978, during the turbulent tenure of Dennis Kucinich as mayor, Cleveland became the first major American city since the Great Depression to enter into a financial default on federal loans.", "The national recession of the early 1980s \"further eroded the city's traditional economic base.\"", "While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983, Cleveland's rate of 13.8% was higher than the national average due to the closure of several steel production centers.The city began a gradual economic recovery under Mayor George V. Voinovich in the 1980s.", "Downtown saw the construction of the Key Tower and 200 Public Square skyscrapers, as well as the development of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex – consisting of Progressive Field and Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse – and North Coast Harbor, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Cleveland Browns Stadium, and the Great Lakes Science Center.", "Although the city emerged from default in 1987, it later suffered from the impact of the subprime mortgage crisis and the Great Recession.Nevertheless, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts.", "The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010, while overall population decline has slowed.", "Challenges remain for the city, with economic development of neighborhoods, improvement of city schools, and continued efforts to tackle poverty, homelessness, and urban blight being top municipal priorities." ], [ "Geography", "NASA satellite photograph of Cleveland at nightAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "The shore of Lake Erie is above sea level; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake.", "In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River, Big Creek, and Euclid Creek.The land rises quickly from the lake shore elevation of 569 feet.", "Public Square, less than inland, sits at an elevation of , and Hopkins Airport, inland from the lake, is at an elevation of .Cleveland borders several inner-ring and streetcar suburbs.", "To the west, it borders Lakewood, Rocky River, and Fairview Park, and to the east, it borders Shaker Heights, Cleveland Heights, South Euclid, and East Cleveland.", "To the southwest, it borders Linndale, Brooklyn, Parma, and Brook Park.", "To the south, the city borders Newburgh Heights, Cuyahoga Heights, and Brooklyn Heights and to the southeast, it borders Warrensville Heights, Maple Heights, and Garfield Heights.", "To the northeast, along the shore of Lake Erie, Cleveland borders Bratenahl and Euclid.=== Cityscapes ====== Architecture ===Facades of buildings along Euclid AvenueCleveland's downtown architecture is diverse.", "Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall, the Cuyahoga County Courthouse, the Cleveland Public Library, and Public Auditorium, are clustered around the open Cleveland Mall and share a common neoclassical architecture.", "They were built in the early 20th century as the result of the 1903 Group Plan.", "They constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the U.S.Completed in 1927 and dedicated in 1930 as part of the Cleveland Union Terminal complex, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and the tallest in the city until 1991.It is a prototypical Beaux-Arts skyscraper.", "The two other major skyscrapers on Public Square, Key Tower (the tallest building in Ohio) and 200 Public Square, combine elements of Art Deco architecture with postmodern designs.Running east from Public Square through University Circle is Euclid Avenue, which was known as \"Millionaires' Row\" for its prestige and elegance as a residential street.", "In the late 1880s, writer Bayard Taylor described it as \"the most beautiful street in the world\".Another major architectural landmark, the Cleveland Trust Company Building, was completed in 1907 and renovated in 2015 as a downtown Heinen's supermarket.", "Known as Cleveland's \"Crystal Palace\", the five-story Cleveland Arcade (sometimes called the Old Arcade) was built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a Hyatt Regency Hotel.", "Cleveland's historic ecclesiastical architecture includes the Presbyterian Old Stone Church in downtown Cleveland and the onion domed St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in Tremont, along with myriad ethnically inspired Roman Catholic churches.File:Arcade (48249762776).jpg|Cleveland Arcade, 1890File:Cleveland Trust Company Building, Euclid Avenue and East 9th Street, Cleveland, OH.jpg|Cleveland Trust Company Building, 1907File:Palace lobby.jpg|Connor Palace Theatre, 1922File:Cleveland Skyline (26381354620).jpg|Terminal Tower from Euclid AvenueFile:Grand Foyer, Severance Hall, University Circle, Cleveland, OH - 52992001701.jpg|Grand foyer of Severance Hall, 1931=== Neighborhoods ===Ohio City neighborhood at nightThe Cleveland City Planning Commission has officially designated 34 neighborhoods in Cleveland.", "Centered on Public Square, Downtown Cleveland is the city's central business district, encompassing a wide range of subdistricts, such as the Nine-Twelve District, the Campus District, the Civic Center, East 4th Street, and Playhouse Square.", "It also historically included the lively Short Vincent entertainment district.", "Mixed-use areas, such as the Warehouse District and the Superior Arts District, are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants, cafes, and bars.", "The number of condominiums, lofts, and apartments has been on the increase since 2000 and especially 2010, reflecting downtown's growing population.Neighborhoods of ClevelandClevelanders geographically define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east or west side of the Cuyahoga River.", "The East Side includes the neighborhoods of Buckeye–Shaker, Buckeye–Woodhill, Central, Collinwood (including Nottingham), Euclid–Green, Fairfax, Glenville, Goodrich–Kirtland Park (including Asiatown), Hough, Kinsman, Lee–Miles (including Lee–Harvard and Lee–Seville), Mount Pleasant, St. Clair–Superior, Union–Miles Park, and University Circle (including Little Italy).", "The West Side includes the neighborhoods of Brooklyn Centre, Clark–Fulton, Cudell, Detroit–Shoreway, Edgewater, Ohio City, Old Brooklyn, Stockyards, Tremont (including Duck Island), West Boulevard, and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as West Park: Kamm's Corners, Jefferson, Bellaire–Puritas, and Hopkins.", "The Cuyahoga Valley neighborhood (including the Flats) is situated between the East and West Sides, while Broadway–Slavic Village is sometimes referred to as the South Side.Several neighborhoods have begun to attract the return of the middle class that left the city for the suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s.", "These neighborhoods are on both the West Side (Ohio City, Tremont, Detroit–Shoreway, and Edgewater) and the East Side (Collinwood, Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy).", "Much of the growth has been spurred on by attracting creative class members, which has facilitated new residential development and the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists.=== Environment ===The west bank of the Flats and the Cuyahoga River in Downtown Cleveland, with Jacobs Pavilion, Cleveland's amphitheaterWith its extensive cleanup of its Lake Erie shore and the Cuyahoga River, Cleveland has been recognized by national media as an environmental success story and a national leader in environmental protection.", "Since the city's industrialization, the Cuyahoga River had become so affected by industrial pollution that it \"caught fire\" a total of 13 times beginning in 1868.It was the river fire of June 1969 that spurred the city to action under Mayor Carl B. Stokes, and played a key role in the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 and the National Environmental Policy Act later that year.", "Since that time, the Cuyahoga has been extensively cleaned up through the efforts of the city and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA).In addition to continued efforts to improve freshwater and air quality, Cleveland is now exploring renewable energy.", "The city's two main electrical utilities are FirstEnergy and Cleveland Public Power.", "Its climate action plan, updated in December 2018, has a 2050 target of 100% renewable power, along with reduction of greenhouse gases to 80% below the 2010 level.", "In recent decades, Cleveland has been working to address the issue of harmful algal blooms on Lake Erie, fed primarily by agricultural runoff, which have presented new environmental challenges for the city and for northern Ohio.=== Climate ===Typical of the Great Lakes region, Cleveland exhibits a continental climate with four distinct seasons, which lies in the humid continental (Köppen ''Dfa'') zone.", "The climate is transitional with the ''Cfa'' humid subtropical climate.", "Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold and snowy.", "East of the mouth of the Cuyahoga, the land elevation rises rapidly in the south.", "Together with the prevailing winds off Lake Erie, this feature is the principal contributor to the lake-effect snow that is typical in Cleveland (especially on the city's East Side) from mid-November until the surface of the lake freezes, usually in late January or early February.", "The lake effect causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across the city.", "On the city's far West Side, the Hopkins neighborhood only reached of snowfall in a season three times since record-keeping for snow began in 1893.By contrast, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding are not uncommon as the city ascends into the Heights on the east, where the region known as the \"Snow Belt\" begins.", "Extending from the city's East Side and its suburbs, the Snow Belt reaches up the Lake Erie shore as far as Buffalo.The all-time record high in Cleveland of was established on June 25, 1988, and the all-time record low of was set on January 19, 1994.On average, July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of , and January, with a mean temperature of , is the coldest.", "Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30-year average from 1991 to 2020 is .", "The least precipitation occurs on the western side and directly along the lake, and the most occurs in the eastern suburbs.", "Parts of Geauga County to the east receive over of liquid precipitation annually.Climate data for ClevelandMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °F (°C)34.0(1.1)33.2(0.6)33.5(0.8)40.6(4.8)50.5(10.3)66.5(19.2)76.2(24.5)76.3(24.6)71.2(21.8)62.0(16.7)50.5(10.3)39.3(4.1)52.8(11.6)Mean daily daylight hours10.011.012.013.015.015.015.014.012.011.010.09.012.3Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "+ Historical racial/ethnic composition Race/ethnicity 2020 2010 1990 1970 1940White (non-Hispanic) 32.1% 33.4% 47.8% 59.4% 90.2%Black or African American (non-Hispanic) 47.5% 52.4% 46.6% 38.3% 9.6%Hispanic or Latino 13.1% 10.0% 4.6% 1.9% 0.1%Asian and Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic) 2.8% 1.8% 1.0% 0.2% –Native American (non-Hispanic) 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.2% –Two or more races (non-Hispanic) 3.8% 1.8% – – –At the 2020 census, there were 372,624 people and 170,549 households in Cleveland.", "The population density was .", "The median household income was $30,907 and the per capita income was $21,223.32.7% of the population was living below the poverty line.", "Of the city's population over the age of 25, 17.5% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 80.8% had a high school diploma or equivalent.", "The median age was 36.6 years., the racial and ethnic composition of the city was 47.5% African American, 32.1% non-Hispanic white, 13.1% Hispanic or Latino, 2.8% Asian and Pacific Islander, 0.2% Native American, and 3.8% from two or more races.", "85.3% of Clevelanders age five and older spoke only English at home, while 14.7% spoke a language other than English, including Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, Albanian, and various Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene).", "The city's spoken accent is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English, similar to other Great Lakes cities, but distinctive from the rest of Ohio.=== Ethnicity ===In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Cleveland saw a massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, Italy, and the Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian, and Ottoman empires, most of whom were attracted by manufacturing jobs.", "As a result, Cleveland and Cuyahoga County today have substantial communities of Irish (especially in West Park), Italians (especially in Little Italy), Germans, and several Central-Eastern European ethnicities, including Czechs, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Rusyns, Slovaks, Ukrainians, and ex-Yugoslav groups, such as Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.", "The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was, at one time, so great that the city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest.", "Cleveland has a long-established Jewish community, historically centered on the East Side neighborhoods of Glenville and Kinsman, but now mostly concentrated in East Side suburbs such as Cleveland Heights and Beachwood, location of the Maltz Museum of Jewish Heritage.The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the South.", "Between 1910 and 1970, the black population of Cleveland, largely concentrated on the city's East Side, increased significantly as a result of the First and Second Great Migrations.", "Cleveland's Latino community consists primarily of Puerto Ricans, as well as smaller numbers of immigrants from Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, South and Central America, and Spain.", "The city's Asian community, centered on historical Asiatown, consists of Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and other groups.", "Additionally, the city and the county have significant communities of Albanians, Arabs (especially Lebanese, Syrians, and Palestinians), Armenians, French, Greeks, Iranians, Scots, Turks, and West Indians.", "A 2020 analysis found Cleveland to be the most ethnically and racially diverse major city in Ohio.=== Religion ===The influx of immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries drastically transformed Cleveland's religious landscape.", "From a homogeneous settlement of New England Protestants, it evolved into a city with a diverse religious composition.", "The predominant faith among Clevelanders today is Christianity (Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox), with Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist minorities.=== Immigration ===Within Cleveland, the neighborhoods with the highest foreign-born populations are Asiatown/Goodrich–Kirtland Park (32.7%), Clark–Fulton (26.7%), West Boulevard (18.5%), Brooklyn Centre (17.3%), Downtown (17.2%), University Circle (15.9%, with 20% in Little Italy), and Jefferson (14.3%).", "Recent waves of immigration have brought new groups to Cleveland, including Ethiopians and South Asians, as well as immigrants from Russia and the former USSR, Southeast Europe (especially Albania), the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America.", "In the 2010s, the immigrant population of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County began to see significant growth, becoming a major center for immigration in the Great Lakes region.", "A 2019 study found Cleveland to be the city with the shortest average processing time in the nation for immigrants to become U.S. citizens.", "The city's annual One World Day in Rockefeller Park includes a naturalization ceremony of new immigrants." ], [ "Economy", "Entrance of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland on East 6th StreetCleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth as a major commercial center.", "Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries.", "The city has since diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector.Established in 1914, the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland is one of 12 U.S. Federal Reserve Banks.", "Its downtown building, located on East 6th Street and Superior Avenue, was completed in 1923 by the Cleveland architectural firm Walker and Weeks.", "The headquarters of the Federal Reserve System's Fourth District, the bank employs 1,000 people and maintains branch offices in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh.", "The president and CEO is Loretta Mester.", "''Commerce'' by Daniel Chester French at the Metzenbaum U.S.", "Courthouse on Superior AvenueCleveland and Cuyahoga County are home to ''Fortune 500'' companies Cleveland-Cliffs, Progressive, Sherwin-Williams, Parker-Hannifin, KeyCorp, and Travel Centers of America.", "Other large companies based in the city and the county include Aleris, American Greetings, Applied Industrial Technologies, Eaton, Forest City Realty Trust, Heinen's Fine Foods, Hyster-Yale Materials Handling, Lincoln Electric, Medical Mutual of Ohio, Moen Incorporated, NACCO Industries, Nordson Corporation, OM Group, Swagelok, Kirby Company, Things Remembered, Third Federal S&L, TransDigm Group, and Vitamix.", "NASA maintains the Glenn Research Center in Cleveland.", "Jones Day, one of the largest law firms in the U.S., was founded in Cleveland in 1893.=== Healthcare ===Healthcare plays a major role in Cleveland's economy.", "The city's \"Big Three\" hospital systems are the Cleveland Clinic, University Hospitals, and MetroHealth.", "The Cleveland Clinic is the largest private employer in the state of Ohio, with a workforce of over 55,000 .", "It carries the distinction as being among America's best hospitals with top ratings published in ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.", "The clinic is led by Croatian-born president and CEO Tomislav Mihaljevic and it is affiliated with Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine.University Hospitals includes the University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center and its Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital.", "Cliff Megerian serves as that system's CEO.", "MetroHealth on the city's west side is led by president and CEO Airica Steed.", "Formerly known as City Hospital, it operates one of two Level I trauma centers in the city, and has various locations throughout Greater Cleveland.In 2013, Cleveland's Global Center for Health Innovation opened with of display space for healthcare companies across the world.", "To take advantage of the proximity of universities and other medical centers in Cleveland, the Veterans Administration moved the region's VA hospital from suburban Brecksville to a new facility in University Circle." ], [ "Arts and culture", "=== Theater and performing arts ===Playhouse SquareCleveland's Playhouse Square is the second largest performing arts center in the U.S. behind New York City's Lincoln Center.", "It includes the State, Palace, Allen, Hanna, and Ohio theaters.", "The theaters host Broadway musicals, special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year.", "Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include Cleveland Ballet, the Cleveland International Film Festival, the Cleveland Play House, Cleveland State University Department of Theatre and Dance, DANCECleveland, the Great Lakes Theater Festival, and the Tri-C Jazz Fest.", "A city with strong traditions in theater and vaudeville, Cleveland has produced many renowned performers, most prominently comedian Bob Hope.Outside Playhouse Square is Karamu House, the oldest African American theater in the nation, established in 1915.On the West Side, the Gordon Square Arts District in the Detroit–Shoreway neighborhood is the location of the Capitol Theatre, the Near West Theatre, and an Off-Off-Broadway playhouse, the Cleveland Public Theatre.", "The Dobama Theatre and the Beck Center for the Arts are based in Cleveland's streetcar suburbs of Cleveland Heights and Lakewood respectively.=== Music ===Conductor Franz Welser-Möst leading the Cleveland OrchestraThe Cleveland Orchestra is widely considered one of the world's finest orchestras, and often referred to as the finest in the nation.", "It is one of the \"Big Five\" major orchestras in the U.S.", "The orchestra plays at Severance Hall in University Circle during the winter and at Blossom Music Center in Cuyahoga Falls during the summer.", "The city is also home to the Cleveland Pops Orchestra, the Cleveland Youth Orchestra, the Contemporary Youth Orchestra, the Cleveland Youth Wind Symphony, and the biennial Cleveland International Piano Competition which has, in the past, often featured the Cleveland Orchestra.One Playhouse Square, now the headquarters for Cleveland's public broadcasters, was initially used as the broadcast studios of WJW (AM), where disc jockey Alan Freed first popularized the term \"rock and roll\".", "Beginning in the 1950s, Cleveland gained a strong reputation as a key breakout market for rock music.", "Its popularity in the city was so great that Billy Bass, the program director at the WMMS radio station, referred to Cleveland as \"The Rock and Roll Capital of the World\".", "The Cleveland Agora Theatre and Ballroom has served as a major venue for rock concerts in the city since the 1960s.", "From 1974 through 1980, the city hosted the World Series of Rock at Cleveland Municipal Stadium.Jazz and R&B have a long history in Cleveland.", "Many major figures in jazz performed in the city, including Louis Armstrong, Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, and Billie Holiday.", "Legendary pianist Art Tatum regularly played in Cleveland clubs in the 1930s, and gypsy jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt gave his U.S. debut performance in Cleveland in 1946.Prominent jazz artist Noble Sissle was a graduate of Cleveland Central High School, and Artie Shaw worked and performed in Cleveland early in his career.", "The Tri-C Jazz Fest has been held annually in Cleveland at Playhouse Square since 1980, and the Cleveland Jazz Orchestra was established in 1984.The city has a history of polka music being popular both past and present and is the location of the Polka Hall of Fame.", "There is even a subgenre called Cleveland-style polka, named after the city.", "The music's popularity is due in part to the success of Frankie Yankovic, a Cleveland native who was considered \"America's Polka King\".There is a significant hip hop music scene in Cleveland.", "In 1997, the Cleveland hip hop group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony won a Grammy for their song \"Tha Crossroads\".=== Film and television ===Edison Company, one of the very first films made in ClevelandThe first film shot in Cleveland was in 1897 by the company of Ohioan Thomas Edison.", "Before Hollywood became the center for American cinema, filmmaker Samuel R. Brodsky and playwright Robert H. McLaughlin operated a film studio at the Andrews mansion on Euclid Avenue (now the WEWS-TV studio).", "There they produced major silent-era features, such as ''Dangerous Toys'' (1921), which are now considered lost.", "Brodsky also directed the weekly ''Plain Dealer Screen Magazine'' that ran in theaters in Cleveland and Ohio from 1917 to 1924.In addition, Cleveland hosted over a dozen sponsored film studios, including Cinécraft Productions, which still operates in Ohio City.In the \"talkie\" era, Cleveland featured in several major studio films, such as Michael Curtiz's pre-Code classic ''Goodbye Again'' (1933) with Warren William and Joan Blondell.", "Players from the 1948 Cleveland Indians appeared in ''The Kid from Cleveland'' (1949).", "Billy Wilder's ''The Fortune Cookie'' (1966) was set and filmed in the city and marked the first onscreen pairing of Walter Matthau and Jack Lemmon.", "Labor struggles in Cleveland were depicted in ''Native Land'' (1942), narrated by Paul Robeson, and in Norman Jewison's ''F.I.S.T.''", "(1978) with Sylvester Stallone.", "Clevelander Jim Jarmusch's ''Stranger Than Paradise'' (1984) – a deadpan comedy about two New Yorkers who travel to Florida by way of Cleveland – was a favorite of the Cannes Film Festival.", "''Major League'' (1989) reflected the perennial struggles of the Cleveland Indians, while ''American Splendor'' (2003) reflected the life of Cleveland graphic novelist Harvey Pekar.", "''Kill the Irishman'' (2011) depicted the 1970s turf war between Danny Greene and the Cleveland crime family.Cleveland has doubled for other locations in films.", "The wedding and reception scenes in ''The Deer Hunter'' (1978), while set in suburban Pittsburgh, were shot in Cleveland's Tremont neighborhood.", "''A Christmas Story'' (1983) was set in Indiana, but drew many external shots from Cleveland.", "The opening shots of ''Air Force One'' (1997) were filmed in and above Severance Hall, and Downtown Cleveland doubled for Manhattan in ''Spider-Man 3'' (2007), ''The Avengers'' (2012), and ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017).", "More recently, ''Judas and the Black Messiah'' (2021), though set in Chicago, was filmed in Cleveland.", "Future productions are handled by the Greater Cleveland Film Commission at the Leader Building on Superior Avenue.In television, the city is the setting for the popular network sitcom ''The Drew Carey Show'', starring Cleveland native Drew Carey.", "''Hot in Cleveland'', a comedy that aired on TV Land, premiered on June 16, 2010, and ran for six seasons until its finale on June 3, 2015.", "''Cleveland Hustles'', the CNBC reality show co-created by LeBron James, was filmed in the city.=== Literature ===Jazz poet and resident Clevelander Langston HughesCleveland has a thriving literary and poetry community, with regular poetry readings at bookstores, coffee shops, and various other venues.", "In 1925, Russian Futurist poet Vladimir Mayakovsky came to Cleveland and gave a poetry recitation to the city's ethnic working class, as part of his trip to America.", "The Cleveland State University Poetry Center serves as an academic center for poetry in the city.Langston Hughes, preeminent poet of the Harlem Renaissance and child of an itinerant couple, lived in Cleveland as a teenager and attended Central High School in Cleveland in the 1910s.", "At Central High, the young writer was taught by Helen Maria Chesnutt, daughter of Cleveland-born African American novelist Charles W. Chesnutt.", "Hughes authored some of his earliest poems, plays, and short stories in Cleveland and contributed to the school newspaper.", "The African American avant-garde poet Russell Atkins lived in the city as well.The American modernist poet Hart Crane was born in nearby Garrettsville, Ohio in 1899.His adolescence was divided between Cleveland and Akron before he moved to New York City in 1916.Aside from factory work during World War I, he served as a reporter to ''The Plain Dealer'' for a short period, before achieving recognition in the Modernist literary scene.", "On the Case Western Reserve University campus, a statue of Crane, designed by sculptor William McVey, stands behind the Kelvin Smith Library.Cleveland was the home of Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel, who created the comic book character Superman in 1932.Both attended Glenville High School, and their early collaborations resulted in the creation of \"The Man of Steel\".", "Harlan Ellison, noted author of speculative fiction, was born in Cleveland in 1934; his family subsequently moved to nearby Painesville, though Ellison moved back to Cleveland in 1949.As a young man, he published a series of short stories appearing in the ''Cleveland News'', and performed in a number of productions for the Cleveland Play House.Cleveland is the site of the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award, established by poet and philanthropist Edith Anisfield Wolf in 1935, which recognizes books that have made important contributions to the understanding of racism and human diversity.", "Presented by the Cleveland Foundation, it remains the only American book prize focusing on works that address racism and diversity.=== Museums and galleries ===Cleveland has two main art museums.", "The Cleveland Museum of Art is a major American art museum, with a collection that includes more than 60,000 works of art ranging from ancient masterpieces to contemporary pieces.", "The Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland showcases established and emerging artists, particularly from the Cleveland area, through hosting and producing temporary exhibitions.", "Both museums offer free admission to visitors, with the Cleveland Museum of Art declaring their museum free and open \"for the benefit of all the people forever.", "\"The two museums are part of Cleveland's University Circle, a concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions located east of downtown.", "In addition to the art museums, the neighborhood includes the Cleveland Botanical Garden, Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals, Severance Hall, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Western Reserve Historical Society.", "Also located at University Circle is the Cleveland Cinematheque at the Cleveland Institute of Art, hailed by ''The New York Times'' as one of the country's best alternative movie theaters.The I. M. Pei-designed Rock and Roll Hall of Fame is located on Cleveland's Lake Erie waterfront at North Coast Harbor downtown.", "Neighboring attractions include Cleveland Browns Stadium, the Great Lakes Science Center, the Steamship Mather Museum, the International Women's Air & Space Museum, and the , a World War II submarine.", "Designed by architect Levi T. Scofield, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument at Public Square is Cleveland's major Civil War memorial and a major attraction in the city.", "Other city attractions include Grays Armory and the Children's Museum of Cleveland.", "A Cleveland holiday attraction, especially for fans of Jean Shepherd's ''A Christmas Story'', is the Christmas Story House and Museum in Tremont.=== Annual events ===Feast of the Assumption in Cleveland's Little ItalyCleveland hosts the WinterLand holiday display lighting festival annually at Public Square, and the Cleveland International Film Festival has been held in the city since 1977.The Cleveland National Air Show, an indirect successor to the National Air Races, has been held at the city's Burke Lakefront Airport since 1964.The Great Lakes Burning River Fest, a two-night music and beer festival at Whiskey Island, has been sponsored by the Great Lakes Brewing Company since 2001.Many ethnic festivals are held in Cleveland throughout the year.", "These include the annual Feast of the Assumption in Little Italy, Russian Maslenitsa in Rockefeller Park, the Puerto Rican Parade and Cultural Festival in Clark–Fulton, the Cleveland Asian Festival in Asiatown, the Tremont Greek Fest, and the St. Mary Romanian Festival in West Park.", "Cleveland also hosts annual Polish Dyngus Day and Slovene Kurentovanje celebrations.", "The city's annual Saint Patrick's Day parade brings hundreds of thousands to the streets of Downtown.", "The Cleveland Thyagaraja Festival held each spring at Cleveland State University is the largest Indian classical music and dance festival in the world outside of India.", "Since 1946, the city has annually marked One World Day in the Cleveland Cultural Gardens in Rockefeller Park, celebrating all of its ethnic communities.=== Cuisine ===The historic West Side Market in Cleveland's Ohio City neighborhoodCleveland's mosaic of ethnic communities and their various culinary traditions have long played an important role in defining the city's cuisine.", "Local mainstays include an abundance of Slavic, Hungarian, and Central-Eastern European contributions, such as kielbasa, stuffed cabbage, pierogies, goulash, and chicken paprikash.", "German, Irish, Jewish, and Italian American cuisines are also prominent in Cleveland, as are Lebanese, Greek, Chinese, Puerto Rican, Mexican, and numerous other ethnic cuisines.", "Vendors at the West Side Market in Ohio City offer many ethnic foods for sale.", "In addition, the city boasts a vibrant barbecue and soul food scene.Cleveland has plenty of corned beef, with nationally renowned Slyman's Deli, on the near East Side, a perennial winner of various accolades for its celebrated sandwich.", "Another famed sandwich, the Polish Boy, is a popular street food and Cleveland original frequently sold at downtown hot dog carts and stadium concession stands.", "With its blue-collar roots well intact, and plenty of Lake Erie perch available, the tradition of Friday night fish fries remains alive and thriving in Cleveland, particularly in ethnic parish-based settings, especially during the season of Lent.", "For dessert, the Cleveland Cassata Cake is a unique treat invented in the local Italian community and served in Italian establishments throughout the city.", "Another popular dessert, the locally crafted Russian Tea Biscuit, is common in many Jewish bakeries in Cleveland.Cleveland is noted in the world of celebrity food culture.", "Famous local figures include chef Michael Symon and food writer Michael Ruhlman, both of whom achieved local and national attention for their contributions to the culinary world.", "In 2007, Symon helped gain the spotlight when he was named \"The Next Iron Chef\" on the Food Network.", "That same year, Ruhlman collaborated with Anthony Bourdain, to do an episode of his ''Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations'' focusing on Cleveland's restaurant scene.", "In 2023, ''Travel + Leisure'' named Cleveland the 7th best food city in the nation.=== Breweries ===Ohio produces the fifth most beer in the U.S., with its largest brewery being Cleveland's Great Lakes Brewing Company.", "Cleveland has had a long history of brewing, tied to many of its ethnic immigrants, and has reemerged as a regional leader in production.", "Dozens of breweries exist in the city limits, including large producers such as Market Garden Brewery and Platform Beer Company.Breweries can be found throughout the city, but the highest concentration is in the Ohio City neighborhood.", "Cleveland hosts expansions from other countries as well, including the Scottish BrewDog and German Hofbrauhaus." ], [ "Sports", "Cleveland's major professional sports teams are the Cleveland Guardians (Major League Baseball), the Cleveland Browns (National Football League), and the Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association).", "Other professional teams include the Cleveland Monsters (American Hockey League), the Cleveland Charge (NBA G League), the Cleveland Crunch (Major League Indoor Soccer), Cleveland SC (National Premier Soccer League), and the Cleveland Fusion (Women's Football Alliance).", "Local sporting venues include Progressive Field, Cleveland Browns Stadium, Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse, the Wolstein Center, and the I-X Center.=== Professional ==='''Major League'''ClubSportLeagueVenueEst.", "in CLEChampionships Cleveland Browns Football National Football League Cleveland Browns Stadium 1946 8 Cleveland Cavaliers Basketball National Basketball Association Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse 1970 1 Cleveland Guardians Baseball Major League Baseball Progressive Field 1901 2'''Minor League'''ClubSportLeagueVenueEst.", "in CLEChampionships Cleveland Charge Basketball NBA G League Wolstein Center 2021 0 Cleveland Monsters Ice hockey American Hockey League Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse 2007 1Cleveland CrunchIndoor SoccerMajor League Indoor SoccerI-X Center19894Cleveland Pro SoccerSoccerMLS Next ProTBA20220The Cleveland Guardians – known as the Indians from 1915 to 2021 – won the World Series in 1920 and 1948.They also won the American League pennant, making the World Series in the 1954, 1995, 1997, and 2016 seasons.", "Between 1995 and 2001, Jacobs Field (now known as Progressive Field) sold out 455 consecutive games, a Major League Baseball record until it was broken in 2008.Historically, the Browns have been among the most successful franchises in American football history, winning eight titles during a short period of time – 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1954, 1955, and 1964.The Browns have never played in a Super Bowl, getting close five times by making it to the NFL/AFC Championship Game in 1968, 1969, 1986, 1987, and 1989.Former owner Art Modell's relocation of the Browns after the 1995 season (to Baltimore creating the Ravens), caused tremendous heartbreak and resentment among local fans.", "Cleveland mayor, Michael R. White, worked with the NFL and Commissioner Paul Tagliabue to bring back the Browns beginning in the 1999 season, retaining all team history.", "In Cleveland's earlier football history, the Cleveland Bulldogs won the NFL Championship in 1924, and the Cleveland Rams won the NFL Championship in 1945 before relocating to Los Angeles.The Cavaliers won the Eastern Conference in 2007, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 but were defeated in the NBA Finals by the San Antonio Spurs and then by the Golden State Warriors, respectively.", "The Cavs won the Conference again in 2016 and won their first NBA Championship coming back from a 3–1 deficit, finally defeating the Golden State Warriors.", "Afterwards, over 1.3 million people attended a parade held in the Cavs' honor on June 22, 2016, in Downtown Cleveland.", "Previously, the Cleveland Rosenblums dominated the original American Basketball League, and the Cleveland Pipers, owned by George Steinbrenner, won the American Basketball League championship in 1962.The Cleveland Monsters of the American Hockey League won the 2016 Calder Cup.", "They were the first Cleveland AHL team to do so since the 1964 Barons.=== College ===ClubSportLeagueVenueCleveland State Vikings19 Varsity(8 men's, 10 women's, 1 co-ed)NCAA Division I(Horizon League)various – including:Krenzler Field (soccer)Wolstein Center (men's and women's basketball)Woodling Gym (wrestling and volleyball)Case Western Reserve Spartans17 Varsity(9 men's, 8 women's)NCAA Division III(University Athletic Association)various – including:DiSanto Field (football, soccer)Veale Athletic Center (men's and women's basketball)Collegiately, NCAA Division I Cleveland State Vikings have 19 varsity sports, nationally known for their Cleveland State Vikings men's basketball team.", "NCAA Division III Case Western Reserve Spartans have 17 varsity sports, most known for their Case Western Reserve Spartans football team.", "The headquarters of the Mid-American Conference (MAC) are in Cleveland.", "The conference stages both its men's and women's basketball tournaments at Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse.=== Annual and special events ===The Cleveland Marathon has been hosted annually since 1978, and a monument commemorating one of Cleveland's most prominent track and field athletes, Jesse Owens, stands at the city's Fort Huntington Park.", "The second American Chess Congress, a predecessor to the U.S. Championship, was held in Cleveland in 1871, and won by George Henry Mackenzie.", "The 1921 and 1957 U.S. Open Chess Championships took place in the city, and were won by Edward Lasker and Bobby Fischer, respectively.", "The Cleveland Open is held annually.In 2014, Cleveland hosted the ninth official Gay Games ceremony.", "Funded by the Cleveland Foundation, the 2014 games hosted thousands of athletes and tourists and was said to bring in about $52.1 million (~$ in ) for the local economy." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Cleveland and Lake Erie in winter from Edgewater ParkKnown locally as the \"Emerald Necklace\", the Olmsted-inspired Cleveland Metroparks encircle Cleveland and Cuyahoga County.", "The city proper encompasses the Metroparks' Brookside and Lakefront Reservations, as well as significant parts of the Rocky River, Washington, and Euclid Creek Reservations.", "The Lakefront Reservation, which provides public access to Lake Erie, consists of four parks: Edgewater Park, Whiskey Island–Wendy Park, East 55th Street Marina, and Gordon Park.Three more parks fall under the jurisdiction of the Euclid Creek Reservation: Euclid Beach, Villa Angela, and Wildwood Marina.", "Further south, bike and hiking trails in the Brecksville and Bedford Reservations, along with Garfield Park, provide access to trails in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park.", "Also included in the Metroparks system is the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, established in 1882.Located in Big Creek Valley, the zoo has one of the largest collections of primates in North America.In addition to the Metroparks, the Cleveland Public Parks District oversees the city's neighborhood parks, the largest of which is the historic Rockefeller Park.", "The latter is notable for its late 19th century landmark bridges, the Rockefeller Park Greenhouse, and the Cleveland Cultural Gardens, which celebrate the city's ethnic diversity.", "Just outside of Rockefeller Park, the Cleveland Botanical Garden in University Circle, established in 1930, is the oldest civic garden center in the nation.", "In addition, the Greater Cleveland Aquarium, located in the historic FirstEnergy Powerhouse in the Flats, is the only independent, free-standing aquarium in the state of Ohio." ], [ "Government and politics", "Cleveland City Hall=== Government and courts ===Cleveland operates on a mayor–council (strong mayor) form of government, in which the mayor is the chief executive and the city council serves as the legislative branch.", "City council members are elected from 17 wards to four-year terms.", "From 1924 to 1931, the city briefly experimented with a council–manager government under William R. Hopkins and Daniel E. Morgan before returning to the mayor–council system.Cleveland is served by Cleveland Municipal Court, the first municipal court in the state.", "The city also anchors the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio, based at the Carl B. Stokes U.S.", "Courthouse and the historic Howard M. Metzenbaum U.S.", "Courthouse.", "The Chief Judge for the Northern District is Sara Elizabeth Lioi and the Clerk of Court is Sandy Opacich.", "The U.S. Attorney is Rebecca C. Lutzko and the U.S.", "Marshal is Peter Elliott.=== Politics ===The office of the mayor has been held by Justin Bibb since 2022.Previous mayors include progressive Democrat Tom L. Johnson, World War I-era War Secretary and BakerHostetler founder Newton D. Baker, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Harold Hitz Burton, two-term Ohio Governor and Senator Frank J. Lausche, former U.S. Health, Education, and Welfare Secretary Anthony J. Celebrezze, two-term Ohio Governor and Senator George V. Voinovich, former U.S.", "Congressman Dennis Kucinich, and Carl B. Stokes, the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city.", "Frank G. Jackson was the city's longest-serving mayor.The President of Cleveland City Council is Blaine Griffin, the council Majority Leader is Kerry McCormack, and the Majority Whip is Jasmin Santana.", "Patricia Britt serves as the Clerk of Council.Historically, from the Civil War era to the 1940s, Cleveland had been dominated by the Republican Party, with the notable exceptions of the Johnson and Baker mayoral administrations.", "Businessman and Senator Mark Hanna was among Cleveland's most influential Republican figures, both locally and nationally.", "Another nationally prominent Ohio Republican, former U.S. President James A. Garfield, was born in Cuyahoga County's Orange Township (today the Cleveland suburb of Moreland Hills).", "His resting place is the James A. Garfield Memorial in Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery.Today Cleveland is a major stronghold for the Democratic Party in Ohio.", "Although local elections are nonpartisan, Democrats still dominate every level of government.", "Politically, Cleveland and several of its neighboring suburbs comprise Ohio's 11th congressional district.", "The district is represented by Shontel Brown, one of five Democrats representing the state of Ohio in the U.S. House of Representatives.Cleveland has hosted three Republican national conventions, in 1924, 1936, and 2016.Additionally, the city hosted the Radical Republican convention of 1864.Although Cleveland has not hosted a national convention for the Democrats, it has hosted several national election debates, including the second 1980 U.S. presidential debate, the 2004 U.S. vice presidential debate, one 2008 Democratic primary debate, and the first 2020 U.S. presidential debate.", "Founded in 1912, the City Club of Cleveland provides a platform for national and local debates and discussions.", "Known as Cleveland's \"Citadel of Free Speech\", it is one of the oldest continuous independent free speech and debate forums in the country." ], [ "Public safety", "=== Police and law enforcement ===Like in other major American cities, crime in Cleveland is concentrated in areas with higher rates of poverty and lower access to jobs.", "In recent decades, the rate of crime in the city, although higher than the national average, experienced a significant decline, following a nationwide trend in falling crime rates.", "However, as in other major U.S. cities, crime in Cleveland saw an abrupt rise in 2020–21.Cleveland's law enforcement agency is the Cleveland Division of Police, established in 1866.The division had 1,400 sworn officers as of 2022, covering five police districts.", "The district system was introduced in the 1930s by Cleveland Public Safety Director Eliot Ness (of the Untouchables), who later ran for mayor of Cleveland in 1947.The Chief of Police is Wayne Drummond.", "In addition, the Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office is based in Downtown Cleveland at the Justice Center Complex.=== Fire department ===Cleveland is served by the firefighters of the Cleveland Division of Fire, established in 1863.The fire department operates out of 22 active fire stations throughout the city in five battalions.", "Each Battalion is commanded by a Battalion Chief, who reports to an on-duty Assistant Chief.The Division of Fire operates a fire apparatus fleet of twenty-two engine companies, eight ladder companies, three tower companies, two task force rescue squad companies, hazardous materials (\"haz-mat\") unit, and numerous other special, support, and reserve units.", "The Chief of Department is Anthony Luke.=== Emergency medical services ===Cleveland EMS is operated by the city as its own municipal third-service EMS division.", "Cleveland EMS is the primary provider of Advanced Life Support and ambulance transport within the city of Cleveland, while Cleveland Fire assists by providing fire response medical care.", "Although a merger between the fire and EMS departments was proposed in the past, the idea was subsequently abandoned.=== Military ===Cleveland serves as headquarters to Coast Guard District 9 and is responsible for all U.S. Coast Guard operations on the five Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence Seaway, and surrounding states accumulating 6,700 miles of shoreline and 1,500 miles of international shoreline with Canada.", "It reports up through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.", "Station Cleveland Harbor, located in North Coast Harbor, has a responsibility covering about 550 square miles of the federally navigable waters of Lake Erie, including the Cuyahoga and Rocky rivers, as well as a number of their tributaries." ], [ "Education", "=== Primary and secondary ===The Cleveland Metropolitan School District is the second-largest K–12 district in the state of Ohio.", "It is the only district in Ohio under the direct control of the mayor, who appoints a school board.", "Approximately of Cleveland's Buckeye–Shaker neighborhood is part of the Shaker Heights City School District.", "The area, which has been a part of the Shaker school district since the 1920s, permits these Cleveland residents to pay the same school taxes as the Shaker residents, as well as vote in the Shaker school board elections.Adelbert Hall on the campus of Case Western Reserve UniversityThere are several private and parochial schools in Cleveland.", "These include Benedictine High School, Cleveland Central Catholic High School, Eleanor Gerson School, St. Ignatius High School, St. Joseph Academy, Villa Angela-St. Joseph High School, and St. Martin de Porres.=== Colleges and universities ===Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities.", "Most prominent among them is Case Western Reserve University (CWRU), a widely recognized research and teaching institution based in University Circle.", "A private university with several prominent graduate programs, CWRU was ranked 44th in the nation in 2023 by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.", "University Circle also contains the Cleveland Institute of Art and the Cleveland Institute of Music.", "Downtown Cleveland is home to Cleveland State University, a public research university with eight constituent colleges, and the metropolitan campus of Cuyahoga Community College.", "Ohio Technical College is also based in Cleveland.", "Cleveland's suburban universities and colleges include Baldwin Wallace University in Berea, John Carroll University in University Heights, Ursuline College in Pepper Pike, and Notre Dame College in South Euclid.=== Public library system ===Interior of the 1925 main building of the Cleveland Public LibraryEstablished in 1869, the Cleveland Public Library is one of the largest public libraries in the nation with a collection of over 10 million materials in 2021.Its John G. White Special Collection includes the largest chess library in the world, as well as a significant collection of folklore and rare books on the Middle East and Eurasia.", "The library's main building was designed by Walker and Weeks and dedicated in 1925, under head librarian Linda Eastman, the first woman to lead a major library system in the U.S.", "Between 1904 and 1920, 15 libraries built with funds from Andrew Carnegie were opened in the city.", "Known as the \"People's University\", the library presently maintains 27 branches.", "It serves as the headquarters for the CLEVNET library consortium, which includes 47 public library systems in Northeast Ohio." ], [ "Media", "=== Print ===Cleveland's primary daily newspaper is ''The Plain Dealer'' and its associated online publication, ''Cleveland.com''.", "Defunct major newspapers include the ''Cleveland Press'', an afternoon paper which printed its last edition in 1982; and the ''Cleveland News'', which ceased publication in 1960.Additional publications include ''Cleveland Magazine'', a regional culture magazine published monthly; ''Crain's Cleveland Business'', a weekly business newspaper; and ''Cleveland Scene'', a free alternative weekly paper which absorbed its competitor, the ''Cleveland Free Times'', in 2008.The digital ''Belt Magazine'' was founded in Cleveland in 2013.", "''Time'' magazine was published in Cleveland from 1925 to 1927.Several ethnic publications are based in Cleveland.", "These include the ''Call and Post'', a weekly newspaper that primarily serves the city's African American community; the ''Cleveland Jewish News'', a weekly Jewish newspaper; the bi-weekly Russian-language ''Cleveland Russian Magazine''; the Mandarin ''Erie Chinese Journal''; ''La Gazzetta Italiana'' in English and Italian; the ''Ohio Irish American News''; and the Spanish language ''Vocero Latino News''.=== TV ===The Cleveland-area television market is served by 11 full power stations, including WKYC (NBC), WEWS-TV (ABC), WJW (Fox), WDLI-TV (Bounce), WOIO (CBS), WVPX-TV (Ion), WVIZ (PBS), WUAB (CW), WRLM (TCT), WBNX-TV (independent), and WQHS-DT (Univision).", "the market, which includes the Akron and Canton areas, was the 19th-largest in the country, as measured by Nielsen Media Research.", "''The Mike Douglas Show'', a nationally syndicated daytime talk show, began in Cleveland in 1961 on KYW-TV (now WKYC), while ''The Morning Exchange'' on WEWS-TV served as the model for ''Good Morning America''.", "Tim Conway and Ernie Anderson first established themselves in Cleveland while working together at KYW-TV and later WJW-TV (now WJW).", "Anderson both created and performed as the immensely popular Cleveland horror host Ghoulardi on WJW-TV's ''Shock Theater'', and was later succeeded by the long-running late night duo Big Chuck and Lil' John.", "Another Anderson protégé – Ron Sweed – would become a popular Cleveland late night movie host in his own right as \"The Ghoul\".=== Radio ===Cleveland is directly served by 28 full power AM and FM radio stations, 21 of which are licensed to the city.", "Music stations – which are frequently the highest-rated in the market – include WQAL (hot adult contemporary), WDOK (adult contemporary), WFHM (Christian contemporary), WAKS (contemporary hits), WHLK (adult hits), WMJI (classic hits), WMMS (active rock/hot talk), WNCX (classic rock), WNWV (alternative rock), WGAR-FM (country), WZAK (urban adult contemporary), WENZ (mainstream urban), WJMO (urban gospel), and WCLV (classical/jazz).News/talk stations include WHK, WTAM, and WERE.", "During the Golden Age of Radio, WHK was the first radio station to broadcast in Ohio, and one of the first in the country.", "WTAM is the AM flagship for both the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Cleveland Guardians.", "Sports stations include WKNR (ESPN), WARF (Fox) and WKRK-FM (CBS), with WKNR and WKRK-FM serving as co-flagship stations for the Cleveland Browns.", "Religious stations include WHKW, WCCR, and WCRF.As the regional NPR affiliate, WKSU serves all of Northeast Ohio (including both the Cleveland and Akron markets).", "College stations include WBWC (Baldwin Wallace), WCSB (Cleveland State), WJCU (John Carroll), and WRUW-FM (Case Western Reserve)." ], [ "Transportation", "=== Transit ===RTA train approaches Settlers Landing station on the Waterfront LineCleveland has a bus and rail mass transit system operated by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA).", "The rail portion is officially called the RTA Rapid Transit, but local residents refer to it as ''The Rapid''.", "It consists of three light rail lines, known as the Blue, Green, and Waterfront Lines, and a heavy rail line, the Red Line.", "In 2008, RTA completed the HealthLine, a bus rapid transit line, for which naming rights were purchased by the Cleveland Clinic and University Hospitals.", "It runs along Euclid Avenue from downtown through University Circle, ending at the Louis Stokes Station at Windermere in East Cleveland.", "In 1968, Cleveland became the first city in the nation to have a direct rail transit connection linking the city's downtown to its major airport.=== Walkability ===In 2021, Walk Score ranked Cleveland the 17th most walkable of the 50 largest cities in the U.S., with a Walk Score of 57, a Transit Score of 45, and a Bike Score of 55 (out of a maximum of 100).", "Cleveland's most walkable areas can be found in the Downtown, Ohio City, Detroit–Shoreway, University Circle, and Buckeye–Shaker neighborhoods.", "Like other major cities, the urban density of Cleveland reduces the need for private vehicle ownership.", "In 2016, 23.7% of Cleveland households lacked a car, while the national average was 8.7%.", "Cleveland averaged 1.19 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.=== Roads ===One of the \"Guardians of Traffic\" at the Hope Memorial BridgeCleveland's road system consists of numbered streets running roughly north–south, and named avenues, which run roughly east–west.", "The numbered streets are designated \"east\" or \"west\", depending on where they lie in relation to Ontario Street, which bisects Public Square.", "The two downtown avenues which span the Cuyahoga change names on the west side of the river.", "Superior Avenue becomes Detroit Avenue on the West Side, and Carnegie Avenue becomes Lorain Avenue.", "The bridges that make these connections are the Hope Memorial (Lorain–Carnegie) Bridge and the Veterans Memorial (Detroit–Superior) Bridge.=== Freeways ===Cleveland is served by three two-digit interstate highways – Interstate 71, Interstate 77, and Interstate 90 – and by two three-digit interstates – Interstate 480 and Interstate 490.Running due east–west through the West Side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with I-490, and is known as the Cleveland Inner Belt.", "The Cleveland Memorial Shoreway carries Ohio State Route 2 along its length, and at varying points carries US 6, US 20 and I-90.At the junction with the Shoreway, I-90 makes a 90-degree turn in the area known as Dead Man's Curve, then continues northeast.", "The Jennings Freeway (State Route 176) connects I-71 just south of I-90 to I-480.A third highway, the Berea Freeway (State Route 237 in part), connects I-71 to the airport and forms part of the boundary between Brook Park and Cleveland's Hopkins neighborhood.=== Airports ===Cleveland is a major North American air market, serving 4.93 million people.", "Cleveland Hopkins International Airport is the city's primary major airport and an international airport that serves the broader region.", "Originally known as Cleveland Municipal Airport, it was the first municipally owned airport in the country.", "Cleveland Hopkins is a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, U.S.", "Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers.", "In addition to Hopkins, Cleveland is served by Burke Lakefront Airport, on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the Shoreway.", "Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport.=== Seaport ===Shipping containers at the Port of Cleveland as seen from Lake ErieThe Port of Cleveland, at the Cuyahoga River's mouth, is a major bulk freight and container terminal on Lake Erie, receiving much of the raw materials used by the region's manufacturing industries.", "The Port of Cleveland is the only container port on the Great Lakes with bi-weekly container service between Cleveland and the Port of Antwerp in Belgium on a Dutch service called the Cleveland-Europe Express.", "In addition to freight, the Port of Cleveland welcomes regional and international tourists who pass through the city on Great Lakes cruises.=== Intercity rail and bus ===Cleveland has a long history as a major railroad hub in North America.", "Today, Amtrak provides service to Cleveland, via the ''Capitol Limited'' and ''Lake Shore Limited'' routes, which stop at Cleveland Lakefront Station.", "Additionally, Cleveland hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals, for Norfolk Southern, CSX and several smaller companies.National intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound at the station located behind Playhouse Square.", "Akron Metro, Brunswick Transit Alternative, Laketran, Lorain County Transit, and Medina County Transit provide connecting bus service to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority.", "Geauga County Transit and Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority (PARTA) also offer connecting bus service in their neighboring areas." ], [ "International relations", "Cyrus S. Eaton and his wife Anne in Leipzig, East Germany in 1960Cleveland maintains cultural, economic, and educational ties with 28 sister cities around the world.", "It concluded its first sister city partnership with Lima, Peru, in 1964.In addition, Cleveland hosts the Consulate General of the Republic of Slovenia, which, until Slovene independence in 1991, served as an official consulate for Tito's Yugoslavia.", "The Cleveland Clinic operates the Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi hospital, two outpatient clinics in Toronto, and a hospital campus in London.", "The Cleveland Council on World Affairs was established in 1923.Historically, Cleveland industrialist Cyrus S. Eaton, an apprentice of John D. Rockefeller, played a significant role in promoting dialogue between the U.S. and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.", "In October 1915 at Cleveland's Bohemian National Hall, Czech American and Slovak American representatives signed the Cleveland Agreement, calling for the formation of a joint Czech and Slovak state.Sister cities of Cleveland* Alexandria (Egypt) ''1977''* Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) ''2004''* Bangalore (India) ''1975''* Beit She'an (Israel) ''2019''* Brașov (Romania) ''1973''* Bratislava (Slovakia) ''1990''* Bursa (Turkey) ''2023''* Cape Town (South Africa) ''2023''* Cleveland (United Kingdom) ''1977''* Conakry (Guinea) ''1991''* Fier (Albania) ''2006''* Gdańsk (Poland) ''1990''* Heidenheim an der Brenz (Germany) ''1977''* Holon (Israel) ''1977''* Ibadan (Nigeria) ''1974''* Kigali (Rwanda) ''2023''* Klaipėda (Lithuania) ''1992''* Lima (Peru) ''1964''* Ljubljana (Slovenia) ''1975''* Mayo (Ireland) ''2003''* Miskolc (Hungary) ''1995''* Novi Sad (Serbia) ''2023''* Rouen (France) ''2008''* Segundo Montes (El Salvador) ''1991''* Taipei (Taiwan) ''1975''* Tema (Ghana) ''2023''* Vicenza (Italy) ''2009''* Volgograd (Russia) ''1990''" ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Cleveland* List of references to Cleveland in popular culture* USS ''Cleveland'', 4 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===***************************" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* * Destination Cleveland, official tourism website* Greater Cleveland Partnership* * The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History at Case Western Reserve University* Cleveland Historical at Cleveland State University* Cleveland Memory Project at Cleveland State University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Callisto" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Callisto''' most commonly refers to:*Callisto (mythology), a nymph*Callisto (moon), a moon of Jupiter'''Callisto''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Art and entertainment", "*''Callisto series'', a sequence of novels by Lin Carter*''Callisto'', a novel by Torsten Krol*Callisto (comics), a fictional mutant in ''X-Men''*Callisto (''Xena''), a character on ''Xena: Warrior Princess''**\"Callisto\" (''Xena: Warrior Princess'' episode)* Callisto family, a fictional family in the ''Miles from Tomorrowland'' TV series*Callisto, a toy in the Mattel Major Matt Mason series*Callisto (band), a band from Turku, Finland" ], [ "People with the name", "* Callisto Cosulich (1922–2015), Italian film critic, author, journalist and screenwriter* Callisto Pasuwa, Zimbabwean soccer coach* Callisto Piazza (1500–1561), Italian painter" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Callisto'' (moth), a genus of moths in the family Gracillariidae*CALLISTO, a reusable test rocket*Callisto Corporation, a software development company*Callisto, a release of version 3.2 of Eclipse*Callisto, an AMD Phenom II processor core*Callisto (organization), a non-profit organization" ], [ "See also", "* Calisto (disambiguation)* Kallisto (disambiguation)* Callista (disambiguation)* Callistus (disambiguation)* Castillo (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Church of England" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Church of England''' ('''C of E''') is the established Christian church in England.", "It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the 3rd century and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.", "Its adherents are called ''Anglicans''.The English church renounced papal authority in 1534 when Henry VIII failed to secure a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.", "The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip.", "The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach, and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both Reformed and Catholic.", "In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both radical Roman Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs.", "The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestants.", "In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the church, which under the Stuarts veered towards a more Catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement, especially under Archbishop Laud and the rise of the concept of Anglicanism as a ''via media'' between Roman Catholicism and radical Protestantism.", "After the victory of the Parliamentarians, the Prayer Book was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated.", "The episcopacy was abolished in 1646 but the Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Prayer Book.", "Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance.Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used the English language in the liturgy.", "As a broad church, the Church of England contains several doctrinal strands.", "The main traditions are known as Anglo-Catholicism, high churchmanship, central churchmanship and low churchmanship, the latter producing a growing evangelical wing.", "Tensions between theological conservatives and liberals find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality.", "The British monarch (currently Charles III) is the supreme governor and the Archbishop of Canterbury (currently Justin Welby) is the most senior cleric.", "The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop.", "Within each diocese are local parishes.", "The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity.", "Its measures must be approved by the Parliament of the United Kingdom." ], [ "History", "===Middle Ages===Hereford Cathedral is one of the church's 43 cathedrals; many have histories stretching back centuriesThere is evidence for Christianity in Roman Britain as early as the 3rd century.", "After the fall of the Roman Empire, England was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, who were pagans, and the Celtic Church was confined to Cornwall and Wales.", "In 597, Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to England to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons.", "This mission was led by Augustine, who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.", "The Church of England considers 597 the start of its formal history.In Northumbria, Celtic missionaries competed with their Roman counterparts.", "The Celtic and Roman churches disagreed over the date of Easter, baptismal customs, and the style of tonsure worn by monks.", "King Oswiu of Northumbria summoned the Synod of Whitby in 664.The king decided Northumbria would follow the Roman tradition because Saint Peter and his successors, the bishops of Rome, hold the keys of the kingdom of heaven.By the late Middle Ages, Catholicism was an essential part of English life and culture.", "The 9,000 parishes covering all of England were overseen by a hierarchy of deaneries, archdeaconries, dioceses led by bishops, and ultimately the pope who presided over the Catholic Church from Rome.", "Catholicism taught that the contrite person could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works (see synergism).", "God's grace was given through the seven sacraments.", "In the Mass, a priest consecrated bread and wine to become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation.", "The Church taught that, in the name of the congregation, the priest offered to God the same sacrifice of Christ on the cross that provided atonement for the sins of humanity.", "The Mass was also an offering of prayer by which the living could help souls in purgatory.", "While penance removed the guilt attached to sin, Catholicism taught that a penalty still remained.", "It was believed that most people would end their lives with these penalties unsatisfied and would have to spend time in purgatory.", "Time in purgatory could be lessened through indulgences and prayers for the dead, which were made possible by the communion of saints.===Reformation===In 1527, Henry VIII was desperate for a male heir and asked Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.", "When the pope refused, Henry used Parliament to assert royal authority over the English church.", "In 1533, Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals, barring legal cases from being appealed outside England.", "This allowed the Archbishop of Canterbury to annul the marriage without reference to Rome.", "In November 1534, the Act of Supremacy formally abolished papal authority and declared Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England.Henry's religious beliefs remained aligned to traditional Catholicism throughout his reign.", "In order to secure royal supremacy over the Church, however, Henry allied himself with Protestants, who until that time had been treated as heretics.", "The main doctrine of the Protestant Reformation was justification by faith alone rather than by good works.", "The logical outcome of this belief is that the Mass, sacraments, charitable acts, prayers to saints, prayers for the dead, pilgrimage, and the veneration of relics do not mediate divine favour.", "To believe they can would be superstition at best and idolatry at worst.Between 1536 and 1540, Henry engaged in the dissolution of the monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land.", "He disbanded religious houses, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents.", "The properties were sold to pay for the wars.", "Historian George W. Bernard argues:Thomas Cranmer was the first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury and principal compiler of the ''Book of Common Prayer''In the reign of Edward VI (1547–1553), the Church of England underwent an extensive theological reformation.", "Justification by faith was made a central teaching.", "Government-sanctioned iconoclasm led to the destruction of images and relics.", "Stained glass, shrines, statues, and roods were defaced or destroyed.", "Church walls were whitewashed and covered with biblical texts condemning idolatry.", "The most significant reform in Edward's reign was the adoption of an English liturgy to replace the old Latin rites.", "Written by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the 1549 ''Book of Common Prayer'' implicitly taught justification by faith, and rejected the Catholic doctrines of transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass.", "This was followed by a greatly revised 1552 ''Book of Common Prayer'' that was even more Protestant in tone, going so far as to deny the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.During the reign of Mary I (1553–1558), England was briefly reunited with the Catholic Church.", "Mary died childless, so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Queen Elizabeth I to resolve the direction of the Church.", "The Elizabethan Religious Settlement returned the Church to where it stood in 1553 before Edward's death.", "The Act of Supremacy made the monarch the Church's supreme governor.", "The Act of Uniformity restored a slightly altered 1552 ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "In 1571, the Thirty-nine Articles received parliamentary approval as a doctrinal statement for the Church.", "The settlement ensured the Church of England was Protestant, but it was unclear what kind of Protestantism was being adopted.", "The prayer book's eucharistic theology was vague.", "The words of administration neither affirmed nor denied the real presence.", "Perhaps, a spiritual presence was implied, since Article 28 of the Thirty-nine Articles taught that the body of Christ was eaten \"only after an heavenly and spiritual manner\".", "Nevertheless, there was enough ambiguity to allow later theologians to articulate various versions of Anglican eucharistic theology.The Church of England was the established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor).", "The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century.===Stuart period===Struggle for control of the church persisted throughout the reigns of James I and his son Charles I, culminating in the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642.The two opposing factions consisted of Puritans, who sought to \"purify\" the church and enact more far-reaching Protestant reforms, and those who wanted to retain traditional beliefs and practices.", "In a period when many believed \"true religion\" and \"good government\" were the same thing, religious disputes often included a political element, one example being the struggle over bishops.", "In addition to their religious function, bishops acted as state censors, able to ban sermons and writings considered objectionable, while lay people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy, heresy, fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes.", "They also sat in the House of Lords and often blocked legislation opposed by the Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the 1640 Clergy Act was a major step on the road to war.Major repairs were done to Canterbury Cathedral after the Restoration in 1660.Following Royalist defeat in 1646, the Episcopacy was formally abolished.", "In 1649, the Commonwealth of England outlawed a number of former practices and Presbyterian structures replaced the episcopate.", "The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship.", "Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of state presbyterianism.", "It was also opposed by religious Independents who rejected the very idea of state-mandated religion, and included Congregationalists like Oliver Cromwell, as well as Baptists, who were especially well represented in the New Model Army.After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version.", "Until James II of England was ousted by the Glorious Revolution in November 1688, many Nonconformists still sought to negotiate terms that would allow them to re-enter the Church.", "In order to secure his political position, William III of England ended these discussions and the Tudor ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation was abandoned.", "The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground and Nonconformists continuing their existence outside.", "One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession or who had been ordained by ministers in presbyter's orders.", "Official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century.", "Roman Catholics, perhaps 5% of the English population (down from 20% in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them.", "By the end of 18th century they had dwindled to 1% of the population, mostly amongst upper middle-class gentry, their tenants and extended families.===Union with the Church of Ireland===By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into \"one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland\".", "Although \"the continuance and preservation of the said united church ... was deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the union\", the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.===Overseas developments===John Smith's 1624 map of Bermuda, showing St Peter's at centre, left|alt=As the English Empire (after the 1707 union of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, the British Empire) expanded, English (after 1707, ''British'') colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England.The Diocese of Nova Scotia was created on 11 August 1787 by Letters Patent of George III which \"erected the Province of Nova Scotia into a bishop's see\" and these also named Charles Inglis as first bishop of the see.", "The diocese was the first Church of England see created outside England and Wales (i.e.", "the first colonial diocese).", "At this point, the see covered present-day New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Quebec.", "From 1825 to 1839, it included the nine parishes of Bermuda, subsequently transferred to the Diocese of Newfoundland.As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion.", "In the provinces that made up Canada, the church operated as the \"Church of England in Canada\" until 1955 when it became the Anglican Church of Canada.In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the ''Sea Venture'' which initiated Bermuda's permanent settlement.", "The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the 19th century.", "From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia.", "Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839.In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed.", "At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the ''Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda'' until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop.The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Among its parish churches is St Peter's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George's Town, which is the oldest Anglican church outside of the British Isles, and the oldest Protestant church in the New World.The first Anglican missionaries arrived in Nigeria in 1842 and the first Anglican Nigerian was consecrated a bishop in 1864.However, the arrival of a rival group of Anglican missionaries in 1887 led to infighting that slowed the Church's growth.", "In this large African colony, by 1900 there were only 35,000 Anglicans, about 0.2% of the population.", "However, by the late 20th century the Church of Nigeria was the fastest growing of all Anglican churches, reaching about 18 percent of the local population by 2000.The Church established its presence in Hong Kong and Macau in 1843.In 1951, the Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao became an extra-provincial diocese, and in 1998 it became a province of the Anglican Communion, under the name Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui.From 1796 to 1818 the Church began operating in Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), following the 1796 start of British colonisation, when the first services were held for the British civil and military personnel.", "In 1799, the first Colonial Chaplain was appointed, following which CMS and SPG missionaries began their work, in 1818 and 1844 respectively.", "Subsequently the Church of Ceylon was established: in 1845 the diocese of Colombo was inaugurated, with the appointment of James Chapman as Bishop of Colombo.", "It served as an extra-provincial jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury, who served as its Metropolitan.===Early 21st century=======Deposition from holy orders overturned====Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003.The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible.", "Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.====Continued decline in attendance and church response====One of the now \"redundant\" buildings, Holy Trinity Church, Wensley, in North Yorkshire; much of the current structure was built in the 14th and 15th centuriesBishop Sarah Mullally has insisted that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches, because people may still encounter God without attending a service in a church; for example hearing the Christian message through social media sites or in a café run as a community project.", "Additionally, 9.7 million people visit at least one of its churches every year and 1 million students are educated at Church of England schools (which number 4,700).", "In 2019, an estimated 10 million people visited a cathedral and an additional \"1.3 million people visited Westminster Abbey, where 99% of visitors paid / donated for entry\".", "Nevertheless, the archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England would no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership were somehow to be reversed, as typical Sunday attendance had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years:Between 1969 and 2010, almost 1,800 church buildings, roughly 11% of the stock, were closed (so-called \"redundant churches\"); the majority (70%) in the first half of the period; only 514 being closed between 1990 and 2010.Some active use was being made of about half of the closed churches.", "By 2019 the rate of closure had steadied at around 20 to 25 per year (0.2%); some being replaced by new places of worship.", "Additionally, in 2018 the church announced a £27 million growth programme to create 100 new churches.====Low salaries====In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage.", "The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount.", "The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church \"fell short of its standards\".=== Impact of COVID-19 pandemic ===The COVID-19 pandemic had a sizeable effect on church attendance, with attendance in 2020 and 2021 dropping well below that of 2019.By 2022, the first full year without substantial restrictions related to the pandemic, numbers were still notably down on pre-pandemic participation.", "According to the 2022 release of \"Statistics for Mission\" by the church, the median size of each church's \"Worshipping Community\" (those who attend in person or online at least as regularly as once a month) now stands at 37 people, with average weekly attendance having declined from 34 to 25; while Easter and Christmas services have seen falls from 51 to 38 and 80 to 56 individuals respectively.", "Examples of wider declines across the whole church include:+Estimated change, 2019 to 2020Estimated change, 2019 to 2021 Estimated change, 2019 to 2022Worshipping Community -7% -13% -12%All age average weekly attendance (October) -60% -29% -23%All age average Sunday attendance (October) -53% -28% -23%Easter attendanceN/A -56% -27%Christmas attendance -79% -58% -30%" ], [ "Doctrine and practice", "Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identityCanterbury Cathedral houses the ''cathedra'' or episcopal chair of the Archbishop of Canterbury and is the cathedral of the Diocese of Canterbury and the mother church of the Church of England as well as a focus for the Anglican CommunionThe canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine.", "In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture.", "This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, the ''Book of Common Prayer'', and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops.", "Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder.", "However, Richard Hooker's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority, as well as the work of Thomas Cranmer, which inspired the doctrinal status of the church, continue to inform Anglican identity.The Church of England's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.", "The Church of England affirms the protestant reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters.", "The Thirty-nine Articles are the church's only official confessional statement.", "Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism.While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture.", "It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation.", "The Church of England also preserves catholic order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons.", "There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy.", "Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church.", "In sum these express the 'Via Media' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved are acceptable as a yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism did not emerge as the result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines.", "It is light on details compared to Roman Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran teachings.", "The Bible, the Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish catholicity.", "The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions.", "The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy ('too Catholic').", "They did not succeed because the monarchy and the Church resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent.", "Moreover, \"despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character.\"", "The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest...\" a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in the Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine\".", "The existence of cathedrals \"without substantial alteration\" and \"where the \"old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism,\" This is \"One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation,\" that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue.", "The story of the English Reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, and the adamant opposition of Queen Elizabeth I.The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth of opinion from liberal to conservative clergy and members.", "This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the catholic tradition and others who emphasise the reformed tradition to coexist.", "The three schools of thought (or parties) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo-Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal).", "The high church party places importance on the Church of England's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood.", "As their name suggests, Anglo-Catholics maintain many traditional catholic practices and liturgical forms.", "The Catholic tradition, strengthened and reshaped from the 1830s by the Oxford movement, has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments and the belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a sign and instrument of the Church of England's Catholic and apostolic identity.", "The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology.", "It has emphasized the significance of the Protestant aspects of the Church of England's identity, stressing the importance of the authority of Scripture, preaching, justification by faith and personal conversion.", "Historically, the term 'broad church' has been used to describe those of middle-of-the-road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal protestantism.", "The liberal broad church tradition has emphasized the importance of the use of reason in theological exploration.", "It has stressed the need to develop Christian belief and practice in order to respond creatively to wider advances in human knowledge and understanding and the importance of social and political action in forwarding God's kingdom.", "The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40% of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26% in 1989), and 83% of very large congregations were evangelical.", "Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.===Worship and liturgy===Stained glass window in Rochester Cathedral, KentIn 1604, James I ordered an English language translation of the Bible known as the King James Version, which was published in 1611 and authorised for use in parishes, although it was not an \"official\" version per se.", "The Church of England's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the 1662 version of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP).", "In the year 2000, the General Synod approved a modern liturgical book, ''Common Worship'', which can be used as an alternative to the BCP.", "Like its predecessor, the 1980 ''Alternative Service Book'', it differs from the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP-based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion.", "(This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the ''Agnus Dei'' before communion.)", "The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints.", "The sacraments of baptism and the eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation.", "Infant baptism is practised.", "At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors.", "The eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ's Words of Institution, is believed to be \"a memorial of Christ's once-for-all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith\".The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries.", "Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals.", "The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England's pre-reformation roots.", "During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion.", "These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music.Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or \"traditionalist\" wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy.", "Approximately one third of clergy \"doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection\".", "Others, such as Giles Fraser, a contributor to ''The Guardian'', have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus.", "''The Independent'' reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, \"as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct.\"", "Moreover, many congregations are seeker-friendly environments.", "For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up \"a pagan church where Christianity is very much in the centre\" to reach out to spiritual people.The Church of England is launching a project on \"gendered language\" in Spring 2023 in efforts to \"study the ways in which God is referred to and addressed in liturgy and worship\".=== Women's ministry ===Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861, but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy.", "Women have historically been able to serve as lay readers.", "During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as \"bishop's messengers\", who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men.", "After the war, no women were appointed as lay readers until 1969.Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987.The ordination of women as priests was approved by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994.In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men), but in the next two years, ordinations of men again exceeded those of women.In July 2005, the synod voted to \"set in train\" the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops.", "In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the \"further exploration\" of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman.", "On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women.", "Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a General Synod vote in November 2012.On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops.", "The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention.", "The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions.", "The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions.", "This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod.", "In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England.", "She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester.", "She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral.", "Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender-inclusive language, saying that \"God is not to be seen as male.", "God is God.", "\"In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London.", "Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Church of England.", "Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood.", "She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal.", "On women's reproductive rights, Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life.", "On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that: \"It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love.", "\"=== Same-sex unions and LGBT clergy ===The Church of England has been discussing same-sex marriages and LGBT clergy.", "The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman.", "The church does not allow clergy to perform same-sex marriages, but in February 2023 approved of blessings for same-sex couples following a civil marriage or civil partnership.", "The church teaches \"Same-sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity.\"", "In January 2023, the Bishops approved \"prayers of thanksgiving, dedication and for God's blessing for same-sex couples.\"", "The commended prayers of blessing for same-sex couples, known as \"Prayers of Love and Faith,\" may be used during ordinary church services, and in November 2023 General Synod voted to authorise \"standalone\" blessings for same-sex couples on a trial basis, while permanent authorisation will require additional steps.", "The church also officially supports celibate civil partnerships; \"We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship.", "\"Civil partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005, so long as they remain sexually abstinent, and the church extends pensions to clergy in same-sex civil partnerships.", "In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that \"there was a need for committed same-sex couples to be given recognition and 'compassionate attention' from the Church, including special prayers.\"", "\"There is no prohibition on prayers being said in church or there being a 'service'\" after a civil union.", "After same-sex marriage was legalised, the church sought continued availability of civil unions, saying \"The Church of England recognises that same-sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality.", "Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework.", "\"In 2014, the bishops released guidelines that permit \"more informal kind of prayer\" for couples.", "In the guidelines, \"gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed.\"", "In 2016, the bishop of Grantham, Nicholas Chamberlain, announced that he is gay, in a same-sex relationship and celibate, becoming the first bishop to do so in the church.", "The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships so long as they remain sexually abstinent could become bishops.", "\"The House of Bishops has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate.", "\"In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to \"take note\" of the bishops' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman.", "Due to passage in all three houses being required, the motion was rejected.", "After General Synod rejected the motion, the archbishops of Canterbury and York called for \"radical new Christian inclusion\" that is \"based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual.\"", "The church officially opposes \"conversion therapy\", a practice which attempts to change a gay or lesbian person's sexual orientation, calling it unethical and supports the banning of \"conversion therapy\" in the UK.", "The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church \"to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same-sex marriage or civil partnership.\"", "In 2022, \"The House of Bishops also agreed to the formation of a Pastoral Consultative Group to support and advise dioceses on pastoral responses to circumstances that arise concerning LGBTI+ clergy, ordinands, lay leaders and the lay people in their care.", "\"Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be \"welcomed and affirmed in their parish church\".", "The motion also asked the bishops \"to look into special services for transgender people.\"", "The bishops initially said \"the House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in ''Common Worship'', is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal.\"", "The Bishops also authorised services of celebration to mark a gender transition that will be included in formal liturgy.", "Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition.", "\"Since the Gender Recognition Act 2004, trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church.\"", "The church further decided that same-gender couples may remain married when one spouse experiences gender transition provided that the spouses identified as opposite genders at the time of the marriage.", "Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office.", "The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.The Church of England ordained the church's first openly non-binary priest.In January 2023, a meeting of the Bishops of the Church of England rejected demands for clergy to conduct same-sex marriages.", "However, proposals would be put to the General Synod that clergy should be able to hold church blessings for same-sex civil marriages, albeit on a voluntary basis for individual clergy.", "This comes as the Church continued to be split on same-sex marriages.In February 2023, ten archbishops of the Global South Fellowship of Anglican Churches released a statement stating that they had broken communion and no longer recognised Justin Welby as \"the first among equals\" or \"primus inter pares\" in the Anglican Communion in response to the General Synod's decision to approve the blessing of same-sex couples following a civil marriage or partnership, leading to questions as to the status of the Church of England as the mother church of the international Anglican Communion.In November 2023, the General Synod narrowly voted to allow church blessings for same-sex couples on a trial basis.", "In December 2023, the first blessings of same-sex couples began in the Church of England.===Bioethics issues===The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but believes \"there can be strictly limited conditions under which abortion may be morally preferable to any available alternative\".", "The church also opposes euthanasia.", "Its official stance is that \"While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying/suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice.\"", "It also states that \"Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals.\"", "In 2014, George Carey, a former archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia and now advocated legalising \"assisted dying\".", "On embryonic stem-cell research, the church has announced \"cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research\".In the 19th century, English law required the burial of people who had died by suicide to occur only between the hours of 9 p.m. and midnight and without religious rites.", "The Church of England permitted the use of alternative burial services for people who had died by suicide.", "In 2017, the Church of England changed its rules to permit the full, standard Christian burial service regardless of whether a person had died by suicide." ], [ "Social work", "===Church Urban Fund===The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation.", "It sees poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need, leading to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence.", "They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances.====Child poverty====In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two-thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also a life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in the best-off fortunate communities.===Action on hunger===Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom.", "Twenty-seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat.Thousands of UK citizens use food banks.", "The church's campaign to end hunger considers this \"truly shocking\" and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014." ], [ "Membership", ", the Church of England estimated that it had approximately 26 million baptised members – about 47% of the English population.", "This number has remained consistent since 2001 and was cited again in 2013 and 2014.According to a 2016 study published by the ''Journal of Anglican Studies'', the Church of England continued to claim 26 million baptised members, while it also had approximately 1.7 million active baptised members.", "Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily.", "In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 percent of the population to 1.9 per cent.", "By 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population.", "One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends continued, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and 87,800 in 2050.The Church of England releases an annual publication, Statistics for Mission, detailing numerous criteria relating to participation with the church.", "Below is a snapshot of several key metrics from every five years since 2001 (2022 has been used in place of 2021 to avoid the impact of Covid restrictions).+Category20012006201120162022Worshipping CommunityN/AN/AN/A1,138,800984,000All Age Weekly Attendance 1,205,0001,163,0001,050,300927,300654,000All Age Sunday Attendance1,041,000983,000858,400779,800547,000Easter Attendance1,593,0001,485,0001,378,2001,222,700861,000Christmas Attendance2,608,0002,994,0002,641,5002,580,0001,622,000" ], [ "Personnel", "In 2020, there were almost 20,000 active clergy serving in the Church of England, including 7,200 retired clergy who continued to serve.", "In that year, 580 were ordained (330 in stipendiary posts and 250 in self-supporting parochial posts) and a further 580 ordinands began their training.", "In that year, 33% of those in ordained ministry were female, an increase from the 26% reported in 2016." ], [ "Structure", "Dioceses of the Church of England Article XIX ('Of the Church') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows:The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England.", "The canon law of the Church of England states, \"We acknowledge that the King's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil.\"", "In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and on the advice of the Prime Minister.The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian, but the Scottish Episcopal Church is part of the Anglican Communion.In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire and Powys in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales.", "Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):The parish church of St Lawrence in alt=* Parish is the most local level, often consisting of one church building (a parish church) and community, although many parishes are joining forces in a variety of ways for financial reasons.", "The parish is looked after by a parish priest who for historical or legal reasons may be called by one of the following offices: vicar, rector, priest in charge, team rector, team vicar.", "The first, second, fourth and fifth of these may also be known as the 'incumbent'.", "The running of the parish is the joint responsibility of the incumbent and the parochial church council (PCC), which consists of the parish clergy and elected representatives from the congregation.", "The Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe is not formally divided into parishes.", "* There are a number of local churches that do not have a parish.", "In urban areas there are a number of proprietary chapels (mostly built in the 19th century to cope with urbanisation and growth in population).", "Also in more recent years there are increasingly church plants and fresh expressions of church, whereby new congregations are planted in locations such as schools or pubs to spread the Gospel of Christ in non-traditional ways.Map showing the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe with the archdeaconries colour-coded* Deanery, ''e.g.", "'', Lewisham or Runnymede.", "This is the area for which a Rural Dean (or area dean) is responsible.", "It consists of a number of parishes in a particular district.", "The rural dean is usually the incumbent of one of the constituent parishes.", "The parishes each elect lay (non-ordained) representatives to the deanery synod.", "Deanery synod members each have a vote in the election of representatives to the diocesan synod.", "* Archdeaconry, ''e.g.", "'', the seven in the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.", "This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archdeacon.", "It consists of a number of deaneries.", "* Diocese, ''e.g.", "'', Diocese of Durham, Diocese of Guildford, Diocese of St Albans.", "This is the area under the jurisdiction of a diocesan bishop, ''e.g.", "'', the bishops of Durham, Guildford and St Albans, and will have a cathedral.", "There may be one or more suffragan bishops within the diocese who assist the diocesan bishop in his ministry, ''e.g.", "'', in Guildford diocese, the Bishop of Dorking.", "In some very large dioceses a legal measure has been enacted to create \"episcopal areas\", where the diocesan bishop runs one such area himself and appoints \"area bishops\" to run the other areas as mini-dioceses, legally delegating many of his powers to the area bishops.", "Dioceses with episcopal areas include London, Chelmsford, Oxford, Chichester, Southwark, and Lichfield.", "The bishops work with an elected body of lay and ordained representatives, known as the Diocesan Synod, to run the diocese.", "A diocese is subdivided into a number of archdeaconries.", "* Province, ''i.e.", "'', Canterbury or York.", "This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archbishop, ''i.e.''", "the Archbishops of Canterbury and York.", "Decision-making within the province is the responsibility of the General Synod (see also above).", "A province is subdivided into dioceses.", "* Primacy, ''i.e.", "'', Church of England.", "The Archbishop of York's title of \"Primate of England\" is essentially honorific and carries with it no powers beyond those inherent in being Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Province of York.", "The Archbishop of Canterbury, on the other hand, the \"Primate of All England\", has powers that extend over the whole of England, and also Wales—for example, through his Faculty Office he may grant a \"special marriage licence\" permitting the parties to marry otherwise than in a church: for example, in a school, college or university chapel; or anywhere, if one of the parties to the intended marriage is in danger of imminent death.", "* Royal Peculiar, a small number of churches which are more closely associated with the Crown, for example Westminster Abbey, and a very few more closely associated with the law which although conforming to the rites of the Church, are outside episcopal jurisdiction.All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown.", "No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to His Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience \"in all things lawful and honest\" to the bishop.", "Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property—church and parsonage.", "Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests-in-charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron.", "Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves.", "Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.===Primates===Justin Welby, Archbishop of CanterburyThe most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury.", "He has the status of Primate of All England.", "He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches.", "Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013.The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York.", "For historical reasons (relating to the time of York's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England.", "Stephen Cottrell became Archbishop of York in 2020.The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions, insofar as the holders of those sees automatically become members of the House of Lords.===Diocesan bishops===The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.===Representative bodies===The Church of England has a legislative body, General Synod.", "This can create two types of legislation, measures and canons.", "Measures have to be approved but cannot be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England.", "Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members.", "Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly.", "By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations' functions were transferred to the General Synod.", "Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church.===House of Lords===Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords.", "The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester.", "The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by date of consecration.", "It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he or she becomes a Lord Spiritual.", "The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.===Crown Dependencies===Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the established church in the Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey.", "The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the legislative council of the Tynwald on the island.", "Historically the Channel Islands have been under the authority of the Bishop of Winchester, but this authority has temporarily been delegated to the Bishop of Dover since 2015.In Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey.", "In Guernsey the Church of England is the established church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey." ], [ "Sex abuse", "The 2020 report from the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse found several cases of sexual abuse within the Church of England, and concluded that the Church did not protect children from sexual abuse, and allowed abusers to hide.", "The Church spent more effort defending alleged abusers than supporting victims or protecting children and young people.", "Allegations were not taken seriously, and in some cases clergymen were ordained even with a history of child sex abuse.", "Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men.In June 2023, the Archbishops' Council dismissed the three board members of the Independent Safeguarding Board, which was set up in 2021 \"to hold the Church to account, publicly if needs be, for any failings which are preventing good safeguarding from happening\".", "A statement issued by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York referred to there being \"no prospect of resolving the disagreement and that it is getting in the way of the vital work of serving victims and survivors\".", "Jasvinder Sanghera and Steve Reeves, the two independent members of the board, had complained about interference with their work by the Church.", "The Bishop of Birkenhead, Julie Conalty, speaking to BBC Radio 4 in connection with the dismissals, said: \"I think culturally we are resistant as a church to accountability, to criticism.", "And therefore I don't entirely trust the church, even though I'm a key part of it and a leader within it, because I see the way the wind blows is always in a particular direction.", "\"On 20 July 2023, it was announced that the archbishops of Canterbury and York had appointed Alexis Jay to provide proposals for an independent system of safeguarding for the Church of England." ], [ "Funding and finances", "Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support, except some funding for building work.", "Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments.", "In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £900 million.The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £8 billion." ], [ "Online church directories", "The Church of England runs ''A Church Near You'', an online directory of churches.", "A user-edited resource, it currently lists more than 16,000 churches and has 20,000 editors in 42 dioceses.", "The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information, which is shared with other websites and mobile apps.", "The site allows the public to find their local worshipping community, and offers churches free resources, such as hymns, videos and social media graphics.The ''Church Heritage Record'' includes information on over 16,000 church buildings, including architectural history, archaeology, art history, and the surrounding natural environment.", "It can be searched by elements including church name, diocese, date of construction, footprint size, listing grade, and church type.", "The types of church identified include:*Major Parish Church: \"some of the most special, significant and well-loved places of worship in England\", having \"most of all\" of the characteristics of being large (over 1,000msq), listed (generally grade I or II*), having \"exceptional significance and/or issues necessitating a conservation management plan\" and having a local role beyond that of an average parish church.", "there are 312 such churches in the database.", "These churches are eligible to join the Major Churches Network.", "*Festival Church: a church not used for weekly services but used for occasional services and other events.", "These churches are eligible to join the Association of Festival Churches.", "there are 19 such churches in the database.", "*CCT Church: a church under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust.", "there are 345 such churches in the database.", "*Friendless Church: there are 24 such churches in the database; the Friends of Friendless Churches cares for 60 churches across England and Wales." ], [ "See also", "* Acts of Supremacy* Apostolicae curae* Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England* Anglican Communion sexual abuse cases* Church Commissioners* Church of England Newspaper* Disestablishmentarianism* Dissolution of the Monasteries* English Covenant* English Reformation* Historical development of Church of England dioceses* List of archdeacons in the Church of England* List of bishops in the Church of England* List of the first 32 women ordained as Church of England priests* List of the largest Protestant bodies* Mothers' Union* Properties and finances of the Church of England* Ritualism in the Church of England* Women and the Church" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Buchanan, Colin.", "''Historical Dictionary of Anglicanism'' (2nd ed.", "2015) excerpt* Garbett, Cyril, Abp.", "''The Church of England Today''.", "London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1953.128 p.*Moorman, James.", "A History of the Church in England.", "1 June 1980.Publisher: MOREHOUSE PUBLISHING.", "*Hardwick, Joseph.", "''An Anglican British world: The Church of England and the expansion of the settler empire, c. 1790–1860'' (Manchester UP, 2014).", "* Hodges, J. P. ''The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage''.", "London: Faith Press, 1962.153 pp.", "* * Kirby, James.", "''Historians and the Church of England: Religion and Historical Scholarship, 1870–1920'' (2016) online at * Lawson, Tom.", "''God and War: The Church of England and Armed Conflict in the Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Maughan Steven S. ''Mighty England Do Good: Culture, Faith, Empire, and World in the Foreign Missions of the Church of England, 1850–1915'' (2014)* Picton, Hervé.", "''A Short History of the Church of England: From the Reformation to the Present Day''.", "Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015.180 p.* Rowlands, John Henry Lewis.", "''Church, State, and Society, 1827–1845: the Attitudes of John Keble, Richard Hurrell Froude, and John Henry Newman''.", "(1989).", "xi, 262 p. * Tapsell, Grant.", "''The later Stuart Church, 1660–1714'' (2012).", "*Milton, Anthony.", "The Oxford History of Anglicanism, 5 Vols, 2017." ], [ "External links", "* * Historical resources on the Church of England at anglicanhistory.org* * The History Files: Churches of the British Isles, a gallery of church photos and information* The Anglican Church Investigation Report Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse, October 2020" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Circe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Circe''' (; : ''Kírkē'', ) is an enchantress and a minor goddess in ancient Greek mythology and religion.", "In most accounts, Circe is described as the daughter of the sun god Helios and the Oceanid nymph Perse.", "Circe was renowned for her vast knowledge of potions and herbs.", "Through the use of these and a magic wand or staff, she would transform her enemies, or those who offended her, into animals.The best known of her legends is told in Homer's ''Odyssey'' when Odysseus visits her island of Aeaea on the way back from the Trojan War and she changes most of his crew into swine.", "He manages to persuade her to return them to human shape, lives with her for a year and has sons by her, including Latinus and Telegonus.", "Her ability to change others into animals is further highlighted by the story of Picus, an Italian king whom she turns into a woodpecker for resisting her advances.", "Another story tells of her falling in love with the sea-god Glaucus, who prefers the nymph Scylla to her.", "In revenge, Circe poisoned the water where her rival bathed and turned her into a dreadful monster.Depictions, even in Classical times, diverged from the detail in Homer's narrative, which was later to be reinterpreted morally as a cautionary story against drunkenness.", "Early philosophical questions were also raised about whether the change from being a human endowed with reason to being an unreasoning beast might not be preferable after all, and the resulting debate was to have a powerful impact during the Renaissance.", "Circe was also taken as the archetype of the predatory female.", "In the eyes of those from a later age, this behaviour made her notorious both as a magician and as a type of sexually free woman.", "She has been frequently depicted as such in all the arts from the Renaissance down to modern times.Western paintings established a visual iconography for the figure, but also went for inspiration to other stories concerning Circe that appear in Ovid's ''Metamorphoses''.", "The episodes of Scylla and Picus added the vice of violent jealousy to her bad qualities and made her a figure of fear as well as of desire." ], [ "Classical literature", "=== Family and attributes ===By most accounts, she was the daughter of the sun god Helios and Perse, one of the three thousand Oceanid nymphs.", "In ''Orphic Argonautica'', her mother is called Asterope instead.", "Her brothers were Aeëtes, keeper of the Golden Fleece and father of Medea, and Perses.", "Her sister was Pasiphaë, the wife of King Minos and mother of the Minotaur.", "Other accounts make her and her niece Medea the daughters of Hecate, the goddess of witchcraft by Aeëtes, usually said to be her brother instead.", "She was often confused with Calypso, due to her shifts in behavior and personality, and the association that both of them had with Odysseus.According to Greek legend, Circe lived on the island of Aeaea.", "Although Homer is vague when it comes to the island's whereabouts, in his epic poem ''Argonautica'', the early 3rd BC author Apollonius of Rhodes locates Aeaea somewhere south of ''Aethalia'' (Elba), within view of the Tyrrhenian shore (that is, the western coast of Italy).", "In the same poem, Circe's brother Aeëtes describes how Circe was transferred to Aeaea: \"I noted it once after taking a ride in my father Helios' chariot, when he was taking my sister Circe to the western land and we came to the coast of the Tyrrhenian mainland, where she dwells to this day, very far from the Colchian land.\"", "A scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius claims that Apollonius is following Hesiod's tradition in making Circe arrive in Aeaea on Helios' chariot, while Valerius Flaccus writes that Circe was borne away by winged dragons.", "Roman poets associated her with the most ancient traditions of Latium, and made her home to be on the promontory of Circeo.Homer describes Circe as \"a dreadful goddess with lovely hair and human speech\".", "Apollonius writes that she (just like every other descendant of Helios) had flashing golden eyes that shot out rays of light, with the author of ''Argonautica Orphica'' noting that she had hair like fiery rays.", "Ovid's ''The Cure for Love'' implies that Circe might have been taught the knowledge of herbs and potions from her mother Perse, who seems to have had similar skills.=== Pre-Odyssey ===Circe and Scylla in John William Waterhouse's ''Circe Invidiosa'' (1892)|alt=In the ''Argonautica'', Apollonius relates that Circe purified the Argonauts for the murder of Medea's brother Absyrtus, possibly reflecting an early tradition.", "In this poem, the Argonauts find Circe bathing in salt water; the animals that surround her are not former lovers transformed but primeval \"beasts, not resembling the beasts of the wild, nor yet like men in body, but with a medley of limbs.\"", "Circe invites Jason, Medea and their crew into her mansion; uttering no words, they show her the still bloody sword they used to cut Absyrtus down, and Circe immediately realizes they have visited her to be purified of murder.", "She purifies them by slitting the throat of a suckling pig and letting the blood drip on them.", "Afterwards, Medea tells Circe their tale in great detail, albeit omitting the part of Absyrtus' murder; nevertheless Circe is not fooled, and greatly disapproves of their actions.", "However, out of pity for the girl, and on account of their kinship, she promises not to be an obstacle on their way, and orders Jason and Medea to leave her island immediately.The sea-god Glaucus was in love with a beautiful maiden, Scylla, but she spurned his affections no matter how he tried to win her heart.", "Glaucus went to Circe, and asked her for a magic potion to make Scylla fall in love with him too.", "But Circe was smitten by Glaucus herself, and fell in love with him.", "Glaucus did not love her back, and turned down her offer of marriage.", "Enraged, Circe used her knowledge of herbs and plants to take her revenge; she found the spot where Scylla usually took her bath, and poisoned the water.", "When Scylla went down to it to bathe, dogs sprang from her thighs and she was transformed into the familiar monster from the ''Odyssey''.", "In another, similar story, Picus was a Latian king whom Circe turned into a woodpecker.", "He was the son of Saturn, and a king of Latium.", "He fell in love and married a nymph, Canens, to whom he was utterly devoted.", "One day as he was hunting boars, he came upon Circe, who was gathering herbs in the woods.", "Circe fell immediately in love with him; but Picus, just like Glaucus before him, spurned her and declared that he would remain forever faithful to Canens.", "Circe, furious, turned Picus into a woodpecker.", "His wife Canens eventually wasted away in her mourning.During the war between the gods and the giants, one of the giants, Picolous, fled the battle against the gods and came to Aeaea, Circe's island.", "He attempted to chase Circe away, only to be killed by Helios, Circe's ally and father.", "From the blood of the slain giant an herb came into existence; moly, named thus from the battle (malos) and with a white-coloured flower, either for the white Sun who had killed Picolous or the terrified Circe who turned white; the very plant, which mortals are unable to pluck from the ground, that Hermes would later give to Odysseus in order to defeat Circe.=== Homer's ''Odyssey'' ===Frederick S. Church's ''Circe'' (1910)In Homer's ''Odyssey'', an 8th-century BC sequel to his Trojan War epic ''Iliad'', Circe is initially described as a beautiful goddess living in a palace isolated in the midst of a dense wood on her island of Aeaea.", "Around her home prowl strangely docile lions and wolves.", "She lures any who land on the island to her home with her lovely singing while weaving on an enormous loom, but later drugs them so that they change shape.", "One of her Homeric epithets is ''polypharmakos'', \"knowing many drugs or charms\".Annibale Carracci's ''Ulysses and Circe'' () at Farnese Palace|alt=Circe invites the hero Odysseus' crew to a feast of familiar food, a pottage of cheese and meal, sweetened with honey and laced with wine, but also mixed with one of her magical potions that turns them into swine.", "Only Eurylochus, who suspects treachery, does not go in.", "He escapes to warn Odysseus and the others who have remained with the ship.", "Before Odysseus reaches Circe's palace, Hermes, the messenger god sent by the goddess of wisdom Athena, intercepts him and reveals how he might defeat Circe in order to free his crew from their enchantment.", "Hermes provides Odysseus with moly to protect him from Circe's magic.", "He also tells Odysseus that he must then draw his sword and act as if he were going to attack her.", "From there, as Hermes foretold, Circe would ask Odysseus to bed, but Hermes advises caution, for the treacherous goddess could still \"unman\" him unless he has her swear by the names of the gods that she will not take any further action against him.", "Following this advice, Odysseus is able to free his men.After they have all remained on the island for a year, Circe advises Odysseus that he must first visit the Underworld, something a mortal has never yet done, in order to gain knowledge about how to appease the gods, return home safely and recover his kingdom.", "Circe also advises him on how this might be achieved and furnishes him with the protections he will need and the means to communicate with the dead.", "On his return, she further advises him about two possible routes home, warning him, however, that both carry great danger.=== Post-Odyssey ===Angelica Kauffman's painting of Circe enticing Odysseus (1786)|alt=|leftTowards the end of Hesiod's ''Theogony'' (c. 700 BC), it is stated that Circe bore Odysseus three sons: Agrius (otherwise unknown); Latinus; and Telegonus, who ruled over the Tyrsenoi, that is the Etruscans.", "The ''Telegony'', an epic now lost, relates the later history of the last of these.", "Circe eventually informed her son who his absent father was and, when he set out to find Odysseus, gave him a poisoned spear.", "When Telegonus arrived in Ithaca, Odysseus was away in Thesprotia, fighting the Brygi.", "Telegonus began to ravage the island; Odysseus came to defend his land.", "With the weapon Circe gave him, Telegonus killed his father unknowingly.", "Telegonus then brought back his father's corpse to Aeaea, together with Penelope and Odysseus' son by her, Telemachus.", "After burying Odysseus, Circe made the other three immortal.Circe married Telemachus, and Telegonus married Penelope by the advice of Athena.", "According to an alternative version depicted in Lycophron's 3rd-century BC poem ''Alexandra'' (and John Tzetzes' scholia on it), Circe used magical herbs to bring Odysseus back to life after he had been killed by Telegonus.", "Odysseus then gave Telemachus to Circe's daughter Cassiphone in marriage.", "Sometime later, Telemachus had a quarrel with his mother-in-law and killed her; Cassiphone then killed Telemachus to avenge her mother's death.", "On hearing of this, Odysseus died of grief.Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1.72.5) cites Xenagoras, the 2nd-century BC historian, as claiming that Odysseus and Circe had three different sons: Rhomos, Anteias, and Ardeias, who respectively founded three cities called by their names: Rome, Antium, and Ardea.In the later 5th-century CE epic ''Dionysiaca'', its author Nonnus mentions Phaunus, Circe's son by the sea god Poseidon.=== Other works ===Three ancient plays about Circe have been lost: the work of the tragedian Aeschylus and of the 4th-century BC comic dramatists Ephippus of Athens and Anaxilas.", "The first told the story of Odysseus' encounter with Circe.", "Vase paintings from the period suggest that Odysseus' half-transformed animal-men formed the chorus in place of the usual Satyrs.", "Fragments of Anaxilas also mention the transformation and one of the characters complains of the impossibility of scratching his face now that he is a pig.The theme of Circe turning men into a variety of animals was elaborated by later writers.", "In his episodic work ''The Sorrows of Love'' (first century BC), Parthenius of Nicaea interpolated another episode into the time that Odysseus was staying with Circe.", "Pestered by the amorous attentions of King Calchus the Daunian, the sorceress invited him to a drugged dinner that turned him into a pig and then shut him up in her sties.", "He was only released when his army came searching for him on the condition that he would never set foot on her island again.Among Latin treatments, Virgil's ''Aeneid'' relates how Aeneas skirts the Italian island where Circe dwells and hears the cries of her many male victims, who now number more than the pigs of earlier accounts: ''The roars of lions that refuse the chain, / The grunts of bristled boars, and groans of bears, / And herds of howling wolves that stun the sailors' ears.''", "In Ovid's 1st-century poem ''Metamorphoses'', the fourth episode covers Circe's encounter with Ulysses (the Roman name of Odysseus), whereas book 14 covers the stories of Picus and Glaucus.Plutarch took up the theme in a lively dialogue that was later to have several imitators.", "Contained in his 1st-century ''Moralia'' is the Gryllus episode in which Circe allows Odysseus to interview a fellow Greek turned into a pig.", "After his interlocutor informs Odysseus that his present existence is preferable to the human, they engage in a philosophical dialogue in which every human value is questioned and beasts are proved to be of superior wisdom and virtue." ], [ "Ancient cult", "Strabo writes that a tomb-shrine of Circe was attended in one of the Pharmacussae islands, off the coast of Attica, typical for hero-worship.", "Circe was also venerated in Mount Circeo, in the Italian peninsula, which took its name after her according to ancient legend.", "Strabo says that Circe had a shrine in the small town, and that the people there kept a bowl they claimed belonged to Odysseus.", "The promontory is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed with great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe." ], [ "Later literature", "Boccaccio's ''De Claris Mulieribus'', a catalogue of famous women, from a 1474 edition|alt=Giovanni Boccaccio provided a digest of what was known of Circe during the Middle Ages in his ''De mulieribus claris'' (''Famous Women'', 1361–1362).", "While following the tradition that she lived in Italy, he comments wryly that there are now many more temptresses like her to lead men astray.There is a very different interpretation of the encounter with Circe in John Gower's long didactic poem ''Confessio Amantis'' (1380).", "Ulysses is depicted as deeper in sorcery and readier of tongue than Circe and through this means he leaves her pregnant with Telegonus.", "Most of the account deals with the son's later quest for and accidental killing of his father, drawing the moral that only evil can come of the use of sorcery.The story of Ulysses and Circe was retold as an episode in Georg Rollenhagen's German verse epic, ''Froschmeuseler'' (''The Frogs and Mice'', Magdeburg, 1595).", "In this 600-page expansion of the pseudo-Homeric ''Batrachomyomachia'', it is related at the court of the mice and takes up sections 5–8 of the first part.In Lope de Vega's miscellany ''La Circe – con otras rimas y prosas'' (1624), the story of her encounter with Ulysses appears as a verse epic in three cantos.", "This takes its beginning from Homer's account, but it is then embroidered; in particular, Circe's love for Ulysses remains unrequited.As \"Circe's Palace\", Nathaniel Hawthorne retold the Homeric account as the third section in his collection of stories from Greek mythology, ''Tanglewood Tales'' (1853).", "The transformed Picus continually appears in this, trying to warn Ulysses, and then Eurylochus, of the danger to be found in the palace, and is rewarded at the end by being given back his human shape.", "In most accounts Ulysses only demands this for his own men.In her survey of the ''Transformations of Circe'', Judith Yarnall comments of this figure, who started out as a comparatively minor goddess of unclear origin, that \"What we know for certain – what Western literature attests to – is her remarkable staying power…These different versions of Circe's myth can be seen as mirrors, sometimes clouded and sometimes clear, of the fantasies and assumptions of the cultures that produced them.\"", "After appearing as just one of the characters that Odysseus encounters on his wandering, \"Circe herself, in the twists and turns of her story through the centuries, has gone through far more metamorphoses than those she inflicted on Odysseus's companions.\"", "===Reasoning beasts===leftOne of the most enduring literary themes connected with the figure of Circe was her ability to change men into animals.", "There was much speculation concerning how this could be, whether the human consciousness changed at the same time, and even whether it was a change for the better.", "The Gryllus dialogue was taken up by another Italian writer, Giovan Battista Gelli, in his ''La Circe'' (1549).", "This is a series of ten philosophical and moral dialogues between Ulysses and the humans transformed into various animals, ranging from an oyster to an elephant, in which Circe sometimes joins.", "Most argue against changing back; only the last animal, a philosopher in its former existence, wants to.", "The work was translated into English soon after in 1557 by Henry Iden.", "Later the English poet Edmund Spenser also made reference to Plutarch's dialogue in the section of his ''Faerie Queene'' (1590) based on the Circe episode which appears at the end of Book II.", "Sir Guyon changes back the victims of Acrasia's erotic frenzy in the Bower of Bliss, most of whom are abashed at their fall from chivalric grace, ''But one above the rest in speciall, / That had an hog beene late, hight Grille by name, / Repined greatly, and did him miscall, / That had from hoggish forme him brought to naturall.", "''Two other Italians wrote rather different works that centre on the animal within the human.", "One was Niccolò Machiavelli in his unfinished long poem, ''L'asino d'oro'' (''The Golden Ass'', 1516).", "The author meets a beautiful herdswoman surrounded by Circe's herd of beasts.", "After spending a night of love with him, she explains the characteristics of the animals in her charge: the lions are the brave, the bears are the violent, the wolves are those forever dissatisfied, and so on (Canto 6).", "In Canto 7 he is introduced to those who experience frustration: a cat that has allowed its prey to escape; an agitated dragon; a fox constantly on the look-out for traps; a dog that bays the moon; Aesop's lion in love that allowed himself to be deprived of his teeth and claws.", "There are also emblematic satirical portraits of various Florentine personalities.", "In the eighth and last canto he has a conversation with a pig that, like the Gryllus of Plutarch, does not want to be changed back and condemns human greed, cruelty and conceit.The other Italian author was the esoteric philosopher Giordano Bruno, who wrote in Latin.", "His ''Cantus Circaeus'' (''The Incantation of Circe'') was the fourth work on memory and the association of ideas by him to be published in 1582.It contains a series of poetic dialogues, in the first of which, after a long series of incantations to the seven planets of the Hermetic tradition, most humans appear changed into different creatures in the scrying bowl.", "The sorceress Circe is then asked by her handmaiden Moeris about the type of behaviour with which each is associated.", "According to Circe, for instance, ''fireflies are the learned, wise, and illustrious amidst idiots, asses, and obscure men'' (Question 32).", "In later sections different characters discuss the use of images in the imagination in order to facilitate use of the art of memory, which is the real aim of the work.French writers were to take their lead from Gelli in the following century.", "Antoine Jacob wrote a one-act social comedy in rhyme, ''Les Bestes raisonnables'' (''The Reasoning Beasts'', 1661) which allowed him to satirise contemporary manners.", "On the isle of Circe, Ulysses encounters an ass that was once a doctor, a lion that had been a valet, a female doe and a horse, all of whom denounce the decadence of the times.", "The ass sees human asses everywhere, ''Asses in the town square, asses in the suburbs, / Asses in the provinces, asses proud at court, / Asses browsing in the meadows, military asses trooping, / Asses tripping it at balls, asses in the theatre stalls.''", "To drive the point home, in the end it is only the horse, formerly a courtesan, who wants to return to her former state.Wilhelm Schubert van Ehrenberg's ''Ulysses at the Palace of Circe'' (1667)The same theme occupies La Fontaine's late fable, \"The Companions of Ulysses\" (XII.1, 1690), which also echoes Plutarch and Gelli.", "Once transformed, every animal (which includes a lion, a bear, a wolf and a mole) protests that their lot is better and refuses to be restored to human shape.", "Charles Dennis shifted this fable to stand at the head of his translation of La Fontaine, ''Select Fables'' (1754), but provides his own conclusion that ''When Mortals from the path of Honour stray, / And the strong passions over reason sway, / What are they then but Brutes?", "/ 'Tis vice alone that constitutes / Th'enchanting wand and magic bowl, The exterior form of Man they wear, / But are in fact both Wolf and Bear, / The transformation's in the Soul.", "''Louis Fuzelier and Marc-Antoine Legrand titled their comic opera of 1718 ''Les animaux raisonnables''.", "It had more or less the same scenario transposed into another medium and set to music by Jacques Aubert.", "Circe, wishing to be rid of the company of Ulysses, agrees to change back his companions, but only the dolphin is willing.", "The others, who were formerly a corrupt judge (now a wolf), a financier (a pig), an abused wife (a hen), a deceived husband (a bull) and a flibbertigibbet (a linnet), find their present existence more agreeable.John Collier (19th century)|alt=The Venetian Gasparo Gozzi was another Italian who returned to Gelli for inspiration in the 14 prose ''Dialoghi dell'isola di Circe'' (''Dialogues from Circe's Island'') published as journalistic pieces between 1760 and 1764.In this moral work, the aim of Ulysses in talking to the beasts is to learn more of the human condition.", "It includes figures from fable (The fox and the crow, XIII) and from myth to illustrate its vision of society at variance.", "Far from needing the intervention of Circe, the victims find their natural condition as soon as they set foot on the island.", "The philosopher here is not Gelli's elephant but the bat that retreats from human contact into the darkness, like Bruno's fireflies (VI).", "The only one who wishes to change in Gozzi's work is the bear, a satirist who had dared to criticize Circe and had been changed as a punishment (IX).There were two more satirical dramas in later centuries.", "One modelled on the Gryllus episode in Plutarch occurs as a chapter of Thomas Love Peacock's late novel, ''Gryll Grange'' (1861), under the title \"Aristophanes in London\".", "Half Greek comedy, half Elizabethan masque, it is acted at the Grange by the novel's characters as a Christmas entertainment.", "In it Spiritualist mediums raise Circe and Gryllus and try to convince the latter of the superiority of modern times, which he rejects as intellectually and materially regressive.", "An Italian work drawing on the transformation theme was the comedy by Ettore Romagnoli, ''La figlia del Sole'' (''The Daughter of the Sun'', 1919).", "Hercules arrives on the island of Circe with his servant Cercopo and has to be rescued by the latter when he too is changed into a pig.", "But, since the naturally innocent other animals had become corrupted by imitating human vices, the others who had been changed were refused when they begged to be rescued.Also in England, Austin Dobson engaged more seriously with Homer's account of the transformation of Odysseus' companions when, though ''Head, face and members bristle into swine, / Still cursed with sense, their mind remains alone''.", "Dobson's \"The Prayer of the Swine to Circe\" (1640) depicts the horror of being imprisoned in an animal body in this way with the human consciousness unchanged.", "There appears to be no relief, for only in the final line is it revealed that Odysseus has arrived to free them.", "But in Matthew Arnold's dramatic poem \"The Strayed Reveller\" (1849), in which Circe is one of the characters, the power of her potion is differently interpreted.", "The inner tendencies unlocked by it are not the choice between animal nature and reason but between two types of impersonality, between divine clarity and the poet's participatory and tragic vision of life.", "In the poem, Circe discovers a youth laid asleep in the portico of her temple by a draught of her ivy-wreathed bowl.", "On awaking from possession by the poetic frenzy it has induced, he craves for it to be continued.===Sexual politics===With the Renaissance there began to be a reinterpretation of what it was that changed the men, if it was not simply magic.", "For Socrates, in Classical times, it had been gluttony overcoming their self-control.", "But for the influential emblematist Andrea Alciato, it was unchastity.", "In the second edition of his ''Emblemata'' (1546), therefore, Circe became the type of the prostitute.", "His Emblem 76 is titled ''Cavendum a meretricibus''; its accompanying Latin verses mention Picus, Scylla and the companions of Ulysses, and concludes that 'Circe with her famous name indicates a whore and any who loves such a one loses his reason'.", "His English imitator Geoffrey Whitney used a variation of Alciato's illustration in his own ''Choice of Emblemes'' (1586) but gave it the new title of ''Homines voluptatibus transformantur'', men are transformed by their passions.", "This explains her appearance in the Nighttown section named after her in James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses''.", "Written in the form of a stage script, it makes of Circe the brothel madam, Bella Cohen.", "Bloom, the book's protagonist, fantasizes that she turns into a cruel man-tamer named Mr Bello who makes him get down on all fours and rides him like a horse.By the 19th century, Circe was ceasing to be a mythical figure.", "Poets treated her either as an individual or at least as the type of a certain kind of woman.", "The French poet Albert Glatigny addresses \"Circé\" in his ''Les vignes folles'' (1857) and makes of her a voluptuous opium dream, the magnet of masochistic fantasies.", "Louis-Nicolas Ménard's sonnet in ''Rêveries d'un païen mystique'' (1876) describes her as enchanting all with her virginal look, but appearance belies the accursed reality.", "Poets in English were not far behind in this lurid portrayal.", "Lord de Tabley's \"Circe\" (1895) is a thing of decadent perversity likened to a tulip, ''A flaunting bloom, naked and undivine... / With freckled cheeks and splotch'd side serpentine, / A gipsy among flowers''.", "''The Kingdom of Sorceress Circe'' by Angelo Caroselli (c. 1630)That central image is echoed by the blood-striped flower of T.S.Eliot's student poem \"Circe's Palace\" (1909) in the Harvard Advocate.", "Circe herself does not appear, her character is suggested by what is in the grounds and the beasts in the forest beyond: panthers, pythons, and peacocks that ''look at us with the eyes of men whom we knew long ago''.", "Rather than a temptress, she has become an emasculatory threat.Several female poets make Circe stand up for herself, using the soliloquy form to voice the woman's position.", "The 19th-century English poet Augusta Webster, much of whose writing explored the female condition, has a dramatic monologue in blank verse titled \"Circe\" in her volume ''Portraits'' (1870).", "There the sorceress anticipates her meeting with Ulysses and his men and insists that she does not turn men into pigs—she merely takes away the disguise that makes them seem human.", "''But any draught, pure water, natural wine, / out of my cup, revealed them to themselves / and to each other.", "Change?", "there was no change; / only disguise gone from them unawares''.", "The mythological character of the speaker contributes at a safe remove to the Victorian discourse on women's sexuality by expressing female desire and criticizing the subordinate role given to women in heterosexual politics.Two American poets also explored feminine psychology in poems ostensibly about the enchantress.", "Leigh Gordon Giltner's \"Circe\" was included in her collection ''The Path of Dreams'' (1900), the first stanza of which relates the usual story of men turned into swine by her spell.", "But then a second stanza presents a sensuous portrait of an unnamed woman, very much in the French vein; once more, it concludes, 'A Circe's spells transform men into swine'.", "This is no passive victim of male projections but a woman conscious of her sexual power.", "So too is H.D.", "'s \"Circe\", from her collection ''Hymen'' (1921).", "In her soliloquy she reviews the conquests with which she has grown bored, then mourns the one instance when she failed.", "In not naming Ulysses himself, Doolittle universalises an emotion with which all women might identify.", "At the end of the century, British poet Carol Ann Duffy wrote a monologue entitled ''Circe'' which pictures the goddess addressing an audience of 'nereids and nymphs'.", "In this outspoken episode in the war between the sexes, Circe describes the various ways in which all parts of a pig could and should be cooked.Dosso Dossi's ''Circe and Her Lovers in a Landscape'' (c. 1525)Another indication of the progression in interpreting the Circe figure is given by two poems a century apart, both of which engage with paintings of her.", "The first is the sonnet that Dante Gabriel Rossetti wrote in response to Edward Burne-Jones' \"The Wine of Circe\" in his volume ''Poems'' (1870).", "It gives a faithful depiction of the painting's Pre-Raphaelite mannerism but its description of Circe's potion as 'distilled of death and shame' also accords with the contemporary (male) identification of Circe with perversity.", "This is further underlined by his statement (in a letter) that the black panthers there are 'images of ruined passion' and by his anticipation at the end of the poem of ''passion's tide-strown shore / Where the disheveled seaweed hates the sea''.", "The Australian A. D. Hope's \"Circe – after the painting by Dosso Dossi\", on the other hand, frankly admits humanity's animal inheritance as natural and something in which even Circe shares.", "In the poem, he links the fading rationality and speech of her lovers to her own animal cries in the act of love.There remain some poems that bear her name that have more to do with their writers' private preoccupations than with reinterpreting her myth.", "The link with it in Margaret Atwood's \"Circe/Mud Poems\", first published in ''You Are Happy'' (1974), is more a matter of allusion and is nowhere overtly stated beyond the title.", "It is a reflection on contemporary gender politics that scarcely needs the disguises of Augusta Webster's.", "With two other poems by male writers it is much the same: Louis Macneice's, for example, whose \"Circe\" appeared in his first volume, ''Poems'' (London, 1935); or Robert Lowell's, whose \"Ulysses and Circe\" appeared in his last, ''Day by Day'' (New York, 1977).", "Both poets have appropriated the myth to make a personal statement about their broken relationships.===Parallels and sequels===Several Renaissance epics of the 16th century include lascivious sorceresses based on the Circe figure.", "These generally live in an isolated spot devoted to pleasure, to which lovers are lured and later changed into beasts.", "They include the following:* Alcina in the ''Orlando Furioso'' (''Mad Roland,'' 1516, 1532) of Ludovico Ariosto, set at the time of Charlemagne.", "Among its many sub-plots is the episode in which the Saracen champion Ruggiero is taken captive by the sorceress and has to be freed from her magic island.", "* The lovers of Filidia in ''Il Tancredi'' (1632) by Ascanio Grandi (1567–1647) have been changed into monsters and are liberated by the virtuous Tancred.", "* Armida in Torquato Tasso's ''La Gerusalemme liberata'' (''Jerusalem Delivered'', 1566–1575, published 1580) is a Saracen sorceress sent by the infernal senate to sow discord among the Crusaders camped before Jerusalem, where she succeeds in changing a party of them into animals.", "Planning to assassinate the hero, Rinaldo, she falls in love with him instead and creates an enchanted garden where she holds him a lovesick prisoner who has forgotten his former identity.", "* Acrasia in Edmund Spenser's ''Faerie Queene'', mentioned above, is a seductress of knights and holds them enchanted in her Bower of Bliss.Later scholarship has identified elements from the character of both Circe and especially her fellow enchantress Medea as contributing to the development of the mediaeval legend of Morgan le Fay.", "In addition, it has been argued that the fairy Titania in William Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (1600) is an inversion of Circe.", "Titania (daughter of the Titans) was a title by which the sorceress was known in Classical times.", "In this case the tables are turned on the character, who is queen of the fairies.", "She is made to love an ass after, rather than before, he is transformed into his true animal likeness.leftIt has further been suggested that John Milton's ''Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle'' (1634) is a sequel to ''Tempe Restored,'' a masque in which Circe had figured two years earlier, and that the situation presented there is a reversal of the Greek myth.", "At the start of the masque, the character Comus is described as the son of Circe by Bacchus, god of wine, and the equal of his mother in enchantment.", "He too changes travelers into beastly forms that 'roll with pleasure in a sensual sty'.", "Having waylaid the heroine and immobilized her on an enchanted chair, he stands over her, wand in hand, and presses on her a magical cup (representing sexual pleasure and intemperance), which she repeatedly refuses, arguing for the virtuousness of temperance and chastity.", "The picture presented is a mirror image of the Classical story.", "In place of the witch who easily seduces the men she meets, a male enchanter is resisted by female virtue.In the 20th century, the Circe episode was to be re-evaluated in two poetic sequels to the ''Odyssey''.", "In the first of these, Giovanni Pascoli's ''L'Ultimo Viaggio'' (''The Last Voyage'', 1906), the aging hero sets out to rediscover the emotions of his youth by retracing his journey from Troy, only to discover that the island of Eea is deserted.", "What in his dream of love he had taken for the roaring of lions and Circe's song was now no more than the sound of the sea-wind in autumnal oaks (Cantos 16–17).This melancholy dispelling of illusion is echoed in ''The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel'' (1938) by Nikos Kazantzakis.", "The fresh voyage in search of new meaning to life recorded there grows out of the hero's initial rejection of his past experiences in the first two sections.", "The Circe episode is viewed by him as a narrow escape from death of the spirit: ''With twisted hands and thighs we rolled on burning sands, / a hanging mess of hissing vipers glued in sun!...", "/ Farewell the brilliant voyage, ended!", "Prow and soul / moored in the muddy port of the contented beast!", "/ O prodigal, much-traveled soul, is this your country?''", "His escape from this mire of sensuality comes one day when the sight of some fishermen, a mother and her baby enjoying the simple comforts of food and drink, recalls him to life, its duties and delights.", "Where the attempt by Pascoli's hero to recapture the past ended in failure, Kazantzakis' Odysseus, already realising the emptiness of his experiences, journeys into what he hopes will be a fuller future." ], [ "Visual representations", "===Ancient art===uprightScenes from the ''Odyssey'' are common on Greek pottery, the Circe episode among them.", "The two most common representations have Circe surrounded by the transformed sailors and Odysseus threatening the sorceress with his sword.", "In the case of the former, the animals are not always boars but also include, for instance, the ram, dog and lion on the 6th-century BC Boston kylix.", "Often the transformation is only partial, involving the head and perhaps a sprouting tail, while the rest of the body is human.", "In describing an otherwise obscure 5th-century Greek bronze in the Walters Art Museum that takes the form of a man on all fours with the foreparts of a pig, the commentator asks in what other way could an artist depict someone bewitched other than as a man with an animal head.", "In these scenes Circe is shown almost invariably stirring the potion with her wand, although the incident as described in Homer has her use the wand only to bewitch the sailors after they have refreshed themselves.", "One exception is the Berlin amphora on which the seated Circe holds the wand towards a half transformed man.In the second scene, Odysseus threatens the sorceress with a drawn sword, as Homer describes it.", "However, he is sometimes depicted carrying spears as well, as in the Athens lekythos, while Homer reports that it was a bow he had slung over his shoulder.", "In this episode Circe is generally shown in flight, and on the Erlangen lekythos can clearly be seen dropping the bowl and wand behind her.", "Two curiously primitive wine bowls incorporate the Homeric detail of Circe's handloom, at which the men approaching her palace could hear her singing sweetly as she worked.", "In the 5th-century skyphos from Boeotia an apparently crippled Odysseus leans on a crutch while a woman with African features holds out a disproportionately large bowl.", "In the other, a pot-bellied hero brandishes a sword while Circe stirs her potion.", "Both these may depict the scene as represented in one or other of the comic satyr plays which deal with their encounter.", "Little remains of these now beyond a few lines by Aeschylus, Ephippus of Athens and Anaxilas.", "Other vase paintings from the period suggest that Odysseus' half-transformed animal-men formed the chorus in place of the usual satyrs.", "The reason that it should be a subject of such plays is that wine drinking was often central to their plot.", "Later writers were to follow Socrates in interpreting the episode as illustrating the dangers of drunkenness.Other artefacts depicting the story include the chest of Cypselus described in the travelogue by Pausanias.", "Among its many carvings 'there is a grotto and in it a woman sleeping with a man upon a couch.", "I was of opinion that they were Odysseus and Circe, basing my view upon the number of the handmaidens in front of the grotto and upon what they are doing.", "For the women are four, and they are engaged on the tasks which Homer mentions in his poetry'.", "The passage in question describes how one of them 'threw linen covers over the chairs and spread fine purple fabrics on top.", "Another drew silver tables up to the chairs, and laid out golden dishes, while a third mixed sweet honeyed wine in a silver bowl, and served it in golden cups.", "The fourth fetched water and lit a roaring fire beneath a huge cauldron'.", "This suggests a work of considerable detail, while the Etruscan coffin preserved in Orvieto's archaeological museum has only four figures.", "At the centre Odysseus threatens Circe with drawn sword while an animal headed figure stands on either side, one of them laying his hand familiarly on the hero's shoulder.", "A bronze mirror relief in the Fitzwilliam Museum is also Etruscan and is inscribed with the names of the characters.", "There a pig is depicted at Circe's feet, while Odysseus and Elpenor approach her, swords drawn.===Portraits in character===During the 18th century painters began to portray individual actors in scenes from named plays.", "There was also a tradition of private performances, with a variety of illustrated works to help with stage properties and costumes.", "Among these was Thomas Jefferys' ''A Collection of the Dresses of Different Nations, Antient and Modern'' (1757–72) which included a copperplate engraving of a crowned Circe in loose dress, holding a goblet aloft in her right hand and a long wand in her left.", "Evidence of such performances during the following decades is provided by several portraits in character, of which one of the earliest was the pastel by Daniel Gardner (1750–1805) of \"Miss Elliot as Circe\".", "The artist had been a pupil of both George Romney and Joshua Reynolds, who themselves were soon to follow his example.", "On the 1778 engraving based on Gardner's portrait appear the lines from Milton's ''Comus'': ''The daughter of the Sun, whose charmed cup / Whoever tasted, lost his upright shape / And downward fell into a grovelling swine'', in compliment to the charm of this marriageable daughter of a country house.", "As in the Jefferys' plate, she wears a silver coronet over tumbled dark hair, with a wand in the right hand and a goblet in the left.", "In hindsight the frank eyes that look directly at the viewer and the rosebud mouth are too innocent for the role Miss Elliot is playing.The subjects of later paintings impersonating Circe have a history of sexual experience behind them, starting with \"Mary Spencer in the character of Circe\" by William Caddick, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1780.The subject here was the mistress of the painter George Stubbs.", "A portrait of \"Mrs Nesbitt as Circe\" by Reynolds followed in 1781.Though this lady's past was ambiguous, she had connections with those in power and was used by the Government as a secret agent.", "In the painting she is seated sideways, wearing a white, loose-fitting dress, with a wand in her right hand and a gilded goblet near her left.", "A monkey is crouching above her in the branches of a tree and a panther fraternizes with the kitten on her knee.", "While the painting undoubtedly alludes to her reputation, it also places itself within the tradition of dressing up in character.George Romney's portrait of Emma Hamilton as Circe.", "It was used to illustrate numerous books, including ''Wuthering Heights''Soon afterwards, the notorious Emma Hamilton was to raise this to an art form, partly by the aid of George Romney's many paintings of her impersonations.", "Romney's preliminary study of Emma's head and shoulders, at present in the Tate Gallery, with its piled hair, expressive eyes and mouth, is reminiscent of Samuel Gardener's portrait of Miss Elliot.", "In the full-length \"Lady Hamilton as Circe\" at Waddesdon Manor, she is placed in a wooded landscape with wolves snarling to her left, although the tiger originally there has now been painted out.", "Her left arm is raised to cast a spell while the wand points downward in her right.", "After Emma moved to Naples and joined Lord Hamilton, she developed what she called her \"Attitudes\" into a more public entertainment.", "Specially designed, loose-fitting tunics were paired with large shawls or veils as she posed in such a way as to evoke figures from Classical mythology.", "These developed from mere poses, with the audience guessing the names of the classical characters and scenes that she portrayed, into small, wordless charades.The tradition of dressing up in character continued into the following centuries.", "One of the photographic series by Julia Margaret Cameron, a pupil of the painter George Frederic Watts, was of mythical characters, for whom she used the children of friends and servants as models.", "Young Kate Keown sat for the head of \"Circe\" in about 1865 and is pictured wearing a grape and vineleaf headdress to suggest the character's use of wine to bring a change in personality.", "The society portrait photographer Yevonde Middleton, also known as Madame Yevonde, was to use a 1935 aristocratic charity ball as the foundation for her own series of mythological portraits in colour.", "Its participants were invited to her studio afterwards to pose in their costumes.", "There Baroness Dacre is pictured as Circe with a leafy headdress about golden ringlets and clasping a large Baroque porcelain goblet.A decade earlier, the illustrator Charles Edmund Brock extended into the 20th century what is almost a pastiche of the 18th-century conversation piece in his \"Circe and the Sirens\" (1925).", "In this the Honourable Edith Chaplin (1878–1959), Marchioness of Londonderry, and her three youngest daughters are pictured in a garden setting grouped about a large pet goat.", "Three women painters also produced portraits using the convention of the sitter in character.", "The earliest was Beatrice Offor (1864–1920), whose sitter's part in her 1911 painting of Circe is suggested by the vine-leaf crown in her long dark hair, the snake-twined goblet she carries and the snake bracelet on her left arm.", "Mary Cecil Allen was of Australian origin but was living in the United States at the time \"Miss Audrey Stevenson as Circe\" was painted (1930).", "Though only a head and shoulders sketch, its colouring and execution suggest the sitter's lively personality.", "Rosemary Valodon (born 1947), from the same country, painted a series of Australian personalities in her goddess series.", "\"Margarita Georgiadis as Circe\" (1991) is a triptych, the central panel of which portrays an updated, naked femme fatale reclining in tropical vegetation next to a pig's head.One painting at least depicts an actress playing the part of Circe.", "This is Franz von Stuck's striking portrait of Tilla Durieux as Circe (1913).", "She played this part in a Viennese revival of Calderon's play in 1912 and there is a publicity still of her by Isidor Hirsch in which she is draped across a sofa and wearing an elaborate crown.", "Her enticing expression and the turn of her head there is almost exactly that of Van Stuck's enchantress as she holds out the poisoned bowl.", "It suggests the use of certain posed publicity photos in creating the same iconic effect as had paintings in the past.", "A nearly contemporary example was the 1907 photo of Mme Geneviève Vix as Circe in the light opera by Lucien Hillenacher at the Opéra-Comique in Paris.", "The posing of the actress and the cropping of the image so as to highlight her luxurious costume demonstrates its ambition to create an effect that goes beyond the merely theatrical.", "A later example is the still of Silvana Mangano in her part as Circe in the 1954 film ''Ulysses'', which is as cunningly posed for effect." ], [ "Musical treatments", "===Cantata and song===alt=Beside the verse dramas, with their lyrical interludes, on which many operas were based, there were poetic texts which were set as secular cantatas.", "One of the earliest was Alessandro Stradella's ''La Circe'', in a setting for three voices that bordered on the operatic.", "It was first performed at Frascati in 1667 to honour Cardinal Leopoldo de Medici and contained references to its surroundings.", "In the opening recitative, Circe explains that it was her son Telegonus who founded Frascati.", "The other characters with whom she enters into dialogue are the south wind (Zeffiro) and the local river Algido.", "In the following century, Antonio Vivaldi's cantata ''All'ombra di sospetto'' (In the shadow of doubt, RV 678) is set for a single voice and depicts Circe addressing Ulysses.", "The countertenor part is accompanied by flute, harpsichord, cello, and theorbo and features two recitatives and two arias.", "The piece is famous for the dialogue created between flute and voice, conjuring the moment of flirtation before the two become lovers.The most successful treatment of the Ulysses episode in French was Jean-Baptiste Rousseau's poem ''Circé'' (1703), that was specifically written to be a cantata.", "The different verse forms employed allow the piece to be divided by the musicians that set it in order to express a variety of emotions.", "The poem opens with the abandoned Circe sitting on a high mountain and mourning the departure of Ulysses.", "The sorceress then calls on the infernal gods and makes a terrible sacrifice: ''A myriad vapours obscure the light, / The stars of the night interrupt their course, / Astonished rivers retreat to their source / And even Death's god trembles in the dark''.", "But though the earth is shaken to its core, Love is not to be commanded in this way and the wintery fields come back to life.The earliest setting was by Jean-Baptiste Morin in 1706 and was popular for most of the rest of the century.", "One of its final moralising minuets, ''Ce n'est point par effort qu'on aime'' (Love won't be forced) was often performed independently and the score reprinted in many song collections.", "The flautist Michel Blavet arranged the music for this and the poem's final stanza, ''Dans les champs que l'Hiver désole'' (In the fields that Winter wastes), for two flutes in 1720.The new setting of the cantata three years later by Francois Collin de Blamont was equally successful and made the name of its nineteen-year-old composer.", "Originally for voice and bass continuo, it was expanded and considerably revised in 1729, with parts for flute, violin and viol added.", "Towards the end of the century, the choral setting by Georges Granges de Fontenelle (1769–1819) was equally to bring its young composer fame.Rousseau's poem was also familiar to composers of other nationalities.", "Set for mezzo-soprano and full orchestra, it was given almost operatic treatment by the court composer Luigi Cherubini in 1789.Franz Seydelmann set it for soprano and full orchestra in Dresden in 1787 at the request of the Russian ambassador to the Saxon Court, Prince Alexander Belosselsky, who spoke highly of Seydelmann's work.", "A later setting by Austrian composer Sigismond von Neukomm for soprano and full orchestra (Op.", "4, 1810) was judged favorably by French musicologist Jacques Chailley in his 1966 article for the journal ''Revue des études slaves''.Recent treatments of the Circe theme include the Irish composer Gerard Victory's radio cantata ''Circe 1991'' (1973–75), David Gribble's ''A Threepenny Odyssey'', a fifteen-minute cantata for young people which includes the episode on Circe's Isle, and Malcolm Hayes' ''Odysseus remembers'' (2003–04), which includes parts for Circe, Anticleia and Tiresias.", "Gerald Humel's song cycle ''Circe'' (1998) grew out of his work on his 1993 ballet with Thomas Höft.", "The latter subsequently wrote seven poems in German featuring Circe's role as seductress in a new light: here it is to freedom and enlightenment that she tempts her hearers.", "Another cycle of ''Seven Songs for High Voice and Piano'' (2008) by the American composer Martin Hennessey includes the poem \"Circe's Power\" from Louise Glück's ''Meadowlands'' (1997).There have also been treatments of Circe in popular music, in particular the relation of the Odysseus episode in Friedrich Holländer's song of 1958.In addition, text in Homeric Greek is included in the \"Circe's Island\" episode in David Bedford's ''The Odyssey'' (1976).", "This was the ancestor of several later electronic suites that reference the Odysseus legend, with \"Circe\" titles among them, having little other programmatic connection with the myth itself.===Classical ballet and programmatic music===After classical ballet separated from theatrical spectacle into a wordless form in which the story is expressed solely through movement, the subject of Circe was rarely visited.", "It figured as the first episode of three with mythological themes in ''Les Fêtes Nouvelles'' (''New Shows''), staged by Sieur Duplessis le cadet in 1734, but the work was taken off after its third performance and not revived.", "The choreographer Antoine Pitrot also staged ''Ulysse dans l'isle de Circée'', describing it as a ''ballet sérieux, heroï-pantomime'' in 1764.Thereafter there seems to be nothing until the revival of ballet in the 20th century.Circe enchanting Ulysses in the 2012 revival of Martha Graham's ''Circe''In 1963, the American choreographer Martha Graham created her ''Circe'' with a score by Alan Hovhaness.", "Its theme is psychological, representing the battle with animal instincts.", "The beasts portrayed extend beyond swine and include a goat, a snake, a lion and a deer.", "The theme has been described as one of 'highly charged erotic action', although set in 'a world where sexual frustration is rampant'.", "In that same decade Rudolf Brucci composed his ''Kirka'' (1967) in Croatia.There is a Circe episode in John Harbison's ''Ulysses'' (Act 1, scene 2, 1983) in which the song of the enchantress is represented by ondes Martenot and tuned percussion.", "After the sailors of Ullyses are transformed into animals by her spell, a battle of wills follows between Circe and the hero.", "Though the men are changed back, Ulysses is charmed by her in his turn.", "In 1993, a full scale treatment of the story followed in Gerald Humel's two-act ''Circe und Odysseus''.", "Also psychological in intent, it represents Circe's seduction of the restless hero as ultimately unsuccessful.", "The part played by the geometrical set in its Berlin production was particularly notable.While operas on the subject of Circe did not cease, they were overtaken for a while by the new musical concept of the symphonic poem which, whilst it does not use a sung text, similarly seeks a union of music and drama.", "A number of purely musical works fall into this category from the late 19th century onwards, of which one of the first was Heinrich von Herzogenberg's ''Odysseus'' (Op.16, 1873).", "A Wagnerian symphony for large orchestra, dealing with the hero's return from the Trojan war, its third section is titled \"Circe's Gardens\" (''Die Gärten der Circe'').In the 20th century, 's cycle ''Aus Odysseus Fahrten'' (''From Odysseus' Voyage'', Op.", "6, 1903) was equally programmatic and included the visit to Circe's Isle (''Die Insel der Circe'') as its second long section.", "After a depiction of the sea voyage, a bass clarinet passage introduces an ensemble of flute, harp and solo violin over a lightly orchestrated accompaniment, suggesting Circe's seductive attempt to hold Odysseus back from traveling further.", "Alan Hovhaness' ''Circe Symphony'' (No.18, Op.", "204a, 1963) is a late example of such programmatic writing.", "It is, in fact, only a slightly changed version of his ballet music of that year, with the addition of more strings, a second timpanist and celesta.With the exception of Willem Frederik Bon's prelude for orchestra (1972), most later works have been for a restricted number of instruments.", "They include Hendrik de Regt's ''Circe'' (Op.", "44, 1975) for clarinet, violin and piano; Christian Manen's ''Les Enchantements De Circe'' (Op.", "96, 1975) for bassoon and piano; and Jacques Lenot's ''Cir(c)é'' (1986) for oboe d'amore.", "The German experimental musician Dieter Schnebel's ''Circe'' (1988) is a work for harp, the various sections of which are titled ''Signale'' (signals), ''Säuseln'' (whispers), ''Verlockungen'' (enticements), ''Pein'' (pain), ''Schläge'' (strokes) and ''Umgarnen'' (snare), which give some idea of their programmatic intent.Thea Musgrave's \"Circe\" for three flutes (1996) was eventually to become the fourth piece in her six-part ''Voices from the Ancient World'' for various combinations of flute and percussion (1998).", "Her note on these explains that their purpose is to 'describe some of the personages of ancient Greece' and that Circe was 'the enchantress who changed men into beasts'.", "A recent reference is the harpsichordist Fernando De Luca's Sonata II for viola da gamba titled \"Circe's Cave\" (''L'antro della maga Circe'').=== Opera ===* ''La Circe'' by Pietro Andrea Ziani, first performed for the birthday of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in Vienna in 1665.", "* ''Circe'', an opera composed by Henri Desmarets in 1694.", "* ''La Circe'', a 1779 ''opera seria'' by Josef Mysliveček.", "* Rolf Riehm's 2014 opera ''Sirenen'' is based on Homer's account as well as several modern texts related to the meeting of Odysseus and Circe." ], [ "Scientific interpretations", "In later Christian opinion, Circe was an abominable witch using miraculous powers to evil ends.", "When the existence of witches came to be questioned, she was reinterpreted as a depressive suffering from delusions.In botany, the Circaea are plants belonging to the enchanter's nightshade genus.", "The name was given by botanists in the late 16th century in the belief that this was the herb used by Circe to charm Odysseus' companions.", "Medical historians have speculated that the transformation to pigs was not intended literally but refers to anticholinergic intoxication with the plant ''Datura stramonium''.", "Symptoms include amnesia, hallucinations, and delusions.", "The description of \"moly\" fits the snowdrop, a flower that contains galantamine, which is a long lasting anticholinesterase and can therefore counteract anticholinergics that are introduced to the body after it has been consumed." ], [ "Other influence", "The ''gens Mamilia'' – described by Livy as one of the most distinguished families of Latium – claimed descent from Mamilia, a granddaughter of Odysseus and Circe through Telegonus.", "One of the most well known of them was Octavius Mamilius (died 498 BC), princeps of Tusculum and son-in-law of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus the seventh and last king of Rome.", "* Linnaeus named a genus of the Venus clams (Veneridae) after Circe in 1778 (species ''Circe scripta'' (Linnaeus, 1758) and others).", "* Her name has been given to 34 Circe, a large, dark main-belt asteroid first sighted in 1855.", "* There are a variety of chess variants named Circe in which captured pieces are reborn on their starting positions.", "The rules for this were formulated in 1968.", "* The Circe effect, coined by the enzymologist William Jencks, refers to a scenario where an enzyme lures its substrate towards it through electrostatic forces exhibited by the enzyme molecule before transforming it into a product.", "Where this takes place, the catalytic velocity (rate of reaction) of the enzyme may be significantly faster than that of others." ], [ "In popular culture" ], [ "Genealogy" ], [ "See also", "* Nostalgie de la boue* Urganda – a figure in Iberian myth often identified as Circe.", "* Perimede – a Greek mythological witch.", "* Greek Magical Papyri" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Ancient===* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Apollonius of Rhodes, ''Argonautica''; with an English translation by R. C. Seaton.", "William Heinemann, 1912.", "* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Vergil, ''Aeneid.''", "Theodore C. Williams.", "trans.", "Boston.", "Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Ovid.", "''Metamorphoses''.", "Translated by A. D. Melville; introduction and notes by E. J. Kenney, Oxford University Press, 2008.", "* Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''The Myths of Hyginus''.", "Edited and translated by Mary A.", "Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Remedia Amoris'' in ''The Love Poems: The Amores, Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris'', with an English translation by A. S. Kline.", "2001.Full text available at poetryintranslation.com.", "* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888-1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Maurus Servius Honoratus, ''In Vergilii carmina comentarii.", "Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii;'' recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen.", "Georgius Thilo.", "Leipzig.", "B. G. Teubner.", "1881.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Plutarch, ''Moralia''.", "16 vols.", "(vol.", "13: 13.1 & 13.2, vol.", "16: index), transl.", "by Frank Cole Babbitt (vol.", "1–5) et al., series: \"Loeb Classical Library\" (LCL, vols.", "197–499).", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press et al., 1927–2004.", "* Parthenius of Nicaea, ''Parthenius of Nicaea: the poetical fragments and the Erōtika pathēmata'' J.L.", "Lightfoot, 2000, .", "Reviewed by Christopher Francese at The Bryn Mawr Classical Review* Lactantius Placidus, ''Commentarii in Statii Thebaida''.", "* Strabo, ''The Geographica'', published in Vol.", "II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1923.===Modern===* Grimal, Pierre, ''The Dictionary of Classical Mythology'', Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, .", "\"Circe\" p.", "104.", "* Milton, John, A Masque Presented at Ludlow Castle Comus line 153 \"mother Circe\".", "* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873).", "\"Circe\"." ], [ "External links", "* CIRCE on The Theoi Project* CIRCE on Greek Mythology Link* CIRCE from greekmythology.com* CIRCE from mythopedia*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CPR (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "Cardiopulmonary resuscitation ('''CPR''') is an emergency procedure to assist someone who has suffered cardiac arrest.", "'''CPR''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* ''Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals'', a taxonomy to define situations requiring a referral from pharmacists to physicians* Continuous Plankton Recorder, marine biological monitoring program* Cubase Project Files, work files used in Steinberg Cubase* Cytochrome P450 reductase, an enzyme* Cursor Position Report, an ANSI X3.64 escape sequence* Candidate phyla radiation, bacteria precursors.", "* Competent Persons Report, in Oil and Gas; see Lancaster oilfield* COM port redirection in computing" ], [ "Organizations", "*American Bar Association Model Code of Professional Responsibility*Center for Performance Research*Centre for Policy Research, a think tank in New Delhi, India*Chicago Project Room, former art gallery in Chicago and Los Angeles*Communist Party of Réunion, in the French ''département'' of Réunion*Communist Party of Russia (disambiguation), various meanings*Congress for the Republic, a Tunisian political party*Conservatives for Patients' Rights, a pressure group founded and funded by Rick Scott that argues for private insurance methods to pay for healthcare*''Det Centrale Personregister'' (Civil Registration System), Denmark's nationwide civil registry" ], [ "Transportation", "*Canadian Pacific Railway, serving major cities in Canada and the northeastern US*Car plate recognition, or automatic number plate recognition*Casper–Natrona County International Airport (IATA Code), in Casper, Wyoming, US *Cornelius Pass Road, in Oregon, US* Compact Position Reporting, a method of encoding an aircraft's latitude and longitude in ADS-B position messages" ], [ "Entertainment and music", "*Chicago Public Radio, former name of WBEZ*''Club Penguin Rewritten'', 2017 fangame*Colorado Public Radio*CPR (band) or Crosby, Pevar & Raymond, a former rock/jazz band**''CPR'' (album)*Corporate Punishment Records, a record label*''CPR'' (EP), a 2003 EP by Dolour*\"CPR\", a song by CupcakKe from the album ''Queen Elizabitch''" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Calendar of the Patent Rolls'', a book series translating and summarising the medieval Patent Rolls documents* Chinese People's Republic, another alternate official name for China (UNDP country code CPR)* Civil Procedure Rules, a civil court procedure rules for England and Wales* Common-pool resource, a type of good, including a resource system* Common property regime* Concrete Pavement Restoration, a method used by the International Grooving & Grinding Association* Conditional Prepayment Rate, a measurement for Prepayment of loan* Condominium Property Regime, a type of condominium conversion common in Hawai'i* Construction Products Regulation, Regulation (EU) No.", "305/2011* ''Critique of Pure Reason'', a 1781 philosophical work by Immanuel Kant* Corporate political responsibility, a corporate responsibility concept" ], [ "See also", "*CPR-1000, a Generation II+ pressurized water reactor* * *Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR), between California and Utah, US*Carolwood Pacific Railroad (CPRR)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canadian Pacific Railway" ], [ "Introduction", "An eastbound CPR freight train at Stoney Creek Bridge descending from Rogers PassThe '''Canadian Pacific Railway''' () , also known simply as '''CPR''' or '''Canadian Pacific''' and formerly as '''CP Rail''' (1968–1996), was a Canadian Class I railway incorporated in 1881.The railway was owned by '''Canadian Pacific Railway Limited''', which began operations as legal owner in a corporate restructuring in 2001.Headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, the railway owned approximately of track in seven provinces of Canada and into the United States, stretching from Montreal to Vancouver, and as far north as Edmonton.", "Its rail network also served Minneapolis–St.", "Paul, Milwaukee, Detroit, Chicago, and Albany, New York, in the United States.The railway was first built between eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885 (connecting with Ottawa Valley and Georgian Bay area lines built earlier), fulfilling a commitment extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871; the CPR was Canada's first transcontinental railway.", "Primarily a freight railway, the CPR was for decades the only practical means of long-distance passenger transport in most regions of Canada and was instrumental in the settlement and development of Western Canada.", "The CPR became one of the largest and most powerful companies in Canada, a position it held as late as 1975.The company acquired two American lines in 2009: the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad (DM&E) and the Iowa, Chicago and Eastern Railroad (IC&E).", "The trackage of the IC&E was at one time part of CP subsidiary Soo Line and predecessor line The Milwaukee Road.", "The combined DM&E/IC&E system spanned North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska and Iowa, with two lines stretching into Kansas City, Missouri, and Chicago, Illinois.", "Also, the company owns the Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad, a Hammond, Indiana-based terminal railroad along with Conrail Shared Assets Operations.", "CP's ownership of that railroad traces back to the Soo Line's ownership, inherited from the Milwaukee Road.The CPR is publicly traded on both the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker CP.", "Its U.S. headquarters are in Minneapolis.", "As of March 30, 2023, the largest shareholder of Canadian Pacific stock exchange is TCI Fund Management Limited, a London-based hedge fund that owns 6% of the company.CP purchased the Kansas City Southern Railway in December 2021 for .", "On April 14, 2023, the railroads merged to form CPKC, the first and only railroad to directly serve Canada, Mexico and the United States." ], [ "History", "The creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was originally undertaken as the National Dream by the Conservative government of John A. Macdonald, together with mining magnate Alexander Tilloch Galt.", "As a condition for joining the Canadian Confederation, British Columbia had insisted on a transport link to the East, with the rest of the Confederation.", "In 1873, Macdonald, among other high-ranking politicians, bribed in the Pacific Scandal, granted contracts to the Canada Pacific Railway Company, which was unrelated to the current company, as opposed to the Inter-Ocean Railway Company, which was thought to have connections to the Northern Pacific Railway Company in the United States.", "After this scandal, the Conservatives were removed from power, and Alexander Mackenzie, the new Liberal prime minister, ordered construction of the railway under the supervision of the Department of Public Works.", "Macdonald would later return as prime minister and adopt a more aggressive construction policy; bonds were floated in London and called for tenders to complete sections of the railway in British Columbia.", "American contractor Andrew Onderdonk was selected, and his men began construction on 15 May 1880.In October 1880, a new consortium signed a contract with the Macdonald government, agreeing to build the railway for $25 million in credit and of land.", "In addition, the government defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years.A beaver was chosen as the railway's logo in honour of Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal, who had risen from factor to governor of the Hudson's Bay Company over a lengthy career in the beaver fur trade.===Building the railway, 1881–1886===Canadian Pacific Railway Crew laying tracks at lower Fraser Valley, 1883Building the railway took over four years.", "The Canadian Pacific Railway began its westward expansion from Bonfield, Ontario, where the first spike was driven into a sunken railway tie.", "That was the point where the Canada Central Railway (CCR) extension ended.", "The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke.", "It then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River and continued to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa rivers.", "It then proceeded to Bonfield.", "It was presumed that the railway would travel through the rich \"Fertile Belt\" of the North Saskatchewan River Valley and cross the Rocky Mountains via the Yellowhead Pass.", "However, a more southerly route across the arid Palliser's Triangle in Saskatchewan and via Kicking Horse Pass and down the Field Hill to the Rocky Mountain Trench was chosen.", "William Cornelius Van HorneIn 1881, construction progressed at a pace too slow for the railway's officials who, in 1882, hired the renowned railway executive William Cornelius Van Horne to oversee construction.", "Van Horne stated that he would have of main line built in 1882.Floods delayed the start of the construction season, but over of main line, as well as sidings and branch lines, were built that year.", "The Thunder Bay branch (west from Fort William) was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883.By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just east of Kicking Horse Pass.Many thousands of navvies worked on the railway.", "Many were European immigrants.", "In British Columbia, government contractors eventually hired 17,000 workers from China, known as \"coolies\".", "After 2 months of hard labour, they could net as little as $16 ($ in adjusted for inflation) Chinese labourers in British Columbia made only between 75 cents and $1.25 a day, paid in rice mats, and not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home.", "They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with explosives to clear tunnels through rock.", "The exact number of Chinese workers who died is unknown, but historians estimate the number is between 600 and 800.By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of funds.", "In response, on 31 January 1884, the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22.5 million in loans to the CPR.", "The bill received royal assent on 6 March 1884.Donald Smith, later known as Lord Strathcona, drives the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway, at Craigellachie, 7 November 1885.Completion of the transcontinental railway was a condition of BC's entry into Confederation.In March 1885, the North-West Rebellion broke out in the District of Saskatchewan.", "Van Horne, in Ottawa at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to Qu'Appelle, Assiniboia, in 10 days.", "Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion quickly suppressed.", "Controversially, the government subsequently reorganized the CPR's debt and provided a further $5 million loan.", "This money was desperately needed by the CPR.", "Even with Van Horne's support with moving troops to Qu'Appelle, the government still delayed in giving its support to CPR, due to Macdonald pressuring George Stephen for additional benefits.Telegram to Prime Minister John A. Macdonald announcing the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 7 November 1885On 7 November 1885, the last spike was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia.", "Four days earlier, the last spike of the Lake Superior section was driven in just west of Jackfish, Ontario.", "While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed more than five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881.In Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to St. Thomas, Ontario, by 1885 mainly by buying the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa & Occidental Railway from the Quebec government and by creating a new railway company, the Ontario and Quebec Railway (O&Q).", "It also launched a fleet of Great Lakes ships to link its terminals.", "Through the O&Q, the CPR had effected purchases and long-term leases of several railways, and built a line between Perth, Ontario, and Toronto (completed on 5 May 1884) to connect these acquisitions.", "The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&Q on 4 January 1884.In 1895, it acquired a minority interest in the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway, giving it a link to New York and the Northeast United States.===1886–1900===The system in 1906, soon after the construction of the transcontinental railwayThe last spike in the CPR was driven on 7 November 1885, by one of its directors, Donald Smith.The first transcontinental passenger train departed from Montreal's Dalhousie Station, located at Berri Street and Notre Dame Street at 8 pm on 28 June 1886, and arrived at Port Moody at noon on 4 July.", "This train consisted of two baggage cars, a mail car, one second-class coach, two immigrant sleepers, two first-class coaches, two sleeping cars and a diner (several dining cars were used throughout the journey, as they were removed from the train during the night, with another one added the next morning).Port Arthur on 30 June 1886By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to Granville, which was renamed \"Vancouver\" later that year.", "The first official train destined for Vancouver arrived on 23 May 1887, although the line had already been in use for three months.", "The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the federal government were repaid years ahead of time.", "In 1888, a branch line was opened between Sudbury and Sault Ste.", "Marie where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own steamships.", "That same year, work was started on a line from London, Ontario, to the Canada–US border at Windsor, Ontario.", "That line opened on 12 June 1890.The CPR also leased the New Brunswick Railway in 1891 for 991 years, and built the International Railway of Maine, connecting Montreal with Saint John, New Brunswick, in 1889.The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company in Canada and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when sea ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence closed the port of Montreal during the winter months.", "By 1896, competition with the Great Northern Railway for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line.", "Van Horne, now president of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from Lethbridge, Alberta, through Crowsnest Pass to the south shore of Kootenay Lake, in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada.The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on grain products and westbound rates on certain \"settlers' effects\" at the 1897 level.", "Although temporarily suspended during the First World War, it was not until 1983 that the \"Crow Rate\" was permanently replaced by the ''Western Grain Transportation Act'', which allowed the gradual increase of grain shipping prices.", "The Crowsnest Pass line opened on 18 June 1898, and followed a complicated route through the maze of valleys and passes in southern British Columbia, rejoining the original mainline at Hope after crossing the Cascade Mountains via Coquihalla Pass.The Southern Mainline, generally known as the Kettle Valley Railway in British Columbia, was built in response to the booming mining and smelting economy in southern British Columbia, and the tendency of the local geography to encourage and enable easier access from neighbouring US states than from Vancouver or the rest of Canada, which was viewed to be as much of a threat to national security as it was to the province's control of its own resources.", "The local passenger service was re-routed to this new southerly line, which connected numerous emergent small cities across the region.", "Independent railways and subsidiaries that were eventually merged into the CPR in connection with this route were the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway, the Kaslo and Slocan Railway, the Columbia and Kootenay Railway, the Columbia and Western Railway and various others.====Settlement of western Canada====One of the CPR's land offerings, 1883Under the initial contract with the Canadian government to build the railway, the CPR was granted .", "Canadian Pacific then began an intense campaign to bring immigrants to Canada; its agents operated in many overseas locations, where immigrants were often sold a package that included passage on a CP ship, travel on a CP train and land sold by the CP railway.", "Land was priced at $2.50 an acre and up but required cultivation.", "To transport immigrants, Canadian Pacific developed a fleet of over a thousand Colonist cars, low-budget sleeper cars designed to transport immigrant families from eastern Canadian seaports to the west.===1901–1928===CPR advertisement highlighting \"Free Farms for the Million\" in western Canada, circa 1893During the first decade of the 20th century, the CPR continued to build more lines.", "In 1908, the CPR opened a line connecting Toronto with Sudbury.", "Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in Western Canada.Lethbridge ViaductOn 3 November 1909, the Lethbridge Viaduct over the Oldman River valley at Lethbridge, Alberta, was opened.", "It is long and, at its maximum, high, making it one of the longest railway bridges in Canada.", "In 1916, the CPR replaced its line through Rogers Pass, which was prone to avalanches (the most serious of which killed 62 men in 1910) with the Connaught Tunnel, an eight-kilometre-long (5-mile) tunnel under Mount Macdonald that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the Western Hemisphere.C.P.R.", "railway locomotive 2860On 21 January 1910, a passenger train derailed on the CPR line at the Spanish River bridge at Nairn, Ontario (near Sudbury), killing at least 43.On 3 January 1912, the CPR acquired the Dominion Atlantic Railway, a railway that ran in western Nova Scotia.", "This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to Halifax, a significant port on the Atlantic Ocean.", "The CPR acquired the Quebec Central Railway on 14 December 1912.During the late 19th century, the railway undertook an ambitious programme of hotel construction, building Glacier House in Glacier National Park, Mount Stephen House at Field, British Columbia, the Château Frontenac in Quebec City and the Banff Springs Hotel.", "By then, the CPR had competition from three other transcontinental lines, all of them money-losers.", "In 1919, these lines were consolidated into the government-owned Canadian National Railways.===First World War===During the First World War, CPR put the entire resources of the \"world's greatest travel system\" at the disposal of the British Empire, not only trains and tracks, but also its ships, shops, hotels, telegraphs and, above all, its people.", "Aiding the war effort meant transporting and billeting troops; building and supplying arms and munitions; arming, lending and selling ships.", "Fifty-two CPR ships were pressed into service during World War I, carrying more than a million troops and passengers and four million tons of cargo.", "Twenty seven survived and returned to CPR.", "CPR also helped the war effort with money and jobs.", "CPR made loans and guarantees to the Allies of some $100 million.", "As a lasting tribute, CPR commissioned three statues and 23 memorial tablets to commemorate the efforts of those who fought and those who died in the war.", "After the war, the Federal government created Canadian National Railways (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war.", "CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada.", "In 1923, Henry Worth Thornton replaced David Blyth Hanna becoming the second president of the CNR, and his competition spurred Edward Wentworth Beatty, the first Canadian-born president of the CPR, to action.", "During this time the railway land grants were formalized.===Great Depression and the Second World War, 1929–1945===Strikers from unemployment relief camps climbing on boxcars as part of the On-to-Ottawa Trek, 1935The Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily.", "While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the extent of its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free.", "The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932.Hard times led to the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.One highlight of the late 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth during their 1939 royal tour of Canada, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country.", "The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver.", "Later that year, the Second World War began.", "As it had done in World War I, the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort.", "It retooled its Angus Shops in Montreal to produce Valentine tanks and other armoured vehicles, and transported troops and resources across the country.", "Additionally, 22 of the CPR's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.===1946–1978===The Multimark logo was used from 1968 to 1987, when it fell out of favour.", "It was sometimes referred to as the 'Pac-Man' logo, after the popular 1980s video game of the same name.CPR train step stool (Calgary station) c. 1950After the Second World War, the transportation industry in Canada changed.", "Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, cars, trucks and airplanes started to take traffic away from railways.", "This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities.", "However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable.", "During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service.", "In 1955, it introduced ''The Canadian,'' a new luxury transcontinental train.", "However, in the 1960s, the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines.", "It also discontinued its secondary transcontinental train ''The Dominion'' in 1966, and in 1970, unsuccessfully applied to discontinue ''The Canadian''.", "For the next eight years, it continued to apply to discontinue the service, and service on ''The Canadian'' declined markedly.", "On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that is responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN.", "Via eventually took almost all of its passenger trains, including ''The Canadian'', off CP's lines.In 1968, as part of a corporate reorganization, each of the major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries.", "The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to Canadian Pacific Limited in 1971.Its air, express, telecommunications, hotel and real estate holdings were spun off, and ownership of all of the companies transferred to Canadian Pacific Investments.", "The slogan was: \"TO THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD\" The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new Multimark (which, when mirrored by an adjacent \"multi-mark\" creates a diamond appearance on a globe) that was used – with a different colour background – for each of its operations.===1979–2001======= The 1979 Mississauga train derailment ====On 10 November 1979, a derailment of a hazardous materials train in Mississauga, Ontario, led to the evacuation of 200,000 people; there were no fatalities.", "Mississauga Mayor Hazel McCallion threatened to sue Canadian Pacific for the derailment.", "Part of the compromise was to accept GO Transit commuter rail service along the Galt Subdivision corridor up to Milton, Ontario.", "Limited trains ran along the Milton line on weekdays only.", "Expansions to Cambridge, Ontario may be coming in the future.In 1984, CP Rail commenced construction of the Mount Macdonald Tunnel to augment the Connaught Tunnel under the Selkirk Mountains.", "The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988.At 14.7 km (nine miles), it is the longest tunnel in the Americas.", "During the 1980s, the Soo Line Railroad, in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes.", "It acquired the Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway in 1982.Then on 21 February 1985, the Soo Line obtained a controlling interest in the bankrupt Milwaukee Road, merging it into its system on 1 January 1986.Also in 1980, Canadian Pacific bought out the controlling interests of the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway (TH&B) from Conrail and molded it into the Canadian Pacific System, dissolving the TH&B's name from the books in 1985.In 1987, most of CPR's trackage in the Great Lakes region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the Wisconsin Central, which was subsequently purchased by CN.", "Influenced by the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1989, which liberalized trade between the two nations, the CPR's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, adding the \"System\" to the former's name, and bought the Delaware and Hudson Railway in 1991.These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line and Milwaukee Road as part of its historically logical route) and New York City (via the D&H).During the 1990s, both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization.", "In 1996, CP Rail moved its head office from Windsor Station in Montreal to Gulf Canada Square in Calgary and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway.A new subsidiary company, the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway, was created to operate its money-losing lines in eastern North America, covering Quebec, Southern and Eastern Ontario, trackage rights to Chicago, Illinois, (on Norfolk Southern lines from Detroit) as well as the Delaware and Hudson Railway in the northeastern United States.", "However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off money-losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn-around in profitability.", "On 1 January 2001 the StL&H was formally amalgamated with the CP Rail system.===2001 to 2023===In 2001, the CPR's parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies.", "In September 2007, CPR announced it was acquiring the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad from London-based Electra Private Equity.", "The merger was completed as of 31 October 2008.Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd. trains resumed regular operations on 1 June 2012 after a nine-day strike by some 4,800 locomotive engineers, conductors and traffic controllers who walked off the job on 23 May, stalling Canadian freight traffic and costing the economy an estimated ().", "The strike ended with a government back-to-work bill forcing both sides to come to a binding agreement.On 6 July 2013, a unit train of crude oil which CP had subcontracted to short-line operator Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway derailed in Lac-Mégantic, killing 47.On 14 August 2013, the Quebec government added the CPR, along with lessor World Fuel Services (WFS), to the list of corporate entities from which it seeks reimbursement for the environmental cleanup of the Lac-Mégantic derailment.", "On 15 July, the press reported that CP would appeal the legal order.On 12 October 2014 it was reported that Canadian Pacific had tried to enter into a merger with American railway CSX, but was unsuccessful.In 2015–16 Canadian Pacific sought to merge with American railway Norfolk Southern.", "and wanted to have a shareholder vote on it.", "CP ultimately terminated its efforts to merge on 11 April 2016.On 4 February 2019, a loaded grain train ran away from the siding at Partridge just above the Upper Spiral Tunnel in Kicking Horse Pass.", "The 112-car grain train with three locomotives derailed into the Kicking Horse River just after the Trans Canada Highway overpass.", "The three crew members on the lead locomotive were killed.", "The Canadian Pacific Police Service (CPPS) investigated the fatal derailment.", "It later came to light that, although Creel said that the RCMP \"retain jurisdiction\" over the investigation, the RCMP wrote that \"it never had jurisdiction because the crash happened on CP property\".", "On 26 January 2020, Canadian current affairs program ''The Fifth Estate'' broadcast an episode on the derailment, and the next day the Canadian Transportation Safety Board (TSB) called for the RCMP to investigate as lead investigator Don Crawford said, \"There is enough to suspect there's negligence here and it needs to be investigated by the proper authority\".On 4 February 2020, the TSB demoted its lead investigator in the crash probe after his superiors decided these comments were \"completely inappropriate\".", "The TSB stated that it \"does not share the view of the lead safety investigator\".", "The CPPS say they did a thorough investigation into the actions of the crew, which is now closed and resulted in no charges, while the Alberta Federation of Labour and the Teamsters Canada Rail Conference called for an independent police probe.On 20 November 2019, it was announced that Canadian Pacific would purchase the Central Maine and Quebec Railway from Fortress Transportation and Infrastructure Investors.", "The line had had a series of different owners since being spun off of the Canadian Pacific in 1995.The first operator was the Canadian American Railroad a division of Iron Road Railways.", "In 2002 the Montreal, Maine & Atlantic took over operations after CDAC declared bankruptcy.", "The Central, Maine and Quebec Railway started operations in 2014 after the MMA declared bankruptcy due to the Lac-Mégantic derailment.", "On this new acquisition, CP CEO Keith Creel remarked that this gives CP a true coast-to-coast network across Canada and an increased presence in New England.", "On June 4, 2020; Canadian Pacific bought the Central Maine and Quebec.==== Merger with Kansas City Southern (2021–2023) ====On March 21, 2021, CP announced that it was planning to purchase the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) for US$29 billion.", "The US Surface Transportation Board (STB) would first have to approve the purchase, which was expected to be completed by the middle of 2022.However, a competing cash and stock offer was later made by Canadian National Railway (CN) on April 20 at $33.7 billion.", "On May 13, KCS announced that they planned to accept the merger offer from CN, but would give CP until May 21 to come up with a higher bid.", "On May 21, KCS and CN agreed to a merger.", "However, CN's merger attempt was blocked by a STB ruling in August that the company could not use a voting trust to assume control of KCS, due to concerns about potentially reduced competition in the railroad industry.On September 12, KCS accepted a new $31 billion offer from CP.", "Though CP's offer was lower than the offer made by CN, the STB permitted CP to use a voting trust to take control of KCS.", "The voting trust allowed CP to become the beneficial owner of KCS in December, but the two railroads operated independently until receiving approval for a merger of operations from the STB.", "That approval came on March 15, 2023, which permitted the railroads to merge as soon as April 14.Post merger, the combined railroad would rebrand under a new name: Canadian Pacific Kansas City (CPKC).", "On April 14, 2023, CP and the Kansas City Southern Railway merged into one, forming CPKC." ], [ "Freight trains", "CP EMD SD90MAC locomotive in Thunder Bay, OntarioGE ES44AC CP 8863 in Campbellville, OntarioSoo Line 6022, an EMD SD60, pulls a train through Wisconsin Dells, WI, 20 June 2004.Over half of CP's freight traffic is in grain (24% of 2016 freight revenue), intermodal freight (22%), and coal (10%) and the vast majority of its profits are made in western Canada.", "A major shift in trade from the Atlantic to the Pacific has caused serious drops in CPR's wheat shipments through Thunder Bay.", "It also ships chemicals and plastics (12% of 2016 revenue), automotive parts and assembled automobiles (6%), potash (6%), sulphur and other fertilizers (5%), forest products (5%), and various other products (11%).", "The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between Calgary and Vancouver.", "Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CPR.", "Coal is shipped in unit trains from coal mines in the mountains, most notably Sparwood, British Columbia, to terminals at Roberts Bank and North Vancouver, from where it is then shipped to Japan.Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at Thunder Bay (the former cities of Fort William and Port Arthur), Quebec City and Vancouver, where it is then shipped overseas.", "The traditional winter export port was Saint John, New Brunswick, when ice closed the St. Lawrence River.", "Grain has always been a significant commodity hauled by the CPR; between 1905 and 1909, the CPR double-tracked its section of track between Fort William, Ontario (part of present-day Thunder Bay) and Winnipeg to facilitate grain shipments.", "For several decades this was the only long stretch of double-track mainline outside of urban areas on the CPR.", "Today, though the Thunder Bay-Winnipeg section is now single tracked, the CPR still has two long distance double track lines serving rural areas, including a stretch between Kent, British Columbia, and Vancouver which follows the Fraser River into the Coast Mountains, as well as the Canadian Pacific Winchester Sub, a stretch of double track mainline which runs from Smiths Falls, Ontario, through downtown Montreal which runs through many rural farming communities.", "However, CPR is in the midst of partially dismantling the stretch of double track mainline on the Winchester Sub.", "There are also various long stretches of double track between Golden and Kamloops, British Columbia, and portions of the original Winnipeg-Thunder Bay double track (such as through Kenora and Keewatin, Ontario) are still double track." ], [ "Passenger trains", "The train was the primary mode of long-distance transport in Canada until the 1960s.", "Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, military troops (especially during the two world wars) and upper class tourists.", "It also custom-built many of its passenger cars at its CPR Angus Shops to be able to meet the demands of the upper class.SAQ liquor storeThe CPR also had a line of Great Lakes ships integrated into its transcontinental service.", "From 1885 until 1912, these ships linked Owen Sound on Georgian Bay to Fort William.", "Following a major fire in December 1911 that destroyed the grain elevator, operations were relocated to a new, larger port created by the CPR at Port McNicoll opening in May 1912.Five ships allowed daily service, and included the S.S. ''Assiniboia'' and S.S. ''Keewatin'' built in 1908 which remained in use until the end of service.", "Travellers went by train from Toronto to that Georgian Bay port, then travelled by ship to link with another train at the Lakehead.", "After World War II, the trains and ships carried automobiles as well as passengers.", "This service featured what was to become the last boat train in North America.", "The ''Steam Boat'' was a fast, direct connecting train between Toronto and Port McNicoll.", "The passenger service was discontinued at the end of season in 1965 with one ship, the ''Keewatin'', carrying on in freight service for two more years.", "It later became a marine museum at Douglas, Michigan, in the United States, before returning to its original homeport of Port McNicoll, Canada in 2013.After the Second World War, passenger traffic declined as automobiles and airplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep passenger numbers up.", "Beginning 9 November 1953, the CPR introduced Budd Rail Diesel Cars (RDCs) on many of its lines.", "Officially called \"Dayliners\" by the CPR, they were always referred to as ''Budd Cars'' by employees.", "Greatly reduced travel times and reduced costs resulted, which saved service on many lines for a number of years.", "The CPR went on to acquire the second largest fleet of RDCs totalling 52 cars.", "Only the Boston and Maine Railroad had more.", "This CPR fleet also included the rare model RDC-4 (which consisted of a mail section at one end and a baggage section at the other end with no formal passenger section).", "On 24 April 1955, the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, ''The Canadian''.", "The train provided service between Vancouver and Toronto or Montreal (east of Sudbury; the train was in two sections).", "The train, which operated on an expedited schedule, was pulled by diesel locomotives, and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock.", "This service was initially heavily promoted by the company and many images of the train, especially as it traversed the Canadian Rockies, were captured by CPR's official photographer Nicholas Morant.", "Featured in numerous advertising promotions worldwide, several such images have gained iconic status.Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines.", "For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern British Columbia and Crowsnest Pass in January 1964, and on its Quebec Central in April 1967, and the transcontinental train ''The Dominion'' was dropped in January 1966.On 29 October 1978, CP Rail transferred its passenger services to Via Rail, a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada.", "Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney presided over major cuts in Via Rail service on 15 January 1990.This ended service by ''The Canadian'' over CPR rails, and the train was rerouted on the former ''Super Continental'' route via Canadian National without a change of name.", "Where both trains had been daily prior to the 15 January 1990 cuts, the surviving ''Canadian'' was only a three-times-weekly operation.", "In October 2012, ''The Canadian'' was reduced to twice-weekly for the six-month off-season period, and currently operates three-times-weekly for only six months a year.", "In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided commuter rail services in Montreal.", "CP Rail introduced Canada's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970.On 1 October 1982, the Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission (STCUM) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail.", "It continues under the Metropolitan Transportation Agency (AMT).Waterfront station in VancouverCanadian Pacific Railway currently operates two commuter services under contract.", "GO Transit contracts CPR to operate six return trips between Milton and central Toronto in Ontario.", "In Montreal, 59 daily commuter trains run on CPR lines from Lucien-L'Allier Station to Candiac, Hudson and Blainville–Saint-Jérôme on behalf of the AMT.", "CP no longer operates Vancouver's West Coast Express on behalf of TransLink, a regional transit authority.", "Bombardier Transportation assumed control of train operations on 5 May 2014.Although CP Rail no longer owns the track nor operates the commuter trains, it handles dispatching of Metra trains on the Milwaukee District/North and Milwaukee District/West Lines in Chicago, on which the CP also provides freight service via trackage rights.===Sleeping, Dining and Parlour Car Department===Sleeping cars were operated by a separate department of the railway that included the dining and parlour cars and aptly named as the Sleeping, Dining and Parlour Car Department.", "The CPR decided from the very beginning that it would operate its own sleeping cars, unlike railways in the United States that depended upon independent companies that specialized in providing cars and porters, including building the cars themselves.", "Pullman was long a famous name in this regard; its Pullman porters were legendary.", "Other early companies included the Wagner Palace Car Company.", "Bigger-sized berths and more comfortable surroundings were built by order of the CPR's General Manager, William Van Horne, who was a large man himself.", "Providing and operating their own cars allowed better control of the service provided as well as keeping all of the revenue received, although dining-car services were never profitable.", "But railway managers realized that those who could afford to travel great distances expected such facilities, and their favourable opinion would bode well to attracting others to Canada and the CPR's trains." ], [ "Express", "W. C. Van Horne decided from the very beginning that the CPR would retain as much revenue from its various operations as it could.", "This translated into keeping express, telegraph, sleeping car and other lines of business for themselves, creating separate departments or companies as necessary.", "This was necessary as the fledgling railway would need all the income it could get, and in addition, he saw some of these ancillary operations such as express and telegraph as being quite profitable.", "Others such as sleeping and dining cars were kept in order to provide better control over the quality of service being provided to passengers.", "Hotels were likewise crucial to the CPR's growth by attracting travellers.", "'''Dominion Express Company''' was formed independently in 1873 before the CPR itself, although train service did not begin until the summer of 1882 at which time it operated over some of track from Rat Portage (Kenora) Ontario west to Winnipeg, Manitoba.", "It was soon absorbed into the CPR and expanded everywhere the CPR went.", "It was renamed '''Canadian Express Company''' on 1 September 1926, and the headquarters moved from Winnipeg, to Toronto.", "It was operated as a separate company with the railway charging them to haul express cars on trains.", "Express was handled in separate cars, some with employees on board, on the headend of passenger trains to provide a fast scheduled service for which higher rates could be charged than for LCL (Less than Carload Lot), small shipments of freight which were subject to delay.", "Aside from all sorts of small shipments for all kinds of businesses such products as cream, butter, poultry and eggs were handled along with fresh flowers, fish and other sea foods some handled in separate refrigerated cars.", "Horses and livestock along with birds and small animals including prize cattle for exhibition were carried often in special horse cars that had facilities for grooms to ride with their animals.Automobiles for individuals were also handled by express in closed boxcars.", "Gold and silver bullion as well as cash were carried in large amounts between the mint and banks and Express messengers were armed for security.", "Small business money shipments and valuables such as jewellery were routinely handled in small packets.", "Money orders and travellers' cheques were an important part of the express company's business and were used worldwide in the years before credit cards.", "'''Canadian Express Cartage Department''' was formed in March 1937 to handle pickup and delivery of most express shipments including less-than-carload freight.", "Their trucks were painted Killarney (dark) green while regular express company vehicles were painted bright red.", "Express routes using highway trucks beginning in November 1945 in southern Ontario and Alberta co-ordinated railway and highway service expanded service to better serve smaller locations especially on branchlines.", "Trucking operations would go on to expand across Canada making it an important transport provider for small shipments.", "Deregulation in the 1980s, however, changed everything and trucking services were ended after many attempts to change with the times." ], [ "Special trains", "===Silk trains===Between the 1890s and 1933, the CPR transported raw silk from Vancouver, where it had been shipped from the Orient, to silk mills in New York and New Jersey.", "A silk train could carry several million dollars' worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards.", "To avoid train robberies and so minimize insurance costs, they travelled quickly and stopped only to change locomotives and crews, which was often done in under five minutes.", "The silk trains had superior rights over all other trains; even passenger trains (including the Royal Train of 1939) would be put in sidings to make the silk trains' trip faster.", "At the end of World War II, the invention of nylon made silk less valuable, so the silk trains died out.===Funeral trains===Funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. MacdonaldFuneral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers.", "As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect.", "Two of the CPR's funeral trains are particularly well-known.", "On 10 June 1891, the funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald ran from Ottawa to Kingston, Ontario.", "The train consisted of five heavily draped passenger cars and was pulled by 4-4-0 No.", "283.On 14 September 1915, the funeral train of former CPR president Sir William Cornelius Van Horne ran from Montreal to Joliet, Illinois, pulled by 4-6-2 No.", "2213.===Royal trains===King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at Hope, British ColumbiaThe CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the Canadian royal family when they toured the country, taking them through Canada's scenery, forests, and small towns, and enabling people to see and greet them.", "Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop.", "The CPR's most notable royal train was in 1939, when the CPR and the CNR had the honour of carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth during their coast-to-coast-and-back tour of Canada; one company took the royal couple from Quebec City to Vancouver and the other company took them on the return journey to Halifax.", "This was the first tour of Canada by its reigning monarch.", "The steam locomotives used to pull the train included CPR 2850, a Hudson (4-6-4) built by Montreal Locomotive Works in 1938, CNR 6400, a U-4-a Northern (4-8-4) and CNR 6028 a U-1-b Mountain (4-8-2) type.", "They were specially painted royal blue, with the exception of CNR 6028 which was not painted, with silver trim as was the entire train.", "The locomotives ran across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure.", "The King, somewhat of a railbuff, rode in the cab when possible.", "After the tour, King George gave the CPR permission to use the term \"Royal Hudson\" for the CPR locomotives and to display Royal Crowns on their running boards.", "This applied only to the semi-streamlined locomotives (2820–2864), not the \"standard\" Hudsons (2800–2819).===Better Farming Train===CPR provided the rolling stock for the Better Farming Train which toured rural Saskatchewan between 1914 and 1922 to promote the latest information on agricultural research.", "It was staffed by the University of Saskatchewan and operating expenses were covered by the Department of Agriculture.===School cars===Between 1927 and the early 1950s, the CPR ran a school car to reach children who lived in Northern Ontario, far from schools.", "A teacher would travel in a specially designed car to remote areas and would stay to teach in one area for two to three days, then leave for another area.", "Each car had a blackboard and a few sets of chairs and desks.", "They also contained miniature libraries and accommodation for the teacher.===''Silver Streak''===Major shooting for the 1976 film ''Silver Streak'', a fictional comedy tale of a murder-ridden train trip from Los Angeles to Chicago, was done on the CPR, mainly in the Alberta area with station footage at Toronto's Union Station.", "The train set was so lightly disguised as the fictional \"AMRoad\" that the locomotives and cars still carried their original names and numbers, along with the easily identifiable CP Rail red-striped paint scheme.", "Most of the cars are still in revenue service on Via Rail Canada; the lead locomotive (CP 4070) and the second unit (CP 4067) were sold to Via Rail and CTCUM respectively.===Holiday Train===Holiday Train in Montreal, November 2009Starting in 1999, CP runs a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December.", "The Holiday Train celebrates the holiday season and collects donations for community food banks and hunger issues.", "The Holiday Train also provides publicity for CP and a few of its customers.", "Each train has a box car stage for entertainers who are travelling along with the train.The train is a freight train, but also pulls vintage passenger cars which are used as lodging/transportation for the crew and entertainers.", "Only entertainers and CP employees are allowed to board the train aside from a coach car that takes employees and their families from one stop to the next.", "All donations collected in a community remain in that community for distribution.There are two Holiday Trains that cover 150 stops in Canada and the United States Northeast and Midwest.", "Each train is roughly in length with brightly decorated railway cars, including a modified box car that has been turned into a travelling stage for performers.", "They are each decorated with hundred of thousands of LED Christmas lights.", "In 2013 to celebrate the program's 15th year, three signature events were held in Hamilton, Ontario, Calgary, Alberta, and Cottage Grove, Minnesota, to further raise awareness for hunger issues.A crowd watches entertainers perform out of the CP Holiday TrainThe trains feature different entertainers each year; in 2016, one train featured Dallas Smith and the Odds, while the other featured Colin James and Kelly Prescott.", "After its 20th anniversary tour in 2018, which hosted Terri Clark, Sam Roberts Band, The Trews and Willy Porter, the tour reported to have raised more than and collected more than of food since 1999.===Royal Canadian Pacific===On 7 June 2000, the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September.", "It operates along a route from Calgary, through the Columbia Valley in British Columbia, and returning to Calgary via Crowsnest Pass.", "The trip takes six days and five nights.", "The train consists of up to eight luxury passenger cars built between 1916 and 1931 and is powered by first-generation diesel locomotives.===Steam train===Canadian Pacific 2816 ''Empress'' at Sturtevant, Wisconsin, 1 September 2007In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era.", "CPR Hudson 2816 was re-designated ''Empress 2816'' following a 30-month restoration that cost in excess of $1 million.", "It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations.", "It has operated across much of the CPR system, including lines in the U.S. and been used for various charitable purposes; 100% of the money raised goes to the nationwide charity Breakfast for Learning — the CPR bears all of the expenses associated with the operation of the train.", "2816 is the subject of ''Rocky Mountain Express'', a 2011 IMAX film which follows the locomotive on an eastbound journey beginning in Vancouver, and which tells the story of the building of the CPR.", "2816 has been stored indefinitely since 2012 after CEO E. Hunter Harrison discontinued the steam program.The locomotive was fired up on November 13, 2020, for a steam test and moved around the Ogden campus yard.", "At the time, CP only had plans to utilize the locomotive for a special Holiday Train at Home broadcast, after which it was put in storage.", "However, in mid-2021, CEO Keith Creel announced intentions to bring 2816 back to full operational status, for a tour from their Calgary headquarters to Mexico City, if the merger with Kansas City Southern Railway is approved by the Surface Transportation Board in the United States.", "Work on the needed overhaul began in earnest in late 2021 for a planned date in 2023.===Spirit Train===In 2008, Canadian Pacific partnered with the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games to present a \"Spirit Train\" tour that featured Olympic-themed events at various stops.", "Colin James was a headline entertainer.", "Several stops were met by protesters who argued that the games were slated to take place on stolen indigenous land.=== CP Canada 150 Train ===In 2017, CP ran the CP Canada 150 Train from Port Moody to Ottawa to celebrate Canada's 150th year since Confederation.", "The train stopped in 13 cities along its 3-week summer tour, offering a free block party and concert from Dean Brody, Kelly Prescott and Dallas Arcand.", "The heritage train drew out thousands to sign the special \"Spirit of Tomorrow\" car, where children were invited to write their wishes for the future of Canada and send them to Ottawa.", "Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and daughter Ella-Grace Trudeau also visited the train and rode it from Revelstoke to Calgary." ], [ "Non-railway services", "Historically, Canadian Pacific operated several non-railway businesses.", "In 1971, these businesses were split off into the separate company Canadian Pacific Limited, and in 2001, that company was further split into five companies.", "CP no longer provides any of these services.===Canadian Pacific Telegraphs===The original charter of the CPR granted in 1881 provided for the right to create an electric telegraph and telephone service including charging for it.", "The telephone had barely been invented but telegraph was well established as a means of communicating quickly across great distances.", "Being allowed to sell this service meant the railway could offset the costs of constructing and maintaining a pole line along its tracks across vast distances for its own purposes which were largely for dispatching trains.", "It began doing so in 1882 as the separate Telegraph Department.", "It would go on to provide a link between the cables under the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when they were completed.", "Before the CPR line, messages to the west could be sent only via the United States.Paid for by the word, the telegram was an expensive way to send messages, but they were vital to businesses.", "An individual receiving a personal telegram was seen as being someone important except for those that transmitted sorrow in the form of death notices.", "Messengers on bicycles delivered telegrams and picked up a reply in cities.", "In smaller locations, the local railway station agent would handle this on a commission basis.", "To speed things, at the local end messages would first be telephoned.", "In 1931, it became the Communications Department in recognition of the expanding services provided which included telephones lines, news wire, ticker quotations for capital stocks and eventually teleprinters.", "All were faster than mail and very important to business and the public alike for many decades before mobile phones and computers came along.", "It was the coming of these newer technologies especially cellular telephones that eventually resulted in the demise of these services even after formation in 1967 of CN-CP Telecommunications in an effort to effect efficiencies through consolidation rather than competition.", "Deregulation in the 1980s, brought about mergers and the sale of remaining services and facilities.===Canadian Pacific Radio===On 17 January 1930, the CPR applied for licences to operate radio stations in 11 cities from coast-to-coast for the purpose of organising its own radio network in order to compete with the CNR Radio service.", "The CNR had built a radio network with the aim of promoting itself as well as entertaining its passengers during their travels.", "The onset of the Great Depression hurt the CPR's financial plan for a rival project and in April they withdrew their applications for stations in all but Toronto, Montreal and Winnipeg.", "CPR did not end up pursuing these applications but instead operated a phantom station in Toronto known as \"CPRY,\" with initials standing for \"Canadian Pacific Royal York\" which operated out of studios at CP's Royal York Hotel and leased time on CFRB and CKGW.", "A network of affiliates carried the CPR radio network's broadcasts in the first half of the 1930s, but the takeover of CNR's Radio service by the new Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission removed CPR's need to have a network for competitive reasons and CPR's radio service was discontinued in 1935.CPR programming included a series of concert broadcasts from Montreal with an orchestra conducted by Douglas Clarke and a series called ''Concert Orchestra'' broadcast from the Royal York Hotel featuring conductor Rex Battle, and another series of concerts, this time sponsored by Imperial Oil and featuring conductor Reginald Stewart with a 55-piece orchestra and some of the leading soloists of the day, also performing at the Royal York.===Canadian Pacific Steamships===Steamships played an important part in the history of CP from the very earliest days.", "During construction of the line in British Columbia even before the private CPR took over from the government contractor, ships were used to bring supplies to the construction sites.", "Similarly, to reach the isolated area of Superior in northern Ontario ships were used to bring in supplies to the construction work.", "While this work was going on there was already regular passenger service to the West.", "Trains operated from Toronto to Owen Sound where CPR steamships connected to Fort William where trains once again operated to reach Winnipeg.", "Before the CPR was completed the only way to reach the West was through the United States via St. Paul and Winnipeg.", "This Great Lakes steam ship service continued as an alternative route for many years and was always operated by the railway.", "Canadian Pacific passenger service on the lakes ended in 1965.In 1884, CPR began purchasing sailing ships as part of a railway supply service on the Great Lakes.", "Over time, CPR became a railway company with widely organized water transportation auxiliaries including the Great Lakes service, the trans-Pacific service, the Pacific coastal service, the British Columbia lake and river service, the trans-Atlantic service and the Bay of Fundy Ferry service.", "In the 20th century, the company evolved into an intercontinental railway which operated two transoceanic services which connected Canada with Europe and with Asia.", "The range of CPR services were aspects of an integrated plan.Advertisement for Canadian Pacific steamships to the Far East, 1936Once the railway was completed to British Columbia, the CPR chartered and soon bought their own passenger steamships as a link to the Orient.", "These sleek steamships were of the latest design and christened with \"Empress\" names (e. g., RMS ''Empress of Britain'', ''Empress of Canada'', ''Empress of Australia'', and so forth).", "Travel to and from the Orient and cargo, especially imported tea and silk, were an important source of revenue, aided by Royal Mail contracts.", "This was an important part of the All-Red Route linking the various parts of the British Empire.The other ocean part was the Atlantic service to and from the United Kingdom, which began with acquisition of two existing lines, Beaver Line, owned by Elder Dempster and Allan Lines.", "These two segments became Canadian Pacific Ocean Services (later, Canadian Pacific Steamships) and operated separately from the various lake services operated in Canada, which were considered to be a direct part of the railway's operations.", "These trans-ocean routes made it possible to travel from Britain to Hong Kong using only the CPR's ships, trains and hotels.", "CP's 'Empress' ships became world-famous for their luxury and speed.", "They had a practical role, too, in transporting immigrants from much of Europe to Canada, especially to populate the vast prairies.", "They also played an important role in both world wars with many of them being lost to enemy action, including ''Empress of Britain''.There were also a number of rail ferries operated over the years as well including, between Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit from 1890 until 1915.This began with two paddle-wheelers capable of carrying 16 cars.", "Passenger cars were carried as well as freight.", "This service ended in 1915 when the CPR made an agreement with the Michigan Central to use their Detroit River tunnel opened in 1910.Pennsylvania-Ontario Transportation Company was formed jointly with the PRR in 1906 to operate a ferry across Lake Erie between Ashtabula, Ohio, and Port Burwell, Ontario, to carry freight cars, mostly of coal, much of it to be burned in CPR steam locomotives.", "Only one ferry boat was ever operated, ''Ashtabula'', a large vessel which eventually sank in a harbour collision in Ashtabula on 18 September 1958, thus ending the service.Canadian Pacific Car and Passenger Transfer Company was formed by other interest in 1888 linking the CPR in Prescott, Ontario, and the NYC in Ogdensburg, New York.", "Service on this route had actually begun very early, in 1854, along with service from Brockville.", "A bridge built in 1958 ended passenger service however, freight continued until Ogdensburg's dock was destroyed by fire 25 September 1970, thus ending all service.", "CPC&PTC was never owned by the CPR.", "Bay of Fundy ferry service was operated for passengers and freight for many years linking Digby, Nova Scotia, and Saint John, New Brunswick.", "Eventually, after 78 years, with the changing times the scheduled passenger services would all be ended as well as ocean cruises.", "Cargo would continue on both oceans with a change over to containers.", "CP was an intermodal pioneer especially on land with road and railway mixing to provide the best service.", "CP Ships was the final operation, and in the end it too left CP ownership when it was spun off in 2001.CP Ships was merged with Hapag-Lloyd in 2005.====British Columbia Coast Steamships====The Canadian Pacific Railway Coast Service (British Columbia Coast Steamships or BCCS) was established when the CPR acquired in 1901 Canadian Pacific Navigation Company (no relation) and its large fleet of ships that served 72 ports along the coast of British Columbia including on Vancouver Island.", "Service included the Vancouver-Victoria-Seattle ''Triangle Route'', Gulf Islands, Powell River, as well as Vancouver-Alaska service.", "BCCS operated a fleet of 14 passenger ships made up of a number of ''Princess'' ships, pocket versions of the famous oceangoing ''Empress'' ships along with a freighter, three tugs and five railway car barges.", "Popular with tourists, the Princess ships were famous in their own right especially ''Princess Marguerite'' (II) which operated from 1949 until 1985 and was the last coastal liner in operation.", "The best known of the princess ships, however, is ''Princess Sophia'', which sank with no survivors in October 1918 after striking the Vanderbilt Reef in Alaska's Lynn Canal, constituting the largest maritime disaster in the history of the Pacific Northwest.", "These services continued for many years until changing conditions in the late 1950s brought about their decline and eventual demise at the end of season in 1974.", "''Princess Marguerite'' was acquired by the province's British Columbia Steamship (1975) Ltd. and continued to operate for a number of years.", "In 1977 although BCCSS was the legal name, it was rebranded as Coastal Marine Operations (CMO).", "By 1998 the company was bought by the Washington Marine Group which after purchase was renamed Seaspan Coastal Intermodal Company and then subsequently rebranded in 2011 as Seaspan Ferries Corporation.", "Passenger service ended in 1981.====British Columbia Lake and River Service====The Canadian Pacific Railway Lake and River Service (British Columbia Lake and River Service) developed slowly and in spurts of growth.", "CP began a long history of service in the Kootenays region of southern British Columbia beginning with the purchase in 1897 of the Columbia and Kootenay Steam Navigation Company which operated a fleet of steamers and barges on the Arrow Lakes and was merged into the CPR as the CPR Lake and River Service which also served the Arrow Lakes and Columbia River, Kootenay Lake and Kootenai River, Lake Okanagan and Skaha Lake, Slocan Lake, Trout Lake, and Shuswap Lake and the Thompson River/Kamloops Lake.All of these lake operations had one thing in common, the need for shallow draft therefore sternwheelers were the choice of ship.", "Tugs and barges handled railway equipment including one operation that saw the entire train including the locomotive and caboose go along.", "These services gradually declined and ended in 1975 except for a freight barge on Slocan Lake.", "This was the one where the entire train went along since the barge was a link to an isolated section of track.", "The ''Iris G'' tug boat and a barge were operated under contract to CP Rail until the last train ran late in December 1988.The sternwheel steamship ''Moyie'' on Kootenay Lake was the last CPR passenger boat in BC lake service, having operated from 1898 until 1957.She became a beached historical exhibit, as are also the ''Sicamous'' and ''Naramata'' at Penticton on Lake Okanagan.===Canadian Pacific Hotels===To promote tourism and passenger ridership the Canadian Pacific established a series of first class hotels.", "These hotels became landmarks famous in their own right.", "They include the Algonquin in St. Andrews, Château Frontenac in Quebec, Royal York in Toronto, Minaki Lodge in Minaki Ontario, Hotel Vancouver, Empress Hotel in Victoria and the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise in the Canadian Rockies.", "Several signature hotels were acquired from its competitor Canadian National during the 1980s, including the Jasper Park Lodge.", "The hotels retain their Canadian Pacific heritage, but are no longer operated by the railway.", "In 1998, Canadian Pacific Hotels acquired Fairmont Hotels, an American company, becoming Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, Inc.; the combined corporation operated the historic Canadian properties as well as the Fairmont's U.S. properties until merged with Raffles Hotels and Resorts and Swissôtel in 2006.===Canadian Pacific Air Lines===Canadian Pacific Airlines, also called CP Air, operated from 1942 to 1987 and was the main competitor of Canadian government-owned Air Canada.", "Based at Vancouver International Airport, it served Canadian and international routes until it was purchased by Pacific Western Airlines which merged PWA and CP Air to create Canadian Airlines." ], [ "Locomotives", "===Steam locomotives===''Countess of Dufferin''CPR 2816 LocomotiveIn the CPR's early years, it made extensive use of American-type 4-4-0 steam locomotives, and such examples of this are the ''Countess of Dufferin'' or No.", "29.Later, considerable use was also made of the 4-6-0 type for passenger and 2-8-0 type for freight.", "Starting in the 20th century, the CPR bought and built hundreds of Ten-Wheeler-type 4-6-0s for passenger and freight service and similar quantities of 2-8-0s and 2-10-2s for freight.", "2-10-2s were also used in passenger service on mountain routes.", "The CPR bought hundreds of 4-6-2 Pacifics between 1906 and 1948 with later versions being true dual-purpose passenger and fast-freight locomotives.CPR 2317, a G-3-c 4-6-2 Pacific-type locomotive built at the CPR's Angus Shops in 1923The CPR built hundreds of its own locomotives at its shops in Montreal, first at the \"New Shops\", as the DeLorimer shops were commonly referred to, and at the massive Angus Shops that replaced them in 1904.Some of the CPR's best-known locomotives were the 4-6-4 Hudsons.", "First built in 1929, they began a new era of modern locomotives with capabilities that changed how transcontinental passenger trains ran, eliminating frequent changes en route.", "What once took 24 changes of engines in 1886, all of them 4-4-0s except for two of 2-8-0s in the mountains, for between Montreal and Vancouver became 8 changes.", "The 2800s, as the Hudson type was known, ran from Toronto to Fort William, a distance of , while another lengthy engine district was from Winnipeg to Calgary .Especially notable were the semi-streamlined H1 class Royal Hudsons, locomotives that were given their name because one of their class hauled the royal train carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth on the 1939 royal tour across Canada without change or failure.", "That locomotive, No.", "2850, is preserved in the Exporail exhibit hall of the Canadian Railway Museum in Saint-Constant, Quebec.", "One of the class, No.", "2860, was restored by the British Columbia government and used in excursion service on the British Columbia Railway between 1974 and 1999.The CPR also made many of their older 2-8-0s, built in the turn of the century, into 2-8-2s.In 1929, the CPR received its first 2-10-4 Selkirk locomotives, the largest steam locomotives to run in Canada and the British Empire.", "Named after the Selkirk Mountains where they served, these locomotives were well suited for steep grades.", "They were regularly used in passenger and freight service.", "The CPR would own 37 of these locomotives, including number 8000, an experimental high pressure engine.", "The last steam locomotives that the CPR received, in 1949, were Selkirks, numbered 5930–5935.===Diesel locomotives===A CP passenger train heads east towards alt=A westbound CP freight train pulls away from a passing siding after track clearance in Bolton, Ontario.", "It is headed by four GE AC4400CW locomotives (8627, 9615, 8629, and 8609).|alt=In 1937, the CPR acquired its first diesel-electric locomotive, a custom-built one-of-a-kind switcher numbered 7000.This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated.", "Production-model diesels were imported from American Locomotive Company (Alco) starting with five model S-2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders.", "In 1949, operations on lines in Vermont were dieselized with Alco FA1 road locomotives (eight A and four B units), five ALCO RS-2 road switchers, three Alco S-2 switchers and three EMD E8 passenger locomotives.", "In 1948 Montreal Locomotive Works began production of ALCO designs.In 1949, the CPR acquired 13 Baldwin-designed locomotives from the Canadian Locomotive Company for its isolated Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway and Vancouver Island was quickly dieselized.", "Following that successful experiment, the CPR started to dieselize its main network.", "Dieselization was completed 11 years later, with its last steam locomotive running on 6 November 1960.The CPR's first-generation locomotives were mostly made by General Motors Diesel and Montreal Locomotive Works (American Locomotive Company designs), with some made by the Canadian Locomotive Company to Baldwin and Fairbanks Morse designs.CP was the first railway in North America to pioneer alternating current (AC) traction diesel-electric locomotives in 1984.In 1995, CP turned to GE Transportation for the first production AC traction locomotives in Canada, and now has the highest percentage of AC locomotives in service of all North American Class I railways.On 16 September 2019, Progress Rail rolled out two SD70ACU rebuilds in Canadian Pacific heritage paint schemes; 7010 wears a Tuscan red and grey paint scheme with script writing, and the 7015 wears a similar paint scheme with block lettering.CP 7028, an EMD SD70ACU, in Nashotah, WisconsinOn 11 November 2019, five SD70ACU units with commemorative military themes were unveiled during CPR's Remembrance Day ceremony.", "These units are numbered 7020–7023, with 7024 being renumbered to 6644 to commemorate the date of D-Day: 6 June 1944.In 2021 Canadian Pacific repainted two locomotives orange: ES44AC 8757 which was unveiled for National Day for Truth and Reconciliation in September 2021, and ES44AC 8781 to commemorate shipper Hapag-Lloyd.The fleet includes these types:====Final diesel roster==== Builder Model Horsepower Build date Quantity Numbers Notes EMD FP9A 1750 1958 1 1401 Acquired 1998, used on the ''Royal Canadian Pacific'' EMD F9B 1750 1958 1 1900 Acquired 1998, used on the ''RCP'' EMD GP20C-ECO 2000 2012–2014 130 2200–2329 EMD GP38AC 2000 1970–1971 21 3000–3020 EMD GP38-2 2000 1983–1986 115 3021–3135 EMDGP40-330001966–196824007–4008Ex-MILW/SOO EMD FP9A 1750 1957 2 4106–4107 Acquired 2006, used on the ''RCP'' EMD GP38-2 2000 1974–1983 74 4400–4452, 4506–4515 Acquired 1990, ex-SOO, 4500 series are ex-MILWEMDGP39-22300197814599Ex-KCCX/SOO EMD SD30C-ECO 3000 2013–2015 50 5000–5049 EMD SD40-3 3000 1980–1984 10 5100–5109 Rebuilt 2017 EMD SD40-2 3000 1972–1984 508 5565–5879, 5900–6092 EMD SD60 3800 1989 37 6221–6257 Acquired 1990, ex-SOO EMD SD60M 3800 1989 5 6258–6262 Acquired 1990, ex-SOO EMD SD60-3 3800 1989 10 6300–6309 Rebuilt 2017, ex-SOOEMDSD40-230001972–1984236601–6623Ex-SOO EMD SD40-2F 3000 1989 10 9004, 9010–9011, 9014, 9017, 9020-9024 Many sold to CMQ.", "After the purchase of CMQ in June 2020, the remaining SD40-2Fs returned to CP Property.", "EMD SD70ACU 4300 1998–1999 60 6644, 7000–7023, 7025-7059 Rebuilt 2019–2020 from SD90MACs, 7010–7019 in heritage paint schemes.", "6644, 7020–7023 in five distinct commemorative military paint schemes.", "EMD GP38-2 2000 1972 10 7303–7312 Acquired 1991, ex-DH GE AC4400CWM 4400 1995–1998 262 8000–8080, 8100–8199, 8200–8280 Rebuilt 2017–2021.GE AC4400CW 4400 2001–2004 173 8600–8655, 9700–9740, 9750–9784, 9800–9840 GE ES44AC 4400 2005–2012 291 8700–8960, 9350–9379 8757 painted into an Every Child Matters livery for National Day for Truth & Reconciliation====Retired diesel roster==== Builder Model Horsepower Build date Retirement Quantity Numbers Notes GMD FP7A 1750 1951–1953 1978 24 1400–1404, 1416–1434 Renumbered from 4099 to 4103 GMD FP9A 1750 1954–1953 1978 11 1405–1415, EMD E8A 2250 1949 1978 3 1800–1802 1800 and 1802 sold to Via Rail GMD F7B 1500 1951–1954 1978 51 1900, 1909–1919, 4424–4448, 4459–4462 Many sold to Via Rail GMD F9B 1750 1951–1954 1978 8 1901–1908 Many sold to Via Rail Railpower GG20B 2000 2005–2006 2006 6 1700–1707 Order cancelled before completion Alco/MLW FA-1 1500 1949–1950 1977 28 4000–4027 MLW FA-2 1500 1951–1953 1977 20 4042–4051, 4084–4093 CLC CPA16-4 1600 1951–1954 1975 11 4052–4057, 4064–4065, 4104–4105 CLC CFA16-4 1600 1953 1975 6 4076–4081 MLW FPA-2 1500 1953 1975 7 4082–4083, 4094–4098 MLW C424 2400 1963–1966 1998 51 4200–4250 4200 originally numbered 8300 MLW M-630 3000 1968–1970 1995 37 4500–4515, 4550–4581 MLW M-636 3600 1969–1970 1995 44 4700–4743 MLW M-640 4000 1971 1998 1 4744 Rebuilt in 1984 as an AC Traction test unit GMD GP30 2250 1963 1998 2 5000–5001 Originally numbered 8200–8201 GMD GP35 2500 1964–1966 1999 23 5002–5025 Some converted to control cabs GMD SD40 3000 1966–1967 2001 65 5500–5564 MLW S-3 1000 1951–1959 1984 101 6500–6600 MLW S-10 1000 1958 1983 13 6601–6613 MLW S-10 660 1959 1985 10 6614–6623 GMD SW8 800 1950–1951 1994 10 6700–6709 GMD SW900 900 1955 1994 11 6710–6720 6711 used as a track mobile Alco/MLW S-2 1000 1943–1947 1986 78 7010–7064, 7076–7098 Baldwin DS-4-4-1000 1000 1948 1979 11 7065–7075 Baldwin DRS-4-4-1000 1000 1948–1949 1979 13 8000–8012 MLW RS-23 1000 1959–1960 1997 35 8013–8046 GMD SW1200RS 1200 1958–1960 2012 72 8100–8171 Many rebuilt into SW1200RSUs in the 1980s Alco/MLW RS-2 1500 1949–1950 1983 9 8400–8408 GMD GP7 1500 1952 2013 17 8409–8425 Many rebuilt into GP7Us in the 1980s MLW RS-3 1600 1954 1983 36 8426–8461 GMD GP9 1750 1954–1959 2015 200 8483–8546, 8611–8708, 8801–8839 Many rebuilt into GP9Us in the 1980s MLW RS-10 1600 1956 1984 65 8462–8482, 8557–8600 CLC H-16-44 1600 1955–1957 1976 40 8547–8556, 8601–8610, 8709–8728 MLW RS-18 1800 1957–1958 1998 74 8729–8800, 8824 Many rebuilt into RS18Us in the 1980s CLC/FM H-24-66 2400 1955 1976 21 8900–8920 8905 Preserved at the Canadian Railway Museum MLW RSD-17 2400 1957 1995 1 8921 Preserved at Elgin County Railway Museum GMD SD40-2F 3000 1989 2016 25 9000–9003, 9005–9009, 9012–9013, 9015–9016, 9018–9019 Scrapped, The rest not numbered here went to Central Maine and Quebec Railway Budd RDC-3 550 1953–1956 1978 5 9020–9024 Many sold to Via Rail Budd RDC-1 550 1955–1958 1978 24 9049–9072 Many sold to Via Rail GMD SD90MAC 4300 1998–1999 2019 61 9100–9160 Rebuilt into SD70ACUs Budd RDC-2 550 1951–1956 1978 23 9100–9199 Many sold to Via Rail Budd RDC-4 550 1955–1956 1978 3 9200–9251 Sold to Via Rail Budd RDC-5 550 1955–1956 1982 8 9300–9309 Many sold to Via Rail GMD SD90MAC-H 6000 1998 2008 4 9300–9303 All have been scrapped" ], [ "Corporate structure", "'''Canadian Pacific Railway Limited''' ( ) is a Canadian railway transportation company that operates the Canadian Pacific Railway.", "It was created in 2001 when the CPR's former parent company, Canadian Pacific Limited, spun off its railway operations.", "On 3 October 2001, the company's shares began to trade on the New York Stock Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange under the \"CP\" symbol.", "During 2003, the company earned in freight revenue.", "In October 2008, Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd was named one of \"Canada's Top 100 Employers\" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in ''Maclean's''.", "Later that month, CPR was named one of Alberta's Top Employers, which was reported in both the ''Calgary Herald'' and the ''Edmonton Journal''.===Presidents=== Term(s) Name 1881–1888 Sir George Stephen United Kingdom/Canada 1889–1899 Sir William Cornelius Van Horne United States/Canada 1899–1918 The Lord Shaughnessy United States/Canada 1918–1942 Sir Edward Wentworth Beatty Canada 1942–1947 D'Alton Corry Coleman Canada 1947–1948 William Neal Canada 1948–1955 William Allen Mather Canada 1955–1964, 1966 Buck Crump Canada 1964–1966 Robert A. Emerson Canada 1966–1972 Ian David Sinclair Canada 1972–1981 Fred Burbidge Canada 1981–1984 William W. Stinson Canada 1984–1990 Russell S. Allison Canada 1990–2006 Robert J. Ritchie Canada 2006–2012 Fred Green Canada 2012 Stephen Tobias (Interim) United States 2012–2017 E. Hunter Harrison United States 2017–Present Keith Creel United States" ], [ "Major facilities", "CP owned a large number of large yards and repair shops across their system, which were used for many operations ranging from intermodal terminals to classification yards.", "Below are some examples of these.===Hump yards===Hump yards work by using a small hill over which cars are pushed, before being released down a slope and switched automatically into cuts of cars, ready to be made into outbound trains.", "Many of these yards were closed in 2012 and 2013 under Hunter Harrison's company-wide restructuring; only the St. Paul Yard hump remains open.", "* Calgary, Alberta – Alyth Yard; handles 2,200 cars daily (closed)* Franklin Park, Illinois – Bensenville Yard (closed)* Montreal, Quebec – St. Luc Yard; active since 1950.Flat switching since the mid-1980s.", "(closed)* St. Paul, Minnesota – Pig's Eye Yard / St. Paul Yard* Toronto, Ontario – Toronto Yard (also known as \"Toronto Freight Yard or Agincourt Yard\") (closed)* Winnipeg, Manitoba – Rugby Yard (also known as \"Weston Yard\") (closed)" ], [ "Aircraft", "As of February 2023, Transport Canada lists the following aircraft in its database and operate as ICAO airline designator CRR, and telephony RAILCAR.", "* 1 - Cessna Citation Sovereign (Cessna 680)* 1 - Bombardier CL-600" ], [ "Joint partnership", "* Toronto Terminal Railways – management team for Toronto's Union Station with Canadian National Railway." ], [ "See also", "* Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 21* Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 402* Canadian Pacific Building (London)* Canadian Pacific Building (New York City)* Canadian Pacific Building (Toronto)* CPR Festivals* Facilities of the Canadian Pacific Railway* History of Chinese immigration to Canada" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * The Premier's Funeral (11 June 1891).", "''The Woodstock Evening Sentinel Review'', p. 1.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * CPR, from Sea to Sea: The Scottish Connection – Historical essay, illustrated with photographs from the CPR Archives and the McCord Museum's Notman Photographic Archives* * The Canadian Pacific Railway inception – Digital artifacts, archival and graphic material from the UBC Library Digital Collections* , illustrated account of the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cognitive psychology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cognitive psychology''' is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning.Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviourism, which held from the 1920s to 1950s that unobservable mental processes were outside the realm of empirical science.", "This break came as researchers in linguistics and cybernetics, as well as applied psychology, used models of mental processing to explain human behavior.Work derived from cognitive psychology was integrated into other branches of psychology and various other modern disciplines like cognitive science, linguistics, and economics.The domain of cognitive psychology overlaps with that of cognitive science, which takes a more interdisciplinary approach and includes studies of non-human subjects and artificial intelligence." ], [ "History", "Philosophically, ruminations on the human mind and its processes have been around since the times of the ancient Greeks.", "In 387 BCE, Plato had suggested that the brain was the seat of the mental processes.", "In 1637, René Descartes posited that humans are born with innate ideas and forwarded the idea of mind-body dualism, which would come to be known as substance dualism (essentially the idea that the mind and the body are two separate substances).", "From that time, major debates ensued through the 19th century regarding whether human thought was solely experiential (empiricism), or included innate knowledge (nativism).", "Some of those involved in this debate included George Berkeley and John Locke on the side of empiricism, and Immanuel Kant on the side of nativism.With the philosophical debate continuing, the mid to late 19th century was a critical time in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline.", "Two discoveries that would later play substantial roles in cognitive psychology were Paul Broca's discovery of the area of the brain largely responsible for language production, and Carl Wernicke's discovery of an area thought to be mostly responsible for comprehension of language.", "Both areas were subsequently formally named for their founders, and disruptions of an individual's language production or comprehension due to trauma or malformation in these areas have come to commonly be known as Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia.From the 1920s to the 1950s, the main approach to psychology was behaviorism.", "Initially, its adherents viewed mental events such as thoughts, ideas, attention, and consciousness as unobservable, hence outside the realm of a science of psychology.", "One pioneer of cognitive psychology, who worked outside the boundaries (both intellectual and geographical) of behaviorism was Jean Piaget.", "From 1926 to the 1950s and into the 1980s, he studied the thoughts, language, and intelligence of children and adults.In the mid-20th century, four main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:* With the development of new warfare technology during WWII, the need for a greater understanding of human performance came to prominence.", "Problems such as how to best train soldiers to use new technology and how to deal with matters of attention while under duress became areas of need for military personnel.", "Behaviorism provided little if any insight into these matters and it was the work of Donald Broadbent, integrating concepts from human performance research and the recently developed information theory, that forged the way in this area.", "* Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought.", "Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI.", "This encouraged a conceptualization of mental functions patterned on the way that computers handled such things as memory storage and retrieval, and it opened an important doorway for cognitivism.", "* Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the \"cognitive revolution\".", "Inside psychology, in criticism of behaviorism, J. S. Bruner, J. J. Goodnow & G. A. Austin wrote \"a study of thinking\" in 1956.In 1960, G. A. Miller, E. Galanter and K. Pribram wrote their famous \"Plans and the Structure of Behavior\".", "The same year, Bruner and Miller founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies, which institutionalized the revolution and launched the field of cognitive science.", "* Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964.Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the Behavioral SciencesUlric Neisser put the term \"cognitive psychology\" into common use through his book ''Cognitive Psychology'', published in 1967.Neisser's definition of \"cognition\" illustrates the then-progressive concept of cognitive processes:The term \"cognition\" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.", "It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations.", "...", "Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon.", "But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view.", "Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary.", "Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point.", "Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts." ], [ "Cognitive processes", "The main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect behavior.", "Those processes include, but are not limited to, the following three stages of memory:# Sensory memory storage: holds sensory information# Short-term memory storage: holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieves information from the Long-term memory.# Long-term memory: holds information over an extended period of time which receives information from the short-term memory.===Attention===The psychological definition of attention is \"a state of focused awareness on a subset of the available sensation perception information\".", "A key function of attention is to identify irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling significant data to be distributed to the other mental processes.", "For example, the human brain may simultaneously receive auditory, visual, olfactory, taste, and tactile information.", "The brain is able to consciously handle only a small subset of this information, and this is accomplished through the attentional processes.Attention can be divided into two major attentional systems: exogenous control and endogenous control.", "Exogenous control works in a bottom-up manner and is responsible for orienting reflex, and pop-out effects.", "Endogenous control works top-down and is the more deliberate attentional system, responsible for divided attention and conscious processing.One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention.", "A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear; this is known as the dichotic listening task.", "Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to.", "For example, participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball.", "When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear.", "At some point the message related to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear.", "When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate.", "The ability to attend to one conversation in the face of many is known as the cocktail party effect.Other major findings include that participants cannot comprehend both passages when shadowing one passage, they cannot report the content of the unattended message, while they can shadow a message better if the pitches in each ear are different.", "However, while deep processing does not occur, early sensory processing does.", "Subjects did notice if the pitch of the unattended message changed or if it ceased altogether, and some even oriented to the unattended message if their name was mentioned.===Memory===The two main types of memory are short-term memory and long-term memory; however, short-term memory has become better understood to be working memory.", "Cognitive psychologists often study memory in terms of working memory.====Working memory====Though working memory is often thought of as just short-term memory, it is more clearly defined as the ability to process and maintain temporary information in a wide range of everyday activities in the face of distraction.", "The famously known capacity of memory of 7 plus or minus 2 is a combination of both memories in working memory and long-term memory.One of the classic experiments is by Ebbinghaus, who found the serial position effect where information from the beginning and end of the list of random words were better recalled than those in the center.", "This primacy and recency effect varies in intensity based on list length.", "Its typical U-shaped curve can be disrupted by an attention-grabbing word; this is known as the Von Restorff effect.The Baddeley & Hitch Model of Working MemoryMany models of working memory have been made.", "One of the most regarded is the Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory.", "It takes into account both visual and auditory stimuli, long-term memory to use as a reference, and a central processor to combine and understand it all.A large part of memory is forgetting, and there is a large debate among psychologists of decay theory versus interference theory.====Long-term memory====Modern conceptions of memory are usually about long-term memory and break it down into three main sub-classes.", "These three classes are somewhat hierarchical in nature, in terms of the level of conscious thought related to their use.", "* Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action.", "It is often activated on a subconscious level, or at most requires a minimal amount of conscious effort.", "Procedural memory includes stimulus-response-type information, which is activated through association with particular tasks, routines, etc.", "A person is using procedural knowledge when they seemingly \"automatically\" respond in a particular manner to a particular situation or process.", "An example is driving a car.", "* Semantic memory is the encyclopedic knowledge that a person possesses.", "Knowledge like what the Eiffel Tower looks like, or the name of a friend from sixth grade, represent semantic memory.", "Access of semantic memory ranges from slightly to extremely effortful, depending on a number of variables including but not limited to recency of encoding of the information, number of associations it has to other information, frequency of access, and levels of meaning (how deeply it was processed when it was encoded).", "* Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated.", "It contains all memories that are temporal in nature, such as when one last brushed one's teeth or where one was when one heard about a major news event.", "Episodic memory typically requires the deepest level of conscious thought, as it often pulls together semantic memory and temporal information to formulate the entire memory.===Perception===Perception involves both the physical senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch, and proprioception) as well as the cognitive processes involved in interpreting those senses.", "Essentially, it is how people come to understand the world around them through the interpretation of stimuli.", "Early psychologists like Edward B. Titchener began to work with perception in their structuralist approach to psychology.", "Structuralism dealt heavily with trying to reduce human thought (or \"consciousness\", as Titchener would have called it) into its most basic elements by gaining an understanding of how an individual perceives particular stimuli.Current perspectives on perception within cognitive psychology tend to focus on particular ways in which the human mind interprets stimuli from the senses and how these interpretations affect behavior.", "An example of the way in which modern psychologists approach the study of perception is the research being done at the Center for Ecological Study of Perception and Action at the University of Connecticut (CESPA).", "One study at CESPA concerns ways in which individuals perceive their physical environment and how that influences their navigation through that environment.===Language===Psychologists have had an interest in the cognitive processes involved with language that dates back to the 1870s, when Carl Wernicke proposed a model for the mental processing of language.", "Current work on language within the field of cognitive psychology varies widely.", "Cognitive psychologists may study language acquisition, individual components of language formation (like phonemes), how language use is involved in mood, or numerous other related areas.Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain, which are critical in languageSignificant work has focused on understanding the timing of language acquisition and how it can be used to determine if a child has, or is at risk of, developing a learning disability.", "A study from 2012 showed that, while this can be an effective strategy, it is important that those making evaluations include all relevant information when making their assessments.", "Factors such as individual variability, socioeconomic status, short-term and long-term memory capacity, and others must be included in order to make valid assessments.===Metacognition===Metacognition, in a broad sense, is the thoughts that a person has about their own thoughts.", "More specifically, metacognition includes things like:* How effective a person is at monitoring their own performance on a given task (self-regulation).", "* A person's understanding of their capabilities on particular mental tasks.", "* The ability to apply cognitive strategies.Much of the current study regarding metacognition within the field of cognitive psychology deals with its application within the area of education.", "Being able to increase a student's metacognitive abilities has been shown to have a significant impact on their learning and study habits.", "One key aspect of this concept is the improvement of students' ability to set goals and self-regulate effectively to meet those goals.", "As a part of this process, it is also important to ensure that students are realistically evaluating their personal degree of knowledge and setting realistic goals (another metacognitive task).Common phenomena related to metacognition include:* '''Déjà Vu:''' feeling of a repeated experience* '''Cryptomnesia:''' generating thought believing it is unique but it is actually a memory of a past experience; also known as unconscious plagiarism.", "* '''False Fame Effect:''' non-famous names can be made to be famous* '''Validity effect:''' statements seem more valid upon repeated exposure* '''Imagination inflation:''' imagining an event that did not occur and having increased confidence that it did occur" ], [ "Modern perspectives", "Modern perspectives on cognitive psychology generally address cognition as a dual process theory, expounded upon by Daniel Kahneman in 2011.Kahneman differentiated the two styles of processing more, calling them intuition and reasoning.", "Intuition (or system 1), similar to associative reasoning, was determined to be fast and automatic, usually with strong emotional bonds included in the reasoning process.", "Kahneman said that this kind of reasoning was based on formed habits and very difficult to change or manipulate.", "Reasoning (or system 2) was slower and much more volatile, being subject to conscious judgments and attitudes." ], [ "Applications", "===Abnormal psychology===Following the cognitive revolution, and as a result of many of the principal discoveries to come out of the field of cognitive psychology, the discipline of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) evolved.", "Aaron T. Beck is generally regarded as the father of cognitive therapy, a particular type of CBT treatment.", "His work in the areas of recognition and treatment of depression has gained worldwide recognition.", "In his 1987 book titled ''Cognitive Therapy of Depression'', Beck puts forth three salient points with regard to his reasoning for the treatment of depression by means of therapy or therapy and antidepressants versus using a pharmacological-only approach:1.Despite the prevalent use of antidepressants, the fact remains that not all patients respond to them.", "Beck cites (in 1987) that only 60 to 65% of patients respond to antidepressants, and recent meta-analyses (a statistical breakdown of multiple studies) show very similar numbers.2.Many of those who do respond to antidepressants end up not taking their medications, for various reasons.", "They may develop side-effects or have some form of personal objection to taking the drugs.3.Beck posits that the use of psychotropic drugs may lead to an eventual breakdown in the individual's coping mechanisms.", "His theory is that the person essentially becomes reliant on the medication as a means of improving mood and fails to practice those coping techniques typically practiced by healthy individuals to alleviate the effects of depressive symptoms.", "By failing to do so, once the patient is weaned off of the antidepressants, they often are unable to cope with normal levels of depressed mood and feel driven to reinstate use of the antidepressants.===Social psychology===Many facets of modern social psychology have roots in research done within the field of cognitive psychology.", "Social cognition is a specific sub-set of social psychology that concentrates on processes that have been of particular focus within cognitive psychology, specifically applied to human interactions.", "Gordon B. Moskowitz defines social cognition as \"... the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to, remembering, thinking about, and making sense of the people in our social world\".The development of multiple social information processing (SIP) models has been influential in studies involving aggressive and anti-social behavior.", "Kenneth Dodge's SIP model is one of, if not the most, empirically supported models relating to aggression.", "Among his research, Dodge posits that children who possess a greater ability to process social information more often display higher levels of socially acceptable behavior; that the type of social interaction that children have affects their relationships.", "His model asserts that there are five steps that an individual proceeds through when evaluating interactions with other individuals and that how the person interprets cues is key to their reactionary process.===Developmental psychology===Many of the prominent names in the field of developmental psychology base their understanding of development on cognitive models.", "One of the major paradigms of developmental psychology, the Theory of Mind (ToM), deals specifically with the ability of an individual to effectively understand and attribute cognition to those around them.", "This concept typically becomes fully apparent in children between the ages of 4 and 6.Essentially, before the child develops ToM, they are unable to understand that those around them can have different thoughts, ideas, or feelings than themselves.", "The development of ToM is a matter of metacognition, or thinking about one's thoughts.", "The child must be able to recognize that they have their own thoughts and in turn, that others possess thoughts of their own.One of the foremost minds with regard to developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, focused much of his attention on cognitive development from birth through adulthood.", "Though there have been considerable challenges to parts of his stages of cognitive development, they remain a staple in the realm of education.", "Piaget's concepts and ideas predated the cognitive revolution but inspired a wealth of research in the field of cognitive psychology and many of his principles have been blended with modern theory to synthesize the predominant views of today.===Educational psychology===Modern theories of education have applied many concepts that are focal points of cognitive psychology.", "Some of the most prominent concepts include:* Metacognition: Metacognition is a broad concept encompassing all manners of one's thoughts and knowledge about their own thinking.", "A key area of educational focus in this realm is related to self-monitoring, which relates highly to how well students are able to evaluate their personal knowledge and apply strategies to improve knowledge in areas in which they are lacking.", "* Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge: Declarative knowledge is a person's 'encyclopedic' knowledge base, whereas procedural knowledge is specific knowledge relating to performing particular tasks.", "The application of these cognitive paradigms to education attempts to augment a student's ability to integrate declarative knowledge into newly learned procedures in an effort to facilitate accelerated learning.", "* Knowledge organization: Applications of cognitive psychology's understanding of how knowledge is organized in the brain has been a major focus within the field of education in recent years.", "The hierarchical method of organizing information and how that maps well onto the brain's memory are concepts that have proven extremely beneficial in classrooms.===Personality psychology===Cognitive therapeutic approaches have received considerable attention in the treatment of personality disorders in recent years.", "The approach focuses on the formation of what it believes to be faulty schemata, centralized on judgmental biases and general cognitive errors." ], [ "Cognitive psychology vs. cognitive science", "The line between cognitive psychology and cognitive science can be blurry.", "Cognitive psychology is better understood as predominantly concerned with applied psychology and the understanding of psychological phenomena.", "Cognitive psychologists are often heavily involved in running psychological experiments involving human participants, with the goal of gathering information related to how the human mind takes in, processes, and acts upon inputs received from the outside world.", "The information gained in this area is then often used in the applied field of clinical psychology.Cognitive science is better understood as predominantly concerned with a much broader scope, with links to philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, and particularly with artificial intelligence.", "It could be said that cognitive science provides the corpus of information feeding the theories used by cognitive psychologists.", "Cognitive scientists' research sometimes involves non-human subjects, allowing them to delve into areas which would come under ethical scrutiny if performed on human participants.", "For instance, they may do research implanting devices in the brains of rats to track the firing of neurons while the rat performs a particular task.", "Cognitive science is highly involved in the area of artificial intelligence and its application to the understanding of mental processes." ], [ "Criticisms", "===Lack of cohesion===Some observers have suggested that as cognitive psychology became a movement during the 1970s, the intricacies of the phenomena and processes it examined meant it also began to lose cohesion as a field of study.", "In ''Psychology: Pythagoras to Present'', for example, John Malone writes: \"Examinations of late twentieth-century textbooks dealing with \"cognitive psychology\", \"human cognition\", \"cognitive science\" and the like quickly reveal that there are many, many varieties of cognitive psychology and very little agreement about exactly what may be its domain.\"", "This misfortune produced competing models that questioned information-processing approaches to cognitive functioning such as Decision Making and Behavioral Sciences." ], [ "Controversies", "In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states.", "However, cognitive neuroscience continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.There is however disagreement between neuropsychologists and cognitive psychologists.", "Cognitive psychology has produced models of cognition which are not supported by modern brain science.", "It is often the case that the advocates of different cognitive models form a dialectic relationship with one another thus affecting empirical research, with researchers siding with their favorite theory.", "For example, advocates of ''mental model theory'' have attempted to find evidence that deductive reasoning is based on image thinking, while the advocates of ''mental logic theory'' have tried to prove that it is based on verbal thinking, leading to a disorderly picture of the findings from brain imaging and brain lesion studies.", "When theoretical claims are put aside, the evidence shows that interaction depends on the type of task tested, whether of visuospatial or linguistical orientation; but that there is also an aspect of reasoning which is not covered by either theory.Similarly, neurolinguistics has found that it is easier to make sense of brain imaging studies when the theories are left aside.", "In the field of language cognition research, generative grammar has taken the position that language resides within its private cognitive module, while 'Cognitive Linguistics' goes to the opposite extreme by claiming that language is not an independent function, but operates on general cognitive capacities such as visual processing and motor skills.", "Consensus in neuropsychology however takes the middle position that, while language is a specialized function, it overlaps or interacts with visual processing.", "Nonetheless, much of the research in language cognition continues to be divided along the lines of generative grammar and Cognitive Linguistics; and this, again, affects adjacent research fields including language development and language acquisition." ], [ "Major research areas", "'''Categorization'''* Induction and acquisition* Judgement and classification* Representation and structure* Similarity'''Knowledge representation'''* Dual-coding theories* Media psychology* Mental imagery* Numerical cognition* Propositional encoding'''Language'''* Language acquisition* Language processing* * '''Memory'''* Aging and memory* Autobiographical memory* Childhood memory* Constructive memory* Emotion and memory* Episodic memory* Eyewitness memory* False memories* Flashbulb memory* List of memory biases* Long-term memory* Semantic memory* Short-term memory* Source-monitoring error* Spaced repetition* Working memory'''Perception'''* Attention* Object recognition* Pattern recognition* Perception** Form perception* Psychophysics* Time sensation'''Thinking'''* Choice (Glasser's theory)* Concept formation* Decision-making* Logic* Psychology of reasoning* Problem solving" ], [ "Influential cognitive psychologists", "* John R. Anderson* Alan Baddeley* David Ausubel* Albert Bandura* Frederic Bartlett* Elizabeth Bates* Aaron T. Beck* Robert Bjork* Gordon H. Bower* Donald Broadbent* Jerome Bruner* Susan Carey* Noam Chomsky* Fergus Craik* Antonio Damasio* Hermann Ebbinghaus* Albert Ellis* K. Anders Ericsson* William Estes* Eugene Galanter* Vittorio Gallese* Michael Gazzaniga* Dedre Gentner* Vittorio Guidano* Philip Johnson-Laird* Daniel Kahneman* Nancy Kanwisher* Eric Lenneberg* Alan Leslie* Willem Levelt* Elizabeth Loftus* Alexander Luria* Brian MacWhinney* George Mandler* Jean Matter Mandler* Ellen Markman* James McClelland* George Armitage Miller* Ulrich Neisser* Allen Newell* Allan Paivio* Seymour Papert* Jean Piaget* Steven Pinker* Michael Posner* Karl H. Pribram* Giacomo Rizzolatti* Henry L. Roediger III* Eleanor Rosch* David Rumelhart* Eleanor Saffran* Daniel Schacter* Otto Selz* Roger Shepard* Richard Shiffrin* Herbert A. Simon* George Sperling* Robert Sternberg* Larry Squire* Saul Sternberg* Anne Treisman* Endel Tulving* Amos Tversky* Lev Vygotsky" ], [ "See also", "* Cognition* * Connectionism* Discursive psychology* Ecological psychology* Evolutionary psychology* Fuzzy-trace theory* Genetic epistemology* Information processing (psychology)* Intelligent system* Intertrial priming* Models of abnormality* Neurocognitive* Perceptual control theory* Personal information management* Psychological adaptation* Rubicon model (psychology)* Situated cognition* Social cognition* Water-level task" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Philip T. Quinlan, Ben Dyson.", "2008.", "''Cognitive Psychology''.", "Publisher-Pearson/Prentice Hall.", ", 9780131298101* Robert J. Sternberg, Jeffery Scott Mio.", "2009.", "''Cognitive Psychology''.", "Publisher-Cengage Learning.", ", 9780495506294* Nick Braisby, Angus Gellatly.", "2012.", "''Cognitive Psychology''.", "Publisher-Oxford University Press.", ", 9780199236992" ], [ "External links", "* * * Cognitive psychology article in Scholarpedia* Laboratory for Rational Decision Making" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Comet" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''comet''' is an icy, small Solar System body that warms and begins to release gases when passing close to the Sun, a process called outgassing.", "This produces an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere or coma surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes a tail of gas and dust gas blown out from the coma.", "These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the outstreaming solar wind plasma acting upon the nucleus of the comet.", "Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles.", "The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit.", "If sufficiently close and bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and can subtend an arc of up to 30° (60 Moons) across the sky.", "Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions.Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years.", "Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.", "Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star.", "Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun by gravitational perturbations from passing stars and the galactic tide.", "Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space.", "The appearance of a comet is called an apparition.Extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids.", "Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System.", "However, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets.", "In the early 21st century, the discovery of some minor bodies with long-period comet orbits, but characteristics of inner solar system asteroids, were called Manx comets.", "They are still classified as comets, such as C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS).", "Twenty-seven Manx comets were found from 2013 to 2017., there are 4,584 known comets.", "However, this represents a very small fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is about one trillion.", "Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye, though many of those are faint and unspectacular.", "Particularly bright examples are called \"great comets\".", "Comets have been visited by uncrewed probes such as NASA's ''Deep Impact'', which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior, and the European Space Agency's ''Rosetta'', which became the first to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet." ], [ "Etymology", "A comet was mentioned in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' that allegedly made an appearance in 729 AD.The word ''comet'' derives from the Old English from the Latin or .", "That, in turn, is a romanization of the Greek 'wearing long hair', and the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' notes that the term () already meant 'long-haired star, comet' in Greek.", "was derived from () 'to wear the hair long', which was itself derived from () 'the hair of the head' and was used to mean 'the tail of a comet'.The astronomical symbol for comets (represented in Unicode) is , consisting of a small disc with three hairlike extensions." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "Diagram showing the physical characteristics of a comet:a) Nucleus, b) Coma, c) Gas/ion tail d) Dust tail, e) Hydrogen envelope, f) Orbital velocity direction, g) Direction to the Sun.=== Nucleus ===Nucleus of 103P/Hartley as imaged during a spacecraft flyby.", "The nucleus is about 2 km in length.The solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus.", "Cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia.", "As such, they are popularly described as \"dirty snowballs\" after Fred Whipple's model.", "Comets with a higher dust content have been called \"icy dirtballs\".", "The term \"icy dirtballs\" arose after observation of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 collision with an \"impactor\" probe sent by NASA Deep Impact mission in July 2005.Research conducted in 2014 suggests that comets are like \"deep fried ice cream\", in that their surfaces are formed of dense crystalline ice mixed with organic compounds, while the interior ice is colder and less dense.The surface of the nucleus is generally dry, dusty or rocky, suggesting that the ices are hidden beneath a surface crust several metres thick.", "The nuclei contains a variety of organic compounds, which may include methanol, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, ethanol, ethane, and perhaps more complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids.", "In 2009, it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA's Stardust mission.", "In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies of meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets.The outer surfaces of cometary nuclei have a very low albedo, making them among the least reflective objects found in the Solar System.", "The Giotto space probe found that the nucleus of Halley's Comet (1P/Halley) reflects about four percent of the light that falls on it, and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly's surface reflects less than 3.0%; by comparison, asphalt reflects seven percent.", "The dark surface material of the nucleus may consist of complex organic compounds.", "Solar heating drives off lighter volatile compounds, leaving behind larger organic compounds that tend to be very dark, like tar or crude oil.", "The low reflectivity of cometary surfaces causes them to absorb the heat that drives their outgassing processes.Comet nuclei with radii of up to have been observed, but ascertaining their exact size is difficult.", "The nucleus of 322P/SOHO is probably only in diameter.", "A lack of smaller comets being detected despite the increased sensitivity of instruments has led some to suggest that there is a real lack of comets smaller than across.", "Known comets have been estimated to have an average density of .", "Because of their low mass, comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes.Comet 81P/Wild exhibits jets on light side and dark side, stark relief, and is dry.Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be the extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing, including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote.Results from the ''Rosetta'' and ''Philae'' spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has no magnetic field, which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals.", "Further, the ALICE spectrograph on ''Rosetta'' determined that electrons (within above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma.", "Instruments on the ''Philae'' lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet's surface, four of which (acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde) have been detected for the first time on a comet.+Properties of some comets Name Dimensions(km) Density(g/cm3) Mass(kg)Tempel 1: Using a spherical diameter of 6.25 km; volume of a sphere * a density of 0.62 g/cm3 yields a mass of 7.9E+13 kg.19P/Borrelly: Using the volume of an ellipsoid of 8x4x4km * a density of 0.3 g/cm3 yields a mass of 2.0E+13 kg.81P/Wild: Using the volume of an ellipsoid of 5.5x4.0x3.3 km * a density of 0.6 g/cm3 yields a mass of 2.28E+13 kg.Refs Halley's Comet 15 × 8 × 8 0.6 3 Tempel 1 7.6 × 4.9 0.62 7.9 19P/Borrelly 8 × 4 × 4 0.3 2.0 81P/Wild 5.5 × 4.0 × 3.3 0.6 2.3 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko 4.1 × 3.3 × 1.8 0.47 1.0=== Coma ===Hubble image of Comet ISON shortly before perihelion.Comet Borrelly exhibits jets, but has no surface ice.The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\".", "The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form pointing away from the Sun.The coma is generally made of water and dust, with water making up to 90% of the volatiles that outflow from the nucleus when the comet is within 3 to 4 astronomical units (450,000,000 to 600,000,000 km; 280,000,000 to 370,000,000 mi) of the Sun.", "The parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization, with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry.", "Larger dust particles are left along the comet's orbital path whereas smaller particles are pushed away from the Sun into the comet's tail by light pressure.Although the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than across, the coma may be thousands or millions of kilometers across, sometimes becoming larger than the Sun.", "For example, about a month after an outburst in October 2007, comet 17P/Holmes briefly had a tenuous dust atmosphere larger than the Sun.", "The Great Comet of 1811 had a coma roughly the diameter of the Sun.", "Even though the coma can become quite large, its size can decrease about the time it crosses the orbit of Mars around from the Sun.", "At this distance the solar wind becomes strong enough to blow the gas and dust away from the coma, and in doing so enlarging the tail.", "Ion tails have been observed to extend one astronomical unit (150 million km) or more.C/2006 W3 (Chistensen) emitting carbon gas (IR image)Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible when a comet passes through the inner Solar System, the dust reflects sunlight directly while the gases glow from ionisation.", "Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.", "Occasionally a comet may experience a huge and sudden outburst of gas and dust, during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time.", "This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes.In 1996, comets were found to emit X-rays.", "This greatly surprised astronomers because X-ray emission is usually associated with very high-temperature bodies.", "The X-rays are generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged solar wind ions fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules, \"stealing\" one or more electrons from the atom in a process called \"charge exchange\".", "This exchange or transfer of an electron to the solar wind ion is followed by its de-excitation into the ground state of the ion by the emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons.===Bow shock===Bow shocks form as a result of the interaction between the solar wind and the cometary ionosphere, which is created by the ionization of gases in the coma.", "As the comet approaches the Sun, increasing outgassing rates cause the coma to expand, and the sunlight ionizes gases in the coma.", "When the solar wind passes through this ion coma, the bow shock appears.The first observations were made in the 1980s and 1990s as several spacecraft flew by comets 21P/Giacobini–Zinner, 1P/Halley, and 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup.", "It was then found that the bow shocks at comets are wider and more gradual than the sharp planetary bow shocks seen at, for example, Earth.", "These observations were all made near perihelion when the bow shocks already were fully developed.The ''Rosetta'' spacecraft observed the bow shock at comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet's journey toward the Sun.", "This young bow shock was called the \"infant bow shock\".", "The infant bow shock is asymmetric and, relative to the distance to the nucleus, wider than fully developed bow shocks.=== Tails ===Typical direction of tails during a comet's orbit near the SunIn the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size.", "Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned.", "As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions.", "The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail.", "At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory.", "On occasions—such as when Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen.dust trail, the dust tail, and the ion gas tail formed by solar wind.The observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind.", "The ion tail is formed as a result of the ionization by solar ultra-violet radiation of particles in the coma.", "Once the particles have been ionized, they attain a net positive electrical charge, which in turn gives rise to an \"induced magnetosphere\" around the comet.", "The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles.", "Because the relative orbital speed of the comet and the solar wind is supersonic, a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet in the flow direction of the solar wind.", "In this bow shock, large concentrations of cometary ions (called \"pick-up ions\") congregate and act to \"load\" the solar magnetic field with plasma, such that the field lines \"drape\" around the comet forming the ion tail.If the ion tail loading is sufficient, the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where, at some distance along the ion tail, magnetic reconnection occurs.", "This leads to a \"tail disconnection event\".", "This has been observed on a number of occasions, one notable event being recorded on 20 April 2007, when the ion tail of Encke's Comet was completely severed while the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection.", "This event was observed by the STEREO space probe.In 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions.", "\"=== Jets ===Gas and snow jets of 103P/HartleyUneven heating can cause newly generated gases to break out of a weak spot on the surface of comet's nucleus, like a geyser.", "These streams of gas and dust can cause the nucleus to spin, and even split apart.", "In 2010 it was revealed dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus.", "Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma." ], [ "Orbital characteristics", "Most comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder.", "Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse.=== Short period ===Periodic comets or short-period comets are generally defined as those having orbital periods of less than 200 years.", "They usually orbit more-or-less in the ecliptic plane in the same direction as the planets.", "Their orbits typically take them out to the region of the outer planets (Jupiter and beyond) at aphelion; for example, the aphelion of Halley's Comet is a little beyond the orbit of Neptune.", "Comets whose aphelia are near a major planet's orbit are called its \"family\".", "Such families are thought to arise from the planet capturing formerly long-period comets into shorter orbits.At the shorter orbital period extreme, Encke's Comet has an orbit that does not reach the orbit of Jupiter, and is known as an '''Encke-type comet'''.", "Short-period comets with orbital periods less than 20 years and low inclinations (up to 30 degrees) to the ecliptic are called traditional '''Jupiter-family comets''' (JFCs).", "Those like Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called '''Halley-type comets''' (HTCs).", ", 70 Encke-type comets, 100 HTCs, and 755 JFCs have been reported.Recently discovered main-belt comets form a distinct class, orbiting in more circular orbits within the asteroid belt.Because their elliptical orbits frequently take them close to the giant planets, comets are subject to further gravitational perturbations.", "Short-period comets have a tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet's semi-major axis, with the JFCs being the largest group.", "It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter.", "Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined.", "These perturbations can deflect long-period comets into shorter orbital periods.Based on their orbital characteristics, short-period comets are thought to originate from the centaurs and the Kuiper belt/scattered disc —a disk of objects in the trans-Neptunian region—whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the far more distant spherical Oort cloud (after the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesized its existence).", "Vast swarms of comet-like bodies are thought to orbit the Sun in these distant regions in roughly circular orbits.", "Occasionally the gravitational influence of the outer planets (in the case of Kuiper belt objects) or nearby stars (in the case of Oort cloud objects) may throw one of these bodies into an elliptical orbit that takes it inwards toward the Sun to form a visible comet.", "Unlike the return of periodic comets, whose orbits have been established by previous observations, the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable.", "When flung into the orbit of the sun, and being continuously dragged towards it, tons of matter are stripped from the comets which greatly influence their lifetime; the more stripped, the shorter they live and vice versa.=== Long period ===Orbits of Comet Kohoutek (red) and Earth (blue), illustrating the high eccentricity of its orbit and its rapid motion when close to the Sun.Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands or even millions of years.", "An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System.", "For example, Comet McNaught had a heliocentric osculating eccentricity of 1.000019 near its perihelion passage epoch in January 2007 but is bound to the Sun with roughly a 92,600-year orbit because the eccentricity drops below 1 as it moves farther from the Sun.", "The future orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System.", "By definition long-period comets remain gravitationally bound to the Sun; those comets that are ejected from the Solar System due to close passes by major planets are no longer properly considered as having \"periods\".", "The orbits of long-period comets take them far beyond the outer planets at aphelia, and the plane of their orbits need not lie near the ecliptic.", "Long-period comets such as C/1999 F1 and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS) can have aphelion distances of nearly with orbital periods estimated around 6 million years.Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System.", "However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change.", "Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun.", "The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of .", "Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System., only two objects have been discovered with an eccentricity significantly greater than one: 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov, indicating an origin outside the Solar System.", "While ʻOumuamua, with an eccentricity of about 1.2, showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet.", "On the other hand, 2I/Borisov, with an estimated eccentricity of about 3.36, has been observed to have the coma feature of comets, and is considered the first detected interstellar comet.", "Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1 million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known solar comet with a reasonable observation arc.", "Comets not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1, C/2000 U5, C/2001 Q4 (NEAT), C/2009 R1, C/1956 R1, and C/2007 F1 (LONEOS).Some authorities use the term \"periodic comet\" to refer to any comet with a periodic orbit (that is, all short-period comets plus all long-period comets), whereas others use it to mean exclusively short-period comets.", "Similarly, although the literal meaning of \"non-periodic comet\" is the same as \"single-apparition comet\", some use it to mean all comets that are not \"periodic\" in the second sense (that is, to include all comets with a period greater than 200 years).Early observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic (i.e.", "non-periodic) trajectories, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter.", "Comets from interstellar space are moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second).", "When such objects enter the Solar System, they have a positive specific orbital energy resulting in a positive velocity at infinity () and have notably hyperbolic trajectories.", "A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.+ Hyperbolic comet discoveries Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Number 12 7 8 4 13 10 16 9 16 5 18 10 15 17=== Oort cloud and Hills cloud ===The Oort cloud thought to surround the Solar SystemThe Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space starting from between to as far as from the Sun.", "This cloud encases the celestial bodies that start at the middle of the Solar System—the Sun, all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt.", "The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies.", "The Solar System's planets exist only because of the planetesimals (chunks of leftover space that assisted in the creation of planets) that were condensed and formed by the gravity of the Sun.", "The eccentric made from these trapped planetesimals is why the Oort Cloud even exists.", "Some estimates place the outer edge at between .", "The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of , and a doughnut-shaped inner cloud, the Hills cloud, of .", "The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets that fall to inside the orbit of Neptune.", "The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after J. G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981.Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets that resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted.", "The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years.=== Exocomets ===Exocomets beyond the Solar System have been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.", "The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987.A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified , using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star.", "For ten years the Kepler space telescope was responsible for searching for planets and other forms outside of the solar system.", "The first transiting exocomets were found in February 2018 by a group consisting of professional astronomers and citizen scientists in light curves recorded by the Kepler Space Telescope.", "After Kepler Space Telescope retired in October 2018, a new telescope called TESS Telescope has taken over Kepler's mission.", "Since the launch of TESS, astronomers have discovered the transits of comets around the star Beta Pictoris using a light curve from TESS.", "Since TESS has taken over, astronomers have since been able to better distinguish exocomets with the spectroscopic method.", "New planets are detected by the white light curve method which is viewed as a symmetrical dip in the charts readings when a planet overshadows its parent star.", "However, after further evaluation of these light curves, it has been discovered that the asymmetrical patterns of the dips presented are caused by the tail of a comet or of hundreds of comets." ], [ "Effects of comets", "Perseid meteors=== Connection to meteor showers ===As a comet is heated during close passes to the Sun, outgassing of its icy components releases solid debris too large to be swept away by radiation pressure and the solar wind.", "If Earth's orbit sends it through that trail of debris, which is composed mostly of fine grains of rocky material, there is likely to be a meteor shower as Earth passes through.", "Denser trails of debris produce quick but intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers.", "Typically, the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material.", "The Perseid meteor shower, for example, occurs every year between 9 and 13 August, when Earth passes through the orbit of Comet Swift–Tuttle.", "Halley's Comet is the source of the Orionid shower in October.=== Comets and impact on life ===Many comets and asteroids collided with Earth in its early stages.", "Many scientists think that comets bombarding the young Earth about 4 billion years ago brought the vast quantities of water that now fill Earth's oceans, or at least a significant portion of it.", "Others have cast doubt on this idea.", "The detection of organic molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in significant quantities in comets has led to speculation that comets or meteorites may have brought the precursors of life—or even life itself—to Earth.", "In 2013 it was suggested that impacts between rocky and icy surfaces, such as comets, had the potential to create the amino acids that make up proteins through shock synthesis.", "The speed at which the comets entered the atmosphere, combined with the magnitude of energy created after initial contact, allowed smaller molecules to condense into the larger macro-molecules that served as the foundation for life.", "In 2015, scientists found significant amounts of molecular oxygen in the outgassings of comet 67P, suggesting that the molecule may occur more often than had been thought, and thus less an indicator of life as has been supposed.It is suspected that comet impacts have, over long timescales, delivered significant quantities of water to Earth's Moon, some of which may have survived as lunar ice.", "Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites.===Fear of comets===Fear of comets as acts of God and signs of impending doom was highest in Europe from AD 1200 to 1650.The year after the Great Comet of 1618, for example, Gotthard Arthusius published a pamphlet stating that it was a sign that the Day of Judgment was near.", "He listed ten pages of comet-related disasters, including \"earthquakes, floods, changes in river courses, hail storms, hot and dry weather, poor harvests, epidemics, war and treason and high prices\".By 1700 most scholars concluded that such events occurred whether a comet was seen or not.", "Using Edmond Halley's records of comet sightings, however, William Whiston in 1711 wrote that the Great Comet of 1680 had a periodicity of 574 years and was responsible for the worldwide flood in the Book of Genesis, by pouring water on Earth.", "His announcement revived for another century fear of comets, now as direct threats to the world instead of signs of disasters.", "Spectroscopic analysis in 1910 found the toxic gas cyanogen in the tail of Halley's Comet, causing panicked buying of gas masks and quack \"anti-comet pills\" and \"anti-comet umbrellas\" by the public." ], [ "Fate of comets", "=== Departure (ejection) from Solar System ===If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System.", "Such comets follow the open path of a hyperbola, and as such, they are called hyperbolic comets.", "Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter.", "An example of this is Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from an orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter.", "Interstellar comets such as 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov never orbited the Sun and therefore do not require a 3rd-body interaction to be ejected from the Solar System.=== Volatiles exhausted ===Jupiter-family comets and long-period comets appear to follow very different fading laws.", "The JFCs are active over a lifetime of about 10,000 years or ~1,000 orbits whereas long-period comets fade much faster.", "Only 10% of the long-period comets survive more than 50 passages to small perihelion and only 1% of them survive more than 2,000 passages.", "Eventually most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid.", "Some asteroids in elliptical orbits are now identified as extinct comets.", "Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct comet nuclei.=== Breakup and collisions ===The nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart.", "A significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993.A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere—the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System.", "Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006.Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BC.", "Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact.Comets 42P/Neujmin and 53P/Van Biesbroeck appear to be fragments of a parent comet.", "Numerical integrations have shown that both comets had a rather close approach to Jupiter in January 1850, and that, before 1850, the two orbits were nearly identical.", "Another group of comets that is the result of fragmentation episodes is the Liller comet family made of C/1988 A1 (Liller), C/1996 Q1 (Tabur), C/2015 F3 (SWAN), C/2019 Y1 (ATLAS), and C/2023 V5 (Leonard).Some comets have been observed to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and Ikeya–Seki.", "Biela's Comet was one significant example when it broke into two pieces during its passage through the perihelion in 1846.These two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again afterward.", "Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible.", "A minor meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and it is caused when Earth crosses the orbit of Biela's Comet.Some comets meet a more spectacular end – either falling into the Sun or smashing into a planet or other body.", "Collisions between comets and planets or moons were common in the early Solar System: some of the many craters on the Moon, for example, may have been caused by comets.", "A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Halley's Comet in 1910The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries.", "Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the \"Great Comet of 1680\", the \"Great Comet of 1882\", and the \"Great January Comet of 1910\".After Edmond Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759 by calculating its orbit, that comet became known as Halley's Comet.", "Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, Encke's Comet and Biela's Comet, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers.", "Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred to by the year of their appearance.In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today.", "A comet can be named after its discoverers or an instrument or program that helped to find it.", "For example, in 2019, astronomer Gennadiy Borisov observed a comet that appeared to have originated outside of the solar system; the comet was named 2I/Borisov after him." ], [ "History of study", "=== Early observations and thought ===Halley's Comet appeared in 1066, prior to the Battle of Hastings, and is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry.Page from a treatise by Tycho Brahe depicting his geocentric view of the Great Comet of 1577From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that comets have been noticed by humans for millennia.", "Until the sixteenth century, comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants.Aristotle (384–322 BC) was the first known scientist to use various theories and observational facts to employ a consistent, structured cosmological theory of comets.", "He believed that comets were atmospheric phenomena, due to the fact that they could appear outside of the zodiac and vary in brightness over the course of a few days.", "Aristotle's cometary theory arose from his observations and cosmological theory that everything in the cosmos is arranged in a distinct configuration.", "Part of this configuration was a clear separation between the celestial and terrestrial, believing comets to be strictly associated with the latter.", "According to Aristotle, comets must be within the sphere of the moon and clearly separated from the heavens.", "Also in the 4th century BC, Apollonius of Myndus supported the idea that comets moved like the planets.", "Aristotelian theory on comets continued to be widely accepted throughout the Middle Ages, despite several discoveries from various individuals challenging aspects of it.In the 1st century AD, Seneca the Younger questioned Aristotle's logic concerning comets.", "Because of their regular movement and imperviousness to wind, they cannot be atmospheric, and are more permanent than suggested by their brief flashes across the sky.", "He pointed out that only the tails are transparent and thus cloudlike, and argued that there is no reason to confine their orbits to the zodiac.", "In criticizing Apollonius of Myndus, Seneca argues, \"A comet cuts through the upper regions of the universe and then finally becomes visible when it reaches the lowest point of its orbit.\"", "While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own, his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries.In the 1st century, Pliny the Elder believed that comets were connected with political unrest and death.", "Pliny observed comets as \"human like\", often describing their tails with \"long hair\" or \"long beard\".", "His system for classifying comets according to their color and shape was used for centuries.In India, by the 6th century astronomers believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically.", "This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varāhamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.", "In 1301, the Italian painter Giotto was the first person to accurately and anatomically portray a comet.", "In his work ''Adoration of the Magi,'' Giotto's depiction of Halley's Comet in the place of the Star of Bethlehem would go unmatched in accuracy until the 19th century and be bested only with the invention of photography.Astrological interpretations of comets proceeded to take precedence clear into the 15th century, despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root.", "Comets continued to forewarn of disaster, as seen in the ''Luzerner Schilling'' chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III.", "In 1578, German Lutheran bishop Andreas Celichius defined comets as \"the thick smoke of human sins ... kindled by the hot and fiery anger of the Supreme Heavenly Judge\".", "The next year, Andreas Dudith stated that \"If comets were caused by the sins of mortals, they would never be absent from the sky.", "\"=== Scientific approach ===Crude attempts at a parallax measurement of Halley's Comet were made in 1456, but were erroneous.", "Regiomontanus was the first to attempt to calculate diurnal parallax by observing the Great Comet of 1472.His predictions were not very accurate, but they were conducted in the hopes of estimating the distance of a comet from Earth.In the 16th century, Tycho Brahe and Michael Maestlin demonstrated that comets must exist outside of Earth's atmosphere by measuring the parallax of the Great Comet of 1577.Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant than from Earth to the Moon.", "Based on observations in 1664, Giovanni Borelli recorded the longitudes and latitudes of comets that he observed, and suggested that cometary orbits may be parabolic.", "Despite being a skilled astronomer, in his 1623 book ''The Assayer'', Galileo Galilei rejected Brahe's theories on the parallax of comets and claimed that they may be a mere optical illusion, despite little personal observation.", "In 1625, Maestlin's student Johannes Kepler upheld that Brahe's view of cometary parallax was correct.", "Additionally, mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682.During the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines.", "Many healers of this time considered medicine and astronomy to be inter-disciplinary and employed their knowledge of comets and other astrological signs for diagnosing and treating patients.Isaac Newton, in his ''Principia Mathematica'' of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of gravity by an inverse square law must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.He describes comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei, ignited or heated by the Sun.", "He suspected that comets were the origin of the life-supporting component of air.", "He pointed out that comets usually appear near the Sun, and therefore most likely orbit it.", "On their luminosity, he stated, \"The comets shine by the Sun's light, which they reflect,\" with their tails illuminated by \"the Sun's light reflected by a smoke arising from the coma\".The orbit of the comet of 1680, fitted to a parabola, as shown in Newton's ''Principia''In 1705, Edmond Halley (1656–1742) applied Newton's method to 23 cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698.He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar orbital elements, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn.", "Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758–59.Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three French mathematicians: Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute, who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy.", "When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as Halley's Comet.As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition.", "In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized in his ''Universal Natural History'' that comets were condensed from \"primitive matter\" beyond the known planets, which is \"feebly moved\" by gravity, then orbit at arbitrary inclinations, and are partially vaporized by the Sun's heat as they near perihelion.", "In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1835, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit, and he argued that the non-gravitational movements of Encke's Comet resulted from this phenomenon.In the 19th century, the Astronomical Observatory of Padova was an epicenter in the observational study of comets.", "Led by Giovanni Santini (1787–1877) and followed by Giuseppe Lorenzoni (1843–1914), this observatory was devoted to classical astronomy, mainly to the new comets and planets orbit calculation, with the goal of compiling a catalog of almost ten thousand stars.", "Situated in the Northern portion of Italy, observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic, geographic, and astronomical calculations, such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume.", "Correspondence within the observatory, particularly between Santini and another astronomer Giuseppe Toaldo, mentioned the importance of comet and planetary orbital observations.In 1950, Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock.", "This \"dirty snowball\" model soon became accepted and appeared to be supported by the observations of an armada of spacecraft (including the European Space Agency's ''Giotto'' probe and the Soviet Union's ''Vega 1'' and ''Vega 2'') that flew through the coma of Halley's Comet in 1986, photographed the nucleus, and observed jets of evaporating material.On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt.", "The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory.", "The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to \"sprout jets and plumes\".", "According to one of the scientists, \"The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids.\"", "On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, , and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON).=== Spacecraft missions ===*The Halley Armada describes the collection of spacecraft missions that visited and/or made observations of Halley's Comet 1980s perihelion.", "The space shuttle ''Challenger'' was intended to do a study of Halley's Comet in 1986, but exploded shortly after being launched.", "*'''Deep Impact'''.", "Debate continues about how much ice is in a comet.", "In 2001, the ''Deep Space 1'' spacecraft obtained high-resolution images of the surface of Comet Borrelly.", "It was found that the surface of comet Borrelly is hot and dry, with a temperature of between , and extremely dark, suggesting that the ice has been removed by solar heating and maturation, or is hidden by the soot-like material that covers Borrelly.", "In July 2005, the ''Deep Impact'' probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior.", "The mission yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface and that these reservoirs feed the jets of vaporized water that form the coma of Tempel 1.Renamed EPOXI, it made a flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010.*'''Ulysses'''.", "In 2007, the Ulysses probe unexpectedly passed through the tail of the comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) which was discovered in 2006.Ulysses was launched in 1990 and the intended mission was for Ulysses to orbit around the Sun for further study at all latitudes.", "*'''Stardust'''.", "Data from the ''Stardust'' mission show that materials retrieved from the tail of Wild 2 were crystalline and could only have been \"born in fire\", at extremely high temperatures of over .", "Although comets formed in the outer Solar System, radial mixing of material during the early formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk.", "As a result, comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early, hot inner Solar System.", "This is seen in comet spectra as well as in sample return missions.", "More recent still, the materials retrieved demonstrate that the \"comet dust resembles asteroid materials\".", "These new results have forced scientists to rethink the nature of comets and their distinction from asteroids.*'''Rosetta'''.", "The ''Rosetta'' probe orbited Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko.", "On 12 November 2014, its lander ''Philae'' successfully landed on the comet's surface, the first time a spacecraft has ever landed on such an object in history." ], [ "Classification", "=== Great comets ===Woodcut of the Great Comet of 1577Approximately once a decade, a comet becomes bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer, leading such comets to be designated as great comets.", "Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions.", "Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from Earth when at its brightest, it has a chance of becoming a great comet.", "However, Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular but failed to do so.", "Comet West, which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations but became an extremely impressive comet.The Great Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet.", "It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many, including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din.", "Observations of this comet led to several significant findings regarding cometary science, especially for Brahe.The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession—Comet Hyakutake in 1996, followed by Hale–Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier.", "The first great comet of the 21st century was C/2006 P1 (McNaught), which became visible to naked eye observers in January 2007.It was the brightest in over 40 years.=== Sungrazing comets ===A sungrazing comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun at perihelion, generally within a few million kilometers.", "Although small sungrazers can be completely evaporated during such a close approach to the Sun, larger sungrazers can survive many perihelion passages.", "However, the strong tidal forces they experience often lead to their fragmentation.About 90% of the sungrazers observed with SOHO are members of the Kreutz group, which all originate from one giant comet that broke up into many smaller comets during its first passage through the inner Solar System.", "The remainder contains some sporadic sungrazers, but four other related groups of comets have been identified among them: the Kracht, Kracht 2a, Marsden, and Meyer groups.", "The Marsden and Kracht groups both appear to be related to Comet 96P/Machholz, which is the parent of two meteor streams, the Quadrantids and the Arietids.=== Unusual comets ===Euler diagram showing the types of bodies in the Solar SystemOf the thousands of known comets, some exhibit unusual properties.", "Comet Encke (2P/Encke) orbits from outside the asteroid belt to just inside the orbit of the planet Mercury whereas the Comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann currently travels in a nearly circular orbit entirely between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn.", "2060 Chiron, whose unstable orbit is between Saturn and Uranus, was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed.", "Similarly, Comet Shoemaker–Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid .=== Largest ===The largest known periodic comet is 95P/Chiron at 200 km in diameter that comes to perihelion every 50 years just inside of Saturn's orbit at 8 AU.", "The largest known Oort cloud comet is suspected of being Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein at ≈150 km that will not come to perihelion until January 2031 just outside of Saturn's orbit at 11 AU.", "The Comet of 1729 is estimated to have been ≈100 km in diameter and came to perihelion inside of Jupiter's orbit at 4 AU.=== Centaurs ===Centaurs typically behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets.", "Centaurs can be classified as comets such as 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT.", "166P/NEAT was discovered while it exhibited a coma, and so is classified as a comet despite its orbit, and 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but later became active, and was then classified as both a comet and an asteroid (174P/Echeclus).", "One plan for ''Cassini'' involved sending it to a centaur, but NASA decided to destroy it instead." ], [ "Observation", "A comet may be discovered photographically using a wide-field telescope or visually with binoculars.", "However, even without access to optical equipment, it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO.", "SOHO's 2000th comet was discovered by Polish amateur astronomer Michał Kusiak on 26 December 2010 and both discoverers of Hale–Bopp used amateur equipment (although Hale was not an amateur).=== Lost ===A number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets.", "Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated.", "However, occasionally a \"new\" comet is discovered, and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old \"lost\" comet.", "An example is Comet 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter.", "It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001.There are at least 18 comets that fit this category." ], [ "In popular culture", "The depiction of comets in popular culture is firmly rooted in the long Western tradition of seeing comets as harbingers of doom and as omens of world-altering change.", "Halley's Comet alone has caused a slew of sensationalist publications of all sorts at each of its reappearances.", "It was especially noted that the birth and death of some notable persons coincided with separate appearances of the comet, such as with writers Mark Twain (who correctly speculated that he'd \"go out with the comet\" in 1910) and Eudora Welty, to whose life Mary Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song \"Halley Came to Jackson\".In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens.", "More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions, whereas the appearance of Comet Hale–Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult.In science fiction, the impact of comets has been depicted as a threat overcome by technology and heroism (as in the 1998 films ''Deep Impact'' and ''Armageddon''), or as a trigger of global apocalypse (''Lucifer's Hammer'', 1979) or zombies (''Night of the Comet'', 1984).", "In Jules Verne's ''Off on a Comet'' a group of people are stranded on a comet orbiting the Sun, while a large crewed space expedition visits Halley's Comet in Sir Arthur C. Clarke's novel ''2061: Odyssey Three''." ], [ "In literature", "The long-period comet first recorded by Pons in Florence on 15 July 1825 inspired Lydia Sigourney's humorous poem in which all the celestial bodies argue over the comet's appearance and purpose." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Comet_C2020F3_NEOWISE_over_California_desert_landscape.png|Comet C/2020 F3 NEOWISEFile:Comet P1 McNaught02 - 23-01-07-edited.jpg|Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) taken from Victoria, Australia 2007File:Great Comet of 1882.jpg|The Great Comet of 1882 is a member of the Kreutz groupFile:Great Comet 1861.jpg|Great Comet 1861File:X-rays from Hyakutake.jpg|Comet Hyakutake (X-ray, ROSAT satellite)File:Asteroid P2013 P5 v2.jpg|\"Active asteroid\" 311P/PANSTARRS with several tailsFile:NASA-14090-Comet-C2013A1-SidingSpring-Hubble-20140311.jpg|Comet Siding Spring (Hubble; 11 March 2014)File:Comets WISE.jpg|Mosaic of 20 comets discovered by the WISE space telescopeFile:PIA22419-Neowise-1stFourYearsDataFromDec2013-20180420.gif|NEOWISE – first four years of data starting in December 2013File:Lovejoy-hi1a srem dec12 14.gif|C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy) heads towards the SunFile:ITS Impact.gif|View from the impactor in its last moments before hitting Comet Tempel 1 during the ''Deep Impact'' mission;VideosFile:NASA Developing Comet Harpoon for Sample Return.ogv|NASA is developing a comet harpoon for returning samples to EarthFile:Encke tail rip off.ogg|Comet Encke loses its tail" ], [ "See also", "* ''The Big Splash''* Comet vintages* List of impact craters on Earth* List of possible impact structures on Earth* Lists of comets" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Citations====== Bibliography ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Comets at NASA's Solar System Exploration* International Comet Quarterly by Harvard University* Catalogue of the Solar System Small Bodies Orbital Evolution* Science Demos: Make a Comet by the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory* Comets: from myths to reality, exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Compost" ], [ "Introduction", "Community-level composting in a rural area in Germany'''Compost''' is a mixture of ingredients used as plant fertilizer and to improve soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties.", "It is commonly prepared by decomposing plant and food waste, recycling organic materials, and manure.", "The resulting mixture is rich in plant nutrients and beneficial organisms, such as bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, and fungi.", "Compost improves soil fertility in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, urban agriculture, and organic farming, reducing dependency on commercial chemical fertilizers.", "The benefits of compost include providing nutrients to crops as fertilizer, acting as a soil conditioner, increasing the humus or humic acid contents of the soil, and introducing beneficial microbes that help to suppress pathogens in the soil and reduce soil-borne diseases.At the simplest level, composting requires gathering a mix of \"greens\" (green waste) and \"browns\" (brown waste).", "Greens are materials rich in nitrogen, such as leaves, grass, and food scraps.", "Browns are woody materials rich in carbon, such as stalks, paper, and wood chips.", "The materials break down into humus in a process taking months.", "Composting can be a multistep, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials.", "The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water, and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture in a process using open piles or windrows.", "Fungi, earthworms, and other detritivores further break up the organic material.", "Aerobic bacteria and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide, and ammonium ions.Composter made from a hollow logComposting is an important part of waste management, since food and other compostable materials make up about 20% of waste in landfills, and due to anaerobic conditions, these materials take longer to biodegrade in the landfill.", "Composting offers an environmentally superior alternative to using organic material for landfill because composting reduces methane emissions due to anaerobic conditions, and provides economic and environmental co-benefits.", "For example, compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and landfill cover." ], [ "Fundamentals", "Home compost barrelCompost bins at the Evergreen State College organic farm in WashingtonMaterials in a compost pileFood scraps compost heapComposting is an aerobic method of decomposing organic solid wastes, so can be used to recycle organic material.", "The process involves decomposing organic material into a humus-like material, known as compost, which is a good fertilizer for plants.Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively:* '''Carbon''' is needed for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat required for other parts of the composting process.", "High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.", "* '''Nitrogen''' is needed to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon.", "High nitrogen materials tend to be green and wet.", "They can also include colourful fruits and vegetables.", "* '''Oxygen''' is required for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.", "Aerobic bacteria need oxygen levels above 5% to perform the processes needed for composting.", "* '''Water''' is necessary in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing locally anaerobic conditions.Certain ratios of these materials allow microorganisms to work at a rate that will heat up the compost pile.", "Active management of the pile (e.g., turning over the compost heap) is needed to maintain sufficient oxygen and the right moisture level.", "The air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures until the materials are broken down.Composting is most efficient with a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 25:1.Hot composting focuses on retaining heat to increase the decomposition rate, thus producing compost more quickly.", "Rapid composting is favored by having a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 30 carbon units or less.", "Above 30, the substrate is nitrogen starved.", "Below 15, it is likely to outgas a portion of nitrogen as ammonia.Nearly all dead plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen in different amounts.", "Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15:1 and dry autumn leaves about 50:1 depending upon species.", "Composting is an ongoing and dynamic process; adding new sources of carbon and nitrogen consistently, as well as active management, is important.=== Organisms ===Organisms can break down organic matter in compost if provided with the correct mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.", "They fall into two broad categories: chemical decomposers, which perform chemical processes on the organic waste, and physical decomposers, which process the waste into smaller pieces through methods such as grinding, tearing, chewing, and digesting.==== Chemical decomposers ====* Bacteria are the most abundant and important of all the microorganisms found in compost.", "Bacteria process carbon and nitrogen and excrete plant-available nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium.", "Depending on the phase of composting, mesophilic or thermophilic bacteria may be the most prominent.", "** Mesophilic bacteria get compost to the thermophilic stage through oxidation of organic material.", "Afterwards, they cure it, which makes the fresh compost more bioavailable for plants.", "** Thermophilic bacteria do not reproduce and are not active between , yet are found throughout soil.", "They activate once the mesophilic bacteria have begun to breakdown organic matter and increase the temperature to their optimal range.", "They have been shown to enter soils via rainwater.", "They are present so broadly because of many factors, including their spores being resilient.", "Thermophilic bacteria thrive at higher temperatures, reaching in typical mixes.", "Large-scale composting operations, such as windrow composting, may exceed this temperature, potentially killing beneficial soil microorganisms but also pasteurizing the waste.", "** Actinomycetota are needed to break down paper products such as newspaper, bark, etc., and other large molecules such as lignin and cellulose that are more difficult to decompose.", "The \"pleasant, earthy smell of compost\" is attributed to Actinomycetota.", "They make carbon, ammonia, and nitrogen nutrients available to plants.", "* Fungi such as molds and yeasts help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially cellulose and lignin in woody material.", "* Protozoa contribute to biodegradation of organic matter and consume inactive bacteria, fungi, and micro-organic particulates.==== Physical decomposers ====* Ants create nests, making the soil more porous and transporting nutrients to different areas of the compost.", "* Beetles as grubs feed on decaying vegetables.", "* Earthworms ingest partly composted material and excrete worm castings, making nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium available to plants.", "The tunnels they create as they move through the compost also increase aeration and drainage.", "* Flies feed on almost all organic material and put bacteria into the compost.", "Their population is kept in check by mites and the thermophilic temperatures that are unsuitable for fly larvae.", "* Millipedes break down plant material.", "* Rotifers feed on plant particles.", "* Snails and slugs feed on living or fresh plant material.", "They should be removed from compost before use, as they can damage plants and crops.", "* Sow bugs feed on rotting wood and decaying vegetation.", "* Springtails feed on fungi, molds, and decomposing plants.===Phases of composting===Three year old household compostUnder ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases:# '''Mesophilic phase:''' The initial, mesophilic phase is when the decomposition is carried out under moderate temperatures by mesophilic microorganisms.# '''Thermophilic phase:''' As the temperature rises, a second, thermophilic phase starts, in which various thermophilic bacteria carry out the decomposition under higher temperatures (.", ")# '''Maturation phase:''' As the supply of high-energy compounds dwindles, the temperature starts to decrease, and the mesophilic bacteria once again predominate in the maturation phase.===Hot and cold composting – impact on timing===The time required to compost material relates to the volume of material, the particle size of the inputs (e.g.", "wood chips break down faster than branches), and the amount of mixing and aeration.", "Generally, larger piles reach higher temperatures and remain in a thermophilic stage for days or weeks.", "This is hot composting and is the usual method for large-scale municipal facilities and agricultural operations.The Berkeley method produces finished compost in 18 days.", "It requires assembly of at least of material at the outset and needs turning every two days after an initial four-day phase.", "Such short processes involve some changes to traditional methods, including smaller, more homogenized particle sizes in the input materials, controlling carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) at 30:1 or less, and careful monitoring of the moisture level.Cold composting is a slower process that can take up to a year to complete.", "It results from smaller piles, including many residential compost piles that receive small amounts of kitchen and garden waste over extended periods.", "Piles smaller than tend not to reach and maintain high temperatures.", "Turning is not necessary with cold composting, although a risk exists that parts of the pile may go anaerobic as it becomes compacted or waterlogged.===Pathogen removal===Composting can destroy some pathogens and seeds, by reaching temperatures above .", "Dealing with stabilized compost – i.e.", "composted material in which microorganisms have finished digesting the organic matter and the temperature has reached between – poses very little risk, as these temperatures kill pathogens and even make oocysts unviable.", "The temperature at which a pathogen dies depends on the pathogen, how long the temperature is maintained (seconds to weeks), and pH.Compost products such as compost tea and compost extracts have been found to have an inhibitory effect on ''Fusarium oxysporum'', ''Rhizoctonia'' species, and ''Pythium debaryanum,'' plant pathogens that can cause crop diseases.", "Aerated compost teas are more effective than compost extracts.", "The microbiota and enzymes present in compost extracts also have a suppressive effect on fungal plant pathogens.", "Compost is a good source of biocontrol agents like ''B.", "subtilis'', ''B.", "licheniformis,'' and P. ''chrysogenum'' that fight plant pathogens.", "Sterilizing the compost, compost tea, or compost extracts reduces the effect of pathogen suppression.=== Diseases that can be contracted from handling compost ===When turning compost that has not gone through phases where temperatures above are reached, a mouth mask and gloves must be worn to protect from diseases that can be contracted from handling compost, including:* Aspergillosis* Farmer's lung* Histoplasmosis – a fungus that grows in guano and bird droppings* Legionnaires' disease* Paronychia – via infection around the fingernails and toenails* Tetanus – a central nervous system diseaseOocytes are rendered unviable by temperatures over ." ], [ "Environmental benefits", "Composting at home reduces the amount of green waste being hauled to dumps or composting facilities.", "The reduced volume of materials being picked up by trucks results in fewer trips, which in turn lowers the overall emissions from the waste-management fleet." ], [ "Materials that can be composted", "Potential sources of compostable materials, or feedstocks, include residential, agricultural, and commercial waste streams.", "Residential food or yard waste can be composted at home, or collected for inclusion in a large-scale municipal composting facility.", "In some regions, it could also be included in a local or neighborhood composting project.=== Organic solid waste ===thermophilic microorganisms.The two broad categories of organic solid waste are green and brown.", "Green waste is generally considered a source of nitrogen and includes pre- and post-consumer food waste, grass clippings, garden trimmings, and fresh leaves.", "Animal carcasses, roadkill, and butcher residue can also be composted, and these are considered nitrogen sources.Brown waste is a carbon source.", "Typical examples are dried vegetation and woody material such as fallen leaves, straw, woodchips, limbs, logs, pine needles, sawdust, and wood ash, but not charcoal ash.", "Products derived from wood such as paper and plain cardboard are also considered carbon sources.===Animal manure and bedding===On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are animal manure generated on the farm as a nitrogen source, and bedding as the carbon source.", "Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials.", "Nontraditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard.", "The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions.", "Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.", "Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting.", "Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials.", "Poultry manure must be blended with high-carbon, low-nitrogen materials.=== Human excreta ===Human excreta, sometimes called \"humanure\" in the composting context, can be added as an input to the composting process since it is a nutrient-rich organic material.", "Nitrogen, which serves as a building block for important plant amino acids, is found in solid human waste.", "Phosphorus, which helps plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of ATP, can be found in liquid human waste.", "Solid human waste can be collected directly in composting toilets, or indirectly in the form of sewage sludge after it has undergone treatment in a sewage treatment plant.", "Both processes require capable design, as potential health risks need to be managed.", "In the case of home composting, a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasitic worms, can be present in feces, and improper processing can pose significant health risks.", "In the case of large sewage treatment facilities that collect wastewater from a range of residential, commercial and industrial sources, there are additional considerations.", "The composted sewage sludge, referred to as biosolids, can be contaminated with a variety of metals and pharmaceutical compounds.", "Insufficient processing of biosolids can also lead to problems when the material is applied to land.Urine can be put on compost piles or directly used as fertilizer.", "Adding urine to compost can increase temperatures, so can increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds.", "Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as houseflies or blowflies), and it does not contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs.=== Animal remains ===Animal carcasses may be composted as a disposal option.", "Such material is rich in nitrogen.==== Human bodies ====" ], [ "Composting technologies", "Backyard composter=== Industrial-scale composting =======In-vessel composting========Aerated static-pile composting========Windrow composting=======Other systems at household level======= Hügelkultur (raised garden beds or mounds) ====An almost completed bed; the bed does not have soil on it yet.The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called in German.", "It is in effect creating a nurse log that is covered with soil.Benefits of ''Hügelkultur'' garden beds include water retention and warming of soil.", "Buried wood acts like a sponge as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by crops planted on top of the bed.==== Composting toilets ======= Related technologies ===* Vermicompost (also called worm castings, worm humus, worm manure, or worm faeces) is the end product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms.", "These castings have been shown to contain reduced levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than the organic materials before vermicomposting.", "* Black soldier fly (''Hermetia illucens'') larvae are able to rapidly consume large amounts of organic material and can be used to treat human waste.", "The resulting compost still contains nutrients and can be used for biogas production, or further traditional composting or vermicomposting* Bokashi is a fermentation process rather than a decomposition process, and so retains the feedstock's energy, nutrient and carbon contents.", "There must be sufficient carbohydrate for fermentation to complete and therefore the process is typically applied to food waste, including noncompostable items.", "Carbohydrate is transformed into lactic acid, which dissociates naturally to form lactate, a biological energy carrier.", "The preserved result is therefore readily consumed by soil microbes and from there by the entire soil food web, leading to a significant increase in soil organic carbon and turbation.", "The process completes in weeks and returns soil acidity to normal.", "* Co-composting is a technique that processes organic solid waste together with other input materials such as dewatered fecal sludge or sewage sludge.", "* Anaerobic digestion combined with mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams is increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills.", "Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a potent greenhouse gas.", "The methane produced in an anaerobic digester can be used as biogas." ], [ "Uses", "===Agriculture and gardening===Compost used as fertilizerOn open ground for growing wheat, corn, soybeans, and similar crops, compost can be broadcast across the top of the soil using spreader trucks or spreaders pulled behind a tractor.", "It is expected that the spread layer is very thin (approximately ) and worked into the soil prior to planting.", "Application rates of or more are not unusual when trying to rebuild poor soils or control erosion.", "Due to the extremely high cost of compost per unit of nutrients in the United States, on-farm use is relatively rare since rates over 4 tons/acre may not be affordable.", "This results from an over-emphasis on \"recycling organic matter\" than on \"sustainable nutrients.\"", "In countries such as Germany, where compost distribution and spreading are partially subsidized in the original waste fees, compost is used more frequently on open ground on the premise of nutrient \"sustainability\".In plasticulture, strawberries, tomatoes, peppers, melons, and other fruits and vegetables are grown under plastic to control temperature, retain moisture and control weeds.", "Compost may be banded (applied in strips along rows) and worked into the soil prior to bedding and planting, be applied at the same time the beds are constructed and plastic laid down, or used as a top dressing.Many crops are not seeded directly in the field but are started in seed trays in a greenhouse.", "When the seedlings reach a certain stage of growth, they are transplanted in the field.", "Compost may be part of the mix used to grow the seedlings, but is not normally used as the only planting substrate.", "The particular crop and the seeds' sensitivity to nutrients, salts, etc.", "dictates the ratio of the blend, and maturity is important to insure that oxygen deprivation will not occur or that no lingering phyto-toxins remain.Compost can be added to soil, coir, or peat, as a tilth improver, supplying humus and nutrients.", "It provides a rich growing medium as absorbent material.", "This material contains moisture and soluble minerals, which provide support and nutrients.", "Although it is rarely used alone, plants can flourish from mixed soil that includes a mix of compost with other additives such as sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules to produce loam.", "Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil.", "Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry, the possible presence of phytotoxins in immature compost that may inhibit germination, and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.", "It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting seedlings.Compost can be used to increase plant immunity to diseases and pests.==== Compost tea ====Compost tea is made up of extracts of fermented water leached from composted materials.", "Composts can be either aerated or non-aerated depending on its fermentation process.", "Compost teas are generally produced from adding compost to water in a ratio of 1:4–1:10, occasionally stirring to release microbes.There is debate about the benefits of aerating the mixture.", "Non-aerated compost tea is cheaper and less labor intensive, but there are conflicting studies regarding the risks of phytotoxicity and human pathogen regrowth.", "Aerated compost tea brews faster and generates more microbes, but has potential for human pathogen regrowth, particularly when one adds additional nutrients to the mixture.Field studies have shown the benefits of adding compost teas to crops due to organic matter input, increased nutrient availability, and increased microbial activity.", "They have also been shown to have a suppressive effect on plant pathogens and soil-borne diseases.", "The efficacy is influenced by a number of factors, such as the preparation process, the type of source the conditions of the brewing process, and the environment of the crops.", "Adding nutrients to compost tea can be beneficial for disease suppression, although it can trigger the regrowth of human pathogens like ''E.", "coli'' and ''Salmonella.", "''==== Compost extract ====Compost extracts are unfermented or non-brewed extracts of leached compost contents dissolved in any solvent.====Commercial sale====Compost is sold as bagged potting mixes in garden centers and other outlets.", "This may include composted materials such as manure and peat but is also likely to contain loam, fertilizers, sand, grit, etc.", "Varieties include multi-purpose composts designed for most aspects of planting, John Innes formulations, grow bags, designed to have crops such as tomatoes directly planted into them.", "There are also a range of specialist composts available, e.g.", "for vegetables, orchids, houseplants, hanging baskets, roses, ericaceous plants, seedlings, potting on, etc.=== Other ===Compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and landfill cover.The temperatures generated by compost can be used to heat greenhouses, such as by being placed around the outside edges." ], [ "Regulations", "A kitchen compost bin is used to transport compostable items to an outdoor compost bin.There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US.", "In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.", "Compost is regulated in Canada and Australia as well.EPA Class A and B guidelines in the United States were developed solely to manage the processing and beneficial reuse of sludge, also now called biosolids, following the US EPA ban of ocean dumping.", "About 26 American states now require composts to be processed according to these federal protocols for pathogen and vector control, even though the application to non-sludge materials has not been scientifically tested.", "An example is that green waste composts are used at much higher rates than sludge composts were ever anticipated to be applied at.", "U.K guidelines also exist regarding compost quality, as well as Canadian, Australian, and the various European states.In the United States, some compost manufacturers participate in a testing program offered by a private lobbying organization called the U.S. Composting Council.", "The USCC was originally established in 1991 by Procter & Gamble to promote composting of disposable diapers, following state mandates to ban diapers in landfills, which caused a national uproar.", "Ultimately the idea of composting diapers was abandoned, partly since it was not proven scientifically to be possible, and mostly because the concept was a marketing stunt in the first place.", "After this, composting emphasis shifted back to recycling organic wastes previously destined for landfills.", "There are no bonafide quality standards in America, but the USCC sells a seal called \"Seal of Testing Assurance\" (also called \"STA\").", "For a considerable fee, the applicant may display the USCC logo on products, agreeing to volunteer to customers a current laboratory analysis that includes parameters such as nutrients, respiration rate, salt content, pH, and limited other indicators.Many countries such as Wales and some individual cities such as Seattle and San Francisco require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting (San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance).The USA is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludge-source compost from green-composts, and by default 50% of US states expect composts to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge products.There are health risk concerns about PFASs (\"forever chemicals\") levels in compost derived from sewage sledge sourced biosolids, and EPA has not set health risk standards for this.", "The Sierra Club recommends that home gardeners avoid the use of sewage sludge-base fertilizer and compost, in part due to potentially high levels of PFASs.", "The EPA '''PFAS Strategic Roadmap''' initiative, running from 2021 to 2024, will consider the full lifecycle of PFAS including health risks of PFAS in wastewater sludge." ], [ "History", "Compost basketComposting dates back to at least the early Roman Empire, and was mentioned as early as Cato the Elder's 160 BCE piece .", "Traditionally, composting involved piling organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil.", "Methodologies for organic composting were part of traditional agricultural systems around the world.Composting began to modernize somewhat from the 1920s in Europe as a tool for organic farming.", "The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in Wels, Austria in the year 1921.Early proponents of composting within farming include Rudolf Steiner, founder of a farming method called biodynamics, and Annie Francé-Harrar, who was appointed on behalf of the government in Mexico and supported the country in 1950–1958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and soil degradation.", "Sir Albert Howard, who worked extensively in India on sustainable practices, and Lady Eve Balfour were also major proponents of composting.", "Modern scientific composting was imported to America by the likes of J. I. Rodale – founder of Rodale, Inc. Organic Gardening, and others involved in the organic farming movement." ], [ "See also", "* Carbon farming* Human composting* Organic farming* Permaculture* Soil science* Sustainable agriculture* Terra preta* Waste sorting* Zero waste===Related lists===* List of composting systems* List of environment topics* List of sustainable agriculture topics* List of organic gardening and farming topics" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Capitol" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''capitol''', named after the Capitoline Hill in Rome, is usually a legislative building where a legislature meets and makes laws for its respective political entity.Specific capitols include:* United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.* Numerous U.S. state and territorial capitols* Capitolio Nacional in Bogotá, Colombia* Capitolio Federal in Caracas, Venezuela* El Capitolio in Havana, Cuba* Capitol of Palau in Ngerulmud, Palau'''Capitol''', '''capitols''', or '''The Capitol''' may also refer to:;Entertainment and Media* Capitol (board game), a Roman-themed board game* Capitol (The Hunger Games trilogy), a fictional city in The Hunger Games novels* ''Capitol'' (TV series), a U.S. soap opera* Capitol (collection), a book by Orson Scott Card* The Capitols, a Detroit, Michigan-based soul trio;Business* Capitol Wrestling Corporation, a predecessor organization to World Wrestling Entertainment* Capitol Records, a U.S. record label* Capitol Air, originally known as Capitol International Airways, an American charter airline operating from 1946 to the mid 1980s; Other locations* Capitoline Hill in Rome (from which the word ''capitol'' derives)* ''Capitols'', former name of the ''Capitol Corridor'' passenger train route in California, United States* Capitole de Toulouse, a historic building in Toulouse, France, now used as a municipal and public-arts center* The capitouls of Toulouse, the city's former chief magistrates* Capitol College, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland* Capitol Butte, a mountain in Arizona* Capitol Reef National Park, a U.S. National Park in south-central Utah* Capitolium, the temple for the Capitoline Triad in many cities of the Roman Empire* The Capitol (Hong Kong), a large private housing estate in Hong Kong* The Capitol (Fayetteville, North Carolina), department store* Capitol (Williamsburg, Virginia), a historic building that housed the House of Burgesses of the Colony of Virginia 1705–1779" ], [ "See also", "* * Capital (disambiguation)* Capitol Center (disambiguation)* Capitol Hill (disambiguation), a number of districts in the United States and Canada* Capitol station (disambiguation)* Capitol Theater (disambiguation), a number of former and current cinemas or theatres located throughout the world* Le Capitole (train), a former express train between Paris and Toulouse" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cinema" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cinema''' may refer to:" ], [ "Film", "* Cinematography, the art of motion-picture photography* Film or movie, a series of still images that create the illusion of moving image** Film industry, the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking** Filmmaking, the process of making a film* Movie theater (US), called a cinema elsewhere, a building in which films are shown" ], [ "TV", "* Home cinema tries to replicate the movie theater at home.", "* Cinema or Movie mode, a picture mode characterized by warmer color temperatures" ], [ "Music", "===Bands===* Cinema (band), a band formed in 1982 by ex-Yes members Alan White & Chris Squire* The Cinema, an American indie pop band===Albums===* ''Cinema'' (Andrea Bocelli album), released 2015* ''Cinema'' (The Cat Empire album), released 2010* ''Cinema'' (Elaine Paige album), released 1984* ''Cinema'' (Nazareth album), or the title song, released 1986* ''Cinema'', a 2009 album by Brazilian band Cachorro Grande* ''Cinema'', a 1990 album by English musician Ice MC (Ian Campbell), or the title song* ''Cinema'', a 2004 album by Portuguese musician Rodrigo Leão* ''Cinema'', a 2010 album by Karsh Kale* ''Cinema'', a 2021 album by The Marías===Songs===* ''Cinema'' (Yes song), by the band Yes, from their 1983 album ''90125''* \"Cinema\" (Benny Benassi song), from the 2011 album ''Electroman''* \"Cinema\" (Samuel and Francesca Michielin song), 2021* \"Cinema\", a song by CIX, 2021* \"Cinema\" (Harry Styles song), 2022* \"Cinéma\", a song by Paola del Medico, Swiss entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1980* \"Cinema 1\", \"Cinema 2\" and \"Cinema 3\" by Brockhampton from ''Saturation III''* \"Cinema (シネマ)\", a commissioned song produced by Ayase===Labels===* Cinema (record label), a short-lived electronic record label distributed by Capitol Records." ], [ "See also", "* * * Scinema, an Australian film festival* Sinema (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Corundum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Corundum''' is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide () typically containing traces of iron, titanium, vanadium, and chromium.", "It is a rock-forming mineral.", "It is a naturally transparent material, but can have different colors depending on the presence of transition metal impurities in its crystalline structure.", "Corundum has two primary gem varieties: ruby and sapphire.", "Rubies are red due to the presence of chromium, and sapphires exhibit a range of colors depending on what transition metal is present.", "A rare type of sapphire, padparadscha sapphire, is pink-orange.The name \"corundum\" is derived from the Tamil-Dravidian word ''kurundam'' (ruby-sapphire) (appearing in Sanskrit as ''kuruvinda'').Because of corundum's hardness (pure corundum is defined to have 9.0 on the Mohs scale), it can scratch almost all other minerals.", "It is commonly used as an abrasive on sandpaper and on large tools used in machining metals, plastics, and wood.", "Emery, a variety of corundum with no value as a gemstone, is commonly used as an abrasive.", "It is a black granular form of corundum, in which the mineral is intimately mixed with magnetite, hematite, or hercynite.In addition to its hardness, corundum has a density of , which is unusually high for a transparent mineral composed of the low-atomic mass elements aluminium and oxygen." ], [ "Geology and occurrence", "Corundum from Brazil, size about Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some marbles in metamorphic terranes.", "It also occurs in low-silica igneous syenite and nepheline syenite intrusives.", "Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in pegmatites.", "It commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands because of its hardness and resistance to weathering.", "The largest documented single crystal of corundum measured about , and weighed .", "The record has since been surpassed by certain synthetic boules.Corundum for abrasives is mined in Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, and India.", "Historically it was mined from deposits associated with dunites in North Carolina, US, and from a nepheline syenite in Craigmont, Ontario.", "Emery-grade corundum is found on the Greek island of Naxos and near Peekskill, New York, US.", "Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from bauxite.Four corundum axes dating to 2500 BC from the Liangzhu culture and Sanxingcun culture (the latter of which is located in Jintan District) have been discovered in China." ], [ "Synthetic corundum", "* In 1837, Marc Antoine Gaudin made the first synthetic rubies by reacting alumina at a high temperature with a small amount of chromium as a colourant.", "* In 1847, J. J. Ebelmen made white synthetic sapphires by reacting alumina in boric acid.", "* In 1877, Frenic and Freil made crystal corundum from which small stones could be cut.", "Frimy and Auguste Verneuil manufactured artificial ruby by fusing and with a little chromium at temperatures above .", "* In 1903, Verneuil announced that he could produce synthetic rubies on a commercial scale using this flame fusion process.The Verneuil process allows the production of flawless single-crystal sapphire and ruby gems of much larger size than normally found in nature.", "It is also possible to grow gem-quality synthetic corundum by flux-growth and hydrothermal synthesis.", "Because of the simplicity of the methods involved in corundum synthesis, large quantities of these crystals have become available on the market at a fraction of the cost of natural stones.Apart from ornamental uses, synthetic corundum is also used to produce mechanical parts (tubes, rods, bearings, and other machined parts), scratch-resistant optics, scratch-resistant watch crystals, instrument windows for satellites and spacecraft (because of its transparency in the ultraviolet to infrared range), and laser components.", "For example, the KAGRA gravitational wave detector's main mirrors are sapphires, and Advanced LIGO considered sapphire mirrors.", "Corundum has also found use in the development of ceramic armour thanks to its high hardiness." ], [ "Structure and physical properties", "Crystal structure of corundumMolar volume vs. pressure at room temperatureCorundum crystallizes with trigonal symmetry in the space group and has the lattice parameters and at standard conditions.", "The unit cell contains six formula units.The toughness of corundum is sensitive to surface roughness and crystallographic orientation.", "It may be 6–7 MPa·m for synthetic crystals, and around 4 MPa·m for natural.In the lattice of corundum, the oxygen atoms form a slightly distorted hexagonal close packing, in which two-thirds of the octahedral sites between the oxygen ions are occupied by aluminium ions.", "The absence of aluminium ions from one of the three sites breaks the symmetry of the hexagonal close packing, reducing the space group symmetry to and the crystal class to trigonal.", "The structure of corundum is sometimes described as a pseudohexagonal structure." ], [ "Generalization", "Because of its prevalence, corundum has also become the name of a major structure type (''corundum type'') found in various binary and ternary compounds." ], [ "See also", "* Aluminium oxynitride* Gemstone* Spinel – natural and synthetic mineral often mistaken for corundum" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Capoeira" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Capoeira''' () is an Afro-Brazilian martial art and game that includes elements of dance, acrobatics, music and spirituality.It is known for its acrobatic and complex maneuvers, often involving hands on the ground and inverted kicks.", "It emphasizes flowing movements rather than fixed stances; the ''ginga'', a rocking step, is usually the focal point of the technique.", "Though often said to be a martial art disguised as a dance, capoeira served not only as a form of self defense, but also as a way to maintain spirituality and culture.Capoeira has been played among Black Brazilians for centuries.", "The date of its creation is unknown, but it was first mentioned in a judicial document under the name ''capoeiragem'' in 1789, as \"the gravest of crimes\".", "In the 19th century, the street fighting style called capoeira carioca was developed.", "It was repeatedly outlawed and its performers persecuted, and it was declared totally illegal and banned in 1890.In the early 1930s, Mestre Bimba reformed traditional capoeira and incorporated elements of jiu jitsu, gymnastics and sports.", "In doing so, the government viewed capoeira as a socially acceptable sport.", "in 1941, Mestre Pastinha Later founded his school where he cultivated the traditional capoeira Angola, distinguishing it from reformed capoeira as the Brazilians' national sport.In the late 1970s, trailblazers such as Mestre Acordeon started bringing capoeira to the US and Europe, helping the art become internationally recognized and practiced.", "On 26 November 2014, capoeira was granted a special protected status as intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO.Martial arts from the African diaspora similar to capoeira include ''knocking and kicking'' from the Sea Islands, and ''ladya'' from Martinique, both of which likely originate from engolo." ], [ "Name", "In the past, many participants used the name ''angola'' or the term ''brincar de angola'' (\"playing angola\") for this art.", "In police documents, capoeira was known as ''capoeiragem'', with a practitioner being called ''capoeira''.", "Gradually, the art became known as capoeira with a practitioner being called a ''capoeirista''.", "In a narrower sense, capoeiragem meant a set of fighting skills.", "The term ''jogo de capoeira'' (capoeira game) is used to describe the art in the performative context.Although debated, the most widely accepted origin of the word ''capoeira'' comes from the Tupi words ''ka'a'' (\"forest\") ''paũ'' (\"round\"), referring to the areas of low vegetation in the Brazilian interior where fugitive slaves would hide." ], [ "History", "''Negroes fighting'' by Augustus Earle, c. 1824.Painting depicting an illegal capoeira-like game in Rio de Janeiro.", "''San Salvador'', 1835, by Rugendas.", "\"The scene is set in a clearing surrounded by tropical vegetation and palm trees, corresponding precisely to the space called ''capoeira'' in Brazil.", "\"In the past, some participants used the name ''angola'' or the term ''brincar de angola'' (\"playing angola\") for this art.", "In formal documents, capoeira was known as \"capoeiragem\", with a practitioner being known as a \"capoeira\".", "Gradually, the art became known as capoeira with a practitioner being called a capoeirista.Capoeira first appeared among Africans in Brazil, during the early colonial period.", "According to the old capoeira mestres and tradition within the community, capoeira originates from Angola.", "Although the origin of capoeira is not entirely clear, many studies have supported the oral tradition, identifying engolo as an ancestral art and locating the Cunene region as its birthplace.", "Still, some authors believe there were more ancestors besides engolo.", "However, at the core of capoeira we find techniques developed in engolo, including crescent kicks, push kicks, sweeps, handstands, cartwheels, evasions and even the iconic ''Meia lua de compasso'', scorpion kick and L-kick.The street capoeira in 19th-century Rio was very violent and far from the original art.", "This street-fighting ''capoeiragem'' was mix of five fighting techniques: foot kicks, head butts, hand blows, knife fight and stick-fighting, only the first of them arguably originates from Angolan art.", "That now extinct version of capoeira was called ''capoeira carioca'' (meaning of Rio de Janeiro).Modern capoeira comes from Bahia, and was codified by mestre Bimba and mestre Pastinha, in ''regional'' and ''angola'' style.", "Despite their significant differences, both mestres introduced major innovations — they moved training and ''rodas'' away from the street, instituted the ''academia'', prescribed uniforms, started to teach women and presented capoeira to a broader audiences." ], [ "Techniques", "Capoeira is a fast and versatile martial art that is historically focused on fighting when outnumbered or at a technological disadvantage.", "The style emphasizes using the lower body to kick, sweep and take down their aggressors, using the upper body to assist those movements and occasionally attack as well.", "It features a series of complex positions and body postures that are meant to get chained in an uninterrupted flow, to strike, dodge and move without breaking motion, conferring the style with a characteristic unpredictability and versatility.Simple animation depicting part of the ''ginga''The ''ginga'' (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira, important both for attack and defense purposes.", "It has two main objectives.", "One is to keep the capoeirista in a state of constant motion, preventing them from being a still and easy target.", "The other, using also fakes and feints, is to mislead, fool or trick the opponent, leaving them open for an attack or a counter-attack.The attacks in the capoeira should be done when opportunity arises, and though they can be preceded by feints or pokes, they must be precise and decisive, like a direct kick to the head, face or a vital body part, or a strong takedown.", "Most capoeira attacks are made with the legs, like direct or swirling kicks, rasteiras (leg sweeps), tesouras or knee strikes.", "Elbow strikes, punches and other forms of takedowns complete the main list.", "The head strike is a very important counter-attack move.The defense is based on the principle of non-resistance, meaning avoiding an attack using evasive moves instead of blocking it.", "Avoids are called ''esquivas'', which depend on the direction of the attack and intention of the defender, and can be done standing or with a hand leaning on the floor.", "A block should only be made when the ''esquiva'' is completely non-viable.", "This fighting strategy allows quick and unpredictable counterattacks, the ability to focus on more than one adversary and to face empty-handed an armed adversary.A capoeira movement (Aú Fechado) (click for animation)A series of rolls and acrobatics (like the cartwheels called aú or the transitional position called negativa) allows the capoeirista to quickly overcome a takedown or a loss of balance, and to position themselves around the aggressor to lay up for an attack.", "It is this combination of attacks, defense and mobility that gives capoeira its perceived \"fluidity\" and choreography-like style." ], [ "Weapons", "Through most of its history in Brazil, capoeira commonly featured weapons and weapon training, given its street fighting nature.", "Capoeiristas usually carried knives and bladed weapons with them, and the berimbau could be used to conceal those inside, or even to turn itself into a weapon by attaching a blade to its tip.", "The knife or razor was used in street ''rodas'' and/or against openly hostile opponents, and would be drawn quickly to stab or slash.", "Other hiding places for the weapons included hats and umbrellas.Mestre Bimba included in his teachings a ''curso de especialização'' or \"specialization course\", in which the pupils would be taught defenses against knives and guns, as well as the usage of knife, straight razor, scythe, club, ''chanfolo'' (double-edged dagger), ''facão'' (facón or machete) and ''tira-teima'' (cane sword).", "Upon graduating, pupils were given a red scarf which marked their specialty.", "This course was scarcely used, and was ceased after some time.", "A more common custom practised by Bimba and his students, however, was furtively handing a weapon to a player before a ''jogo'' for them to use it to attack their opponent on Bimba's sign, with the other player's duty being to disarm them.This weapon training is almost completely absent in current capoeira teachings, but some groups still practice the use of razors for ceremonial usage in the ''rodas''." ], [ "As a game", "Capoeiristas outsideIn Bantu culture, the Nkhumbi term ''ochimama'' encapsulates the overlapping meanings of game, dance, and tradition.", "This overlap is also found in Afro-Brazilian folklore, where many similar forms of expression are called ''brincadeiras'' (games).", "Some scholars have interpreted capoeira as a way of concealing martial arts within dance movements.", "However, research from Angola suggests that the relationship between game, fight, and dance may be even deeper.", "These scholars propose that the ambivalence between these three elements is a fundamental aspect of the ancestral grammar shared by engolo and capoeira.Playing capoeira is both a game and a method of practicing the application of capoeira movements in simulated combat.", "It can be played anywhere, but it's usually done in a ''roda''.", "During the game most capoeira moves are used, but capoeiristas usually avoid punches or elbow strikes unless it's a very aggressive game.", "The game does not focus on knocking down or defeating opponents, but rather on body dialogue and highlighting skills.===Roda===Capoeiristas in a ''roda'' (Porto Alegre, Brazil)The ''roda'' (pronounced ) is a circle formed by capoeiristas and capoeira musical instruments, where every participant sings the typical songs and claps their hands following the music.", "Two ''capoeiristas'' enter the ''roda'' and play the game according to the style required by the musical rhythm.", "The game finishes when one of the musicians holding a berimbau determines it, when one of the ''capoeiristas'' decides to leave or call the end of the game, or when another capoeirista interrupts the game to start playing, either with one of the current players or with another ''capoeirista''.In a ''roda'' every cultural aspect of capoeira is present, not only the martial side.", "Aerial acrobatics are common in a presentation ''roda'', while not seen as often in a more serious one.", "Takedowns, on the other hand, are common in a serious ''roda'' but rarely seen in presentations.===Batizado===The batizado (lit.", "baptism) is a ceremonial ''roda'' where new students will get recognized as capoeiristas and earn their first graduation.", "Also more experienced students may go up in rank, depending on their skills and capoeira culture.", "In Mestre Bimba's Capoeira Regional, batizado was the first time a new student would play capoeira following the sound of the berimbau.Students enter the ''roda'' against a high-ranked capoeirista (such as a teacher or master) and normally the game ends with the student being taken down.", "In some cases the more experienced capoeirista can judge the takedown unnecessary.", "Following the batizado the new graduation, generally in the form of a cord, is given.Traditionally, the batizado is the moment when the new practitioner gets or formalizes their ''apelido'' (nickname).", "This tradition was created back when capoeira practice was considered a crime.", "To avoid having problems with the law, capoeiristas would present themselves in the capoeira community only by their nicknames.===Chamada===''Chamada'' means 'call' and can happen at any time during a ''roda'' where the rhythm ''angola'' is being played.", "It happens when one player, usually the more advanced one, calls their opponent to a dance-like ritual.", "The opponent then approaches the caller and meets them to walk side by side.", "After it both resume normal play.While it may seem like a break time or a dance, the ''chamada'' is actually both a trap and a test, as the caller is just watching to see if the opponent will let his guard down so she can perform a takedown or a strike.", "It is a critical situation, because both players are vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for a surprise attack.", "It's also a tool for experienced practitioners and masters of the art to test a student's awareness and demonstrate when the student left herself open to attack.The use of the ''chamada'' can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person's hidden intentions.", "The ''chamada'' can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments.===Volta ao mundo==='''Volta ao mundo''' means ''around the world''.The ''volta ao mundo'' takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game.", "In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle counter-clockwise, and the other player will join the ''volta ao mundo'' in the opposite part of the roda, before returning to the normal game." ], [ "Music", "Music is integral to capoeira.", "It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda.", "Typically the music is formed by instruments and singing.", "Rhythms (toques), controlled by a typical instrument called berimbau, differ from very slow to very fast, depending on the style of the roda.===Instruments===A capoeira bateria showing three berimbaus a reco- reco and a pandeiroCapoeira instruments are disposed in a row called bateria.", "It is traditionally formed by three berimbaus, two pandeiros, three atabaques, one agogô and one ganzá, but this format may vary depending on the capoeira group's traditions or the roda style.The berimbau is the leading instrument, determining the tempo and style of the music and game played.", "Two low-pitch berimbaus (called berra-boi and médio) form the base and a high-pitch berimbau (called viola) makes variations and improvisations.", "The other instruments must follow the berimbau's rhythm, free to vary and improvise a little, depending upon the capoeira group's musical style.As the capoeiristas change their playing style significantly following the toque of the berimbau, which sets the game's speed, style and aggressiveness, it is truly the music that drives a capoeira game.=== Songs ===Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative.", "Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects.", "Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas.", "Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better.", "Some songs are about what is going on within the roda.", "Sometimes the songs are about life or love lost.", "Others have lighthearted and playful lyrics.There are four basic kinds of songs in capoeira, the ''Ladaínha'', ''Chula'', ''Corrido'' and ''Quadra''.", "The '''Ladaínha''' is a narrative solo sung only at the beginning of a roda, often by a ''mestre'' (master) or most respected capoeirista present.", "The solo is followed by a ''louvação'', a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one's master, among other things.", "Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders.", "The '''Chula''' is a song where the singer part is much bigger than the chorus response, usually eight singer verses for one chorus response, but the proportion may vary.", "The '''Corrido''' is a song where the singer part and the chorus response are equal, normally two verses by two responses.", "Finally, the '''Quadra''' is a song where the same verse is repeated four times, either three singer verses followed by one chorus response, or one verse and one response.Capoeira songs can talk about virtually anything, being it about a historical fact, a famous capoeirista, trivial life facts, hidden messages for players, anything.", "Improvisation is very important also, while singing a song the main singer can change the music's lyrics, telling something that's happening in or outside the roda." ], [ "Philosophy", "=== ''Malícia'' (malice) ===''Diário Nacional'', from 1927, shows a drawing of a sailor tripping a policeman, while another figure is already on the ground.The basic term of capoeira philosophy is ''malícia'' (malice).", "One aspect of ''malicia'' consists of deceiving the opponent into thinking that you are going to execute a certain move when in fact you are going to do something completely different.", "There is an example of ''malicia'' of Besouro who once fell to the ground during a game, crying like a woman and begging for mercy.", "Mestre João Pequeno claimed that he teaches his students how to play capoeira, but they should learn ''malícia'' for themselves since it cannot be taught.The meaning of ''malícia'' in capoeira has expanded over time to cunning, suspicion, alertness, readiness, flexibility, and adaptation.", "Basically, it is the capacity to understand someone's intentions and making use of this understanding to misdirect someone as to your next move.", "In the contemporary capoeira, this is done good-naturedly, contrary to what the word may suggest.", "Nestor Capoeira explicated malícia as follows:Gregory Downey explains:The ''ginga'' is the first principle of capoeira and the embodiment of malice.", "The continuous, ceaseless bodily motion, known as ''gingar'', is the principle that creates deception or trickery, catching the opponent off guard.", "The ''bênção'' kick, ironically named, reflects another form of malícia.", "Slave owners would gather slaves in the morning, often on Sundays, to offer blessings, despite their mistreatment.", "In a deceptive twist, ''bênção'' appears as a blessing but swiftly becomes an attack on the opponent's belly.=== Malandragem ===''Malandragem'' is a word that comes from ''malandro'', a man who used street smarts to make a living.", "In the 19th century, capoeira was quite similar to the type of urban person who was a constant source of trouble — the ''malandro'' (punk).", "In the 19th century Rio de Janeiro, the capoeirista was a ''malandro'' (a rogue) and a criminal, expert in the use of kicks (''golpes''), sweeps (''rasteiras'') and head-butts (''cabeçadas''), as well in the use of blade weapons.", "In capoeira, ''malandragem'' is the ability to quickly understand an opponent's intentions, and during a fight or a game, fool, trick and deceive him.A popular Brazilian saying, \"''Malandro demais se atrapalha''\" means that when one tries to be too clever or smart, instead of confusing his opponent, he confuses himself." ], [ "Spirituality", "Spirituality in capoeira is shaped under the influence of various African beliefs.", "Some important concepts of candomblé, such as ''dendé'' and ''axé'', which refer to different conceptions of energy, have become common among capoeiristas.=== Bantu culture ===Zacharias Wagener, 1630.Dr Maya Talmon-Chvaicer suggests that capoeira should be explained in Bantu terms.", "For the African slaves, capoeira was a social expression that incorporated all the basic African elements: circle, dance, music, rituals and symbols.", "It also contains all the ingredients of a game from the Kongolese perspective: a means to train and prepare for life, providing the experience needed to strengthen the body and the soul.Within the Bantu culture, ''the circle'' carries profound symbolism.", "Dancing in a circle holds significance, representing protection and strength, symbolizing the bond with the spirit world, life, and the divine.A major means of communication with the ancestors is music.", "Musical instruments play a pivotal role in bridging the realms of the living, the deceased, and the gods.", "This explains why African dances customarily commence by paying homage to the primary instrument, often through kneeling or bowing before it.", "This practice of appeasement and seeking divine assistance from the gods is mirrored in the capoeira tradition of kneeling before the ''berimbau'' during the ''ladainha''.African martial arts naturally take the form of dance.", "In Bantu culture, dance is an integral part of daily life, encompassing song, music, movements, and rituals.", "This holistic view applies to Congo/Angola, where dance is intricately linked to song, music, and ritual.=== Inverted worldview ===In Bantu religion, kalûnga represents the idea that, in the realm of the living everything is reversed from the realm of the ancestors.", "Where men walk on their feet, the spirits walk on their hands; where men reach their peak physical abilities, the ancestors reach their peak spirituality.", "Inhabitants of the ancestral realm are inverted compared to us, as viewed from our mirrored perspective.", "With this particular worldview, practitioners of African martial arts deliberately invert themselves upside down to emulate the ancestors, and to draw strength and power from the ancestral realm.One of the capoeira ritual is performing the \"au\" at the beginning of the game.", "This act symbolizes a profound transition in Kongolese religion, where touching the ground with hands while feet are up in the air signifies the player crosses over to other worlds.Capoeira has been additionally shaped by the cosmic worldview of candomblé, an Afro-Brazilian religion that has engaged with various manifestations of natural energies.", "The capoeira player in past usually had his ''orixá'' or ''santo'' (patron saint) as Ogum (the Warrior) or Oxóssi (the Hunter).=== ''Mandinga'' (magic) ===Capoeira holds a core of ''mandinga'', which can be translated as a magic, sorcery, witchcraft.", "Mandinga suggests an understanding of fundamental natural forces and their utilization through magic rituals to some extent.", "In the past, capoeiristas used protective amulets and performed specific rituals to ensure their safety.", "Same players \"do their mandinga\" before the game by drawing magical symbols on the ground with their fingers.", "Some magic elements in capoeira are clear and familiar, while others have become obscure over time.", "Folklorist Edison Carneiro noted that the ''ladainha'', sung before entering the capoeira circle, invokes the gods, adding a touch of mysticism to the ritual.", "Actions like touching the ground symbolize drawing signs in the dust, and gestures such as kissing hands, crossing oneself, and prayer are reminders of long-forgotten traditions, the Bantus' prayer for divine blessings, aid, and bravery in battle.", "Mandinga is also a certain esthetic, where the game is expressive and sometimes theatrical, especially in the Angola style.", "An advanced capoeira player is sometimes referred to as a ''mandingueiro'', someone who embodies ''mandinga''.The roots of the term ''mandingueiro'' would be a person who had the magic ability to avoid harm due to protection from the Orixás.", "Alternately the word ''mandinga'' originates from the name of Mandinka people." ], [ "Styles", "Determining styles in capoeira is difficult, since there was never a unity in the original capoeira, or a teaching method before the decade of 1920.However, a division between two styles and a sub-style is widely accepted.=== Capoeira Angola ===Capoeira Angola roda.Capoeira de Angola (Angolan capoeira) is the traditional style of capoeira.", "However, it can refer to two things:* the popular Bahian capoeira prior to codification in 20th century* the contemporary style of capoeira codified by Mestre Pastinha, based on an older oneThe ideal of capoeira Angola is to maintain capoeira as close to its roots as possible.", "Although Pastinha strove to preserve the original Angolan art, he nevertheless introduced significant changes to capoeira practice of his time.", "He forbid weapon and violent moves, prescribed uniforms, moved training away from the street into the ''academia'', and started to teach women.Capoeira Angola is characterized by being strategic, with sneaking movements executed standing or near the floor depending on the situation to face, it values the traditions of ''malícia'', ''malandragem'' and unpredictability of the original capoeira.", "The anthropologist Alejandro Frigerio defines capoeira Angola as art, versus capoeira Regional as sport.", "He emphasizes the following characteristics of contemporary capoeira Angola, namely: cunning, complementation (of the two players\" movements), a low game, the absence of violence, beautiful movements (according to a \"black aesthetic\"), slow music and the importance of ritual and theatricality.Unlike many other capoeira groups that play barefoot, ''angoleiros'' always train with shoes.", "When it comes to the color of the uniforms, there is a lack of uniformity within the style.", "Although mestre Pastinha at his academy required students to wear yellow and black jerseys, some of his successors have adopted white only uniforms within their schools.=== Capoeira Regional ===Capoeira Regional began to take form in the 1920s, when Mestre Bimba met his future student, José Cisnando Lima.", "Both believed that capoeira was losing its martial side and concluded there was a need to re-strengthen and structure it.", "Bimba created his ''sequências de ensino'' (teaching combinations) and created capoeira's first teaching method.", "Advised by Cisnando, Bimba decided to call his style ''Luta Regional Baiana'', as capoeira was still illegal at that time.The base of capoeira regional is the original capoeira without many of the aspects that were impractical in a real fight, with less subterfuge and more objectivity.", "Training focuses mainly on attack, dodging and counter-attack, giving high importance to precision and discipline.", "Bimba also added a few moves from other arts, notably the ''batuque'', an old street fight game invented by his father.", "Use of jumps or aerial acrobatics stay to a minimum, since one of its foundations is always keeping at least one hand or foot firmly attached to the ground.", "''Capoeira Regional'' also introduced the first ranking method in capoeira.", "''Regional'' had three levels: ''calouro'' (freshman), ''formado'' (graduated) and ''formado especializado'' (specialist).", "After 1964, when a student completed a course, a special celebration ceremony occurred, ending with the teacher tying a silk scarf around the capoeirista's neck.The traditions of ''roda'' and capoeira game were kept, being used to put into use what was learned during training.", "The disposition of musical instruments, however, was changed, being made by a single berimbau and two pandeiros.The ''Luta Regional Baiana'' soon became popular, finally changing capoeira's bad image.", "Mestre Bimba made many presentations of his new style, but the best known was the one made at 1953 to Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, where the president would say: \"''A Capoeira é o único esporte verdadeiramente nacional''\" (Capoeira is the only truly national sport).=== Capoeira carioca ===Capoeira carioca was a street fighting version of capoeira that existed in Rio de Janeiro during the 19th century, used by gangs.", "In capoeira carioca, all available means were used, including various types of weapons, such as knives, straight razors, clubs and machetes.", "Capoeira from this period is also known as ''capoeiragem''.", "The widespread violent capoeira practice in Rio led to a nationwide ban on capoeira.", "After the ban in 1890 and the subsequent mass arrests of capoeira gang members, this version of capoeira is generally extinct.The main reformators and proponents of this fighting-oriented capoeira were Mestre Sinhozinho and Mestre Zuma.=== Capoeira Contemporânea ===The 1975 Capoeira CupCapoeira flourished in the city of São Paulo since the 1960s.", "Mestre Suassuna was prominent figure throughout this period.", "Mestre Canjiquinha played important role in shaping the capoeira style that began to emerge in São Paulo during the 1960s.", "This evolving style, which emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, drew from both Regional and Angola styles while maintaining its distinct characteristics.", "The majority of modern practitioners affirm to be neither Angola nor Regional, emphasizing that \"there is only one capoeira\".This new capoeira incorporated not only berimbaus and pandeiros but also atabaque and agogô into its musical ensemble.", "In contrast to Bimba's preference for quadras, these modern ''rodas'' typically commenced with ladainhas.", "The games in these ''rodas'' often featured a fast and upright style, even though they might start with an Angola toque and a slower game.Nowadays the label ''Contemporânea'' applies to any capoeira group who don't follow Regional or Angola styles, even the ones who mix capoeira with other martial arts.", "Some notable groups whose style cannot be described as either Angola or Regional but rather \"a style of their own\", include Senzala de Santos, Cordão de Ouro and Abada.", "In the case of Cordão de Ouro, the style may be described as \"Miudinho\", a low and fast-paced game, while in Senzala de Santos the style may described simply as \"Senzala de Santos\", an elegant, playful combination of Angola and Regional." ], [ "Ranks", "Because of its origin, capoeira never had unity or a general agreement.", "Ranking or graduating system follows the same path, as there never existed a ranking system accepted by most of the masters.", "That means graduation style varies depending on the group's traditions.", "The most common modern system uses colored ropes, called ''corda'' or ''cordão'', tied around the waist.", "Some masters use different systems, or even no system at all.", "In a substantial number of groups (mainly of the Angola school) there is no visible ranking system.", "There can still be several ranks: student, treinel, professor, contra-mestre and mestre, but often no cordas (belts).There are many entities (leagues, federations and association) with their own graduation system.", "The most usual is the system of the ''Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira'' (Brazilian Capoeira Confederation), which adopts ropes using the colors of the Brazilian flag, green, yellow, blue and white.", "However, the ''Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira'' is not widely accepted as the capoeira's main representative.=== Brazilian Capoeira Confederation system ===Source:==== Children's system (3 to 14 years) ====* 1st stage: ''Iniciante'' (Beginner) - No color* 2nd stage: ''Batizado'' (Baptized) - Green/Light Grey* 3rd stage: ''Graduado'' (Graduated) - Yellow/Light Grey* 4th stage: ''Adaptado'' (Adept) - Blue/Light Grey* 5th stage: ''Intermediário'' (Intermediary) - Green/YellowLight Grey* 6th stage: ''Avançado'' (Advanced) - Green/Blue/Light Grey* 7th stage: ''Estagiário'' (Trainee) - Yellow/Green/Blue/Light Grey==== Adult system (above 15) ====* 8th stage: ''Iniciante'' (Beginner) - No color* 9th stage: ''Batizado'' (Baptized) - Green* 10th stage: ''Graduado'' (Graduated) - Yellow* 11th stage: ''Adaptado'' (Adept) - Blue* 12th stage: ''Intermediário'' (Intermediary) - Green* 13th stage: ''Avançado'' (Advanced) - Green/Blue* 14th stage: ''Estagiário'' (Trainee) - Yellow/Blue==== Instructors' system ====* 15th stage: ''Formado'' (Graduated) - Yellow/Green/Blue* 16th stage: ''Monitor'' (Monitor) - White/Green* 17th stage: ''Instrutor'' (Instructor) - White/Yellow* 18th stage: ''Contramestre'' (Foreman) - White/Blue* 19th stage: ''Mestre'' (Master) - White" ], [ "Related activities", "Even though those activities are strongly associated with capoeira, they have different meanings and origins.=== Samba de roda ===Performed by many capoeira groups, samba de roda is a traditional Brazilian dance and musical form that has been associated with capoeira for many decades.", "The orchestra is composed by ''pandeiro'', ''atabaque'', ''berimbau-viola'' (high pitch berimbau), chocalho, accompanied by singing and clapping.", "''Samba de roda'' is considered one of the primitive forms of modern Samba.=== Maculelê ===Originally the ''Maculelê'' is believed to have been an indigenous armed fighting style, using two sticks or a machete.", "Nowadays it's a folkloric dance practiced with heavy Brazilian percussion.", "Many capoeira groups include ''Maculelê'' in their presentations.=== Puxada de rede ===''Puxada de Rede'' is a Brazilian folkloric theatrical play, seen in many capoeira performances.", "It is based on a traditional Brazilian legend involving the loss of a fisherman in a seafaring accident." ], [ "Combat capoeira and MMA", "meia-lua de compasso'' against Keegan Marshall.Combat capoeira, often referred to as rough capoeira (''capoeira dura''), places a primary emphasis on combat.", "It is commonly observed in ring competitions and street ''rodas'', and sometimes even in graduations within certain groups.Several capoeira fighters have gained national reputation, including Mestre King Kong from Salvador, Mestre Maurão from São Paulo, and King from Rio de Janeiro (formerly associated with Abadá).", "They advocate for capoeiristas to be skilled in playing intense games to ensure that the art retains its combat effectiveness.It's important to note that capoeira fights have, on occasion, resulted in severe injuries and even fatalities, as seen in Petrópolis in 1996.The most suitable context for combat-focused capoeira appears to be the ring, where predetermined fighting rules provide clarity.", "In the tradition of Ciriaco, Sinhozinho, Bimba, and Arthur Emídio, contemporary capoeira fighters have expanded their training by incorporating various martial arts disciplines, including ju-jitsu, boxing, and taekwondo.Even Brazilian mixed martial arts champions like Marco Ruas acknowledge the significance of capoeira in their training.", "The use of capoeira techniques in free-style competitions shows to what extent the art still provides essential fighting skills." ], [ "Notable practitioners", "* Besouro Mangangá* Anibal Burlamaqui* Mestre Sinhozinho* Mestre Bimba* Mestre Pastinha* Mestre Waldemar* Mestre Gato Preto* Mestre Cobrinha Verde* Mestre João Grande* Mestre João Pereira dos Santos* Mestre Norival Moreira de Oliveira * Mestre Moraes* Mestre Cobra Mansa* Junior dos Santos* Wesley Snipes* Mark Dacascos* Anderson Silva* Lateef Crowder dos Santos* Jose Aldo" ], [ "See also", "* History of capoeira* Capoeira in popular culture* Engolo" ], [ "Literature", "********" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* List of fundamental capoeira movements* Capoeira history* Capoeira lyrics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Carbon sink" ], [ "Introduction", "Carbon sinks (green bars on the right) remove carbon from the atmosphere, whereas carbon sources (greenhouse gas emissions) (grey bars on the left) add them.", "Together, they are part of the carbon budget which is no longer in balance since the 1850s, causing a nearly 50% rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.A '''carbon sink''' is anything, natural or otherwise, that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period and thereby removes carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere.", "These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle.", "An overarching term is '''carbon pool''', which is all the places where carbon can be (the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and so forth).", "A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.", "Soil is an important carbon storage medium.", "Much of the organic carbon retained in the soil of agricultural areas has been depleted due to intensive farming.", "\"Blue carbon\" designates carbon that is fixed via the ocean ecosystems.", "Coastal blue carbon includes mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses which make up a majority of ocean plant life and store large quantities of carbon.", "Deep blue carbon is located in the high seas beyond national jurisdictions and includes carbon contained in \"continental shelf waters, deep-sea waters and the sea floor beneath them.", "As a main carbon sink, the ocean removes excess greenhouse gas emissions such as heat and energy.", "\"Many efforts are being made to enhance natural carbon sinks, mainly soils and forests, to mitigate climate change.", "These efforts counter historical trends caused by practices like deforestation and industrial agriculture which depleted natural carbon sinks; land use, land-use change, and forestry historically have been important human contributions to climate change.", "In addition to enhancing natural processes, investments in artificial sequestration initiatives are underway to store carbon in building materials or deep underground." ], [ "Definition", "In the context of climate change and in particular mitigation, a ''sink'' is defined as \"Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere\".In the case of non- greenhouse gases, sinks need not store the gas.", "Instead they can break it down into substances that have a reduced effect on global warming.", "For example, nitrous oxide can be reduced to harmless N2.Related terms are \"carbon pool, reservoir, sequestration, source and uptake\".", "The same publication defines ''carbon pool'' as \"a  reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon ..., reside in various chemical forms for a period of time.", "\"Both carbon pools and carbon sinks are important concepts in understanding the carbon cycle, but they refer to slightly different things.", "A carbon pool can be thought of as the overarching term, and carbon sink is then a particular type of carbon pool: A carbon pool is all the places where carbon can be (for example the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and fossil fuels).", "A carbon sink, on the other hand, is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases." ], [ "Types", "The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally in a dynamic equilibrium with photosynthesis of land plants.", "The natural carbon sinks are:*Soil is a carbon store and active carbon sink.", "* Photosynthesis by terrestrial plants with grass and trees allows them to serve as carbon sinks during growing seasons.", "* Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via solubility and biological pumps.Artificial carbon sinks are those that store carbon in building materials or deep underground (geologic carbon sequestration).", "No major artificial systems remove carbon from the atmosphere on a large scale yet.Public awareness of the significance of sinks has grown since passage of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset." ], [ "Natural carbon sinks", "fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, soil and oceans in billions of tons of carbon per year.", "Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions in billions of tons of carbon per year.", "White numbers indicate stored carbon.=== Soils ===Soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium, and contain more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined.", "Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation.", "More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus.Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia.", "Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall.", "Areas where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for two to three years before they are abandoned.", "These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert.Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats.", "Due in part to the climatic conditions of these regions (e.g.", "cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter.", "This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning-induced grass-fires.", "While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the humic material.", "They also deposit carbon directly to the soil in the form of biochar that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide.Organic matter in peat bogs undergoes slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface.", "This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows rapidly and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released.", "Over time, the peat grows deeper.", "Peat bogs hold approximately one-quarter of the carbon stored in land plants and soils.==== Enhancing soil carbon sinks ====Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices.", "Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon.", "Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than in conventional farming.=== Forests ===Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020==== Favourable factors and carbon sink saturation in forests ====Forests are generally carbon dioxide sinks when they are high in diversity, density or area.", "However, they can also be carbon sources if diversity, density or area decreases due to deforestation, selective logging, climate change, wildfires or diseases.", "One study in 2020 found that 32 tracked Brazilian non-Amazon seasonal tropical forests declined from a carbon sink to a carbon source in 2013 and concludes that \"policies are needed to mitigate the emission of greenhouse gases and to restore and protect tropical seasonal forests\".", "In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation.", "The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.", "An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink saturation, after decades of increasing strength.", "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions and natural disturbance patterns.", "In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires.", "Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber.", "However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings.", "The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper and pallets, which often end with incineration (resulting in carbon release into the atmosphere) at the end of their lifecycle.", "For instance, of the 1,692 megatonnes of carbon harvested from forests in Oregon and Washington from 1900 to 1992, only 23% is in long-term storage in forest products.The Food and Agriculure Organization (FAO) reported that: \"The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020\".", "However, another study finds that the leaf area index has increased globally since 1981, which was responsible for 12.4% of the accumulated terrestrial carbon sink from 1981 to 2016.The CO2 fertilization effect, on the other hand, was responsible for 47% of the sink, while climate change reduced the sink by 28.6%.", "In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter.Carbon offset programs are planting millions of fast-growing trees per year to reforest tropical lands, for as little as $0.10 per tree.", "Over their typical 40-year lifetime, one million of these trees can sequester up to one million tons of carbon dioxide.==== Changes in albedo effect ======= Deep ocean, tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses ===" ], [ "Enhancing natural carbon sinks", "===Purpose in the context of climate change====== Carbon sequestration techniques in oceans ===To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids.", "The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned." ], [ "Artificial carbon sinks", "===Geologic carbon sequestration====== Wooden buildings ===Mjøstårnet, one of the tallest timber buildings, at its opening 2019Broad-base adoption of mass timber and their role in substituting steel and concrete in new mid-rise construction projects over the next few decades has the potential to turn timber buildings into carbon sinks, as they store the carbon dioxide taken up from the air by trees that are harvested and used as mass timber.", "This could result in storing between 10 million tons of carbon per year in the lowest scenario and close to 700 million tons in the highest scenario.", "For this to happen, the harvested forests would need to be sustainably managed and wood from demolished timber buildings would need to be reused or preserved on land in various forms." ], [ "See also", "* Climate-smart agriculture" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Tupper" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Charles Tupper, 1st Baronet''', , M.D.", "(July 2, 1821 – October 30, 1915) was a Canadian Father of Confederation who served as the sixth prime minister of Canada from May 1 to July 8, 1896.As the premier of Nova Scotia from 1864 to 1867, he led Nova Scotia into Confederation.", "He briefly served as the Canadian prime minister, from seven days after parliament had been dissolved, until he resigned on July 8, 1896, following his party's loss in the 1896 Canadian federal election.", "He is the only medical doctor to have ever held the office of prime minister of Canada and his 68-day tenure as prime minister is the shortest in Canadian history.Tupper was born in Amherst, Nova Scotia, to the Rev.", "Charles Tupper and Miriam Lockhart.", "He was educated at Horton Academy, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, and studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, graduating MD in 1843.By the age of 22 he had handled 116 obstetric cases.", "He practiced medicine periodically throughout his political career (and served as the first president of the Canadian Medical Association).", "He entered Nova Scotian politics in 1855 as a protégé of James William Johnston.", "During Johnston's tenure as premier of Nova Scotia in 1857–1859 and 1863–1864, Tupper served as provincial secretary.", "Tupper replaced Johnston as premier in 1864.As premier, he established public education in Nova Scotia and expanded Nova Scotia's railway network in order to promote industry.By 1860, Tupper supported a union of all the colonies of British North America.", "Believing that immediate union of all the colonies was impossible, in 1864, he proposed a Maritime Union.", "However, representatives of the Province of Canada asked to be allowed to attend the meeting in Charlottetown scheduled to discuss Maritime Union in order to present a proposal for a wider union, and the Charlottetown Conference thus became the first of the three conferences that secured Canadian Confederation.", "Tupper also represented Nova Scotia at the other two conferences, the Quebec Conference (1864) and the London Conference of 1866.In Nova Scotia, Tupper organized a Confederation Party to combat the activities of the Anti-Confederation Party organized by Joseph Howe and successfully led Nova Scotia into Confederation.Following the passage of the British North America Act in 1867, Tupper resigned as premier of Nova Scotia and began a career in federal politics.", "He held multiple cabinet positions under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, including President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (1870–1872), Minister of Inland Revenue (1872–1873), Minister of Customs (1873–1874), Minister of Public Works (1878–1879), and Minister of Railways and Canals (1879–1884).", "Initially groomed as Macdonald's successor, Tupper had a falling out with Macdonald, and by the early 1880s, he asked Macdonald to appoint him as Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom.", "Tupper took up his post in London in 1883, and would remain High Commissioner until 1895, although in 1887–1888, he served as Minister of Finance without relinquishing the High Commissionership.In 1895, the government of Mackenzie Bowell floundered over the Manitoba Schools Question; as a result, several leading members of the Conservative Party of Canada demanded the return of Tupper to serve as prime minister.", "Tupper accepted this invitation and returned to Canada, becoming prime minister in May 1896.Just before he was sworn in as prime minister, the 1896 federal election was called, in which his party lost to Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberals.", "Tupper served as leader of the Opposition from July 1896 until he resigned in February 1901, just months after his second defeat at the polls in 1900.He returned to London, England, where he lived until his death in 1915 and was buried back in Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "He was the last surviving Canadian father of Confederation.", "In 2016, he was posthumously inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame." ], [ "Early life, 1821–1855", "Charles Tupper Jr. was born on July 2, 1821, in Amherst, Nova Scotia, to Charles Tupper Sr. and Miriam Lowe, Lockhart.", "He was a descendant of Richard Warren, a ''Mayflower'' Pilgrim who signed the Mayflower Compact.", "Charles Tupper Sr. (1794–1881) was the co-pastor of the local Baptist church.", "He had been ordained as a Baptist minister in 1817, and was editor of ''Baptist Magazine'' 1832–1836.He was an accomplished Biblical scholar, and published ''Scriptural Baptism'' (Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1850) and ''Expository Notes on the Syriac Version of the Scriptures''.Beginning in 1837, at age 16, Tupper attended Horton Academy in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, where he learned Latin, Greek, and some French.", "After graduating in 1839, he spent a short time in New Brunswick working as a teacher, then moved to Windsor, Nova Scotia, to study medicine (1839–1840) with Dr. Ebenezer Fitch Harding.", "Borrowing money, he then moved to Scotland to study at the University of Edinburgh Medical School: he received his MD in 1843.During his time in Edinburgh, Tupper's commitment to his Baptist faith faltered, and he drank Scotch whisky for the first time.Returning to Nova Scotia in 1846, he broke off an engagement that he had contracted at age 17 with the daughter of a wealthy Halifax merchant, and instead married Frances Morse (1826–1912), the granddaughter of Colonel Joseph Morse, a founder of Amherst, Nova Scotia.", "The Tuppers had three sons (Orin Stewart, Charles Hibbert, and William Johnston) and three daughters (Emma, Elizabeth Stewart (Lilly), and Sophy Almon).", "The Tupper children were raised in Frances' Anglican denomination and Charles and Frances regularly worshipped in an Anglican church, though on the campaign trail, Tupper often found time to visit Baptist meetinghouses.Tupper set himself up as a physician in Amherst, Nova Scotia and opened a drugstore." ], [ "Early years in Nova Scotia politics, 1855–1864", "John Gardiner, Province House (Nova Scotia)The leader of the Conservative Party of Nova Scotia, James William Johnston, a fellow Baptist and family friend of the Tuppers, encouraged Charles Tupper to enter politics.", "In 1855 Tupper ran against the prominent Liberal politician Joseph Howe for the Cumberland County seat in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly.", "Joseph Howe would be Tupper's political opponent several times in years to come.Although Tupper won his seat, the 1855 election was an overall disaster for the Nova Scotia Conservatives, with the Liberals, led by William Young, winning a large majority.", "Young consequently became Premier of Nova Scotia.At a caucus meeting in January 1856, Tupper recommended a new direction for the Conservative party: they should begin actively courting Nova Scotia's Roman Catholic minority and should eagerly embrace railroad construction.", "Having just led his party into a disastrous election campaign, Johnston decided to basically cede control of the party to Tupper, though Johnston remained the party's leader.", "During 1856 Tupper led Conservative attacks on the government, leading Joseph Howe to dub Tupper \"the wicked wasp of Cumberland\".", "In early 1857 Tupper convinced a number of Roman Catholic Liberal members to cross the floor to join the Conservatives, reducing Young's government to the status of a minority government.", "As a result, Young was forced to resign in February 1857, and the Conservatives formed a government with Johnston as premier.", "Tupper became the provincial secretary.In Tupper's first speech to the House of Assembly as provincial secretary, he set forth an ambitious plan of railroad construction.", "Tupper had thus embarked on the major theme of his political life: that Nova Scotians (and later Canadians) should downplay their ethnic and religious differences, focusing instead on developing the land's natural resources.", "He argued that with Nova Scotia's \"inexhaustible mines\", it could become \"a vast manufacturing mart\" for the east coast of North America.", "He quickly persuaded Johnston to end the General Mining Association's monopoly over Nova Scotia minerals.In June 1857, Tupper initiated discussions with New Brunswick and the Province of Canada concerning an intercolonial railway.", "He traveled to London in 1858 to attempt to secure imperial backing for this project.", "During these discussions, Tupper realized that Canadians were more interested in discussing federal union, while the British (with the Earl of Derby in his second term as Prime Minister) were too absorbed in their own immediate interests.", "As such, nothing came of the 1858 discussions for an intercolonial railway.Sectarian conflict played a major role in the May 1859 elections, with Catholics largely supporting the Conservatives and Protestants shifting toward the Liberals.", "Tupper barely retained his seat.", "The Conservatives were barely re-elected and lost a confidence vote later that year.", "Johnston asked the Governor of Nova Scotia, Lord Mulgrave, for dissolution, but Mulgrave refused and invited William Young to form a government.", "Tupper was outraged and petitioned the British government, asking them to recall Mulgrave.For the next three years, Tupper was ferocious in his denunciations of the Liberal government, first Young, and then Joseph Howe, who succeeded Young in 1860.This came to a head in 1863 when the Liberals introduced legislation to restrict the Nova Scotia franchise, a move which Johnston and Tupper successfully blocked.Tupper continued practicing medicine during this period.", "He established a successful medical practice in Halifax, rising to become the city medical officer.", "In 1863 he was elected president of the Medical Society of Nova Scotia.In the June 1863 election, the Conservatives campaigned on a platform of railroad construction and expanded access to public education.", "The Conservatives won a large majority, taking 44 of the House of Assembly's 55 seats.", "Johnston resumed his duties as premier and Tupper again became provincial secretary.", "As a further sign of the Conservatives' commitment to non-sectarianism, in 1863, after a 20-year hiatus, Dalhousie College was re-opened as a non-denominational institution of higher learning.Johnston retired from politics in May 1864 when he was appointed as a judge, and Tupper was chosen as his successor as premier of Nova Scotia." ], [ "Premier of Nova Scotia, 1864–1867", "Tupper introduced ambitious education legislation in 1864 creating a system of state-subsidized common schools.", "In 1865 he introduced a bill providing for compulsory local taxation to fund these schools.", "Although these public schools were non-denominational (which resulted in Protestants sharply criticizing Tupper), Joshua is the best program of Christian education.", "However, many Protestants, particularly fellow Baptists, felt that Tupper had sold them out.", "To regain their trust he appointed Baptist educator Theodore Harding Rand as Nova Scotia's first superintendent of education.", "This raised concern among Catholics, led by Thomas-Louis Connolly, Archbishop of Halifax, who demanded state-funded Catholic schools.", "Tupper reached a compromise with Archbishop Connolly whereby Catholic-run schools could receive public funding, so long as they provided their religious instruction after hours.Making good on his promise for expanded railroad construction, in 1864 Tupper appointed Sandford Fleming as the chief engineer of the Nova Scotia Railway in order to expand the line from Truro to Pictou Landing.", "In January 1866 he awarded Fleming a contract to complete the line after local contractors proved too slow.", "Though this decision was controversial, it did result in the line's being completed by May 1867.A second proposed line, from Annapolis Royal to Windsor initially faltered, but was eventually completed in 1869 by the privately owned Windsor & Annapolis Railway.===Tupper's role in securing Canadian Confederation===In the run-up to the 1859 Nova Scotia election, Tupper had been unwilling to commit to the idea of a union with the other British North American colonies.", "By 1860, however, he had reconsidered his position.", "Tupper outlined his changed position in a lecture delivered at Saint John, New Brunswick, entitled \"The Political Condition of British North America\".", "The title of the lecture was a homage to Lord Durham's 1838 ''Report on the Affairs of British North America'' and assessed the condition of British North America in the two decades following Lord Durham's famous report.", "Although Tupper was interested in the potential economic consequences of a union with the other colonies, the bulk of his lecture addressed the place of British North America within the wider British Empire.", "Having been convinced by his 1858 trip to London that British politicians were unwilling to pay attention to small colonies such as Nova Scotia, Tupper argued that Nova Scotia and the other Maritime colonies \"could never hope to occupy a position of influence or importance except in connection with their larger sister Canada\".", "Tupper therefore proposed to create a \"British America\", which \"stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would in a few years exhibit to the world a great and powerful organization, with British Institutions, British sympathies, and British feelings, bound indissolubly to the throne of England\".====Charlottetown Conference, September 1864====Tupper and other delegates of the Charlottetown Conference on the steps of Government House, September 1864With the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Tupper worried that a victorious North would turn northward and conquer the British North American provinces.", "This caused him to redouble his commitment to union, which he now saw as essential to protecting the British colonies against American aggression.", "Since he thought that full union among the British North American colonies would be unachievable for many years, on March 28, 1864, Tupper instead proposed a Maritime Union which would unite the Maritime provinces in advance of a projected future union with the Province of Canada.", "A conference to discuss the proposed union of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island was scheduled to be held in Charlottetown in September 1864.Tupper was pleasantly surprised when the Premier of the Province of Canada, John A. Macdonald, asked to be allowed to attend the Charlottetown Conference.", "The Conference, which was co-chaired by Tupper and New Brunswick Premier Samuel Leonard Tilley, welcomed the Canadian delegation and asked them to join the conference.", "The conference proved to be a smashing success, and resulted in an agreement-in-principle to form a union of the four colonies.====Quebec Conference, October 1864====The Quebec Conference was held on October 10, as a follow-up to the Charlottetown Conference, with Newfoundland only attending to observe.", "Tupper headed the Nova Scotia delegation to the Quebec Conference.", "He supported a legislative union of the colonies (which would mean that there would be only one legislature for the united colonies).", "However, the French Canadian delegates to the conference, notably George-Étienne Cartier and Hector-Louis Langevin, strongly opposed the idea of a legislative union.", "Tupper threw his weight behind Macdonald's proposal for a federal union, which would see each colony retain its own legislature, with a central legislature in charge of common interests.", "Tupper argued in favour of a strong central government as a second best to a pure legislative union.", "He felt, however, that the local legislatures should retain the ability to levy duties on their natural resources.Concerned that a united legislature would be dominated by the Province of Canada, Tupper pushed for regional representation in the upper house of the confederated colonies (a goal which would be achieved in the makeup of the Senate of Canada).On the topic of which level of government would control customs in the union, Tupper ultimately agreed to accept the formula by which the federal government controlled customs in exchange for an annual subsidy of 80 cents a year for each Nova Scotian.", "This deal was ultimately not good for Nova Scotia, which had historically received most of its government revenue from customs, and as a result, Nova Scotia entered Confederation with a deficit.Tupper in 1865====Aftermath of the Quebec Conference====Although Tupper had given up much at the Quebec Conference, he thought that he would be able to convince Nova Scotians that the deal he negotiated was in some good for Nova Scotia.", "He was therefore surprised when the deal he had negotiated at Quebec was roundly criticized by Nova Scotians: the Opposition Leader Adams George Archibald was the only member of the Liberal caucus to support Confederation.", "Former premier Joseph Howe now organized an Anti-Confederation Party and anti-Confederation sentiments were so strong that Tupper decided to postpone a vote of the legislature on the question of Confederation for a full year.", "Tupper now organized supporters of Confederation into a Confederation Party to push for the union.In April 1866, Tupper secured a motion of the Nova Scotia legislature in favour of union by promising that he would renegotiate the Seventy-two Resolutions at the upcoming conference in London.====London Conference, 1866====Joseph Howe had begun a pamphlet campaign in the UK to turn British public opinion against the proposed union.", "Therefore, when Tupper arrived in the UK, he immediately initiated a campaign of pamphlets and letters to the editor designed to refute Howe's assertions.Although Tupper did attempt to renegotiate the 72 Resolutions as he had promised, he was ineffective in securing any major changes.", "The only major change agreed to at the London Conference arguably did not benefit Nova Scotia – responsibility for the fisheries, which was going to be a joint federal-provincial responsibility under the Quebec agreement, became solely a federal concern.====The final push for Confederation====Following passage of the British North America Act in the wake of the London Conference, Tupper returned to Nova Scotia to undertake preparations for the union, which came into existence on July 1, 1867, and on July 4, Tupper turned over responsibility for the government of Nova Scotia to Hiram Blanchard.In honour of the role he had played in securing Confederation, Tupper was made a Companion in The Most Honourable Order of the Bath in 1867.He was now entitled to use the postnomial letters \"CB\"." ], [ "Career in the Parliament of Canada, 1867–1884", "===Fighting the Anti-Confederates, 1867–1869===The first elections for the new House of Commons of Canada were held in August–September 1867.Tupper ran as a member for the new federal riding of Cumberland and won his seat.", "However, he was the only pro-Confederation candidate to win a seat from Nova Scotia in the 1st Canadian Parliament, with Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederates winning every other seat.Tupper in April 1870As an ally of John A. Macdonald and the Liberal-Conservative Party, it was widely believed that Tupper would have a place in the first Cabinet of Canada.", "However, when Macdonald ran into difficulties in organizing this cabinet, Tupper stepped aside in favour of Edward Kenny.", "Instead, Tupper set up a medical practice in Ottawa and was elected as the first president of the new Canadian Medical Association, a position he held until 1870.In the November 1867 provincial elections in Nova Scotia, the pro-Confederation Hiram Blanchard was defeated by the leader of the Anti-Confederation Party, William Annand.", "Given the unpopularity of Confederation within Nova Scotia, Joseph Howe traveled to London in 1868 to attempt to persuade the British government (headed by the Earl of Derby, and then after February 1868 by Benjamin Disraeli) to allow Nova Scotia to secede from Confederation.", "Tupper followed Howe to London where he successfully lobbied British politicians against allowing Nova Scotia to secede.Following his victory in London, Tupper proposed a reconciliation with Howe: in exchange for Howe's agreeing to stop fighting against the union, Tupper and Howe would be allies in the fight to protect Nova Scotia's interests within Confederation.", "Howe agreed to Tupper's proposal and in January 1869 entered the Canadian cabinet as President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.With the outbreak of the Red River Rebellion in 1869, Tupper was distressed to find that his daughter Emma's husband was being held hostage by Louis Riel and the rebels.", "He rushed to the northwest to rescue his son-in-law.Tupper in November 1871===President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, 1870–1872===When Howe's health declined the next year, Tupper finally entered the 1st Canadian Ministry by becoming Privy Council president in June 1870.The next year was dominated by a dispute with the United States regarding US access to the Atlantic fisheries.", "Tupper thought that the British should restrict American access to these fisheries so that they could negotiate from a position of strength.", "When Prime Minister Macdonald travelled to represent Canada's interests at the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Washington (1871), Tupper served as Macdonald's liaison with the federal cabinet.===Minister of Inland Revenue, 1872–1873===On January 19, 1872, Tupper's service as Privy Council president ended and he became Minister of Inland Revenue.Tupper led the Nova Scotia campaign for the Liberal-Conservative party during the Canadian federal election of 1872.His efforts paid off when Nova Scotia returned not a single Anti-Confederate Member of Parliament to the 2nd Canadian Parliament, and 20 of Nova Scotia's 21 MPs were Liberal-Conservatives.", "(The Liberal-Conservative Party changed its name to the Conservative Party in 1873.", ")===Minister of Customs, 1873–1874===Tupper in August 1873In February 1873, Tupper was shifted from Inland Revenue to become Minister of Customs, and in this position he was successful in having British weights and measures adopted as the uniform standard for the united colonies.He would not hold this post for long, however, as Macdonald's government was rocked by the Pacific Scandal throughout 1873.In November 1873, the 1st Canadian Ministry was forced to resign and was replaced by the 2nd Canadian Ministry headed by Liberal Alexander Mackenzie.===Years in Opposition, 1874–1878===Tupper had not been involved in the Pacific Scandal, but he nevertheless continued to support Macdonald and his Conservative colleagues both before and after the 1874 election.", "The 1874 election was disastrous for the Conservatives, and in Nova Scotia, Tupper was one of only two Conservative MPs returned to the 3rd Canadian Parliament.Though Macdonald stayed on as Conservative leader, Tupper now assumed a more prominent role in the Conservative Party and was widely seen as Macdonald's heir apparent.", "He led Conservative attacks on the Mackenzie government throughout the 3rd Parliament.", "The Mackenzie government attempted to negotiate a new free trade agreement with the United States to replace the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty which the U.S. had abrogated in 1864.When Mackenzie proved unable to achieve reciprocity, Tupper began shifting toward protectionism and became a proponent of the National Policy which became a part of the Conservative platform in 1876.The sincerity of Tupper's conversion to the protectionist cause was doubted at the time, however: according to one apocryphal story, when Tupper came to the 1876 debate on Finance Minister Richard John Cartwright's budget, he was prepared to advocate free trade if Cartwright had announced that the Liberals had shifted their position and were now supporting protectionism.Tupper was also deeply critical of Mackenzie's approach to railways, arguing that completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which would link British Columbia (which entered Confederation in 1871) with the rest of Canada, should be a stronger government priority than it was for Mackenzie.", "This position also became an integral part of the Conservative platform.As on previous occasions when he was not in cabinet, Tupper was active in practicing medicine during the 1874–78 stint in Opposition, though he was dedicating less and less of his time to medicine during this period.Tupper was a councillor of the Oxford Military College in Cowley and Oxford, Oxfordshire from 1876 to 1896.===Minister of Public Works, 1878–1879===During the 1878 election Tupper again led the Conservative campaign in Nova Scotia.", "The Conservatives under Macdonald won a resounding majority in the election, in the process capturing 16 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 4th Canadian Parliament.With the formation of the 3rd Canadian Ministry on October 17, 1878, Tupper became Minister of Public Works.", "His top priority was completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which he saw as \"an Imperial Highway across the Continent of America entirely on British soil\".", "This marked a shift in Tupper's position: although he had long argued that completion of the railway should be a major government priority, while Tupper was in Opposition, he argued that the railway should be privately constructed; he now argued that the railway ought to be completed as a public work, partly because he believed that the private sector could not complete the railroad given the recession which gripped the country throughout the 1870s.===Minister of Railways and Canals, 1879–1884===In May 1879, Macdonald decided that completion of the railway was such a priority that he created a new ministry to focus on railways and canals, and Tupper became Canada's first Minister of Railways and Canals.Tupper's motto as Minister of Railways and Canals was \"Develop our resources\".", "He stated \"I have always supposed that the great object, in every country, and especially in a new country, was to draw as many capitalists into it as possible.", "\"Tupper traveled to London in summer 1879 to attempt to persuade the British government (then headed by the Earl of Beaconsfield in his second term as prime minister) to guarantee a bond sale to be used to construct the railway.", "He was not successful, though he did manage to purchase 50,000 tons of steel rails at a bargain price.", "Tupper's old friend Sandford Fleming oversaw the railway construction, but his inability to keep costs down led to political controversy, and Tupper was forced to remove Fleming as Chief Engineer in May 1880.1879 also saw Tupper made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George, and thus entitled to use the postnominal letters \"KCMG\".Tupper in September 1881In 1880, George Stephen approached Tupper on behalf of a syndicate and asked to be allowed to take over construction of the railway.", "Convinced that Stephen's syndicate was up to the task, Tupper convinced the cabinet to back the plan at a meeting in June 1880 and, together with Macdonald, negotiated a contract with the syndicate in October.", "The syndicate successfully created the Canadian Pacific Railway in February 1881 and assumed construction of the railway shortly thereafter.In the following years Tupper was a vocal supporter of the CPR during its competition with the Grand Trunk Railway.", "In December 1883 he worked out a rescue plan for the CPR after it faced financial difficulties and persuaded his party and Parliament to accept the plan.In addition to his support for completion of the CPR, Tupper also actively managed the existing railways in the colonies.", "Shortly after becoming minister in 1879, he forced the Intercolonial Railway to lower its freight rates, which had been a major grievance of Maritime business interests.", "He then forced the Grand Trunk Railway to sell its Rivière-du-Loup line to the Intercolonial Railway to complete a link between Halifax and the St. Lawrence Seaway.", "He also refused to give the CPR running rights over the Intercolonial Railway, though he did convince the CPR to build the Short Line from Halifax to Saint John.In terms of canals, Tupper's time as Minister of Railways and Canals is notable for large expenditures on widening the Welland Canal and deepening the Saint Lawrence Seaway.====Deterioration of relationship with Macdonald and appointment as High Commissioner====A rift developed between Tupper and Macdonald in 1879 over Sandford Fleming, whom Tupper supported but whom Macdonald wanted removed as Chief Engineer of the CPR.", "This rift was partially healed and Tupper and Macdonald managed to work together during the negotiations with George Stephen's syndicate in 1880, but the men were no longer close, and Tupper no longer seemed to be Macdonald's heir apparent.", "By early 1881 Tupper had determined that he should leave the cabinet.", "In March 1881 he asked Macdonald to appoint him as Canada's High Commissioner in London.", "Macdonald initially refused, and Alexander Tilloch Galt retained the High Commissioner's post.During the 1882 election, Tupper campaigned only in Nova Scotia (he normally campaigned throughout the country): he was again successful, with the Conservatives winning 14 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 5th Canadian Parliament.", "The 1882 election was personally significant for Tupper because it saw his son, Charles Hibbert Tupper, elected as MP for Pictou." ], [ "Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, 1883–1895", "===Early years as High Commissioner, 1883–1887===Tupper circa 1883Tupper remained committed to leaving Ottawa, however, and in May 1883, he moved to London to become unpaid High Commissioner, though he did not surrender his ministerial position at the time.", "However, he soon faced criticism that the two posts were incompatible, and in May 1884 he resigned from cabinet and the House of Commons and became full-time paid High Commissioner.During his time as High Commissioner, Tupper vigorously defended Canada's rights.", "Although he was not a full plenipotentiary, he represented Canada at a Paris conference in 1883, where he openly disagreed with the British delegation; and in 1884 he was allowed to conduct negotiations for a Canadian commercial treaty with Spain.Tupper was concerned with promoting immigration to Canada and made several tours of various countries in Europe to encourage their citizens to move to Canada.", "A report in 1883 acknowledges the work of Charles Tupper:As directing emigration from the United Kingdom and also the Continent, his work has been greatly valuable; and especially in reference to the arrangements made by him on the Continent and in Ireland.", "The High Commissioner for Canada, Sir Charles Tupper, has been aided during the past year by the same Emigration Agents of the Department in the United Kingdom as in 1882, namely, Mr. John Dyke, Liverpool; Mr. Thomas Grahame, Glasgow; Mr. Charles Foy, Belfast; Mr. Thomas Connolly, Dublin, and Mr. J.W.", "Down, Bristol.", "On the European continent, Dr. Otto Hahn, of Reutlingen, has continued to act as Agent in Germany.In 1883, Tupper convinced William Ewart Gladstone's government to exempt Canadian cattle from the general British ban on importing American cattle by demonstrating that Canadian cattle were free of disease.His other duties as High Commissioner included: putting Canadian exporters in contact with British importers; negotiating loans for the Canadian government and the CPR; helping to organize the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886; arranging for a subsidy for the mail ship from Vancouver, British Columbia, to the Orient; and lobbying on behalf of a British-Pacific cable along the lines of the transatlantic telegraph cable and for a faster transatlantic steam ship.Tupper was present at the founding meeting of the Imperial Federation League in July 1884, where he argued against a resolution which said that the only options open to the British Empire were Imperial Federation or disintegration.", "Tupper believed that a form of limited federation was possible and desirable.===Interlude as Minister of Finance, 1887–1888===1884 saw the election of Liberal William Stevens Fielding as Premier of Nova Scotia after Fielding campaigned on a platform of leading Nova Scotia out of Confederation.", "As such, throughout 1886, Macdonald begged Tupper to return to Canada to fight the Anti-Confederates.", "In January 1887 Tupper returned to Canada to rejoin the 3rd Canadian Ministry as Minister of Finance of Canada, while retaining his post as High Commissioner.During the 1887 federal election, Tupper again presented the pro-Confederation argument to the people of Nova Scotia, and again the Conservatives won 14 of Nova Scotia's 21 seats in the 6th Canadian Parliament.During his year as finance minister, Tupper retained the government's commitment to protectionism, even extending it to the iron and steel industry.", "By this time Tupper was convinced that Canada was ready to move on to its second stage of industrial development.", "In part, he held out the prospect of the development of a great iron industry as an inducement to keep Nova Scotia from seceding.Tupper's unique position of being both Minister of Finance and High Commissioner to London served him well in an emerging crisis in American-Canadian relations: in 1885, the U.S. abrogated the fisheries clause of the Treaty of Washington (1871), and the Canadian government retaliated against American fishermen with a narrow reading of the Treaty of 1818.Acting as High Commissioner, Tupper pressured the British government (then led by Lord Salisbury) to stand firm in defending Canada's rights.", "The result was the appointment of a Joint Commission in 1887, with Tupper serving as one of the three British commissioners to negotiate with the Americans.", "Salisbury selected Joseph Chamberlain as one of the British commissioners.", "John Thompson served as the British delegation's legal counsel.", "During the negotiations, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard complained that \"Mr. Chamberlain has yielded the control of the negotiations over to Charles Tupper, who subjects the questions to the demands of Canadian politics.\"", "The result of the negotiations was a treaty (the Treaty of Washington of 1888) that made such concessions to Canada that it was ultimately rejected by the American Senate in February 1888.However, although the treaty was rejected, the Commission had managed to temporarily resolve the dispute.Following the long conclusion of these negotiations, Tupper decided to return to London to become High-Commissioner full-time.", "Macdonald tried to persuade Tupper to stay in Ottawa: during the political crisis surrounding the 1885 North-West Rebellion, Macdonald had pledged to nominate Hector-Louis Langevin as his successor; Macdonald now told Tupper that he would break this promise and nominate Tupper as his successor.", "Tupper was not convinced, however, and resigned as Minister of Finance on May 23, 1888, and moved back to London.===Later years as High Commissioner, 1888–1895===1891 electionFor Tupper's work on the Joint Commission, Joseph Chamberlain arranged for Tupper to become a baronet of the United Kingdom, and the Tupper Baronetcy was created on September 13, 1888.In 1889, tensions were high between the U.S. and Canada when the U.S. banned Canadians from engaging in the seal hunt in the Bering Sea as part of the ongoing Bering Sea Dispute between the U.S. and Britain.", "Tupper traveled to Washington, D.C., to represent Canadian interests during the negotiations and was something of an embarrassment to the British diplomats.When, in 1890, the provincial secretary of Newfoundland, Robert Bond, negotiated a fisheries treaty with the U.S. that Tupper felt was not in Canada's interest, Tupper successfully persuaded the British government (then under Lord Salisbury's second term) to reject the treaty.Tupper remained an active politician during his time as High Commissioner, which was controversial because diplomats are traditionally expected to be nonpartisan.", "(Tupper's successor as High Commissioner, Donald Smith would succeed in turning the High Commissioner's office into a nonpartisan office.)", "As such, Tupper returned to Canada to campaign on behalf of the Conservatives' National Policy during the 1891 election.Charles Tupper with his son Charles Hibbert Tupper and his grandson, March 1891Tupper continued to be active in the Imperial Federation League, though after 1887, the League was split over the issue of regular colonial contribution to imperial defense.", "As a result, the League was dissolved in 1893, for which some people blamed Tupper.With respect to the British Empire, Tupper advocated a system of mutual preferential trading.", "In a series of articles in ''Nineteenth Century'' in 1891 and 1892, Tupper denounced the position that Canada should unilaterally reduce its tariff on British goods.", "Rather, he argued that any such tariff reduction should only come as part of a wider trade agreement in which tariffs on Canadian goods would also be reduced at the same time.John A. Macdonald's death in 1891 opened the possibility of Tupper's replacing him as Prime Minister of Canada, but Tupper enjoyed life in London and decided against returning to Canada.", "He recommended that his son support John Thompson's prime ministerial bid." ], [ "Tupper becomes prime minister, 1895–1896", "John Thompson died suddenly in office in December 1894.Many observers expected the Governor General of Canada, Lord Aberdeen, to invite Tupper to return to Canada to become prime minister.", "However, Lord Aberdeen disliked Tupper and instead invited Mackenzie Bowell to replace Thompson as prime minister.", "\"Sir Charles Tupper et le parlement\": political cartoon from February 1896The greatest challenge facing Bowell as prime minister was the Manitoba Schools Question.", "The Conservative Party was bitterly divided on how to handle the Manitoba Schools Question, and as a result, on January 4, 1896, seven cabinet ministers resigned, demanding the return of Tupper.", "As a result, Bowell and Aberdeen were forced to invite Tupper to join the 6th Canadian Ministry and on January 15 Tupper became Secretary of State for Canada, with the understanding that he would become prime minister following the dissolution of the 7th Canadian Parliament.Returning to Canada, Tupper was elected to the 7th Canadian Parliament as member for Cape Breton during a by-election held on February 4, 1896.At this point, Tupper was the ''de facto'' prime minister, though legally Bowell was still prime minister.Tupper's position on the Manitoba Schools Act was that French Catholics in Manitoba had been promised the right to separate state-funded French-language Catholic schools in the Manitoba Act of 1870.Thus, even though he personally opposed French-language Catholic schools in Manitoba, he believed that the government should stand by its promise and therefore oppose Dalton McCarthy's Manitoba Schools Act.", "He maintained this position even after the Manitoba Schools Act was upheld by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.In 1895, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ruled that the Canadian federal government could pass remedial legislation to overrule the Manitoba Schools Act (''see'' Disallowance and reservation).", "Therefore, in February 1896 Tupper introduced this remedial legislation in the House of Commons.", "The bill was filibustered by a combination of extreme Protestants led by McCarthy and Liberals led by Wilfrid Laurier.", "This filibuster resulted in Tupper's abandoning the bill and asking for a dissolution." ], [ "Prime Minister, May–July 1896", "Lady Tupper, October 1896Parliament was dissolved on April 24, 1896, and the 7th Canadian Ministry with Tupper as prime minister was sworn in on May 1 making him, with John Turner and Kim Campbell, one of the only three prime ministers to never sit in Parliament while prime minister.", "Tupper remains the oldest person ever to become Canadian prime minister, at age 74.Throughout the 1896 election campaign, Tupper argued that the real issue of the election was the future of Canadian industry and insisted that Conservatives needed to unite to defeat the Patrons of Industry.", "However, the Conservatives were so bitterly divided over the Manitoba Schools Question that wherever he spoke, he was faced with a barrage of criticism, most notably at a two-hour address he gave at Massey Hall in Toronto, which was constantly interrupted by the crowd.Wilfrid Laurier, on the other hand, modified the traditional Liberal stance on free trade and embraced aspects of the National Policy.In the end, the Conservatives won the most votes in the 1896 election (48.2 percent of the votes, in comparison to 41.4 percent for the Liberals).", "However, they captured only about half of the seats in English Canada, while Laurier's Liberals won a landslide victory in Quebec, where Tupper's reputation as an ardent imperialist was a major handicap.", "Tupper had tried and failed to persuade Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau to return to active politics as his Quebec lieutenant.Although Laurier had clearly won the election on June 24, Tupper initially refused to cede power, insisting that Laurier would be unable to form a government despite the Liberal Party's having won 55 percent of the seats in the House of Commons.", "However, when Tupper attempted to make appointments as prime minister, Lord Aberdeen refused to act on Tupper's advice.", "Tupper then resigned and Aberdeen invited Laurier to form a government.", "Tupper maintained that Lord Aberdeen's actions were unconstitutional.Tupper's 68 days are the shortest term of all prime ministers of Canada.", "His government never faced a Parliament.His portrait, by Victor Albert Long, hangs in the Parliament Buildings." ], [ "Leader of the Opposition, 1896–1900", "Tupper at a meeting of the directors of the Crown Life Insurance Company in Toronto, ca 1900As Leader of the Opposition during the 8th Canadian Parliament, Tupper attempted to regain the loyalty of those Conservatives who had deserted the party over the Manitoba Schools Question.", "He played up loyalty to the British Empire.", "Tupper strongly supported Canadian participation in the Second Boer War, which broke out in 1899, and criticized Laurier for not doing enough to support Britain in the war.The 1900 election saw the Conservatives pick up 17 Ontario seats in the 9th Canadian Parliament.", "This was a small consolation, however, Laurier's Liberals won a definitive majority and had a clear mandate for a second term.", "Worse for Tupper was the fact he had failed to carry his own seat, losing the Cape Breton seat to Liberal Alexander Johnston.", "In November 1900, two weeks after the election, Tupper stepped down as leader of the Conservative Party of Canada and Leader of the Opposition – the caucus chose as his successor fellow Nova Scotian Robert Laird Borden." ], [ "Later years, 1901–1915", "Following his defeat in the 1900 election, Tupper and his wife settled with their daughter Emma in Bexleyheath in north-west Kent.", "He continued to make frequent trips to Canada to visit his sons Charles Hibbert Tupper and William Johnston Tupper, both of whom were Canadian politicians.Grave site of Charles and Frances Tupper in St. John's Cemetery in HalifaxOn November 9, 1907, Tupper became a member of the British Privy Council.", "He was also promoted to the rank of Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George, which entitled him to use the postnominal letters \"GCMG\".Tupper remained interested in imperial politics, and particularly with promoting Canada's place within the British Empire.", "He sat on the executive committee of the British Empire League and advocated closer economic ties between Canada and Britain, while continuing to oppose Imperial Federation and requests for Canada to make a direct contribution to imperial defense costs (though he supported Borden's decision to voluntarily make an emergency contribution of dreadnoughts to the Royal Navy in 1912).In his retirement, Tupper wrote his memoirs, entitled ''Recollections of Sixty Years in Canada'', which were published in 1914.He also gave a series of interviews to journalist W. A. Harkin which formed the basis of a second book published in 1914, entitled ''Political Reminiscences of the Right Honourable Sir Charles Tupper''.Tupper's wife, Lady Tupper died in May 1912.His eldest son Orin died in April 1915.On October 30, 1915, in Bexleyheath, Tupper died.", "He was the last of the original Fathers of Confederation to die, and had lived the longest life of any Canadian prime minister, at 94 years, four months.", "His body was returned to Canada on HMS ''Blenheim'' (the same vessel that had carried the body of Tupper's colleague, John Thompson to Halifax when Thompson died in England in 1894) and was buried in St. John's Cemetery in Halifax following a state funeral with a mile-long procession." ], [ "Legacy and recognition", "Coat of arms of Charles Tupper.Tupper will be most remembered as a Father of Confederation, and his long career as a federal cabinet minister, rather than his brief time as prime minister.", "As the Premier of Nova Scotia from 1864 to 1867, he led Nova Scotia into Confederation and persuaded Joseph Howe to join the new federal government, bringing an end to the anti-Confederation movement in Nova Scotia.In their 1999 study of the Canadian Prime Ministers through Jean Chrétien, J.L.", "Granatstein and Norman Hillmer included the results of a survey of Canadian historians ranking the Prime Ministers.", "Tupper ranked No.", "16 out of the 20 up to that time, due to his extremely short tenure in which he was unable to accomplish anything of significance.", "Historians noted that despite Tupper's elderly age, he showed a determination and spirit during his brief time as prime minister that almost beat Laurier in the 1896 election.Mount Tupper in the Canadian Rockies and the Sir Charles Tupper Building in Ottawa are named for him.", "The Sir Charles Tupper Medical Building is the central building of the Dalhousie Medical School in Halifax, Nova Scotia." ], [ "Facility naming", "*Sir Charles Tupper Secondary School in Vancouver, British Columbia* Sir Charles Tupper School in Halifax* Sir Charles Tupper Medical Building at the Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University* Sir Charles Tupper Building in Ottawa" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Johanna Bertin, ''Sir Charles Tupper: The Bully for Any Great Cause'' (2006)**Jock Murray and Janet Murray, ''Sir Charles Tupper: Fighting Doctor to Father of Confederation'' (1998)*Robert Page, ''Tupper’s Last Hurrah: The Years as Opposition Leader, 1896–1900'' in The West and the Nation: Essays in Honour of W. L. Morton, ed.", "Carl Berger and Ramsay Cook (1976)*K. M. McLaughlin, ''Race, Religion and Politics: The Election of 1896 in Canada'', PhD thesis, University of Toronto (1974)*D. H. Tait, ''The Role of Charles Tupper in Nova Scotian Politics, 1855–1870'', M.A.", "thesis, Dalhousie University (1962)*A. W. MacIntosh, ''The career of Sir Charles Tupper in Canada, 1864–1900'' (Ph.D. thesis, Univ.", "of Toronto, 1960)*H. W. Charlesworth, ''Candid chronicler: leaves from the note book of a Canadian journalist'' (Toronto, 1925)*J. W. Longley, ''Sir Charles Tupper'' (Toronto, 1916)*''The Life and Letters of the Rt.", "Hon.", "Sir Charles Tupper'', Bart., K.C.M.G., ed.", "E. M. Saunders, 2 vols.", "(1916)*E. M. Saunders, ''Three premiers of Nova Scotia ...'' (Toronto, 1909)" ], [ "External links", "** Biography from Library and Archives Canada website* Sir Charles Tupper – Library and Archives Canada* Sir Charles Tupper fonds at Library and Archives Canada* \"The Life of Sir Charles Tupper\" from the June 1939 edition of the ''Journal of the Canadian Medical Association''* The Right Hon.", "Sir Charles Tupper, P.C., G.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D., M.D., 1821–1915 from the June 12, 1965, edition of the ''Journal of the Canadian Medical Association''* ''Sir John and Sir Charles, or The Secrets of the Syndicate'' – an 1881 Shakespearean satire on Macdonald and Tupper's roles in awarding George Stephen's syndicate control of the Canadian Pacific Railway* Tupper's grave site* Sir Charles Tupper Prime Minister of Canada (1896) – The Quebec History Encyclopedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission''' ('''CRTC'''; ) is a public organization in Canada with mandate as a regulatory agency for broadcasting and telecommunications.", "It was created in 1976 when it took over responsibility for regulating telecommunication carriers.", "Prior to 1976, it was known as the '''Canadian Radio and Television Commission''', which was established in 1968 by the Parliament of Canada to replace the Board of Broadcast Governors.", "Its headquarters is located in the Central Building (Édifice central) of Les Terrasses de la Chaudière in Gatineau, Quebec." ], [ "History", "The CRTC was originally known as the Canadian Radio-Television Commission.", "In 1976, jurisdiction over telecommunications services, most of which were then delivered by monopoly common carriers (for example, telephone companies), was transferred to it from the Canadian Transport Commission although the abbreviation CRTC remained the same.On the telecom side, the CRTC originally regulated only privately held common carriers:* BC Tel (merged with Telus), which served British Columbia, in which a U.S. company (GTE) held a substantial stake* Bell Canada, which served much of Ontario and Quebec, and the eastern part of the Northwest Territories (now Nunavut)* telephone operations owned by crown corporation Canadian National Railways in Newfoundland (Terra Nova Tel), the Northwest Territories, Yukon and northern B.C.", "(the latter three being Northwestel).Other telephone companies, many of which were publicly owned and entirely within a province's borders, were regulated by provincial authorities until court rulings during the 1990s affirmed federal jurisdiction over the sector, which also included some fifty small independent incumbents, most of them in Ontario and Quebec.", "Notable in this group were:* Newfoundland Telephone* Maritime Telegraph and Telephone* Island Telephone (Island Tel)* New Brunswick Telephone (NBTel)* Manitoba Telephone System (MTS)* SaskTel* Alberta Government Telephones (AGT)* Northern Telephone (Ontario)* Télébec* municipal telephone services in Prince Rupert, B.C.", "(CityWest) and Thunder Bay (Tbaytel)" ], [ "Jurisdiction", "The CRTC regulates all Canadian broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best-known of these is probably the Canadian content rules.", "The CRTC reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Canadian Heritage, which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with Industry Canada, which is responsible for the Telecommunications Act.", "Provisions in these two acts, along with less-formal instructions issued by the federal cabinet known as orders-in-council, represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction.In many cases, such as the cabinet-directed prohibition on foreign ownership for broadcasters and the legislated principle of the predominance of Canadian content, these acts and orders often leave the CRTC less room to change policy than critics sometimes suggest, and the result is that the commission is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself.Complaints against broadcasters, such as concerns around offensive programming, are dealt with by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC), an independent broadcast industry association, rather than by the CRTC, although CBSC decisions can be appealed to the CRTC if necessary.", "However, the CRTC is also sometimes erroneously criticized for CBSC decisions — for example, the CRTC was erroneously criticized for the CBSC's decisions pertaining to the airing of Howard Stern's terrestrial radio show in Canada in the late 1990s, as well as the CBSC's controversial ruling on the Dire Straits song \"Money for Nothing\".The commission is not fully equivalent to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission, which has additional powers over technical matters, in broadcasting and other aspects of communications, in that country.", "In Canada, Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (formerly Industry Canada) is responsible for allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment.===Regulation of broadcast distributors===The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices cable television broadcast distributors are allowed to charge.", "In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from satellite television.The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer.", "Per the Broadcasting Act the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada.", "The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation.", "Some people, however, consider this tantamount to censorship.The CRTC's simultaneous substitution rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a US network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.As ''Grey's Anatomy'' is on ABC, but is carried in Canada on CTV at the same time, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed over the signal of the carried ABC affiliate, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly commercials.", "(These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing ''episodes'' of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.)", "Viewers via home antenna who receive both American and Canadian networks on their personal sets are not affected by sim-sub.The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming.", "This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see American advertisements during the Super Bowl, even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.The CRTC also regulates radio in Canada, including community radio, where the CRTC requires that at least 15% of each station's output must be locally produced spoken word content.===Regulation of the Internet===In a major May 1999 decision on \"New Media\", the CRTC held that under the Broadcasting Act the CRTC had jurisdiction over certain content communicated over the Internet including audio and video, but excluding content that is primarily alphanumeric such as emails and most webpages.", "It also issued an exemption order committing to a policy of non-interference.In May 2011, in response to the increase presence of Over-the-Top (OTT) programming, the CRTC put a call out to the public to provide input on the impact OTT programming is having on Canadian content and existing broadcasting subscriptions through satellite and cable.On October 5, 2011 the CRTC released their findings that included consultations with stakeholders from the telecommunication industry, media producers, and cultural leaders among others.", "The evidence was inconclusive, suggesting that an increased availability of OTT options is not having a negative impact on the availability or diversity of Canadian content, one of the key policy mandates of the CRTC, nor are there signs that there has been a significant decline of television subscriptions through cable or satellite.", "However, given the rapid progress in the industry they are working on a more in depth study to be concluded in May 2012.The CRTC does not ''directly'' regulate rates, quality of service issues, or business practices for Internet service providers.", "However, the CRTC does continually monitor the sector and associated trends.", "To handle complains, the CRTC was ordered by the Government of Canada to create an independent, industry-funded agency to resolve complaints from consumers and small business retail telecom customers.", "In July 2007, the Commission for Complaints for Telecom-Television Services (CCTS) opened its doors.Third Party ISP Access refers to a ruling forcing Cable operators (MSO) to offer Internet access to third party resellers.===Regulation of telephone service===The commission currently has some jurisdiction over the provision of local landline telephone service in Canada.", "This is largely limited to the major incumbent carriers, such as Bell Canada and Telus, for traditional landline service (but not Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)).", "It has begun the gradual deregulation of such services where, in the commission's opinion, a sufficient level of competition exists.The CRTC is sometimes blamed for the current state of the mobile phone industry in Canada, in which there are only three national mobile network operators – Bell Mobility, Telus Mobility, and Rogers Wireless – as well as a handful of MVNOs operating on these networks.", "In fact, the commission has very little to do with the regulation of mobile phone service, outside of \"undue preference\" issues (for example, a carrier offering a superior rate or service to some subscribers and not others without a good reason).It does not regulate service rates, service quality, or other business practices, and commission approval is not necessary for wireless provider sales or mergers as in the broadcasting industry.", "Moreover, it does not deal with the availability of spectrum for mobile phone service, which is part of the Industry Canada mandate, nor the maintenance of competition, which is largely the responsibility of The Competition Bureau.===Transfers of ownership/foreign ownership===Any transfer of more than 30% of the ownership of a broadcasting licence (including cable/satellite distribution licences) requires advance approval of the commission.", "One condition normally taken into account in such a decision is the level of foreign ownership; federal regulations require that Canadian citizens ultimately own a majority of a broadcast licence.", "Usually this takes the form of a public process, where interested parties can express their concerns and sometimes including a public hearing, followed by a commission decision.While landline and mobile telephone providers must also be majority-owned by Canadians under the federal Telecommunications Act, the CRTC is not responsible for enforcement of this provision.", "In fact, the commission does not require licences at all for telephone companies, and CRTC approval is therefore not generally required for the sale of a telephone company, unless said company also owns a broadcast licence." ], [ "Notable decisions", "Since 1987, the CRTC has been involved in several notable decisions, some of which led to controversy and debate.===Milestone Radio==='''Milestone Radio''': In two separate rounds of licence hearings in the 1990s, the CRTC rejected applications by Milestone Radio to launch a radio station in Toronto which would have been Canada's first urban music station; in both cases, the CRTC instead granted licences to stations that duplicated formats already offered by other stations in the Toronto market.", "The decision has been widely cited as one of the single most significant reasons why Canadian hip hop had difficulty establishing its commercial viability throughout the 1990s.", "The CRTC finally granted a licence to Milestone in 2000, after a cabinet order-in-council directed the commission to license two new radio stations that reflected the cultural diversity of the Toronto market, and CFXJ-FM launched in 2001.===CHOI-FM==='''CHOI-FM''': The CRTC announced it would not renew the licence of the popular radio station CHOI-FM in Quebec City, after having previously sanctioned the station for failing to uphold its promise of performance and then, during the years following, receiving about 50 complaints about offensive behaviour by radio jockeys which similarly contravened CRTC rules on broadcast hate speech.", "Many thousands of the station's fans marched in the streets and on Parliament Hill against the decision, and the parent company of CHOI, Genex Corp., appealed the CRTC decision unsuccessfully to the Federal Court of Canada.The station was later sold to RNC Media, but instead of renewing its licence the CRTC issued RNC a licence to launch a ''new'' radio station on the same frequency.===CBC Newsworld==='''CBC Newsworld''': The CRTC licensed the CBC on November 30, 1987 to provide a national all-news television network.", "Its competitor applicant, Alberta-based Allarcom, appealed this decision to the House of Commons of Canada.", "It was overturned and there were questions of whether federal politicians should meddle in CRTC decisions.", "Because of this the network launch was delayed from September 1, 1988 to July 31, 1989.===RAI International==='''RAI International''': In Summer 2004, this Italian government-controlled channel was denied permission to broadcast independently in Canada on the grounds that it had acted and was likely to act contrary to established Canadian policies.", "RAI International's latest politically appointed President (an avowed right wing nationalist and former spokesperson for Giorgio Almirante, the leader of the post-fascist party of Italy) had unilaterally terminated a 20-year-old agreement and stripped all of its 1,500 to 2,000 annual hours of programming from Telelatino (TLN), a Canadian-run channel which had devoted 95% of its prime time schedule to RAI programs for 20 years since TLN was founded.All Italian-Canadians were denied RAI programming by RAI International's removal of its programming from the Canadian marketplace, a move intended to create a public outcry and a threat that Canadians would resort to using satellite viewing cards obtained via the US in order to watch RAI, even though these cards were either grey market or black market, according to different analyses (see below).", "Following unprecedented foreign led and domestic political interference with the CRTC's quasi-judicial independent regulatory process, within six months of its original decision, an abrupt CRTC \"review\" of its policy on third-language foreign services determined to drop virtually all restrictions and adopt a new \"open entry\" approach to foreign controlled \"third language\" (non-English, non-French) channels.===Al Jazeera==='''Al Jazeera''': Was approved by the CRTC in 2004 as an optional cable and satellite offering, but on the condition that any carrier distributing it must edit out any instances of illegal hate speech.", "Cable companies declared that these restrictions would make it too expensive to carry Al Jazeera.", "Although no cable company released data as to what such a monitoring service would cost, the end-result was that no cable company elected to carry the station, either, leaving many Arabic-speaking Canadians using free-to-air satellite dishes to watch the station.The Canadian Jewish Congress has expressed its opinion over possible anti-Semitic incitement on this station and that the restrictions on Al Jazeera are appropriate, while the Canadian B'nai Brith is opposed to any approval of Al Jazeera in Canada.", "The CRTC ruling applied to Al Jazeera and not to its English-speaking sister network Al Jazeera English, which was launched two years after the ruling.===Fox News Channel==='''Fox News Channel''': Until 2004, the CRTC's apparent reluctance to grant a digital licence to Fox News Channel under the same policy which made it difficult for RAI to enter the country – same-genre competition from foreign services – had angered many conservative Canadians, who believed the network was deliberately being kept out due to its perceived conservative bias, particularly given the long-standing availability of services such as CNN and BBC World in Canada.On November 18, 2004, however, the CRTC approved an application by cable companies to offer Fox News Channel on the digital cable tier.", "Fox commenced broadcasting in Canada shortly thereafter.===Satellite radio==='''Satellite radio''': In June 2005, the CRTC outraged some Canadian cultural nationalists (such as the Friends of Canadian Broadcasting) and labour unions by licensing two companies, Canadian Satellite Radio and Sirius Canada to offer satellite radio services in Canada.", "The two companies are in partnership with American firms XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio respectively, and in accordance with the CRTC decision will only need to offer ten percent Canadian content.", "The CRTC contends that this low level of Canadian content, particularly when compared to the 35% rule on local radio stations, was necessary because unlicensed U.S. receivers were already flooding into the country, so that enforcing a ban on these receivers would be nearly impossible (see below).This explanation did not satisfy cultural nationalists, who demanded that the federal cabinet overturn the decision and mandate a minimum of 35% Canadian content.", "Supporters of the decision argue that satellite radio can only be feasibly set up as a continental system, and trying to impose 35% Canadian content across North America is quite unrealistic.", "They also argue that satellite radio will boost Canadian culture by giving vital exposure to independent artists, instead of concentrating just on the country's stars, and point to the CRTC's successful extraction of promises to program 10% Canadian content on satellite services already operational in the United States as important concessions.", "Despite popular perception that the CRTC banned Sirius Canada from broadcasting Howard Stern's program, this is not the case.", "Sirius Canada in fact initially ''chose'' not to air Stern based on the ''possibility'' of a future issue with the CRTC, although the company reversed its decision and began offering Howard Stern in 2006.===2008 Ottawa radio licence==='''2008 Ottawa radio licences''': On November 21, 2008, federal Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages James Moore issued a statement calling on the CRTC to review its approval of two new radio stations, Frank Torres' CIDG-FM and Astral Media's CJOT-FM, which it had licensed in August 2008 to serve the Ottawa-Gatineau radio market.", "Moore asked the commission to assess whether the francophone population of the Ottawa-Gatineau area was sufficiently well-served by existing French radio services, and to consider licensing one or more of the French language applications, which included a Christian music station, a community radio station and a campus radio station for the Université du Québec en Outaouais, in addition to or instead of the approved stations.", "The review ultimately identified a viable frequency for a third station, and CJFO-FM launched in 2010.===Bell Canada usage-based Internet billing==='''Bell Canada usage-based billing:''' On October 28, 2010, the CRTC handed down its final decision on how wholesale customers can be billed by large network owners.", "Under the plan which starts within 90 days, Bell will be able to charge wholesale service providers a flat monthly fee to connect to its network, and for a set monthly usage limit per each ISP customer the ISP has.", "Beyond that set limit, individual users will be charged per gigabyte, depending on the speed of their connections.Customers using the fastest connections of five megabits per second, for example, will have a monthly allotment of 60 GB, beyond which Bell will charge $1.12 per GB to a maximum of $22.50.If a customer uses more than 300 GB a month, Bell will also be able to implement an additional charge of 75 cents per gigabyte.", "In May 2010, the CRTC ruled that Bell could not implement its usage-based billing system until all of its own retail customers had been moved off older, unlimited downloading plans.", "The requirement would have meant that Bell would have to move its oldest and most loyal customers.The CRTC also added that Bell would be required to offer to wholesale ISPs the same usage insurance plan it sells to retail customers.", "Bell appealed both requirements, citing that the rules do not apply to cable companies and that they constituted proactive rate regulation by the CRTC, which goes against government official policy direction that the regulator only intervene in markets after a competitive problem has been proven.", "In Thursday's decision, the CRTC rescinded both requirements, thereby giving Bell the go-ahead to implement usage-based billing.", "This ruling according to Teksavvy handcuffs the competitive market.", "This has been asked by Stephen Harper and Parliament to have the decision reviewed.", "According to a tweet by Industry Minister Tony Clement, unless the CRTC reverses this decision, the government will use its override power to reverse the decision." ], [ "Reception of non-Canadian services", "While an exact number has not been determined, thousands of Canadians have purchased and used what they contend to be grey market radio and television services, licensed in the United States but not in Canada.", "Users of these unlicensed services contend that they are not directly breaking any laws by simply using the equipment.", "The equipment is usually purchased from an American supplier (although some merchants have attempted to set up shop in Canada) and the services are billed to an American postal address.", "The advent of online billing and the easy availability of credit card services has made it relatively easy for almost anyone to maintain an account in good standing, regardless of where they actually live.Sec.", "9(1)(c) of the Radiocommunication Act creates a prohibition against all decoding of encrypted programming signals, followed by an exception where authorization is received from the person holding the lawful right in Canada to transmit and authorize decoding of the signal.", "This means receiving the encrypted programming of DishNetwork or DirecTV, even with a grey market subscription, may be construed as unlawful (this remains an unresolved Constitutional issue).Notwithstanding, possession of DishNetwork or DirecTV equipment is not unlawful as provided by The Radiocommuncation Act Section 4(1)(b), which states:\"No person shall, except under and in accordance with a radio authorization, install, operate or possess radio apparatus, other than (b)a radio apparatus that is capable only of the reception of broadcasting and that is not a distribution undertaking.", "(radio apparatus\" means a device or combination of devices intended for, or capable of being used for, radiocommunication).", "\"Satellite radio poses a more complicated problem for the CRTC.", "While an unlicensed satellite dish can often be identified easily, satellite radio receivers are much more compact and can rarely be easily identified, at least not without flagrantly violating provisions against unreasonable search and seizure in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.", "Some observers argued that this influenced the CRTC's June 2005 decision to ease Canadian content restrictions on satellite radio (see above)." ], [ "Structure", "The CRTC is run by up to 13 full-time members (including the chairman, the vice-chairman of broadcasting, and the vice-chairman of telecommunications) appointed by the Cabinet for renewable terms of up to five years.", "However, unlike the more directly political appointees of the American Federal Communications Commission, the CRTC is an arms-length regulatory body with more autonomous authority over telecommunications.", "For example, the CRTC's decisions rely more on a judiciary process relying on evidence submitted during public consultations, rather than along party lines as the American FCC is prone to do.The CRTC Interconnection Steering Committee (CISC) assists in developing information, procedures and guidelines for the CRTC's regulatory activities." ], [ "Chairs of the CRTC", "*1968–1975 – Pierre Juneau*1975–1977 – Harry J. Boyle*1977–1979 – Pierre Camu*1980–1983 – John Meisel*1983–1989 – André Bureau*1990–1996 – Keith Spicer*1996–2001 – Françoise Bertrand*2001–2002 – David Colville (interim)*2002–2006 – Charles Dalfen*2007–2012 – Konrad von Finckenstein*2012 – Leonard Katz (interim)*2012–2017 – Jean-Pierre Blais*2017–2023 – Ian Scott*2023-present – Vicky Eatrides" ], [ "Related legislation", "* Accurate News and Information Act* Bell Canada Act* Broadcasting Act, 1991* Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Act* Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 – USA* Telecommunications Act* Online Streaming Act" ], [ "See also", "* * Canadian Independent Telephone Association* Category A services* Category B services* CPAC (TV channel)* Fee-for-carriage* Freedom of speech by country* Friends of Canadian Broadcasting* Industry Canada* International Telecommunication Union* Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)* List of telecommunications regulatory bodies* Music of Canada* Ontario Telecommunications Association* Ontario Telephone Service Commission* Régie des télécommunications du Québec" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* CBC Digital Archives – Ruling the Airwaves: The CRTC and Canadian Content" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Con" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Con''' or '''CON''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Commonwealth of Nations, or CON, an association of primarily former British colonies* Concord Municipal Airport (IATA airport code CON), a public-use airport in Merrimack County, New Hampshire, United States * Cornwall, England, Chapman code CON" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* ''Con'' (TV series), a television show about confidence trickery* ''Con Air'', a 1997 American action crime film* ''Naruto: Clash of Ninja'', or ''CON'', a 3D cel-shaded fighting game* ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', or ''CON'', a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by C. S. Lewis" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* Consolidated Edison, also called Con Edison or ConEd* Continental Oil" ], [ "Language", "* Con language* Conlang, a constructed language" ], [ "Other uses", "===Con===* Con (name)* Confidence trick, also known as con, scam, or flim flam; con is also a person who perpetrates a confidence trick* Conn (nautical), also spelled ''con'', the command of movement of a ship at sea* Consider (MUD), the ability to evaluate an opponent in MUDs* Contact lens, in Hong Kong English* Contra (or against), as in the original Latin phrase ''pro et contra''* Convention (meeting)** Fan convention, e.g.", "\"Comic-Con\"* Convict, as in ''con'', a person who has been convicted of a crime, or ''ex-con'', a person who has completed their prison sentence** Convicted felon, a person who has been convicted of a felony crime in a court of law* ''Con'', a musical term meaning \"with\" borrowed from Italian (see Italian musical terms used in English)===CON===* Certificate of Need, or CON* Commander of the Order of the Niger, or CON* Cornwall, county in England, Chapman code* CON, a name not allowed for folders in Microsoft Windows, see List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products#Microsoft Windows." ], [ "See also", "* Conn (disambiguation)* Conning (disambiguation)* Conrad (name)* Conservative Party (disambiguation)* Constantine (disambiguation)* Contra (disambiguation)* Contrary (disambiguation)* Khan (disambiguation)* Kon (disambiguation)* Pro (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Coal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Coal''' is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams.", "Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.Coal is a type of fossil fuel, formed when dead plant matter decays into peat and is converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years.", "Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands called coal forests that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian times.Coal is used primarily as a fuel.", "While coal has been known and used for thousands of years, its usage was limited until the Industrial Revolution.", "With the invention of the steam engine, coal consumption increased.", "In 2020, coal supplied about a quarter of the world's primary energy and over a third of its electricity.", "Some iron and steel-making and other industrial processes burn coal.The extraction and use of coal causes premature death and illness.", "The use of coal damages the environment, and it is the largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide contributing to climate change.", "Fourteen billion tonnes of carbon dioxide were emitted by burning coal in 2020, which is 40% of the total fossil fuel emissions and over 25% of total global greenhouse gas emissions.", "As part of worldwide energy transition, many countries have reduced or eliminated their use of coal power.", "The United Nations Secretary General asked governments to stop building new coal plants by 2020.Global coal use was 8.3 billion tonnes in 2022.Global coal demand is set to remain at record levels in 2023.To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming below coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030, and \"phasing down\" coal was agreed upon in the Glasgow Climate Pact.The largest consumer and importer of coal in 2020 was China, which accounts for almost half the world's annual coal production, followed by India with about a tenth.", "Indonesia and Australia export the most, followed by Russia." ], [ "Etymology", "The word originally took the form ''col'' in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *''kula''(''n''), which in turn is hypothesized to come from the Proto-Indo-European root *''g''(''e'')''u-lo-'' \"live coal\".", "Germanic cognates include the Old Frisian ''kole'', Middle Dutch ''cole'', Dutch ''kool'', Old High German ''chol'', German ''Kohle'' and Old Norse ''kol'', and the Irish word ''gual'' is also a cognate via the Indo-European root." ], [ "Geology", "Coal is composed of macerals, minerals and water.", "Fossils and amber may be found in coal.===Formation===Example chemical structure of coalThe conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called coalification.", "At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas.", "In these wetlands, the process of coalification began when dead plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water, and was converted into peat.", "This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually deeply buried by sediments.", "Then, over millions of years, the heat and pressure of deep burial caused the loss of water, methane and carbon dioxide and increased the proportion of carbon.", "The grade of coal produced depended on the maximum pressure and temperature reached, with lignite (also called \"brown coal\") produced under relatively mild conditions, and sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, or anthracite coal (also called \"hard coal\" or \"black coal\") produced in turn with increasing temperature and pressure.Of the factors involved in coalification, temperature is much more important than either pressure or time of burial.", "Subbituminous coal can form at temperatures as low as while anthracite requires a temperature of at least .Although coal is known from most geologic periods, 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods, which represent just 2% of the Earth's geologic history.", "Paradoxically, this was during the Late Paleozoic icehouse, a time of global glaciation.", "However, the drop in global sea level accompanying the glaciation exposed continental shelves that had previously been submerged, and to these were added wide river deltas produced by increased erosion due to the drop in base level.", "These widespread areas of wetlands provided ideal conditions for coal formation.", "The rapid formation of coal ended with the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare.Favorable geography alone does not explain the extensive Carboniferous coal beds.", "Other factors contributing to rapid coal deposition were high oxygen levels, above 30%, that promoted intense wildfires and formation of charcoal that was all but indigestible by decomposing organisms; high carbon dioxide levels that promoted plant growth; and the nature of Carboniferous forests, which included lycophyte trees whose determinate growth meant that carbon was not tied up in heartwood of living trees for long periods.One theory suggested that about 360 million years ago, some plants evolved the ability to produce lignin, a complex polymer that made their cellulose stems much harder and more woody.", "The ability to produce lignin led to the evolution of the first trees.", "But bacteria and fungi did not immediately evolve the ability to decompose lignin, so the wood did not fully decay but became buried under sediment, eventually turning into coal.", "About 300 million years ago, mushrooms and other fungi developed this ability, ending the main coal-formation period of earth's history.", "Although some authors pointed at some evidence of lignin degradation during the Carboniferous, and suggested that climatic and tectonic factors were a more plausible explanation, reconstruction of ancestral enzymes by phylogenetic analysis corroborated a hypothesis that lignin degrading enzymes appeared in fungi approximately 200 MYa.One likely tectonic factor was the Central Pangean Mountains, an enormous range running along the equator that reached its greatest elevation near this time.", "Climate modeling suggests that the Central Pangean Mountains contributed to the deposition of vast quantities of coal in the late Carboniferous.", "The mountains created an area of year-round heavy precipitation, with no dry season typical of a monsoon climate.", "This is necessary for the preservation of peat in coal swamps.Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants.", "This coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae.Sometimes coal seams (also known as coal beds) are interbedded with other sediments in a cyclothem.", "Cyclothems are thought to have their origin in glacial cycles that produced fluctuations in sea level, which alternately exposed and then flooded large areas of continental shelf.====Chemistry of coalification====The woody tissue of plants is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.", "Modern peat is mostly lignin, with a content of cellulose and hemicellulose ranging from 5% to 40%.", "Various other organic compounds, such as waxes and nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds, are also present.", "Lignin has a weight composition of about 54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 30% oxygen, while cellulose has a weight composition of about 44% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 49% oxygen.", "Bituminous coal has a composition of about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis.", "This implies that chemical processes during coalification must remove most of the oxygen and much of the hydrogen, leaving carbon, a process called ''carbonization''.Carbonization proceeds primarily by dehydration, decarboxylation, and demethanation.", "Dehydration removes water molecules from the maturing coal via reactions such as:2 R–OH → R–O–R + H2O:2 R-CH2-O-CH2-R → R-CH=CH-R + H2ODecarboxylation removes carbon dioxide from the maturing coal and proceeds by reaction such as:RCOOH → RH + CO2while demethanation proceeds by reaction such as:2 R-CH3 → R-CH2-R + CH4:R-CH2-CH2-CH2-R → R-CH=CH-R + CH4In each of these formulas, R represents the remainder of a cellulose or lignin molecule to which the reacting groups are attached.Dehydration and decarboxylation take place early in coalification, while demethanation begins only after the coal has already reached bituminous rank.", "The effect of decarboxylation is to reduce the percentage of oxygen, while demethanation reduces the percentage of hydrogen.", "Dehydration does both, and (together with demethanation) reduces the saturation of the carbon backbone (increasing the number of double bonds between carbon).As carbonization proceeds, aliphatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by chains of carbon atoms) are replaced by aromatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by rings of carbon atoms) and aromatic rings begin to fuse into polyaromatic compounds (linked rings of carbon atoms).", "The structure increasingly resembles graphene, the structural element of graphite.Chemical changes are accompanied by physical changes, such as decrease in average pore size.", "The macerals (organic particles) of lignite are composed of ''huminite'', which is earthy in appearance.", "As the coal matures to sub-bituminous coal, huminite begins to be replaced by vitreous (shiny) ''vitrinite''.", "Maturation of bituminous coal is characterized by ''bitumenization'', in which part of the coal is converted to bitumen, a hydrocarbon-rich gel.", "Maturation to anthracite is characterized by ''debitumenization'' (from demethanation) and the increasing tendency of the anthracite to break with a conchoidal fracture, similar to the way thick glass breaks.===Types===Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam in Nova ScotiaCoal ranking system used by the United States Geological SurveyAs geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade or rank increases successively into:* Peat, a precursor of coal* Lignite, or brown coal, the lowest rank of coal, most harmful to health when burned, used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation** Jet, a compact form of lignite, sometimes polished; used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic* Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range between those of lignite and those of bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.", "* Bituminous coal, a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material.", "It is used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation and to make coke.", "Known as steam coal in the UK, and historically used to raise steam in steam locomotives and ships * Anthracite coal, the highest rank of coal, is a harder, glossy black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.", "* Graphite is difficult to ignite and not commonly used as fuel; it is most used in pencils, or powdered for lubrication.", "* Cannel coal (sometimes called \"candle coal\") is a variety of fine-grained, high-rank coal with significant hydrogen content, which consists primarily of liptinite.There are several international standards for coal.", "The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles.", "However the most important distinction is between thermal coal (also known as steam coal), which is burnt to generate electricity via steam; and metallurgical coal (also known as coking coal), which is burnt at high temperature to make steel.Hilt's law is a geological observation that (within a small area) the deeper the coal is found, the higher its rank (or grade).", "It applies if the thermal gradient is entirely vertical; however, metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth.", "For example, some of the coal seams of the Madrid, New Mexico coal field were partially converted to anthracite by contact metamorphism from an igneous sill while the remainder of the seams remained as bituminous coal." ], [ "History", "Chinese coal miners in an illustration of the ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' encyclopedia, published in 1637The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area of China where by 4000 BC Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite.", "Coal from the Fushun mine in northeastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC.", "Marco Polo, the Italian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as \"black stones ... which burn like logs\", and said coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a week.", "In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise ''On Stones'' (Lap.", "16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC):Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), where it formed part of funeral pyres.", "In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, \"the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD\".", "Evidence of trade in coal, dated to about AD 200, has been found at the Roman settlement at Heronbridge, near Chester; and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain.", "Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400.In the west of England, contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath), although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally.", "Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found.", "In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore.Coal miner in Britain, 1942No evidence exists of coal being of great importance in Britain before about AD 1000, the High Middle Ages.", "Coal came to be referred to as \"seacoal\" in the 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253.Initially, the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops, but by the time of Henry VIII, it was understood to derive from the way it was carried to London by sea.", "In 1257–1259, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped to London for the smiths and lime-burners building Westminster Abbey.", "Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet, still exist.These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits was developed.", "The alternative name was \"pitcoal\", because it came from mines.Cooking and home heating with coal (in addition to firewood or instead of it) has been done in various times and places throughout human history, especially in times and places where ground-surface coal was available and firewood was scarce, but a widespread reliance on coal for home hearths probably never existed until such a switch in fuels happened in London in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.", "Historian Ruth Goodman has traced the socioeconomic effects of that switch and its later spread throughout Britain and suggested that its importance in shaping the industrial adoption of coal has been previously underappreciated.The development of the Industrial Revolution led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel.", "In 1700, five-sixths of the world's coal was mined in Britain.", "Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a source of energy.", "In 1947 there were some 750,000 miners in Britain, but the last deep coal mine in the UK closed in 2015.A grade between bituminous coal and anthracite was once known as \"steam coal\" as it was widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives.", "In this specialized use, it is sometimes known as \"sea coal\" in the United States.", "Small \"steam coal\", also called ''dry small steam nuts'' (DSSN), was used as a fuel for domestic water heating.Coal played an important role in industry in the 19th and 20th century.", "The predecessor of the European Union, the European Coal and Steel Community, was based on the trading of this commodity.Coal continues to arrive on beaches around the world from both natural erosion of exposed coal seams and windswept spills from cargo ships.", "Many homes in such areas gather this coal as a significant, and sometimes primary, source of home heating fuel." ], [ "Chemistry", "===Composition===The composition of coal is reported either as a proximate analysis (moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash) or an ultimate analysis (ash, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur).", "The \"volatile matter\" does not exist by itself (except for some adsorbed methane) but designates the volatile compounds that are produced and driven off by heating the coal.", "A typical bituminous coal may have an ultimate analysis on a dry, ash-free basis of 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis.The composition of ash, given in terms of oxides, varies:+ Ash composition, weight percent 20–40 10–35 5–35 CaO1–20 MgO0.3–4 0.5–2.5 & 1–4 0.1–12Other minor components include:+ Average content Substance Content Mercury (Hg) Arsenic (As) Selenium (Se) ===Coking coal and use of coke to smelt iron===Coke oven at a smokeless fuel plant in Wales, United KingdomCoke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from coking coal (a low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal, also known as ''metallurgical coal''), which is used in manufacturing steel and other iron products.", "Coke is made from coking coal by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C, driving off the volatile constituents and fusing together the fixed carbon and residual ash.", "Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.", "The carbon monoxide produced by its combustion reduces hematite (an iron oxide) to iron.Waste carbon dioxide is also produced together with pig iron, which is too rich in dissolved carbon so must be treated further to make steel.Coking coal should be low in ash, sulfur, and phosphorus, so that these do not migrate to the metal.The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making steel using the conventional route.", "Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 29.6 MJ/kg.", "Some coke-making processes produce byproducts, including coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and coal gas.Petroleum coke (petcoke) is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.====Use in foundry components ====Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand.", "While the molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure, and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand.", "It is also contained in 'mould wash', a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting.", "Sea coal can be mixed with the clay lining (the \"bod\") used for the bottom of a cupola furnace.", "When heated, the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten metal.====Alternatives to coke====Scrap steel can be recycled in an electric arc furnace; and an alternative to making iron by smelting is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised iron.", "To lessen carbon dioxide emissions hydrogen can be used as the reducing agent and biomass or waste as the source of carbon.", "Historically, charcoal has been used as an alternative to coke in a blast furnace, with the resultant iron being known as charcoal iron.===Gasification===Coal gasification, as part of an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coal-fired power station, is used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas to fire gas turbines to produce electricity.", "Syngas can also be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, through the Fischer–Tropsch process; alternatively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can be blended into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via the methanol to gasoline process.", "Gasification combined with Fischer–Tropsch technology was used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make chemicals and motor vehicle fuels from coal.During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while also being heated and pressurized.", "During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing hydrogen gas (H2).", "This used to be done in underground coal mines, and also to make town gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking.", ": 3C (''as Coal'') + O2 + H2O → H2 + 3COIf the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is routed into a Fischer–Tropsch reaction.", "This is known as indirect coal liquefaction.", "If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction, where more hydrogen is liberated:: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2===Liquefaction===Coal can be converted directly into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by hydrogenation or carbonization.", "Coal liquefaction emits more carbon dioxide than liquid fuel production from crude oil.", "Mixing in biomass and using CCS would emit slightly less than the oil process but at a high cost.", "State owned China Energy Investment runs a coal liquefaction plant and plans to build 2 more.Coal liquefaction may also refer to the cargo hazard when shipping coal.===Production of chemicals===Production of chemicals from coalChemicals have been produced from coal since the 1950s.", "Coal can be used as a feedstock in the production of a wide range of chemical fertilizers and other chemical products.", "The main route to these products was coal gasification to produce syngas.", "Primary chemicals that are produced directly from the syngas include methanol, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are the chemical building blocks from which a whole spectrum of derivative chemicals are manufactured, including olefins, acetic acid, formaldehyde, ammonia, urea and others.", "The versatility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and high-value derivative products provides the option of using coal to produce a wide range of commodities.", "In the 21st century, however, the use of coal bed methane is becoming more important.Because the slate of chemical products that can be made via coal gasification can in general also use feedstocks derived from natural gas and petroleum, the chemical industry tends to use whatever feedstocks are most cost-effective.", "Therefore, interest in using coal tended to increase for higher oil and natural gas prices and during periods of high global economic growth that might have strained oil and gas production.Coal to chemical processes require substantial quantities of water.", "Much coal to chemical production is in China where coal dependent provinces such as Shanxi are struggling to control its pollution." ], [ "Electricity generation", "===Energy density===The energy density of coal is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram (approximately 6.7 kilowatt-hours per kg).", "For a coal power plant with a 40% efficiency, it takes an estimated of coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year.27.6% of world energy was supplied by coal in 2017 and Asia used almost three-quarters of it.===Precombustion treatment===Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals.", "It is one form of several precombustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before it is burned.", "Thermal efficiency improvements are achievable by improved pre-drying (especially relevant with high-moisture fuel such as lignite or biomass).", "The goals of precombustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when the coal is burned.", "Precombustion technology can sometimes be used as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.===Power plant combustion===Castle Gate Power Plant near Helper, Utah, USCoal rail carsBulldozer pushing coal in Ljubljana Power Station, SloveniaCoal burnt as a solid fuel in coal power stations to generate electricity is called '''thermal coal'''.", "Coal is also used to produce very high temperatures through combustion.", "Early deaths due to air pollution have been estimated at 200 per GW-year, however they may be higher around power plants where scrubbers are not used or lower if they are far from cities.", "Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal have led some regions to switch to natural gas and electricity from lower carbon sources.When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler (see also Pulverized coal-fired boiler).", "The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity.", "The thermodynamic efficiency of this process varies between about 25% and 50% depending on the pre-combustion treatment, turbine technology (e.g.", "supercritical steam generator) and the age of the plant.A few integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants have been built, which burn coal more efficiently.", "Instead of pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the steam-generating boiler, the coal is gasified to create syngas, which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like natural gas is burned in a turbine).", "Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental steam turbine.", "The overall plant efficiency when used to provide combined heat and power can reach as much as 94%.", "IGCC power plants emit less local pollution than conventional pulverized coal-fueled plants; however the technology for carbon capture and storage (CCS) after gasification and before burning has so far proved to be too expensive to use with coal.", "Other ways to use coal are as coal-water slurry fuel (CWS), which was developed in the Soviet Union, or in an MHD topping cycle.", "However these are not widely used due to lack of profit.In 2017 38% of the world's electricity came from coal, the same percentage as 30 years previously.", "In 2018 global installed capacity was 2TW (of which 1TW is in China) which was 30% of total electricity generation capacity.", "The most dependent major country is South Africa, with over 80% of its electricity generated by coal; but China alone generates more than half of the world's coal-generated electricity.Maximum use of coal was reached in 2013.In 2018 coal-fired power station capacity factor averaged 51%, that is they operated for about half their available operating hours." ], [ "Coal industry", "===Mining===About 8000 Mt of coal are produced annually, about 90% of which is hard coal and 10% lignite.", "just over half is from underground mines.", "More accidents occur during underground mining than surface mining.", "Not all countries publish mining accident statistics so worldwide figures are uncertain, but it is thought that most deaths occur in coal mining accidents in China: in 2017 there were 375 coal mining related deaths in China.", "Most coal mined is thermal coal (also called steam coal as it is used to make steam to generate electricity) but metallurgical coal (also called \"metcoal\" or \"coking coal\" as it is used to make coke to make iron) accounts for 10% to 15% of global coal use.===As a traded commodity===Extensive coal docks seen in Toledo, Ohio, 1895China mines almost half the world's coal, followed by India with about a tenth.", "Australia accounts for about a third of world coal exports, followed by Indonesia and Russia, while the largest importers are Japan and India.", "Russia is increasingly orienting its coal exports from Europe to Asia as Europe transitions to renewable energy and subjects Russia to sanctions over its invasion of Ukraine.The price of metallurgical coal is volatile and much higher than the price of thermal coal because metallurgical coal must be lower in sulfur and requires more cleaning.", "Coal futures contracts provide coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.In some countries, new onshore wind or solar generation already costs less than coal power from existing plants.", "However, for China this is forecast for the early 2020s and for southeast Asia not until the late 2020s.", "In India, building new plants is uneconomic and, despite being subsidized, existing plants are losing market share to renewables.===Market trends===Of the countries which produce coal, China mines by far the most, almost half the world's coal, followed by less than 10% by India.", "China is also by far the largest consumer of coal.", "Therefore, international market trends depend on Chinese energy policy.", "Although the government effort to reduce air pollution in China means that the global long-term trend is to burn less coal, the short and medium term trends may differ, in part due to Chinese financing of new coal-fired power plants in other countries.===Major producers===Coal production by regionCountries with annual production higher than 300 million tonnes are shown.+ Production of coal by country and year (million tonnes) Country 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 Share (2017)China 1,384 2,350 3,235 3,747 3,523 46%India 335 429 574 678 716 9%United States 974 1,027 984 813 702 9%Australia 314 375 424 485 481 6%Indonesia 77 152 275 392 461 6%Russia 262 298 322 373 411 5%Rest of World 1380 1404 1441 1374 1433 19% World total 4,726 6,035 7,255 7,862 7,727 100%===Major consumers===Countries with annual consumption higher than 500 million tonnes are shown.", "Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil equivalent.+ Consumption of coal by country and year (million tonnes) Country 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 ShareChina 2,691 2,892 3,352 3,677 4,538 4,678 4,539 3,970 coal + 441 met coke = 4,411 3,784 coal + 430 met coke = 4,214 51%India 582 640 655 715 841 837 880 890 coal + 33 met coke = 923 877 coal + 37 met coke = 914 11%United States 1,017 904 951 910 889 924 918 724 coal + 12 met coke = 736 663 coal + 10 met coke = 673 9% World Total 7,636 7,699 8,137 8,640 8,901 9,013 8,907 7,893 coal + 668 met coke = 8561 7,606 coal + 655 met coke = 8261 100%===Major exporters===+ Exports of coal by country and year (million tonnes)Country2018201920202021Indonesia408443410434Australia382393371366Russia212223222238United States105856377South Africa80797566Colombia84726856Canada32363232Netherlands30281527Kazakhstan26262524Mongolia36362920Exporters are at risk of a reduction in import demand from India and China.===Major importers===+ Imports of coal by country and year (million tonnes)Country2018China 281India 223Japan 189South Korea 149Taiwan 76Germany 44Netherlands 44Turkey 38Malaysia 34Thailand 25" ], [ "Damage to human health{{anchor|Health_effects}}", "Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use, especially coal (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).The use of coal as fuel causes ill health and deaths.", "Mining and processing of coal causes air and water pollution.", "Coal-powered plants emit nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate pollution and heavy metals, which adversely affect human health.", "Coal bed methane extraction is important to avoid mining accidents.The deadly London smog was caused primarily by the heavy use of coal.", "Globally coal is estimated to cause 800,000 premature deaths every year, mostly in India and China.Burning coal is a major contributor to sulfur dioxide emissions, which creates PM2.5 particulates, the most dangerous form of air pollution.Coal smokestack emissions cause asthma, strokes, reduced intelligence, artery blockages, heart attacks, congestive heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, mercury poisoning, arterial occlusion, and lung cancer.Annual health costs in Europe from use of coal to generate electricity are estimated at up to €43 billion.In China, improvements to air quality and human health would increase with more stringent climate policies, mainly because the country's energy is so heavily reliant on coal.", "And there would be a net economic benefit.A 2017 study in the ''Economic Journal'' found that for Britain during the period 1851–1860, \"a one standard deviation increase in coal use raised infant mortality by 6–8% and that industrial coal use explains roughly one-third of the urban mortality penalty observed during this period.", "\"Breathing in coal dust causes coalworker's pneumoconiosis or \"black lung\", so called because the coal dust literally turns the lungs black.", "In the US alone, it is estimated that 1,500 former employees of the coal industry die every year from the effects of breathing in coal mine dust.Huge amounts of coal ash and other waste is produced annually.", "Use of coal generates hundreds of millions of tons of ash and other waste products every year.", "These include fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals, along with non-metals such as selenium.Around 10% of coal is ash.", "Coal ash is hazardous and toxic to human beings and some other living things.", "Coal ash contains the radioactive elements uranium and thorium.", "Coal ash and other solid combustion byproducts are stored locally and escape in various ways that expose those living near coal plants to radiation and environmental toxics." ], [ "Damage to the environment", "Aerial photograph of the site of the Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill taken the day after the eventCoal mining, coal combustion wastes and flue gas are causing major environmental damage.Water systems are affected by coal mining.", "For example, mining affects groundwater and water table levels and acidity.", "Spills of fly ash, such as the Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, can also contaminate land and waterways, and destroy homes.", "Power stations that burn coal also consume large quantities of water.", "This can affect the flows of rivers, and has consequential impacts on other land uses.", "In areas of water scarcity, such as the Thar Desert in Pakistan, coal mining and coal power plants contribute to the depletion of water resources.One of the earliest known impacts of coal on the water cycle was acid rain.", "In 2014, approximately 100 Tg/S of sulfur dioxide (SO2) was released, over half of which was from burning coal.", "After release, the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to H2SO4 which scatters solar radiation, hence its increase in the atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on the climate.", "This beneficially masks some of the warming caused by increased greenhouse gases.", "However, the sulfur is precipitated out of the atmosphere as acid rain in a matter of weeks, whereas carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years.", "Release of SO2 also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.Disused coal mines can also cause issues.", "Subsidence can occur above tunnels, causing damage to infrastructure or cropland.", "Coal mining can also cause long lasting fires, and it has been estimated that thousands of coal seam fires are burning at any given time.", "For example, Brennender Berg has been burning since 1668 and is still burning in the 21st century.The production of coke from coal produces ammonia, coal tar, and gaseous compounds as byproducts which if discharged to land, air or waterways can pollute the environment.", "The Whyalla steelworks is one example of a coke producing facility where liquid ammonia was discharged to the marine environment.===Emission intensity===Emission intensity is the greenhouse gas emitted over the life of a generator per unit of electricity generated.", "The emission intensity of coal power stations is high, as they emit around 1000 g of CO2eq for each kWh generated, while natural gas is medium-emission intensity at around 500 g CO2eq per kWh.", "The emission intensity of coal varies with type and generator technology and exceeds 1200 g per kWh in some countries.===Underground fires===Thousands of coal fires are burning around the world.", "Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be extinguished.", "Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires.", "Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire.", "Lightning strikes are an important source of ignition.", "The coal continues to burn slowly back into the seam until oxygen (air) can no longer reach the flame front.", "A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire.", "Coal fires in China burn an estimated 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO2, amounting to 2–3% of the annual worldwide production of CO2 from fossil fuels.", "In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the U.S.), an exposed vein of anthracite ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit.", "Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day.", "The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash come from a coal fire that has been burning for some 6,000 years.At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful.The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and in western North Dakota is called ''porcelanite'', which resembles the coal burning waste \"clinker\" or volcanic \"scoria\".", "Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal.", "In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years.", "Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.===Climate change=== The warming influence (called radiative forcing) of long-lived greenhouse gases has nearly doubled in 40 years, with carbon dioxide being the dominant driver of global warming.The largest and most long-term effect of coal use is the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that causes climate change.", "Coal-fired power plants were the single largest contributor to the growth in global CO2 emissions in 2018, 40% of the total fossil fuel emissions, and more than a quarter of total emissions.", "Coal mining can emit methane, another greenhouse gas.In 2016 world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage were 14.5 gigatonnes.", "For every megawatt-hour generated, coal-fired electric power generation emits around a tonne of carbon dioxide, which is double the approximately 500 kg of carbon dioxide released by a natural gas-fired electric plant.", "In 2013, the head of the UN climate agency advised that most of the world's coal reserves should be left in the ground to avoid catastrophic global warming.", "To keep global warming below 1.5 °C or 2 °C hundreds, or possibly thousands, of coal-fired power plants will need to be retired early." ], [ "Pollution mitigation", "===Standards===Local pollution standards include GB13223-2011 (China), India, the Industrial Emissions Directive (EU) and the Clean Air Act (United States).===Satellite monitoring===Satellite monitoring is now used to crosscheck national data, for example Sentinel-5 Precursor has shown that Chinese control of SO2 has only been partially successful.", "It has also revealed that low use of technology such as SCR has resulted in high NO2 emissions in South Africa and India.===Combined cycle power plants===A few Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coal-fired power plants have been built with coal gasification.", "Although they burn coal more efficiently and therefore emit less pollution, the technology has not generally proved economically viable for coal, except possibly in Japan although this is controversial.===Carbon capture and storage===Although still being intensively researched and considered economically viable for some uses other than with coal; carbon capture and storage has been tested at the Petra Nova and Boundary Dam coal-fired power plants and has been found to be technically feasible but not economically viable for use with coal, due to reductions in the cost of solar PV technology." ], [ "Economics", "In 2018 was invested in coal supply but almost all for sustaining production levels rather than opening new mines.In the long term coal and oil could cost the world trillions of dollars per year.", "Coal alone may cost Australia billions, whereas costs to some smaller companies or cities could be on the scale of millions of dollars.", "The economies most damaged by coal (via climate change) may be India and the US as they are the countries with the highest social cost of carbon.", "Bank loans to finance coal are a risk to the Indian economy.China is the largest producer of coal in the world.", "It is the world's largest energy consumer, and coal in China supplies 60% of its primary energy.", "However two fifths of China's coal power stations are estimated to be loss-making.Air pollution from coal storage and handling costs the US almost 200 dollars for every extra ton stored, due to PM2.5.Coal pollution costs the each year.", "Measures to cut air pollution benefit individuals financially and the economies of countries such as China.===Subsidies===Subsidies for coal in 2021 have been estimated at , not including electricity subsidies, and are expected to rise in 2022.G20 countries provide at least of government support per year for the production of coal, including coal-fired power: many subsidies are impossible to quantify but they include in domestic and international public finance, in fiscal support, and in state-owned enterprise (SOE) investments per year.", "In the EU state aid to new coal-fired plants is banned from 2020, and to existing coal-fired plants from 2025.As of 2018, government funding for new coal power plants was supplied by Exim Bank of China, the Japan Bank for International Cooperation and Indian public sector banks.", "Coal in Kazakhstan was the main recipient of coal consumption subsidies totalling US$2 billion in 2017.Coal in Turkey benefited from substantial subsidies in 2021.===Stranded assets===Some coal-fired power stations could become stranded assets, for example China Energy Investment, the world's largest power company, risks losing half its capital.", "However, state-owned electricity utilities such as Eskom in South Africa, Perusahaan Listrik Negara in Indonesia, Sarawak Energy in Malaysia, Taipower in Taiwan, EGAT in Thailand, Vietnam Electricity and EÜAŞ in Turkey are building or planning new plants.", "As of 2021 this may be helping to cause a carbon bubble which could cause financial instability if it bursts." ], [ "Politics", "Countries building or financing new coal-fired power stations, such as China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Turkey and Bangladesh, face mounting international criticism for obstructing the aims of the Paris Agreement.", "In 2019, the Pacific Island nations (in particular Vanuatu and Fiji) criticized Australia for failing to cut their emissions at a faster rate than they were, citing concerns about coastal inundation and erosion.", "In May 2021, the G7 members agreed to end new direct government support for international coal power generation.Protesting against damage to the Great Barrier Reef caused by climate change in AustraliaOpposition to coal pollution was one of the main reasons the modern environmental movement started in the 19th century." ], [ "Transition away from coal", "In order to meet global climate goals and provide power to those that do not currently have it coal power must be reduced from nearly 10,000 TWh to less than 2,000 TWh by 2040.Phasing out coal has short-term health and environmental benefits which exceed the costs, but some countries still favor coal, and there is much disagreement about how quickly it should be phased out.", "However many countries, such as the Powering Past Coal Alliance, have already or are transitioned away from coal; the largest transition announced so far being Germany, which is due to shut down its last coal-fired power station between 2035 and 2038.Some countries use the ideas of a \"Just Transition\", for example to use some of the benefits of transition to provide early pensions for coal miners.", "However, low-lying Pacific Islands are concerned the transition is not fast enough and that they will be inundated by sea level rise, so they have called for OECD countries to completely phase out coal by 2030 and other countries by 2040.In 2020, although China built some plants, globally more coal power was retired than built: the UN Secretary General has also said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030 and the rest of the world by 2040.Phasing down coal was agreed at COP26 in the Glasgow Climate Pact.", "Vietnam is among few coal-dependent developing countries that pledged to phase out unabated coal power by the 2040s or as early as possible thereafter===Peak coal===A coal mine in Wyoming, US.", "The US has the world's largest coal reserves.===Switch to cleaner fuels and lower carbon electricity generation===Coal-fired generation puts out about twice as much carbon dioxide—around a tonne for every megawatt hour generated—as electricity generated by burning natural gas at 500 kg of greenhouse gas per megawatt hour.", "In addition to generating electricity, natural gas is also popular in some countries for heating and as an automotive fuel.The use of coal in the United Kingdom declined as a result of the development of North Sea oil and the subsequent dash for gas during the 1990s.", "In Canada some coal power plants, such as the Hearn Generating Station, switched from coal to natural gas.", "In 2017, coal power in the US provided 30% of the electricity, down from approximately 49% in 2008, due to plentiful supplies of low cost natural gas obtained by hydraulic fracturing of tight shale formations.===Coal regions in transition===Some coal-mining regions are highly dependent on coal.===Employment===Some coal miners are concerned their jobs may be lost in the transition.", "A just transition from coal is supported by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.===Bioremediation===The white rot fungus ''Trametes versicolor'' can grow on and metabolize naturally occurring coal.", "The bacteria Diplococcus has been found to degrade coal, raising its temperature." ], [ "Cultural usage", "Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky, and the official state rock of Utah and West Virginia.", "These US states have a historic link to coal mining.Some cultures hold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents.It is also customary and considered lucky in Scotland and the North of England to give coal as a gift on New Year's Day.", "This occurs as part of first-footing and represents warmth for the year to come." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * (stratigraphic unit)* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Coal Transitions* World Coal Association* Coal – International Energy Agency* Coal Online – International Energy Agency * CoalExit* European Association for Coal and Lignite* Coal news and industry magazine* Global Coal Plant Tracker* Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Traditional Chinese medicine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Traditional Chinese medicine''' ('''TCM''') is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China.", "It has been described as pseudoscientific, with the majority of its treatments having no known mechanism of action.Medicine in traditional China encompassed a range of sometimes competing health and healing practices, folk beliefs, literati theory and Confucian philosophy, herbal remedies, food, diet, exercise, medical specializations, and schools of thought.", "In the early twentieth century, Chinese cultural and political modernizers worked to eliminate traditional practices as backward and unscientific.", "Traditional practitioners then selected elements of philosophy and practice and organized them into what they called \"Chinese medicine\" (Chinese: 中医 ''Zhongyi'').", "In the 1950s, the Chinese government sponsored the integration of Chinese and Western medicine, and in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, promoted Chinese medicine as inexpensive and popular.", "After the opening of relations between the United States and China after 1972, there was great interest in the West for what is now called traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).TCM is said to be based on such texts as ''Huangdi Neijing'' (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), and ''Compendium of Materia Medica'', a sixteenth-century encyclopedic work, and includes various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, cupping therapy, gua sha, massage (tui na), bonesetter (die-da), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy.", "TCM is widely used in the Sinosphere.", "One of the basic tenets is that the body's ''qi'' is circulating through channels called meridians having branches connected to bodily organs and functions.", "There is no evidence that meridians or vital energy exist.", "Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM reflect its ancient origins and its emphasis on dynamic processes over material structure, similar to the humoral theory of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.The demand for traditional medicines in China has been a major generator of illegal wildlife smuggling, linked to the killing and smuggling of endangered animals." ], [ "History", "The Compendium of Materia Medica is a pharmaceutical text written by Li Shizhen (1518–1593 CE) during the Ming dynasty of China.", "This edition was published in 1593.fl.", "1340s, Yuan dynasty).", "This image from ''Shisi jingfahui (Expression of the Fourteen Meridians).''", "(Tokyo: Suharaya Heisuke kanko, Kyoho gan 1716).Scholars in the history of medicine in China distinguish its doctrines and practice from those of present-day TCM.", "As Ian Johnson notes, the English-language term \"Traditional Chinese Medicine\" was coined by \"party propagandists\" in 1955.Nathan Sivin criticizes attempts to treat medicine and medical practices in traditional China as if they were a single system.", "Instead, he says, there were 2,000 years of \"medical system in turmoil\" and speaks of a \"myth of an unchanging medical tradition.\"", "He urges that \"Traditional medicine translated purely into terms of modern medicine becomes partly nonsensical, partly irrelevant, and partly mistaken; that is also true the other way around, a point easily overlooked.\"", "TJ Hinrichs observes that people in modern Western societies divide healing practices into biomedicine for the body, psychology for the mind, and religion for the spirit, but these distinctions are inadequate to describe medical concepts among Chinese historically and to a considerable degree today.The medical anthropologist Charles Leslie writes that Chinese, Greco-Arabic, and Indian traditional medicines were all grounded in systems of correspondence that aligned the organization of society, the universe, and the human body and other forms of life into an \"all-embracing order of things.\"", "Each of these traditional systems was organized with such qualities as heat and cold, wet and dry, light and darkness, qualities that also align the seasons, compass directions, and the human cycle of birth, growth, and death.", "They provided, Leslie continued, a \"comprehensive way of conceiving patterns that ran through all of nature,\" and they \"served as a classificatory and mnemonic device to observe health problems and to reflect upon, store, and recover empirical knowledge,\" but they were also \"subject to stultifying theoretical elaboration, self-deception, and dogmatism.", "\"The doctrines of Chinese medicine are rooted in books such as the ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon'' and the ''Treatise on Cold Damage'', as well as in cosmological notions such as yin–yang and the five phases.", "The \"Documentation of Chinese materia medica\" (CMM) dates back to around 1,100 BCE when only a few dozen drugs were described.", "By the end of the 16th century, the number of drugs documented had reached close to 1,900.And by the end of the last century, published records of CMM had reached 12,800 drugs.\"", "Starting in the 1950s, these precepts were standardized in the People's Republic of China, including attempts to integrate them with modern notions of anatomy and pathology.", "In the 1950s, the Chinese government promoted a systematized form of TCM.=== Shang dynasty ===Traces of therapeutic activities in China date from the Shang dynasty (14th–11th centuries BCE).", "Though the Shang did not have a concept of \"medicine\" as distinct from other health practices, their oracular inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells refer to illnesses that affected the Shang royal family: eye disorders, toothaches, bloated abdomen, and such.", "Shang elites usually attributed them to curses sent by their ancestors.", "There is currently no evidence that the Shang nobility used herbal remedies.Stone and bone needles found in ancient tombs led Joseph Needham to speculate that acupuncture might have been carried out in the Shang dynasty.", "This being said, most historians now make a distinction between medical lancing (or bloodletting) and acupuncture in the narrower sense of using metal needles to attempt to treat illnesses by stimulating points along circulation channels (\"meridians\") in accordance with beliefs related to the circulation of \"Qi\".", "The earliest evidence for acupuncture in this sense dates to the second or first century BCE.=== Han dynasty ===The ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon (Huangdi Neijing)'', the oldest received work of Chinese medical theory, was compiled during the Han dynasty around the first century BCE on the basis of shorter texts from different medical lineages.", "Written in the form of dialogues between the legendary Yellow Emperor and his ministers, it offers explanations on the relation between humans, their environment, and the cosmos, on the contents of the body, on human vitality and pathology, on the symptoms of illness, and on how to make diagnostic and therapeutic decisions in light of all these factors.", "Unlike earlier texts like ''Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments'', which was excavated in the 1970s from the Mawangdui tomb that had been sealed in 168 BCE, the ''Inner Canon'' rejected the influence of spirits and the use of magic.", "It was also one of the first books in which the cosmological doctrines of Yinyang and the Five Phases were brought to a mature synthesis.The ''Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses (Shang Han Lun)'' was collated by Zhang Zhongjing sometime between 196 and 220 CE; at the end of the Han dynasty.", "Focusing on drug prescriptions rather than acupuncture, it was the first medical work to combine Yinyang and the Five Phases with drug therapy.", "This formulary was also the earliest public Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful \"patterns\" (''zheng'' ) that could serve as targets for therapy.", "Having gone through numerous changes over time, the formulary now circulates as two distinct books: the ''Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders'' and the ''Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket'', which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under the Song dynasty.Nanjing or \"Classic of Difficult Issues,\" originally called \"The Yellow Emperor Eighty-one Nan Jing\", ascribed to Bian Que in the eastern Han dynasty.", "This book was compiled in the form of question-and-answer explanations.", "A total of 81 questions have been discussed.", "Therefore, it is also called \"Eighty-One Nan\".", "The book is based on basic theory and has also analyzed some disease certificates.", "Questions one to twenty-two is about pulse study, questions twenty-three to twenty-nine is about meridian study, questions thirty to forty-seven is related to urgent illnesses, questions forty-eight to sixty-one is related to serious diseases, questions sixty-two to sixty-eight is related to acupuncture points, and questions sixty-nine to eighty-one is related to the needlepoint methods.The book is credited as developing its own path, while also inheriting the theories from Huangdi Neijing.", "The content includes physiology, pathology, diagnosis, treatment contents, and a more essential and specific discussion of pulse diagnosis.", "It has become one of the four classics for Chinese medicine practitioners to learn from and has impacted the medical development in China.", "''Shennong Ben Cao Jing'' is one of the earliest written medical books in China.", "Written during the Eastern Han Dynasty between 200 and 250 CE, it was the combined effort of practitioners in the Qin and Han Dynasties who summarized, collected and compiled the results of pharmacological experience during their time periods.", "It was the first systematic summary of Chinese herbal medicine.", "Most of the pharmacological theories and compatibility rules and the proposed \"seven emotions and harmony\" principle have played a role in the practice of medicine for thousands of years.", "Therefore, it has been a textbook for medical workers in modern China.", "The full text of ''Shennong Ben Cao Jing'' in English can be found online.=== Post-Han dynasty ===In the centuries that followed, several shorter books tried to summarize or systematize the contents of the ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon''.", "The ''Canon of Problems'' (probably second century CE) tried to reconcile divergent doctrines from the ''Inner Canon'' and developed a complete medical system centered on needling therapy.", "The ''AB Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibustion'' (''Zhenjiu jiayi jing'' , compiled by Huangfu Mi sometime between 256 and 282 CE) assembled a consistent body of doctrines concerning acupuncture; whereas the ''Canon of the Pulse'' (''Maijing'' ; c. 280) presented itself as a \"comprehensive handbook of diagnostics and therapy.", "\"Around 900–1000 AD, Chinese were the first to develop a form of vaccination, known as variolation or inoculation, to prevent smallpox.", "Chinese physicians had realised that when healthy people were exposed to smallpox scab tissue, they had a smaller chance of being infected by the disease later on.", "The common methods of inoculation at the time was through crushing smallpox scabs into powder and breathing it through the nose.Prominent medical scholars of the post-Han period included Tao Hongjing (456–536), Sun Simiao of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Zhang Jiegu (–1234), and Li Shizhen (1518–1593).", "===People's Republic===In 1950, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman Mao Zedong announced support of traditional Chinese medicine, but he did not personally believe in and did not use it.", "In 1952, the president of the Chinese Medical Association said that, \"This One Medicine, will possess a basis in modern natural sciences, will have absorbed the ancient and the new, the Chinese and the foreign, all medical achievements—and will be China's New Medicine!", "\"During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) the CCP and the government emphasized modernity, cultural identity and China's social and economic reconstruction and contrasted them to the colonial and feudal past.", "The government established a grassroots health care system as a step in the search for a new national identity and tried to revitalize traditional medicine and made large investments in traditional medicine to try to develop affordable medical care and public health facilities.", "The Ministry of Health directed health care throughout China and established primary care units.", "Chinese physicians trained in Western medicine were required to learn traditional medicine, while traditional healers received training in modern methods.", "This strategy aimed to integrate modern medical concepts and methods and revitalize appropriate aspects of traditional medicine.", "Therefore, traditional Chinese medicine was re-created in response to Western medicine.Apothecary mixing Traditional Chinese Medicine at Jiangsu Chinese Medical Hospital, Nanjing, ChinaIn 1968, the CCP supported a new system of health care delivery for rural areas.", "Villages were assigned a barefoot doctor (a medical staff with basic medical skills and knowledge to deal with minor illnesses) responsible for basic medical care.", "The medical staff combined the values of traditional China with modern methods to provide health and medical care to poor farmers in remote rural areas.", "The barefoot doctors became a symbol of the Cultural Revolution, for the introduction of modern medicine into villages where traditional Chinese medicine services were used.The State Intellectual Property Office (now known as CNIPA) established a database of patents granted for traditional Chinese medicine.In the second decade of the twenty-first century, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping strongly supported TCM, calling it a \"gem\".", "As of May 2011, in order to promote TCM worldwide, China had signed TCM partnership agreements with over 70 countries.", "His government pushed to increase its use and the number of TCM-trained doctors and announced that students of TCM would no longer be required to pass examinations in Western medicine.", "Chinese scientists and researchers, however, expressed concern that TCM training and therapies would receive equal support with Western medicine.", "They also criticized a reduction in government testing and regulation of the production of TCMs, some of which were toxic.", "Government censors have removed Internet posts that question TCM.", "In 2020 Beijing drafted a local regulation outlawing criticism of TCM.", "According to ''Caixin'', the regulation was later passed with the provision outlawing criticism of TCM removed.=== Hong Kong ===At the beginning of Hong Kong's opening up, Western medicine was not yet popular, and Western medicine doctors were mostly foreigners; local residents mostly relied on Chinese medicine practitioners.", "In 1841, the British government of Hong Kong issued an announcement pledging to govern Hong Kong residents in accordance with all the original rituals, customs and private legal property rights.", "As traditional Chinese medicine had always been used in China, the use of traditional Chinese medicine was not regulated.The establishment in 1870 of the Tung Wah Hospital was the first use of Chinese medicine for the treatment in Chinese hospitals providing free medical services.", "As the promotion of Western medicine by the British government started from 1940, Western medicine started being popular among Hong Kong population.", "In 1959, Hong Kong had researched the use of traditional Chinese medicine to replace Western medicine.=== Historiography of Chinese medicine ===Historians have noted two key aspects of Chinese medical history: understanding conceptual differences when translating the term , and observing the history from the perspective of cosmology rather than biology.In Chinese classical texts, the term is the closest historical translation to the English word \"body\" because it sometimes refers to the physical human body in terms of being weighed or measured, but the term is to be understood as an \"ensemble of functions\" encompassing both the human psyche and emotions.", "This concept of the human body is opposed to the European duality of a separate mind and body.", "It is critical for scholars to understand the fundamental differences in concepts of the body in order to connect the medical theory of the classics to the \"human organism\" it is explaining.Chinese scholars established a correlation between the cosmos and the \"human organism.\"", "The basic components of cosmology, qi, yin yang and the Five Phase theory, were used to explain health and disease in texts such as ''Huangdi neijing''.", "Yin and yang are the changing factors in cosmology, with ''qi'' as the vital force or energy of life.", "The Five Phase theory (''Wuxing'') of the Han dynasty contains the elements wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.", "By understanding medicine from a cosmology perspective, historians better understand Chinese medical and social classifications such as gender, which was defined by a domination or remission of yang in terms of yin.These two distinctions are imperative when analyzing the history of traditional Chinese medical science.A majority of Chinese medical history written after the classical canons comes in the form of primary source case studies where academic physicians record the illness of a particular person and the healing techniques used, as well as their effectiveness.", "Historians have noted that Chinese scholars wrote these studies instead of \"books of prescriptions or advice manuals;\" in their historical and environmental understanding, no two illnesses were alike so the healing strategies of the practitioner was unique every time to the specific diagnosis of the patient.", "Medical case studies existed throughout Chinese history, but \"individually authored and published case history\" was a prominent creation of the Ming dynasty.", "An example such case studies would be the literati physician, Cheng Congzhou, collection of 93 cases published in 1644." ], [ "Critique", "Historians of science have developed the study of medicine in traditional China into a field with its own scholarly associations, journals, graduate programs, and debates with each other.", "Many distinguish \"medicine in traditional China\" from the recent Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which took elements from traditional texts and practices to construct a systematic body.", "Paul Unschuld, for instance, sees a \"departure of TCM from its historical origins.\"", "What is called \"Traditional Chinese Medicine\" and practiced today in China and the West is not thousands of years old, but recently constructed using selected traditional terms, some of which have been taken out of context, some badly misunderstood.", "He has criticized Chinese and Western popular books for selective use of evidence, choosing only those works or parts of historical works that seem to lead to modern medicine, ignoring those elements that do not now seem to be effective.A 2007 editorial the journal ''Nature'' wrote that TCM \"remains poorly researched and supported, and most of its treatments have no logical mechanism of action.\"", "Critics say that TCM theory and practice have no basis in modern science, and TCM practitioners do not agree on what diagnosis and treatments should be used for any given person.", "A ''Nature'' editorial described TCM as \"fraught with pseudoscience\".", "A review of the literature in 2008 found that scientists are \"still unable to find a shred of evidence\" according to standards of science-based medicine for traditional Chinese concepts such as ''qi'', meridians, and acupuncture points, and that the traditional principles of acupuncture are deeply flawed.", "\"Acupuncture points and meridians are not a reality\", the review continued, but \"merely the product of an ancient Chinese philosophy\".", "In June 2019, the World Health Organization included traditional Chinese medicine in a global diagnostic compendium, but a spokesman said this was \"not an endorsement of the scientific validity of any Traditional Medicine practice or the efficacy of any Traditional Medicine intervention.", "\"A 2012 review of cost-effectiveness research for TCM found that studies had low levels of evidence, with no beneficial outcomes.", "Pharmaceutical research on the potential for creating new drugs from traditional remedies has few successful results.", "Proponents suggest that research has so far missed key features of the art of TCM, such as unknown interactions between various ingredients and complex interactive biological systems.", "One of the basic tenets of TCM is that the body's ''qi'' (sometimes translated as vital energy) is circulating through channels called meridians having branches connected to bodily organs and functions.", "The concept of vital energy is pseudoscientific.", "Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM reflect its ancient origins and its emphasis on dynamic processes over material structure, similar to Classical humoral theory.TCM has also been controversial within China.", "In 2006, the Chinese philosopher Zhang Gongyao triggered a national debate with an article entitled \"Farewell to Traditional Chinese Medicine\", arguing that TCM was a pseudoscience that should be abolished in public healthcare and academia.", "The Chinese government however, took the stance that TCM is a science and continued to encourage its development.There are concerns over a number of potentially toxic plants, animal parts, and mineral Chinese compounds, as well as the facilitation of disease.", "Trafficked and farm-raised animals used in TCM are a source of several fatal zoonotic diseases.", "There are additional concerns over the illegal trade and transport of endangered species including rhinoceroses and tigers, and the welfare of specially farmed animals, including bears." ], [ "Philosophical background", "Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a broad range of medicine practices sharing common concepts which have been developed in China and are based on a tradition of more than 2,000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage (), exercise (), and dietary therapy.", "It is primarily used as a complementary alternative medicine approach.", "TCM is widely used in China and it is also used in the West.", "Its philosophy is based on Yinyangism (i.e., the combination of Five Phases theory with Yin–Yang theory), which was later absorbed by Daoism.", "Philosophical texts influenced TCM, mostly by being grounded in the same theories of ''qi'', ''yin-yang'' and ''wuxing'' and microcosm-macrocosm analogies.Yin and yang symbol for balance.", "In traditional Chinese Medicine, good health is believed to be achieved by various balances, including a balance between yin and yang.===Yin and yang===Yin and yang are ancient Chinese deductive reasoning concepts used within Chinese medical diagnosis which can be traced back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1100 BCE).", "They represent two abstract and complementary aspects that every phenomenon in the universe can be divided into.", "Primordial analogies for these aspects are the sun-facing (yang) and the shady (yin) side of a hill.", "Two other commonly used representational allegories of yin and yang are water and fire.", "In the yin–yang theory, detailed attributions are made regarding the yin or yang character of things: Phenomenon Yin Yang Celestial bodies moon sun Gender female male Location inside outside Temperature cold hot Direction downward upward Degree of humidity damp/moist dryThe concept of yin and yang is also applicable to the human body; for example, the upper part of the body and the back are assigned to yang, while the lower part of the body is believed to have the yin character.", "Yin and yang characterization also extends to the various body functions, and – more importantly – to disease symptoms (e.g., cold and heat sensations are assumed to be yin and yang symptoms, respectively).", "Thus, yin and yang of the body are seen as phenomena whose lack (or over-abundance) comes with characteristic symptom combinations:* Yin vacuity (also termed \"vacuity-heat\"): heat sensations, possible sweating at night, insomnia, dry pharynx, dry mouth, dark urine, and a \"fine\" and rapid pulse.", "* Yang vacuity (\"vacuity-cold\"): aversion to cold, cold limbs, bright white complexion, long voidings of clear urine, diarrhea, pale and enlarged tongue, and a slightly weak, slow and fine pulse.TCM also identifies drugs believed to treat these specific symptom combinations, i.e., to reinforce yin and yang.Interactions of Wu Xing Phenomenon Wood Fire Earth Metal Water Direction East South Centre West North Colour green/violet red/purple yellow/pink white black Climate wind heat damp dryness cold Taste sour bitter sweet acrid salty Zang Organ Liver Heart Spleen Lung Kidney Fu Organ Gallbladder Small intestine Stomach Large intestine Bladder Sense organ eye tongue mouth nose ears Facial part above bridge of nose between eyes, lower part bridge of nose between eyes, middle part cheeks (below cheekbone) Eye part iris inner/outer corner of the eye upper and lower lid sclera pupilStrict rules are identified to apply to the relationships between the Five Phases in terms of sequence, of acting on each other, of counteraction, etc.", "All these aspects of Five Phases theory constitute the basis of the zàng-fǔ concept, and thus have great influence regarding the TCM model of the body.", "Five Phase theory is also applied in diagnosis and therapy.Correspondences between the body and the universe have historically not only been seen in terms of the Five Elements, but also of the \"Great Numbers\" () For example, the number of acu-points has at times been seen to be 365, corresponding with the number of days in a year; and the number of main meridians–12–has been seen as corresponding with the number of rivers flowing through the ancient Chinese empire." ], [ "Model of the body", "Old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridiansTCM \"holds that the body's vital energy (''chi'' or ''qi'') circulates through channels, called ''meridians'', that have branches connected to bodily organs and functions.\"", "Its view of the human body is only marginally concerned with anatomical structures, but focuses primarily on the body's ''functions'' (such as digestion, breathing, temperature maintenance, etc.", "):These functions are aggregated and then associated with a primary functional entity – for instance, nourishment of the tissues and maintenance of their moisture are seen as connected functions, and the entity postulated to be responsible for these functions is xiě (blood).", "These functional entities thus constitute ''concepts'' rather than something with biochemical or anatomical properties.The primary functional entities used by traditional Chinese medicine are qì, xuě, the five zàng organs, the six fǔ organs, and the meridians which extend through the organ systems.", "These are all theoretically interconnected: each zàng organ is paired with a fǔ organ, which are nourished by the blood and concentrate qi for a particular function, with meridians being extensions of those functional systems throughout the body.Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM are pseudoscientific, similar to Mediterranean humoral theory.", "TCM's model of the body is characterized as full of pseudoscience.", "Some practitioners no longer consider yin and yang and the idea of an energy flow to apply.", "Scientific investigation has not found any histological or physiological evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as ''qi'', meridians, and acupuncture points.", "It is a generally held belief within the acupuncture community that acupuncture points and meridians structures are special conduits for electrical signals but no research has established any consistent anatomical structure or function for either acupuncture points or meridians.", "The scientific evidence for the anatomical existence of either meridians or acupuncture points is not compelling.", "Stephen Barrett of Quackwatch writes that, \"TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community.", "TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses.", "Even if they could agree, the TCM theories are so nebulous that no amount of scientific study will enable TCM to offer rational care.", "\"===''Qi''===''Qi'' is a polysemous word that Traditional Chinese medicine distinguishes as being able to transform into many different qualities of ''qi'' ().", "In a general sense, ''qi'' is something that is defined by five \"cardinal functions\":# Actuation () – of all physical processes in the body, especially the circulation of all body fluids such as blood in their vessels.", "This includes actuation of the functions of the zang-fu organs and meridians.# Warming () – the body, especially the limbs.# Defense () – against Exogenous Pathogenic Factors# Containment () – of body fluids, i.e., keeping blood, sweat, urine, semen, etc.", "from leakage or excessive emission.# Inter-transformationel () – of food, drink, and breath into ''qi'', xue (blood), and jinye (\"fluids\"), and/or transformation of all of the latter into each other.A lack of ''qi'' will be characterized especially by pale complexion, lassitude of spirit, lack of strength, spontaneous sweating, laziness to speak, non-digestion of food, shortness of breath (especially on exertion), and a pale and enlarged tongue.", "''Qi'' is believed to be partially generated from food and drink, and partially from air (by breathing).", "Another considerable part of it is inherited from the parents and will be consumed in the course of life.TCM uses special terms for ''qi'' running inside of the blood vessels and for qi that is distributed in the skin, muscles, and tissues between them.", "The former is called ''yingqi'' (); its function is to complement xuè and its nature has a strong yin aspect (although ''qi'' in general is considered to be yang).", "The latter is called ''weiqi'' (); its main function is defence and it has pronounced yang nature.", "''Qi'' is said to circulate in the meridians.", "Just as the ''qi'' held by each of the zang-fu organs, this is considered to be part of the 'principal' ''qi'' of the body.===Xie===In contrast to the majority of other functional entities, or (, \"blood\") is correlated with a physical form – the red liquid running in the blood vessels.", "Its concept is, nevertheless, defined by its functions: nourishing all parts and tissues of the body, safeguarding an adequate degree of moisture, and sustaining and soothing both consciousness and sleep.Typical symptoms of a lack of (usually termed \"blood vacuity\" ) are described as: Pale-white or withered-yellow complexion, dizziness, flowery vision, palpitations, insomnia, numbness of the extremities; pale tongue; \"fine\" pulse.===''Jinye''===Closely related to xuě are the ''jinye'' (, usually translated as \"body fluids\"), and just like xuě they are considered to be yin in nature, and defined first and foremost by the functions of nurturing and moisturizing the different structures of the body.", "Their other functions are to harmonize yin and yang, and to help with the secretion of waste products.", "''Jinye'' are ultimately extracted from food and drink, and constitute the raw material for the production of xuě; conversely, xuě can also be transformed into ''jinye''.", "Their palpable manifestations are all bodily fluids: tears, sputum, saliva, gastric acid, joint fluid, sweat, urine, etc.===''Zangfu''===The ''zangfu'' () are the collective name of eleven entities (similar to organs) that constitute the centre piece of TCM's systematization of bodily functions.", "The term ''zang'' refers to the five considered to be yin in nature—Heart, Liver, Spleen, Lung, Kidney—while ''fu'' refers to the six associated with yang—Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Gallbladder, Urinary Bladder, Stomach and San Jiao.", "Despite having the names of organs, they are only loosely tied to (rudimentary) anatomical assumptions.", "Instead, they are primarily understood to be certain \"functions\" of the body.", "To highlight the fact that they are not equivalent to anatomical organs, their names are usually capitalized.The ''zang'''s essential functions consist in production and storage of ''qi'' and xuě; they are said to regulate digestion, breathing, water metabolism, the musculoskeletal system, the skin, the sense organs, aging, emotional processes, and mental activity, among other structures and processes.", "The fǔ organs' main purpose is merely to transmit and digest () substances such as waste and food.Since their concept was developed on the basis of Wǔ Xíng philosophy, each zàng is paired with a fǔ, and each zàng-fǔ pair is assigned to one of five elemental qualities (i.e., the Five Elements or Five Phases).", "These correspondences are stipulated as:* Fire () = Heart () and Small Intestine () (and, secondarily, Sānjiaō , \"Triple Burner\" and Pericardium )* Earth () = Spleen () and Stomach ()* Metal () = Lung () and Large Intestine ()* Water () = Kidney () and Bladder ()* Wood () = Liver () and Gallbladder ()The zàng-fǔ are also connected to the twelve standard meridians – each yang meridian is attached to a fǔ organ, and five of the yin meridians are attached to a zàng.", "As there are only five zàng but six yin meridians, the sixth is assigned to the Pericardium, a peculiar entity almost similar to the Heart zàng.===Jing-luo===Acupuncture chart from the 200pxThe meridians (, ) are believed to be channels running from the zàng-fǔ in the interior (, ) of the body to the limbs and joints (\"the surface\" , ), transporting qi and xuĕ.", "TCM identifies 12 \"regular\" and 8 \"extraordinary\" meridians; the Chinese terms being (, lit.", "\"the Twelve Vessels\") and () respectively.", "There's also a number of less customary channels branching from the \"regular\" meridians." ], [ "Gender in traditional medicine", "''Fuke'' () is the traditional Chinese term for women's medicine (it means gynecology and obstetrics in modern medicine).", "However, there are few or no ancient works on it except for Fu Qingzhu's ''Fu Qingzhu Nu Ke'' (Fu Qingzhu's ''Gynecology'').", "In traditional China, as in many other cultures, the health and medicine of female bodies was less understood than that of male bodies.", "Women's bodies were often secondary to male bodies, since women were thought of as the weaker, sicklier sex.In clinical encounters, women and men were treated differently.", "Diagnosing women was not as simple as diagnosing men.", "First, when a woman fell ill, an appropriate adult man was to call the doctor and remain present during the examination, for the woman could not be left alone with the doctor.", "The physician would discuss the female's problems and diagnosis only through the male.", "However, in certain cases, when a woman dealt with complications of pregnancy or birth, older women assumed the role of the formal authority.", "Men in these situations would not have much power to interfere.", "Second, women were often silent about their issues with doctors due to the societal expectation of female modesty when a male figure was in the room.", "Third, patriarchal society also caused doctors to call women and children patients \"the anonymous category of family members (''Jia Ren'') or household (''Ju Jia'')\" in their journals.", "This anonymity and lack of conversation between the doctor and woman patient led to the inquiry diagnosis of the Four Diagnostic Methods being the most challenging.", "Doctors used a medical doll known as a Doctor's lady, on which female patients could indicate the location of their symptoms.Cheng Maoxian (b.", "1581), who practiced medicine in Yangzhou, described the difficulties doctors had with the norm of female modesty.", "One of his case studies was that of Fan Jisuo's teenage daughter, who could not be diagnosed because she was unwilling to speak about her symptoms, since the illness involved discharge from her intimate areas.", "As Cheng describes, there were four standard methods of diagnosis – looking, asking, listening and smelling and touching (for pulse-taking).", "To maintain some form of modesty, women would often stay hidden behind curtains and screens.", "The doctor was allowed to touch enough of her body to complete his examination, often just the pulse taking.", "This would lead to situations where the symptoms and the doctor's diagnosis did not agree and the doctor would have to ask to view more of the patient.These social and cultural beliefs were often barriers to learning more about female health, with women themselves often being the most formidable barrier.", "Women were often uncomfortable talking about their illnesses, especially in front of the male chaperones that attended medical examinations.", "Women would choose to omit certain symptoms as a means of upholding their chastity and honor.", "One such example is the case in which a teenage girl was unable to be diagnosed because she failed to mention her symptom of vaginal discharge.", "Silence was their way of maintaining control in these situations, but it often came at the expense of their health and the advancement of female health and medicine.", "This silence and control were most obviously seen when the health problem was related to the core of Ming ''fuke'', or the sexual body.", "It was often in these diagnostic settings that women would choose silence.", "In addition, there would be a conflict between patient and doctor on the probability of her diagnosis.", "For example, a woman who thought herself to be past the point of child-bearing age, might not believe a doctor who diagnoses her as pregnant.", "This only resulted in more conflict.=== Yin yang and gender ===Yin and yang were critical to the understanding of women's bodies, but understood only in conjunction with male bodies.", "Yin and yang ruled the body, the body being a microcosm of the universe and the earth.", "In addition, gender in the body was understood as homologous, the two genders operating in synchronization.", "Gender was presumed to influence the movement of energy and a well-trained physician would be expected to read the pulse and be able to identify two dozen or more energy flows.", "Yin and yang concepts were applied to the feminine and masculine aspects of all bodies, implying that the differences between men and women begin at the level of this energy flow.", "According to ''Bequeathed Writings of Master Chu'' the male's yang pulse movement follows an ascending path in \"compliance with cosmic direction so that the cycle of circulation in the body and the Vital Gate are felt...The female's yin pulse movement follows a defending path against the direction of cosmic influences, so that the nadir and the Gate of Life are felt at the inch position of the left hand\".", "In sum, classical medicine marked yin and yang as high and low on bodies which in turn would be labeled normal or abnormal and gendered either male or female.Bodily functions could be categorized through systems, not organs.", "In many drawings and diagrams, the twelve channels and their visceral systems were organized by yin and yang, an organization that was identical in female and male bodies.", "Female and male bodies were no different on the plane of yin and yang.", "Their gendered differences were not acknowledged in diagrams of the human body.", "Medical texts such as the ''Yuzuan yizong jinjian'' were filled with illustrations of male bodies or androgynous bodies that did not display gendered characteristics.As in other cultures, fertility and menstruation dominate female health concerns.", "Since male and female bodies were governed by the same forces, traditional Chinese medicine did not recognize the womb as the place of reproduction.", "The abdominal cavity presented pathologies that were similar in both men and women, which included tumors, growths, hernias, and swellings of the genitals.", "The \"master system,\" as Charlotte Furth calls it, is the kidney visceral system, which governed reproductive functions.", "Therefore, it was not the anatomical structures that allowed for pregnancy, but the difference in processes that allowed for the condition of pregnancy to occur.=== Pregnancy ===Traditional Chinese medicine's dealings with pregnancy are documented from at least the seventeenth century.", "According to Charlotte Furth, \"a pregnancy (in the seventeenth century) as a known bodily experience emerged ... out of the liminality of menstrual irregularity, as uneasy digestion, and a sense of fullness\".", "These symptoms were common among other illness as well, so the diagnosis of pregnancy often came late in the term.", "The ''Canon of the Pulse'', which described the use of pulse in diagnosis, stated that pregnancy was \"a condition marked by symptoms of the disorder in one whose pulse is normal\" or \"where the pulse and symptoms do not agree\".", "Women were often silent about suspected pregnancy, which led to many men not knowing that their wife or daughter was pregnant until complications arrived.", "Complications through the misdiagnosis and the woman's reluctance to speak often led to medically induced abortions.", "Cheng, Furth wrote, \"was unapologetic about endangering a fetus when pregnancy risked a mother's well being\".", "The method of abortion was the ingestion of certain herbs and foods.", "Disappointment at the loss of the fetus often led to family discord.=== Postpartum ===If the baby and mother survived the term of the pregnancy, childbirth was then the next step.", "The tools provided for birth were: towels to catch the blood, a container for the placenta, a pregnancy sash to support the belly, and an infant swaddling wrap.", "With these tools, the baby was born, cleaned, and swaddled; however, the mother was then immediately the focus of the doctor to replenish her ''qi''.", "In his writings, Cheng places a large amount of emphasis on the Four Diagnostic methods to deal with postpartum issues and instructs all physicians to \"not neglect any of the four methods\".", "The process of birthing was thought to deplete a woman's blood level and ''qi'' so the most common treatments for postpartum were food (commonly garlic and ginseng), medicine, and rest.", "This process was followed up by a month check-in with the physician, a practice known as ''zuo yuezi''.=== Infertility ===Infertility, not very well understood, posed serious social and cultural repercussions.", "The seventh-century scholar Sun Simiao is often quoted: \"those who have prescriptions for women's distinctiveness take their differences of pregnancy, childbirth and internal bursting injuries as their basis.\"", "Even in contemporary ''fuke'' placing emphasis on reproductive functions, rather than the entire health of the woman, suggests that the main function of ''fuke'' is to produce children.Once again, the kidney visceral system governs the \"source ''Qi''\", which governs the reproductive systems in both sexes.", "This source ''Qi'' was thought to \"be slowly depleted through sexual activity, menstruation and childbirth.\"", "It was also understood that the depletion of source Qi could result from the movement of an external pathology that moved through the outer visceral systems before causing more permanent damage to the home of source Qi, the kidney system.", "In addition, the view that only very serious ailments ended in the damage of this system means that those who had trouble with their reproductive systems or fertility were seriously ill.According to traditional Chinese medical texts, infertility can be summarized into different syndrome types.", "These were spleen and kidney depletion (yang depletion), liver and kidney depletion (yin depletion), blood depletion, phlegm damp, liver oppression, and damp heat.", "This is important because, while most other issues were complex in Chinese medical physiology, women's fertility issues were simple.", "Most syndrome types revolved around menstruation, or lack thereof.", "The patient was entrusted with recording not only the frequency, but also the \"volume, color, consistency, and odor of menstrual flow.\"", "This placed responsibility of symptom recording on the patient, and was compounded by the earlier discussed issue of female chastity and honor.", "This meant that diagnosing female infertility was difficult, because the only symptoms that were recorded and monitored by the physician were the pulse and color of the tongue." ], [ "Concept of disease", "In general, disease is perceived as a disharmony (or imbalance) in the functions or interactions of yin, yang, qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians etc.", "and/or of the interaction between the human body and the environment.", "Therapy is based on which \"pattern of disharmony\" can be identified.", "Thus, \"pattern discrimination\" is the most important step in TCM diagnosis.", "It is also known to be the most difficult aspect of practicing TCM.To determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners will examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing or the sound of the voice.", "For example, depending on tongue and pulse conditions, a TCM practitioner might diagnose bleeding from the mouth and nose as: \"Liver fire rushes upwards and scorches the Lung, injuring the blood vessels and giving rise to reckless pouring of blood from the mouth and nose.\"", "He might then go on to prescribe treatments designed to clear heat or supplement the Lung.===Disease entities===In TCM, a disease has two aspects: \"bìng\" and \"zhèng\".", "The former is often translated as \"disease entity\", \"disease category\", \"illness\", or simply \"diagnosis\".", "The latter, and more important one, is usually translated as \"pattern\" (or sometimes also as \"syndrome\").", "For example, the disease entity of a common cold might present with a pattern of wind-cold in one person, and with the pattern of wind-heat in another.From a scientific point of view, most of the disease entities () listed by TCM constitute symptoms.", "Examples include headache, cough, abdominal pain, constipation etc.Since therapy will not be chosen according to the disease entity but according to the pattern, two people with the same disease entity but different patterns will receive different therapy.", "Vice versa, people with similar patterns might receive similar therapy even if their disease entities are different.", "This is called ''yì bìng tóng zhì, tóng bìng yì zhì'' ().===Patterns===In TCM, \"pattern\" () refers to a \"pattern of disharmony\" or \"functional disturbance\" within the functional entities of which the TCM model of the body is composed.", "There are disharmony patterns of qi, xuě, the body fluids, the zàng-fǔ, and the meridians.", "They are ultimately defined by their symptoms and signs (i.e., for example, pulse and tongue findings).In clinical practice, the identified pattern usually involves a combination of affected entities (compare with typical examples of patterns).", "The concrete pattern identified should account for ''all'' the symptoms a person has.====Six Excesses====The Six Excesses (, sometimes also translated as \"Pathogenic Factors\", or \"Six Pernicious Influences\"; with the alternative term of , – \"Six Evils\" or \"Six Devils\") are allegorical terms used to describe disharmony patterns displaying certain typical symptoms.", "These symptoms resemble the effects of six climatic factors.", "In the allegory, these symptoms can occur because one or more of those climatic factors (called , \"the six qi\") were able to invade the body surface and to proceed to the interior.", "This is sometimes used to draw causal relationships (i.e., prior exposure to wind/cold/etc.", "is identified as the cause of a disease), while other authors explicitly deny a direct cause-effect relationship between weather conditions and disease, pointing out that the Six Excesses are primarily descriptions of a certain combination of symptoms translated into a pattern of disharmony.", "It is undisputed, though, that the Six Excesses can manifest inside the body without an external cause.", "In this case, they might be denoted \"internal\", e.g., \"internal wind\" or \"internal fire (or heat)\".The Six Excesses and their characteristic clinical signs are:# Wind (): rapid onset of symptoms, wandering location of symptoms, itching, nasal congestion, \"floating\" pulse; tremor, paralysis, convulsion.# Cold (): cold sensations, aversion to cold, relief of symptoms by warmth, watery/clear excreta, severe pain, abdominal pain, contracture/hypertonicity of muscles, (slimy) white tongue fur, \"deep\"/\"hidden\" or \"string-like\" pulse, or slow pulse.# Fire/Heat (): aversion to heat, high fever, thirst, concentrated urine, red face, red tongue, yellow tongue fur, rapid pulse.", "(Fire and heat are basically seen to be the same)# Dampness (): sensation of heaviness, sensation of fullness, symptoms of Spleen dysfunction, greasy tongue fur, \"slippery\" pulse.# Dryness (): dry cough, dry mouth, dry throat, dry lips, nosebleeds, dry skin, dry stools.# Summerheat (): either heat or mixed damp-heat symptoms.Six-Excesses-patterns can consist of only one or a combination of Excesses (e.g., wind-cold, wind-damp-heat).", "They can also transform from one into another.====Typical examples of patterns====For each of the functional entities (qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians etc.", "), typical disharmony patterns are recognized; for example: qi vacuity and qi stagnation in the case of qi; blood vacuity, blood stasis, and blood heat in the case of xuĕ; Spleen qi vacuity, Spleen yang vacuity, Spleen qi vacuity with down-bearing qi, Spleen qi vacuity with lack of blood containment, cold-damp invasion of the Spleen, damp-heat invasion of Spleen and Stomach in case of the Spleen zàng; wind/cold/damp invasion in the case of the meridians.TCM gives detailed prescriptions of these patterns regarding their typical symptoms, mostly including characteristic tongue and/or pulse findings.", "For example:* \"Upflaming Liver fire\" (): Headache, red face, reddened eyes, dry mouth, nosebleeds, constipation, dry or hard stools, profuse menstruation, sudden tinnitus or deafness, vomiting of sour or bitter fluids, expectoration of blood, irascibility, impatience; red tongue with dry yellow fur; slippery and string-like pulse.====Eight principles of diagnosis====The process of determining which actual pattern is on hand is called (, usually translated as \"pattern diagnosis\", \"pattern identification\" or \"pattern discrimination\").", "Generally, the first and most important step in pattern diagnosis is an evaluation of the present signs and symptoms on the basis of the \"Eight Principles\" ().", "These eight principles refer to four pairs of fundamental qualities of a disease: exterior/interior, heat/cold, vacuity/repletion, and yin/yang.", "Out of these, heat/cold and vacuity/repletion have the biggest clinical importance.", "The yin/yang quality, on the other side, has the smallest importance and is somewhat seen aside from the other three pairs, since it merely presents a general and vague conclusion regarding what other qualities are found.", "In detail, the Eight Principles refer to the following:* ''Yin and yang'' are universal aspects all things can be classified under, this includes diseases in general as well as the Eight Principles' first three couples.", "For example, cold is identified to be a yin aspect, while heat is attributed to yang.", "Since descriptions of patterns in terms of yin and yang lack complexity and clinical practicality, though, patterns are usually not labeled this way anymore.", "Exceptions are vacuity-cold and repletion-heat patterns, who are sometimes referred to as \"yin patterns\" and \"yang patterns\" respectively.", "* ''Exterior'' () refers to a disease manifesting in the superficial layers of the body – skin, hair, flesh, and meridians.", "It is characterized by aversion to cold and/or wind, headache, muscle ache, mild fever, a \"floating\" pulse, and a normal tongue appearance.", "* ''Interior'' () refers to disease manifestation in the zàng-fǔ, or (in a wider sense) to any disease that can not be counted as exterior.", "There are no generalized characteristic symptoms of interior patterns, since they'll be determined by the affected zàng or fǔ entity.", "* ''Cold'' () is generally characterized by aversion to cold, absence of thirst, and a white tongue fur.", "More detailed characterization depends on whether cold is coupled with vacuity or repletion.", "* ''Heat'' () is characterized by an absence of aversion to cold, a red and painful throat, a dry tongue fur and a rapid and floating pulse if it falls together with an exterior pattern.", "In all other cases, symptoms depend on whether heat is coupled with vacuity or repletion.", "* ''Deficiency'' (), can be further differentiated into deficiency of qi, xuě, yin and yang, with all their respective characteristic symptoms.", "Yin deficiency can also cause \"empty-heat\".", "* ''Excess'' () generally refers to any disease that can't be identified as a deficient pattern, and usually indicates the presence of one of the Six Excesses, or a pattern of stagnation (of qi, xuě, etc.).", "In a concurrent exterior pattern, excess is characterized by the absence of sweating.After the fundamental nature of a disease in terms of the Eight Principles is determined, the investigation focuses on more specific aspects.", "By evaluating the present signs and symptoms against the background of typical disharmony patterns of the various entities, evidence is collected whether or how specific entities are affected.", "This evaluation can be done# in respect of the meridians ()# in respect of qi ()# in respect of xuè ()# in respect of the body fluids ()# in respect of the zàng-fǔ () – very similar to this, though less specific, is disharmony pattern description in terms of the Five Elements )There are also three special pattern diagnosis systems used in case of febrile and infectious diseases only (\"Six Channel system\" or \"six division pattern\" ; \"Wei Qi Ying Xue system\" or \"four division pattern\" ; \"San Jiao system\" or \"three burners pattern\" ).====Considerations of disease causes====Although TCM and its concept of disease do not strongly differentiate between cause and effect, pattern discrimination can include considerations regarding the disease cause; this is called (, \"disease-cause pattern discrimination\").There are three fundamental categories of disease causes () recognized:# external causes: these include the Six Excesses and \"Pestilential Qi\".# internal causes: the \"Seven Affects\" (, sometimes also translated as \"Seven Emotions\") – joy, anger, brooding, sorrow, fear, fright and grief.", "These are believed to be able to cause damage to the functions of the zàng-fú, especially of the Liver.# non-external-non-internal causes: dietary irregularities (especially: too much raw, cold, spicy, fatty or sweet food; voracious eating; too much alcohol), fatigue, sexual intemperance, trauma, and parasites ()." ], [ "Diagnostics", "In TCM, there are five major diagnostic methods: inspection, auscultation, olfaction, inquiry, and palpation.", "These are grouped into what is known as the \"Four pillars\" of diagnosis, which are Inspection, Auscultation/ Olfaction, Inquiry, and Palpation ().", "* Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge.", "* Auscultation refers to listening for particular sounds (such as wheezing).", "* Olfaction refers to attending to body odor.", "* Inquiry focuses on the \"seven inquiries\", which involve asking the person about the regularity, severity, or other characteristics of: chills, fever, perspiration, appetite, thirst, taste, defecation, urination, pain, sleep, menses, leukorrhea.", "* Palpation which includes feeling the body for tender A-shi points, and the palpation of the wrist pulses as well as various other pulses, and palpation of the abdomen.===Tongue and pulse===Examination of the tongue and the pulse are among the principal diagnostic methods in TCM.", "Details of the tongue, including shape, size, color, texture, cracks, teeth marks, as well as tongue coating are all considered as part of tongue diagnosis.", "Various regions of the tongue's surface are believed to correspond to the zàng-fŭ organs.", "For example, redness on the tip of the tongue might indicate heat in the Heart, while redness on the sides of the tongue might indicate heat in the Liver.Pulse palpation involves measuring the pulse both at a superficial and at a deep level at three different locations on the radial artery (''Cun, Guan, Chi'', located two fingerbreadths from the wrist crease, one fingerbreadth from the wrist crease, and right at the wrist crease, respectively, usually palpated with the index, middle and ring finger) of each arm, for a total of twelve pulses, all of which are thought to correspond with certain zàng-fŭ.", "The pulse is examined for several characteristics including rhythm, strength and volume, and described with qualities like \"floating, slippery, bolstering-like, feeble, thready and quick\"; each of these qualities indicates certain disease patterns.", "Learning TCM pulse diagnosis can take several years." ], [ "Herbal medicine", "Lingzhi (lit.", "\"spirit mushrooms\"), ginseng, Luo Han Guo, turtle shell underbelly (plastron), and dried curled snakes.Chinese red ginseng rootsA bile bear in a \"crush cage\" on Huizhou Farm, China.Dried seahorses are extensively used in traditional medicine in China and elsewhere.The term \"herbal medicine\" is somewhat misleading in that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances in TCM, other, non-botanic substances are used as well: animal, human, fungi, and mineral products are also used.", "Thus, the term \"medicinal\" (instead of herb) may be used, although there is no scientific evidence that any of these compounds have medicinal effects.===Raw materials===There are roughly 13,000 compounds used in China and over 100,000 TCM recipes recorded in the ancient literature.", "Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used.", "In the classic ''Handbook of Traditional Drugs'' from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals.====Animal substances====Some animal parts used include cow gallstones, hornet nests, leeches, and scorpion.", "Other examples of animal parts include horn of the antelope or buffalo, deer antlers, testicles and penis bone of the dog, and snake bile.", "Some TCM textbooks still recommend preparations containing animal tissues, but there has been little research to justify the claimed clinical efficacy of many TCM animal products.Some compounds can include the parts of endangered species, including tiger bones and rhinoceros hornwhich is used for many ailments (though not as an aphrodisiac as is commonly misunderstood in the West).The black market in rhinoceros horns (driven not just by TCM but also unrelated status-seeking) has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years.Concerns have also arisen over the use of pangolin scales, turtle plastron, seahorses, and the gill plates of mobula and manta rays.Poachers hunt restricted or endangered species to supply the black market with TCM products.", "There is no scientific evidence of efficacy for tiger medicines.", "Concern over China considering to legalize the trade in tiger parts prompted the 171-nation Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to endorse a decision opposing the resurgence of trade in tigers.", "Fewer than 30,000 saiga antelopes remain, which are exported to China for use in traditional fever therapies.", "Organized gangs illegally export the horn of the antelopes to China.", "The pressures on seahorses (''Hippocampus'' spp.)", "used in traditional medicine is enormous; tens of millions of animals are unsustainably caught annually.", "Many species of syngnathid are currently part of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species or national equivalents.Since TCM recognizes bear bile as a treatment compound, more than 12,000 asiatic black bears are held in bear farms.", "The bile is extracted through a permanent hole in the abdomen leading to the gall bladder, which can cause severe pain.", "This can lead to bears trying to kill themselves.", "As of 2012, approximately 10,000 bears are farmed in China for their bile.", "This practice has spurred public outcry across the country.", "The bile is collected from live bears via a surgical procedure.", "As of March 2020 bear bile as ingredient of ''Tan Re Qing'' injection remains on the list of remedies recommended for treatment of \"severe cases\" of COVID-19 by National Health Commission of China and the National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine.The deer penis is believed to have therapeutic benefits according to traditional Chinese medicine.", "Tiger parts from poached animals include tiger penis, believed to improve virility, and tiger eyes.", "The illegal trade for tiger parts in China has driven the species to near-extinction because of its popularity in traditional medicine.", "Laws protecting even critically endangered species such as the Sumatran tiger fail to stop the display and sale of these items in open markets.", "Shark fin soup is traditionally regarded in Chinese medicine as beneficial for health in East Asia, and its status as an elite dish has led to huge demand with the increase of affluence in China, devastating shark populations.", "The shark fins have been a part of traditional Chinese medicine for centuries.", "Shark finning is banned in many countries, but the trade is thriving in Hong Kong and China, where the fins are part of shark fin soup, a dish considered a delicacy, and used in some types of traditional Chinese medicine.The tortoise (freshwater turtle, ''guiban'') and turtle (Chinese softshell turtle, ''biejia'') species used in traditional Chinese medicine are raised on farms, while restrictions are made on the accumulation and export of other endangered species.", "However, issues concerning the overexploitation of Asian turtles in China have not been completely solved.", "Australian scientists have developed methods to identify medicines containing DNA traces of endangered species.", "Finally, although not an endangered species, sharp rises in exports of donkeys and donkey hide from Africa to China to make the traditional remedy ''ejiao'' have prompted export restrictions by some African countries.====Human body parts====human placenta (Ziheche () is used in traditional Chinese medicine.Traditional Chinese medicine also includes some human parts: the classic ''Materia medica'' (Bencao Gangmu) describes (also criticizes) the use of 35 human body parts and excreta in medicines, including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, organs, but most are no longer in use.Human placenta has been used an ingredient in certain traditional Chinese medicines, including using dried human placenta, known as \"Ziheche\", to treat infertility, impotence and other conditions.", "The consumption of the human placenta is a potential source of infection.===Traditional categorization===The traditional categorizations and classifications that can still be found today are:* The classification according to the Four Natures (): hot, warm, cool, or cold (or, neutral in terms of temperature) and hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat heat diseases.", "* The classification according to the Five Flavors, (, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes): acrid, sweet, bitter, sour, and salty.", "Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a \"bland\" flavor).", "Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases.", "A flavor implies certain properties and therapeutic actions of a substance; e.g., saltiness drains downward and softens hard masses, while sweetness is supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening.", "* The classification according to the meridian – more precisely, the zàng-fu organ including its associated meridian – which can be expected to be primarily affected by a given compound.", "* The categorization according to the specific function mainly include: exterior-releasing or exterior-resolving, heat-clearing, downward-draining, or precipitating wind-damp-dispelling, dampness-transforming, promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness or dampness-percolating, interior-warming, qi-regulating or qi-rectifying, dispersing food accumulation or food-dispersing, worm-expelling, stopping bleeding or blood-stanching, quickening the Blood and dispelling stasis or blood-quickening, transforming phlegm, stopping coughing and calming wheezing or phlegm-transforming and cough- and panting-suppressing, Spirit-quieting, calming the liver and expelling wind or liver-calming and wind-extinguishing orifice-opening supplementing which includes qi-supplementing, blood-nourishing, yin-enriching, and yang-fortifying, astriction-promoting or securing and astringing, vomiting-inducing, and substances for external application.===Efficacy=== there were not enough good-quality trials of herbal therapies to allow their effectiveness to be determined.", "A high percentage of relevant studies on traditional Chinese medicine are in Chinese databases.", "Fifty percent of systematic reviews on TCM did not search Chinese databases, which could lead to a bias in the results.", "Many systematic reviews of TCM interventions published in Chinese journals are incomplete, some contained errors or were misleading.", "The herbs recommended by traditional Chinese practitioners in the US are unregulated.", "* A 2013 review found the data too weak to support use of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) for benign prostatic hyperplasia.", "* A 2013 review found the research on the benefit and safety of CHM for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss is of poor quality and cannot be relied upon to support their use.", "* A 2013 Cochrane review found inconclusive evidence that CHM reduces the severity of eczema.", "* The traditional medicine ginger, which has shown anti-inflammatory properties in laboratory experiments, has been used to treat rheumatism, headache and digestive and respiratory issues, though there is no firm evidence supporting these uses.", "* A 2012 Cochrane review found no difference in mortality rate among 640 SARS patients when Chinese herbs were used alongside Western medicine versus Western medicine exclusively, although they concluded some herbs may have improved symptoms and decreased corticosteroid doses.", "* A 2012 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to support the use of TCM for people with adhesive small bowel obstruction.", "* A 2011 review found low quality evidence that suggests CHM improves the symptoms of Sjogren's syndrome.", "* A 2011 Cochrane review found inconclusive evidence to support the use of TCM herbal medicines for treatment of hypercholesterolemia.", "* A 2011 Cochrane review did not find improvement in fasting C-peptide when compared to insulin treatment for latent autoimmune diabetes in adults after 3 months.", "It is important to highlight that the studies available to be included in this review presented considerable flaws in quality and design.", "* A 2010 review found TCM seems to be effective for the treatment of fibromyalgia but the findings were of insufficient methodological rigor.", "* A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving painful menstruation, but the trials assessed were of such low methodological quality that no conclusion could be drawn about the remedies' suitability as a recommendable treatment option.", "* Turmeric has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries to treat various conditions.", "This includes jaundice and hepatic disorders, rheumatism, anorexia, diabetic wounds, and menstrual complications.", "Most of its effects have been attributed to curcumin.", "Research that curcumin shows strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities have instigated mechanism of action studies on the possibility for cancer and inflammatory diseases prevention and treatment.", "It also exhibits immunomodulatory effects.", "* A 2005 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence for the use of CHM in HIV-infected people and people with AIDS.", "* A 2010 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to support the use of Traditional Chinese Herbal Products (THCP) in the treatment of angina.", "* A 2010 Cochrane review found no evidence supporting the use of TCHM for stopping bleeding from haemorrhoids.", "There was some weak evidence of pain relief.====Drug research====''Artemisia annua'', traditionally used to treat fever, has been found to have antimalarial properties.With an eye to the enormous Chinese market, pharmaceutical companies have explored creating new drugs from traditional remedies.", "The journal ''Nature'' commented that \"claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary skepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine.", "\"There had been success in the 1970s, however, with the development of the antimalarial drug artemisinin, which is a processed extract of ''Artemisia annua'', a herb traditionally used as a fever treatment.", "''Artemisia annua'' has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years.", "In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his ''Compendium of Materia Medica''.", "Researcher Tu Youyou discovered that a low-temperature extraction process could isolate an effective antimalarial substance from the plant.", "Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, ''The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments'', written in 340 by Ge Hong, which states that this herb should be steeped in cold water.", "The extracted substance, once subject to detoxification and purification processes, is a usable antimalarial drug – a 2012 review found that artemisinin-based remedies were the most effective drugs for the treatment of malaria.", "For her work on malaria, Tu received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "Despite global efforts in combating malaria, it remains a large burden for the population.", "Although WHO recommends artemisinin-based remedies for treating uncomplicated malaria, resistance to the drug can no longer be ignored.Also in the 1970s Chinese researcher Zhang TingDong and colleagues investigated the potential use of the traditionally used substance arsenic trioxide to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL).", "Building on his work, research both in China and the West eventually led to the development of the drug Trisenox, which was approved for leukemia treatment by the FDA in 2000.Huperzine A, an extract from the herb, ''Huperzia serrata'', is under preliminary research as a possible therapeutic for Alzheimer's disease, but poor methodological quality of the research restricts conclusions about its effectiveness.Ephedrine in its natural form, known as ''má huáng'' () in TCM, has been documented in China since the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) as an antiasthmatic and stimulant.", "In 1885, the chemical synthesis of ephedrine was first accomplished by Japanese organic chemist Nagai Nagayoshi based on his research on Japanese and Chinese traditional herbal medicinesPien tze huang was first documented in the Ming dynasty.====Cost-effectiveness====A 2012 systematic review found there is a lack of available cost-effectiveness evidence in TCM.===Safety===Galena (lead ore) is part of historical TCM.Standard American TCM practice considers lead-containing herbs obsolete.From the earliest records regarding the use of compounds to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese materiae medicae.", "Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese plants, animal parts and minerals.", "Traditional Chinese herbal remedies are conveniently available from grocery stores in most Chinese neighborhoods; some of these items may contain toxic ingredients, are imported into the U.S. illegally, and are associated with claims of therapeutic benefit without evidence.", "For most compounds, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis.", "The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in scorpion); in some cases it could not (i.e., in ''Curculigo'').", "Traditional herbal medicines can contain extremely toxic chemicals and heavy metals, and naturally occurring toxins, which can cause illness, exacerbate pre-existing poor health or result in death.", "Botanical misidentification of plants can cause toxic reactions in humans.", "The description of some plants used in TCM has changed, leading to unintended poisoning by using the wrong plants.", "A concern is also contaminated herbal medicines with microorganisms and fungal toxins, including aflatoxin.", "Traditional herbal medicines are sometimes contaminated with toxic heavy metals, including lead, arsenic, mercury and cadmium, which inflict serious health risks to consumers.", "Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as corticosteroids, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, and glibenclamide, has been reported.Substances known to be potentially dangerous include ''Aconitum'', secretions from the Asiatic toad, powdered centipede, the Chinese beetle (''Mylabris phalerata''), certain fungi, ''Aristolochia'', arsenic sulfide (realgar), mercury sulfide, and cinnabar.", "Asbestos ore (Actinolite, Yang Qi Shi, 阳起石) is used to treat impotence in TCM.", "Due to galena's (litharge, lead(II) oxide) high lead content, it is known to be toxic.", "Lead, mercury, arsenic, copper, cadmium, and thallium have been detected in TCM products sold in the U.S. and China.To avoid its toxic adverse effects ''Xanthium sibiricum'' must be processed.", "Hepatotoxicity has been reported with products containing ''Reynoutria multiflora'' (synonym ''Polygonum multiflorum''), glycyrrhizin, ''Senecio'' and ''Symphytum''.", "The herbs indicated as being hepatotoxic included ''Dictamnus dasycarpus'', ''Astragalus membranaceus'', and ''Paeonia lactiflora''.", "Contrary to popular belief, ''Ganoderma lucidum'' mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity.", "A 2013 review suggested that although the antimalarial herb ''Artemisia annua'' may not cause hepatotoxicity, haematotoxicity, or hyperlipidemia, it should be used cautiously during pregnancy due to a potential risk of embryotoxicity at a high dose.However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse or abuse of Chinese medicine.", "For example, the misuse of the dietary supplement ''Ephedra'' (containing ephedrine) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from cardiomyopathy.", "Products adulterated with pharmaceuticals for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns.", "Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of acute liver failure in China.The harvesting of guano from bat caves (''yemingsha'') brings workers into close contact with these animals, increasing the risk of zoonosis.", "The Chinese virologist Shi Zhengli has identified dozens of SARS-like coronaviruses in samples of bat droppings." ], [ "Acupuncture and moxibustion", "Needles being inserted into the skinA bronze acupuncture statue from the Ming Dynasty being displayed inside a museumAcupuncture is the insertion of needles into superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) – usually at acupuncture points (acupoints) – and their subsequent manipulation; this aims at influencing the flow of qi.", "According to TCM it relieves pain and treats (and prevents) various diseases.", "The US FDA classifies single-use acupuncture needles as Class II medical devices, under CFR 21.Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion – the Chinese characters for acupuncture () literally meaning \"acupuncture-moxibustion\" – which involves burning mugwort on or near the skin at an acupuncture point.", "According to the American Cancer Society, \"available scientific evidence does not support claims that moxibustion is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease\".In electroacupuncture, an electric current is applied to the needles once they are inserted, to further stimulate the respective acupuncture points.A recent historian of Chinese medicine remarked that it is \"nicely ironic that the specialty of acupuncture -- arguably the most questionable part of their medical heritage for most Chinese at the start of the twentieth century -- has become the most marketable aspect of Chinese medicine.\"", "She found that acupuncture as we know it today has hardly been in existence for sixty years.", "Moreover, the fine, filiform needle we think of as the acupuncture needle today was not widely used a century ago.", "Present day acupuncture was developed in the 1930s and put into wide practice only as late as the 1960s.===Efficacy===A 2013 editorial in the American journal ''Anesthesia and Analgesia'' stated that acupuncture studies produced inconsistent results, (i.e.", "acupuncture relieved pain in some conditions but had no effect in other very similar conditions) which suggests the presence of false positive results.", "These may be caused by factors like biased study design, poor blinding, and the classification of electrified needles (a type of TENS) as a form of acupuncture.", "The inability to find consistent results despite more than 3,000 studies, the editorial continued, suggests that the treatment seems to be a placebo effect and the existing equivocal positive results are the type of noise one expects to see after a large number of studies are performed on an inert therapy.", "The editorial concluded that the best controlled studies showed a clear pattern, in which the outcome does not rely upon needle location or even needle insertion, and since \"these variables are those that define acupuncture, the only sensible conclusion is that acupuncture does not work.", "\"According to the US NIH National Cancer Institute, a review of 17,922 patients reported that real acupuncture relieved muscle and joint pain, caused by aromatase inhibitors, much better than sham acupuncture.", "Regarding cancer patients, the review hypothesized that acupuncture may cause physical responses in nerve cells, the pituitary gland, and the brain – releasing proteins, hormones, and chemicals that are proposed to affect blood pressure, body temperature, immune activity, and endorphin release.A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that the mechanisms of acupuncture \"are clinically relevant, but that an important part of these total effects is not due to issues considered to be crucial by most acupuncturists, such as the correct location of points and depth of needling ... but is ... associated with more potent placebo or context effects\".", "Commenting on this meta-analysis, both Edzard Ernst and David Colquhoun said the results were of negligible clinical significance.A 2011 overview of Cochrane reviews found evidence that suggests acupuncture is effective for some but not all kinds of pain.", "A 2010 systematic review found that there is evidence \"that acupuncture provides a short-term clinically relevant effect when compared with a waiting list control or when acupuncture is added to another intervention\" in the treatment of chronic low back pain.", "Two review articles discussing the effectiveness of acupuncture, from 2008 and 2009, have concluded that there is not enough evidence to conclude that it is effective beyond the placebo effect.Acupuncture is generally safe when administered using Clean Needle Technique (CNT).", "Although serious adverse effects are rare, acupuncture is not without risk.", "Severe adverse effects, including very rarely death (5 case reports), have been reported." ], [ "Tui na", "An example of a traditional Chinese medicine used in tui naTui na () is a form of massage, based on the assumptions of TCM, from which shiatsu is thought to have evolved.", "Techniques employed may include thumb presses, rubbing, percussion, and assisted stretching." ], [ "''Qigong''", "Qìgōng () is a TCM system of exercise and meditation that combines regulated breathing, slow movement, and focused awareness, purportedly to cultivate and balance qi.", "One branch of qigong is qigong massage, in which the practitioner combines massage techniques with awareness of the acupuncture channels and points.", "''Qi'' is air, breath, energy, or primordial life source that is neither matter or spirit.", "While ''Gong'' is a skillful movement, work, or exercise of the ''qi''.===Forms===* ''Neigong'': introspective and meditative* ''Waigong'': external energy and motion* ''Donggong'': dynamic or active* ''Jinggong'': tranquil or passive" ], [ "Other therapies", "===Cupping===Acupuncture and moxibustion after cupping in JapanCupping () is a type of Chinese massage, consisting of placing several glass \"cups\" (open spheres) on the body.", "A match is lit and placed inside the cup and then removed before placing the cup against the skin.", "As the air in the cup is heated, it expands, and after placing in the skin, cools, creating lower pressure inside the cup that allows the cup to stick to the skin via suction.", "When combined with massage oil, the cups can be slid around the back, offering \"reverse-pressure massage\".===Gua sha===Gua sha'''Gua sha''' () is abrading the skin with pieces of smooth jade, bone, animal tusks or horns or smooth stones; until red spots then bruising cover the area to which it is done.", "It is believed that this treatment is for almost any ailment.", "The red spots and bruising take three to ten days to heal, there is often some soreness in the area that has been treated.=== Die-da ==='''Diē-dǎ''' () or '''Dit Da''', is a traditional Chinese bone-setting technique, usually practiced by martial artists who know aspects of Chinese medicine that apply to the treatment of trauma and injuries such as bone fractures, sprains, and bruises.", "Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies if serious injury is involved.", "Such practice of bone-setting () is not common in the West.=== Chinese food therapy ===The concepts ''yin'' and ''yang'' are associated with different classes of foods, and tradition considers it important to consume them in a balanced fashion." ], [ "Regulations", "Many governments have enacted laws to regulate TCM practice.=== Australia ===From 1 July 2012 Chinese medicine practitioners must be registered under the national registration and accreditation scheme with the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia and meet the Board's Registration Standards, to practice in Australia.=== Canada ===TCM is regulated in five provinces in Canada: Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland & Labrador.=== China (mainland) ===The National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine was created in 1949, which then absorbed existing TCM management in 1986 with major changes in 1998.China's National People's Congress Standing Committee passed the country's first law on TCM in 2016, which came into effect on 1 July 2017.The new law standardized TCM certifications by requiring TCM practitioners to (i) pass exams administered by provincial-level TCM authorities, and (ii) obtain recommendations from two certified practitioners.", "TCM products and services can be advertised only with approval from the local TCM authority.===Hong Kong===During British rule, Chinese medicine practitioners in Hong Kong were not recognized as \"medical doctors\", which means they could not issue prescription drugs, give injections, etc.", "However, TCM practitioners could register and operate TCM as \"herbalists\".", "The Chinese Medicine Council of Hong Kong was established in 1999.It regulates the compounds and professional standards for TCM practitioners.", "All TCM practitioners in Hong Kong are required to register with the council.", "The eligibility for registration includes a recognised 5-year university degree of TCM, a 30-week minimum supervised clinical internship, and passing the licensing exam.Currently, the approved Chinese medicine institutions are HKU, CUHK and HKBU.===Macau===The Portuguese Macau government seldom interfered in the affairs of Chinese society, including with regard to regulations on the practice of TCM.", "There were a few TCM pharmacies in Macau during the colonial period.", "In 1994, the Portuguese Macau government published Decree-Law no.", "53/94/M that officially started to regulate the TCM market.", "After the sovereign handover, the Macau S.A.R.", "government also published regulations on the practice of TCM.", "In 2000, Macau University of Science and Technology and Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine established the Macau College of Traditional Chinese Medicine to offer a degree course in Chinese medicine.In Macau, the legitimacy of Chinese medicine is not built upon \"miracle making\".", "Instead, it is achieved through a celebration of cultural tradition rejuvenated with discourses of nationalism and modernity, and through the mutual constructions of medical references between doctors and patients.In 2022, a new law regulating TCM, Law no.", "11/2021, came into effect.", "The same law also repealed Decree-Law no.", "53/94/M.=== Indonesia ===The Chinese traditional medicine at one of Chinese traditional medicine shop at Jagalan Road, Surabaya, Indonesia.All traditional medicines, including TCM, are regulated by Indonesian Minister of Health Regulation of 2013 on traditional medicine.", "Traditional medicine license (''Surat Izin Pengobatan Tradisional'' – SIPT) is granted to the practitioners whose methods are recognized as safe and may benefit health.", "The TCM clinics are registered but there is no explicit regulation for it.", "The only TCM method which is accepted by medical logic and is empirically proofed is acupuncture.", "The acupuncturists can get SIPT and participate in health care facilities.===Japan===''Seirogan'', a type of antidiarrhoeal drug in Japan developed based on Kanpo medicine theoryUnder modern Japanese medical law, it is possible for doctors to perform acupuncture and massage, but because there is a separate law regarding acupuncture and massage, these treatments are mainly performed by massage therapists, acupuncturists, and moxibustion practitioners.=== Korea ===Korea Institute of Oriental MedicineUnder the Medical Service Act (의료법/醫療法), an oriental medical doctor, whose obligation is to administer oriental medical treatment and provide guidance for health based on '''oriental medicine''', shall be treated in the same manner as a medical doctor or dentist.The Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine is the top research center of TCM in Korea.=== Malaysia ===The Traditional and Complementary Medicine Bill was passed by parliament in 2012 establishing the Traditional and Complementary Medicine Council to register and regulate traditional and complementary medicine practitioners, including TCM practitioners as well as other traditional and complementary medicine practitioners such as those in traditional Malay medicine and traditional Indian medicine.=== Netherlands ===The logo of the Dutch Association of Traditional Chinese Medicine (or ''中 Zhong - Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde''), the largest of the professional organisations that is recognised by private health insurance companies in the Netherlands.There are no specific regulations in the Netherlands on TCM; TCM is neither prohibited nor recognised by the government of the Netherlands.", "Chinese herbs as well as Chinese herbal products that are used in TCM are classified as foods and food supplements, and these Chinese herbs can be imported into the Netherlands as well as marketed as such without any type registration or notification to the government.Despite its status, some private health insurance companies reimburse a certain amount of annual costs for acupuncture treatments, this depends on one's insurance policy, as not all insurance policies cover it, and if the acupuncture practitioner is or is not a member of one of the professional organisations that are recognised by private health insurance companies.", "The recognized professional organizations include the Nederlandse Vereniging voor Acupunctuur (NVA), Nederlandse Artsen Acupunctuur Vereniging (NAAV), ZHONG, (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde), Nederlandse Beroepsvereniging Chinese Geneeswijzen Yi (NBCG Yi), and Wetenschappelijke Artsen Vereniging voor Acupunctuur in Nederland (WAVAN).=== New Zealand ===Although there are no regulatory standards for the practice of TCM in New Zealand, in the year 1990, acupuncture was included in the Governmental Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) Act.", "This inclusion granted qualified and professionally registered acupuncturists to provide subsidised care and treatment to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors for work or sports related injuries that occurred within and upon the land of New Zealand.", "The two bodies for the regulation of acupuncture and attainment of ACC treatment provider status in New Zealand are Acupuncture NZ and The New Zealand Acupuncture Standards Authority.=== Singapore ===The TCM Practitioners Act was passed by Parliament in 2000 and the TCM Practitioners Board was established in 2001 as a statutory board under the Ministry of Health, to register and regulate TCM practitioners.", "The requirements for registration include possession of a diploma or degree from a TCM educational institution/university on a gazetted list, either structured TCM clinical training at an approved local TCM educational institution or foreign TCM registration together with supervised TCM clinical attachment/practice at an approved local TCM clinic, and upon meeting these requirements, passing the Singapore TCM Physicians Registration Examination (STRE) conducted by the TCM Practitioners Board.In 2024, Nanyang Technological University will offer the four-year Bachelor of Chinese Medicine programme, which is the first local programme accredited by the Ministry of Health.=== Taiwan ===National Research Institute of Chinese MedicineIn Taiwan, TCM practitioners are physicians and are regulated by the Physicians Act.", "They are able to diagnose, write prescriptions, and dispense Chinese medicine independently.Under current law, those who wish to qualify for the Chinese medicine exam must have obtained a 7-year university degree in TCM.The National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, established in 1963, is the largest Chinese herbal medicine research center in Taiwan.=== United States ===As of July 2012, only six states lack legislation to regulate the professional practice of TCM: Alabama, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.", "In 1976, California established an Acupuncture Board and became the first state licensing professional acupuncturists." ], [ "See also", "* Compendium of Materia Medica* Huangdi Neijing* ''American Journal of Chinese Medicine''* The body in traditional Chinese medicine* Capsicum plaster* Chinese classic herbal formula* Chinese food therapy* Chinese herbology* Chinese Ophthalmology* Chinese patent medicine* Guizhentang Pharmaceutical company* Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals* HIV/AIDS and traditional Chinese medicine* ''Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine''* Hua Tuo* Li Shizhen* List of branches of alternative medicine* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* List of traditional Chinese medicines* Medicinal mushrooms* Pharmacognosy* Public health in the People's Republic of China* Qingdai* Qiu Li Gao* Snake farm* Sun Simiao* Tao Hongjing* Taoist diet* Traditional Korean medicine* Traditional Mongolian medicine* Traditional Vietnamese medicine* Traditional Tibetan medicine* Traditional Indian medicine* Turtle farming* Xingqi (circulating breath)* Zhang Jiegu" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * Review of Liu Lihong ''Classical Chinese Medicine'' (below).", "Also free online at ''China File'' Chinese Medicine in Covid Wards .", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Shows early use of Chinese medicine not always perceived as \"Chinese.", "\"* * * * online review* McGrew, Roderick.", "''Encyclopedia of Medical History'' (1985), brief history on pp.", "56–59* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Medicinal Plant Images Database—School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University * Chinese Medicine Specimen Database—School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University * ''Literary Review Compilation on Traditional Chinese Medicine'', PDF, 133 pages; compiled by the Association Québécoise des Thérapeutes Naturels (AQTN)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chemical bond" ], [ "Introduction", "Covalent bonding of two hydrogen atoms to form a hydrogen molecule, .", "In (a) the two nuclei are surrounded by a cloud of two electrons in the bonding orbital that holds the molecule together.", "(b) shows hydrogen's antibonding orbital, which is higher in energy and is normally not occupied by any electrons.A '''chemical bond''' is a lasting attraction between atoms or ions that enables the formation of molecules, crystals, and other structures.", "The bond may result from the electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds, or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds.", "The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably: there are \"strong bonds\" or \"primary bonds\" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and \"weak bonds\" or \"secondary bonds\" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force, and hydrogen bonding.", "Since opposite electric charges attract, the negatively charged electrons surrounding the nucleus and the positively charged protons within a nucleus attract each other.", "Electrons shared between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them.", "\"Constructive quantum mechanical wavefunction interference\" stabilizes the paired nuclei (see Theories of chemical bonding).", "Bonded nuclei maintain an optimal distance (the bond distance) balancing attractive and repulsive effects explained quantitatively by quantum theory.The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and other forms of matter are held together by chemical bonds, which determine the structure and properties of matter.All bonds can be described by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplified rules and other theories allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds.", "The octet rule and VSEPR theory are examples.", "More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory, which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and molecular orbital theory which includes the linear combination of atomic orbitals and ligand field theory.", "Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances." ], [ "Overview of main types of chemical bonds", "A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms.", "This attraction may be seen as the result of different behaviors of the outermost or valence electrons of atoms.", "These behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various circumstances, so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them.", "However it remains useful and customary to differentiate between different types of bond, which result in different properties of condensed matter.In the simplest view of a covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei.", "Energy is released by bond formation.", "This is not as a result of reduction in potential energy, because the attraction of the two electrons to the two protons is offset by the electron-electron and proton-proton repulsions.", "Instead, the release of energy (and hence stability of the bond) arises from the reduction in kinetic energy due to the electrons being in a more spatially distributed (i.e.", "longer de Broglie wavelength) orbital compared with each electron being confined closer to its respective nucleus.", "These bonds exist between two particular identifiable atoms and have a direction in space, allowing them to be shown as single connecting lines between atoms in drawings, or modeled as sticks between spheres in models.In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei.", "Covalent bonds often result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called molecules, which in solids and liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the molecules internally together.", "Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most structured or oriented contact with each other).", "When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large molecules, however (as in polymers such as nylon), or when covalent bonds extend in networks through solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds.", "Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly.In a simplified view of an ''ionic'' bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred.", "In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons.", "These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom.", "Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other.", "This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge.", "The ''bond'' then results from electrostatic attraction between the positive and negatively charged ions.", "Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds.", "Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them.", "Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures.", "This type of bond gives rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt.A less often mentioned type of bonding is ''metallic'' bonding.", "In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal donates one or more electrons to a \"sea\" of electrons that reside between many metal atoms.", "In this sea, each electron is free (by virtue of its wave nature) to be associated with a great many atoms at once.", "The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom.", "Metallic bonding may be seen as an extreme example of delocalization of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom participates.", "This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the tensile strength of metals).", "However, metallic bonding is more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to more easily deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways.", "This results in the malleability of metals.", "The cloud of electrons in metallic bonding causes the characteristically good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, and also their shiny lustre that reflects most frequencies of white light." ], [ "History", "Lewis dot diagrams used to represent electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms, here showing carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).", "Lewis diagrams were developed in 1916 by Gilbert N. Lewis to describe chemical bonding and are still widely used today.", "Each line segment or pair of dots represents a pair of electrons.", "Pairs located between atoms represent bonds.Early speculations about the nature of the '''chemical bond''', from as early as the 12th century, supposed that certain types of chemical species were joined by a type of chemical affinity.", "In 1704, Sir Isaac Newton famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in \"Query 31\" of his ''Opticks'', whereby atoms attach to each other by some \"force\".", "Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e.", "\"hooked atoms\", \"glued together by rest\", or \"stuck together by conspiring motions\", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that \"particles attract one another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect.", "\"In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms.", "By the mid 19th century, Edward Frankland, F.A.", "Kekulé, A.S. Couper, Alexander Butlerov, and Hermann Kolbe, building on the theory of radicals, developed the theory of valency, originally called \"combining power\", in which compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles.", "In 1904, Richard Abegg proposed his rule that the difference between the maximum and minimum valencies of an element is often eight.", "At this point, valency was still an empirical number based only on chemical properties.However the nature of the atom became clearer with Ernest Rutherford's 1911 discovery that of an atomic nucleus surrounded by electrons in which he quoted Nagaoka rejected Thomson's model on the grounds that opposite charges are impenetrable.", "In 1904, Nagaoka proposed an alternative planetary model of the atom in which a positively charged center is surrounded by a number of revolving electrons, in the manner of Saturn and its rings.Nagaoka's model made two predictions:* a very massive atomic center (in analogy to a very massive planet)* electrons revolving around the nucleus, bound by electrostatic forces (in analogy to the rings revolving around Saturn, bound by gravitational forces.", ")Rutherford mentions Nagaoka's model in his 1911 paper in which the atomic nucleus is proposed.At the 1911 Solvay Conference, in the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck stated: \"The intermediaries could be the electrons.\"", "These nuclear models suggested that electrons determine chemical behavior.Next came Niels Bohr's 1913 model of a nuclear atom with electron orbits.", "In 1916, chemist Gilbert N. Lewis developed the concept of electron-pair bonds, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis's own words, \"An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one exclusively.", "\"Also in 1916, Walther Kossel put forward a theory similar to Lewis' only his model assumed complete transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of ionic bonding.", "Both Lewis and Kossel structured their bonding models on that of Abegg's rule (1904).Niels Bohr also proposed a model of the chemical bond in 1913.According to his model for a diatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei.", "The dynamic equilibrium of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei.", "The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the Coulomb repulsion – the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other.In 1927, the first mathematically complete quantum description of a simple chemical bond, i.e.", "that produced by one electron in the hydrogen molecular ion, H2+, was derived by the Danish physicist Øyvind Burrau.", "This work showed that the quantum approach to chemical bonds could be fundamentally and quantitatively correct, but the mathematical methods used could not be extended to molecules containing more than one electron.", "A more practical, albeit less quantitative, approach was put forward in the same year by Walter Heitler and Fritz London.", "The Heitler–London method forms the basis of what is now called valence bond theory.", "In 1929, the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (LCAO) approximation was introduced by Sir John Lennard-Jones, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules of F2 (fluorine) and O2 (oxygen) molecules, from basic quantum principles.", "This molecular orbital theory represented a covalent bond as an orbital formed by combining the quantum mechanical Schrödinger atomic orbitals which had been hypothesized for electrons in single atoms.", "The equations for bonding electrons in multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection (i.e., ''analytically''), but approximations for them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results.", "Most quantitative calculations in modern quantum chemistry use either valence bond or molecular orbital theory as a starting point, although a third approach, density functional theory, has become increasingly popular in recent years.In 1933, H. H. James and A. S. Coolidge carried out a calculation on the dihydrogen molecule that, unlike all previous calculation which used functions only of the distance of the electron from the atomic nucleus, used functions which also explicitly added the distance between the two electrons.", "With up to 13 adjustable parameters they obtained a result very close to the experimental result for the dissociation energy.", "Later extensions have used up to 54 parameters and gave excellent agreement with experiments.", "This calculation convinced the scientific community that quantum theory could give agreement with experiment.", "However this approach has none of the physical pictures of the valence bond and molecular orbital theories and is difficult to extend to larger molecules." ], [ "Bonds in chemical formulas", "Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals and bonds.", "In '''molecular formulas''' the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion.", "Sometimes, some details are neglected.", "For example, in organic chemistry one is sometimes concerned only with the functional group of the molecule.", "Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol may be written in conformational form, three-dimensional form, full two-dimensional form (indicating every bond with no three-dimensional directions), compressed two-dimensional form (CH3–CH2–OH), by separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C2H5OH), or by its atomic constituents (C2H6O), according to what is discussed.", "Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (with the two-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, e.g.", "for elemental carbon .", "'C'.", "Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, e.g.", "the hypothetical ethene−4 anion (\\/C=C/\\ −4) indicating the possibility of bond formation." ], [ "Strong chemical bonds", " '''Typical bond lengths in pmand bond energies in kJ/mol.", "'''Bond lengths can be converted to Åby division by 100 (1 Å = 100 pm).", "Bond Length(pm) Energy(kJ/mol) H — Hydrogen H–H 74 436 H–O 96 467 H–F 92 568 H–Cl 127 432 C — Carbon C–H 109 413 C–C 154 347 C–C= 151 =C–C≡ 147 =C–C= 148 C=C 134 614 C≡C 120 839 C–N 147 308 C–O 143 358 C=O 745 C≡O 1,072 C–F 134 488 C–Cl 177 330 N — Nitrogen N–H 101 391 N–N 145 170 N≡N 110 945 O — Oxygen O–O 148 146 O=O 121 495 F, Cl, Br, I — Halogens F–F 142 158 Cl–Cl 199 243 Br–H 141 366 Br–Br 228 193 I–H 161 298 I–I 267 151Strong chemical bonds are the ''intramolecular'' forces that hold atoms together in molecules.", "A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals.The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in electronegativity of the constituent elements.", "Electronegativity is the tendency for an atom of a given chemical element to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond, where the higher the associated electronegativity then the more it attracts electrons.", "Electronegativity serves as a simple way to quantitatively estimate the bond energy, which characterizes a bond along the continuous scale from covalent to ionic bonding.", "A large difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond.=== Ionic bond ===Crystal structure of sodium chloride (NaCl) with sodium cations () in and chloride anions () in .", "The yellow stipples represent the electrostatic force between the ions of opposite charge.Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms that have a large electronegativity difference.", "There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but an electronegativity difference of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic while a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent.", "Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions.", "Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e.", "Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt).", "A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion in a specific directional bond.", "Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type.", "It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near it.", "This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still discernible from the shorter distances between them, as measured via such techniques as X-ray diffraction.Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids such as sodium cyanide, NaCN.", "X-ray diffraction shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium cations (Na+) and the cyanide anions (CN−) are ''ionic'', with no sodium ion associated with any particular cyanide.", "However, the bonds between the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) atoms in cyanide are of the ''covalent'' type, so that each carbon is strongly bound to ''just one'' nitrogen, to which it is physically much closer than it is to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal.When such crystals are melted into liquids, the ionic bonds are broken first because they are non-directional and allow the charged species to move freely.", "Similarly, when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water but the covalent bonds continue to hold.", "For example, in solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN− ions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na+.", "In water, charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to a number of water molecules than to each other.", "The attraction between ions and water molecules in such solutions is due to a type of weak dipole-dipole type chemical bond.", "In melted ionic compounds, the ions continue to be attracted to each other, but not in any ordered or crystalline way.=== Covalent bond ===Non-polar covalent bonds in methane (CH4).", "The Lewis structure shows electrons shared between C and H atoms.Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding in which two or more atoms share valence electrons more or less equally.", "The simplest and most common type is a single bond in which two atoms share two electrons.", "Other types include the double bond, the triple bond, one- and three-electron bonds, the three-center two-electron bond and three-center four-electron bond.In non-polar covalent bonds, the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small, typically 0 to 0.3.Bonds within most organic compounds are described as covalent.", "The figure shows methane (CH4), in which each hydrogen forms a covalent bond with the carbon.", "See sigma bonds and pi bonds for LCAO descriptions of such bonding.Molecules that are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane.A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character.", "This means that the two shared electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge.", "Such bonds occur between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities and give rise to dipole–dipole interactions.", "The electronegativity difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7.==== Single and multiple bonds ====A single bond between two atoms corresponds to the sharing of one pair of electrons.", "The Hydrogen (H) atom has one valence electron.", "Two Hydrogen atoms can then form a molecule, held together by the shared pair of electrons.", "Each H atom now has the noble gas electron configuration of helium (He).", "The pair of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond.", "The electron density of these two bonding electrons in the region between the two atoms increases from the density of two non-interacting H atoms.Two p-orbitals forming a pi-bond.A double bond has two shared pairs of electrons, one in a sigma bond and one in a pi bond with electron density concentrated on two opposite sides of the internuclear axis.", "A triple bond consists of three shared electron pairs, forming one sigma and two pi bonds.", "An example is nitrogen.", "Quadruple and higher bonds are very rare and occur only between certain transition metal atoms.====Coordinate covalent bond (dipolar bond)====Adduct of ammonia and boron trifluorideA coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the two shared bonding electrons are from the same one of the atoms involved in the bond.", "For example, boron trifluoride (BF3) and ammonia (NH3) form an adduct or coordination complex F3B←NH3 with a B–N bond in which a lone pair of electrons on N is shared with an empty atomic orbital on B. BF3 with an empty orbital is described as an electron pair acceptor or Lewis acid, while NH3 with a lone pair that can be shared is described as an electron-pair donor or Lewis base.", "The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding.", "Such bonding is shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid.", "(In the Figure, solid lines are bonds in the plane of the diagram, wedged bonds point towards the observer, and dashed bonds point away from the observer.", ")Transition metal complexes are generally bound by coordinate covalent bonds.", "For example, the ion Ag+ reacts as a Lewis acid with two molecules of the Lewis base NH3 to form the complex ion Ag(NH3)2+, which has two Ag←N coordinate covalent bonds.=== Metallic bonding ===In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms.", "By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static.", "The free movement or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength." ], [ "Intermolecular bonding", "There are several types of weak bonds that can be formed between two or more molecules which are not covalently bound.", "Intermolecular forces cause molecules to attract or repel each other.", "Often, these forces influence physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance.Van der Waals forces are interactions between closed-shell molecules.", "They include both Coulombic interactions between partial charges in polar molecules, and Pauli repulsions between closed electrons shells.Keesom forces are the forces between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules.", "London dispersion forces are the forces between induced dipoles of different molecules.", "There can also be an interaction between a permanent dipole in one molecule and an induced dipole in another molecule.Hydrogen bonds of the form A--H•••B occur when A and B are two highly electronegative atoms (usually N, O or F) such that A forms a highly polar covalent bond with H so that H has a partial positive charge, and B has a lone pair of electrons which is attracted to this partial positive charge and forms a hydrogen bond.", "Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues.", "In some cases a similar halogen bond can be formed by a halogen atom located between two electronegative atoms on different molecules.At short distances, repulsive forces between atoms also become important." ], [ "Theories of chemical bonding", "In the (unrealistic) limit of \"pure\" ionic bonding, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in the bond.", "Such bonds can be understood by classical physics.", "The force between the atoms depends on isotropic continuum electrostatic potentials.", "The magnitude of the force is in simple proportion to the product of the two ionic charges according to Coulomb's law.Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond (VB) theory or molecular orbital (MO) theory.", "The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number, formal charge, and electronegativity.", "The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms.", "In valence bond theory, bonding is conceptualized as being built up from electron pairs that are localized and shared by two atoms via the overlap of atomic orbitals.", "The concepts of orbital hybridization and resonance augment this basic notion of the electron pair bond.", "In molecular orbital theory, bonding is viewed as being delocalized and apportioned in orbitals that extend throughout the molecule and are adapted to its symmetry properties, typically by considering linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO).", "Valence bond theory is more chemically intuitive by being spatially localized, allowing attention to be focused on the parts of the molecule undergoing chemical change.", "In contrast, molecular orbitals are more \"natural\" from a quantum mechanical point of view, with orbital energies being physically significant and directly linked to experimental ionization energies from photoelectron spectroscopy.", "Consequently, valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory are often viewed as competing but complementary frameworks that offer different insights into chemical systems.", "As approaches for electronic structure theory, both MO and VB methods can give approximations to any desired level of accuracy, at least in principle.", "However, at lower levels, the approximations differ, and one approach may be better suited for computations involving a particular system or property than the other.Unlike the spherically symmetrical Coulombic forces in pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds are generally directed and anisotropic.", "These are often classified based on their symmetry with respect to a molecular plane as sigma bonds and pi bonds.", "In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediate between ionic and covalent, depending on the relative electronegativity of the atoms involved.", "Bonds of this type are known as polar covalent bonds." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* W. Locke (1997).", "Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory.", "Retrieved May 18, 2005.", "* Carl R. Nave (2005).", "HyperPhysics.", "Retrieved May 18, 2005.", "* Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History.", "Retrieved February 29, 2008." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cell''' most often refers to:* Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life'''Cell''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional entities===* Cell (comics), a Marvel comic book character* Cell (''Dragon Ball''), a character in the manga series ''Dragon Ball''===Literature===* ''Cell'' (novel), a 2006 horror novel by Stephen King* \"Cells\", poem, about a hungover soldier in gaol, by Rudyard Kipling*''The Cell'' (play), an Australian play by Robert Wales===Music===* Cell (music), a small rhythmic and melodic design that can be isolated, or can make up one part of a thematic context* Cell (American band)* Cell (Japanese band)* ''Cell'' (album), a 2004 album by Plastic Tree* ''Cells'', a 1998 album by Cex* ''Cells'', a 2012 album by Fake Blood* \"Cells\", an art song composed by G. F. Cobb and named after the poem by Kipling* \"Cells\", a song by Bloem de Ligny* \"Cells\", a song by The Servant*The Cells, an American rock band*\"The Cell\" (song), a 2006 song by Jandek===Other arts, entertainment, and media===* ''The Cell'' (film), a 2000 psychological thriller film starring Jennifer Lopez* ''Cell'' (film), a 2016 film based on the Stephen King novel* Animation cel, a transparent sheet on which objects are drawn or painted for traditional, hand-drawn animation* \"The Cell\" (''The Vampire Diaries''), an episode of the TV series ''The Vampire Diaries''* \"The Cell\" (''The Walking Dead''), a 2016 television episode of ''The Walking Dead''* ''The Cell'' (BBC Four), Adam Rutherford's 3-part documentary series that aired on BBC Four* ''The Cell'', the original title of the TV series ''Sleeper Cell''" ], [ "Groups of people", "* Cell, a group of people in a cell group, a form of Christian church organization* Cell, a unit of a clandestine cell system, a penetration-resistant form of a secret or outlawed organization* Cellular organizational structure, such as in business management" ], [ "Rooms", "* Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery with only a few monks or nuns * Prison cell, a room used to hold people in prisons" ], [ "Science, mathematics, and technology", "===Computing and telecommunications===* Cell (EDA), a term used in an electronic circuit design schematics* Cell (microprocessor), a microprocessor architecture developed by Sony, Toshiba, and IBM* Cell, a unit in a database table or spreadsheet, formed by the intersection of a row and a column* Cell, in wireless local area networking standards (including Wi-Fi), a wireless connection within a limited area, referred to as a cell or Basic Service Set* Cell, a fixed-length data frame used in the Asynchronous Transfer Mode protocol* Cellphone, a phone connected to a cellular network** Cell (network), area of radio coverage in a cellular network* Memory cell (computing), the basic unit of (volatile or non-volatile) computer memory===Mathematics===* Cell (geometry), a three-dimensional element, part of a higher-dimensional object*Cell, an element of an abstract cell complex*Cell, a basic unit of a cellular automaton*Cell, an element of a CW complex*Cell, a k-face of a simplicial complex===Other uses in science and technology===* ''Cell'' (journal), a scientific journal* Electrochemical cell, a device used to convert chemical energy to electrical energy** Fuel cell, a device used to convert chemical energy from a fuel like hydrogen to electricity** Galvanic cell or voltaic cell, a particular kind of electrochemical cell* Photodetector, or photo cell, a sensor which detects light* Solar cell, a component of photovoltaic systems used to convert the energy of light into electricity* Storm cell, the smallest unit of a storm-producing system" ], [ "See also", "* CEL (disambiguation)* Cellular (disambiguation)* Macrocell" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Climate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Climate''' is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.", "More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years.", "Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.", "In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them.", "The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation.", "The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification.", "The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it.", "The major classifications in Thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal.", "Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region.Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates.", "Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation.", "Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables.", "They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral.", "Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates.", "Climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors.", "Recent warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota.", "For example, as climate scientist Lesley Ann Hughes has written: \"a 3 °C 5 °F change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately in latitude (in the temperate zone) or in elevation.", "Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones.\"" ], [ "Definition", "Climate () is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period.", "The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose.", "Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations.", "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition is as follows:The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes \"climate normals\" as \"reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered typical.", "A climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element (e.g.", "temperature) over a 30-year period.", "A 30-year period is used as it is long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation, but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends.", "\"The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929.At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, the technical commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals.", "In 1982, the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990.The 1961–1990 climate normals serve as the baseline reference period.", "The next set of climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010.Aside from collecting from the most common atmospheric variables (air temperature, pressure, precipitation and wind), other variables such as humidity, visibility, cloud amount, solar radiation, soil temperature, pan evaporation rate, days with thunder and days with hail are also collected to measure change in climate conditions.The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase \"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.\"", "Over historical time spans, there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains.", "All of these variables change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics.", "Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.", "Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale.", "The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level.", "Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases (particularly carbon dioxide and methane determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling.", "The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned." ], [ "Climate classification{{anchor|Classification}}", "Worldwide Köppen climate classificationsClimate classifications are systems that categorize the world's climates.", "A climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region.", "One of the most used is the Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1899.There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes.", "Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude.", "Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into ''genetic'' methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and ''empiric'' methods, which focus on the effects of climate.", "Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances.", "Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness, evapotranspiration, or more generally the Köppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes.", "A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature." ], [ "Record", "===Paleoclimatology===Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history.", "It uses evidence with different time scales (from decades to millennia) from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, pollen, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate.", "It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles.===Modern===Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few centuries.", "The instruments used to study weather over the modern time scale, their observation frequency, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past.", "Long-term modern climate records skew towards population centres and affluent countries.", "Since the 1960s, the launch of satellites allow records to be gathered on a global scale, including areas with little to no human presence, such as the Arctic region and oceans." ], [ "Climate variability", "Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and other characteristics of climate (such as chances or possibility of extreme weather, etc.)", "\"on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events.\"", "Some of the variability does not appear to be caused systematically and occurs at random times.", "Such variability is called ''random variability'' or ''noise''.", "On the other hand, periodic variability occurs relatively regularly and in distinct modes of variability or climate patterns.There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and astronomical factors (barycenter changes, solar variation, cosmic ray flux, cloud albedo feedback, Milankovic cycles), and modes of heat distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system.", "In some cases, current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by significant volcanic eruptions, impact events, irregularities in climate proxy data, positive feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases.Over the years, the definitions of ''climate variability'' and the related term ''climate change'' have shifted.", "While the term ''climate change'' now implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies." ], [ "Climate change", "Surface air temperature change over the past 50 years.Observed temperature from NASA vs the 1850–1900 average used by the IPCC as a pre-industrial baseline.", "The primary driver for increased global temperatures in the industrial era is human activity, with natural forces adding variability.Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time.", "It reflects changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years.", "These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g.", "variations in sunlight intensity) or human activities, as found recently.", "Scientists have identified Earth's Energy Imbalance (EEI) to be a fundamental metric of the status of global change.In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term \"climate change\" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming.", "In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).", "The UNFCCC uses \"climate variability\" for non-human caused variations.Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages.", "These consist of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods.", "The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature.", "Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period.", "Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.", "However, these naturally caused changes in climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change which is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities.According to the EU's Copernicus Climate Change Service, average global air temperature has passed 1.5C of warming the period from February 2023 to January 2024." ], [ "Climate models", "Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and transfer of radiative energy between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice through a series of physics equations.", "They are used for a variety of purposes, from the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate.", "All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth.", "Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth.Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km.", "High resolutions in global climate models require significant computational resources, and so only a few global datasets exist.", "Global climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled to regional climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale.", "Examples are ICON or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas).The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to infer the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas).", "These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex.", "Simple radiant heat transfer models treat the earth as a single point and average outgoing energy.", "This can be expanded vertically (as in radiative-convective models), or horizontally.", "Finally, more complex (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange." ], [ "See also", "* Climate inertia* Climate Prediction Center* Climatic map* Climograph* Ecosystem* Effect of Sun angle on climate* Greenhouse effect* List of climate scientists* List of weather records* Microclimate* National Climatic Data Center* Outline of meteorology* Tectonic–climatic interaction" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* .", "AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – IPCC ** * ** * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Reumert, Johannes: \"Vahls climatic divisions.", "An explanation\" (''Geografisk Tidsskrift'', Band 48; 1946)* The Study of Climate on Alien Worlds; Characterizing atmospheres beyond our Solar System is now within our reach Kevin Heng July–August 2012 American Scientist" ], [ "External links", "* NOAA Climate Services Portal* NOAA State of the Climate* NASA's Climate change and global warming portal* Climate Prediction Project* Climate index and mode information – Arctic* Climate: Data and charts for world and US locations* IPCC Data Distribution Centre – Climate data and guidance on use.", "* HistoricalClimatology.com – Past, present and future climates – 2013.", "* Globalclimatemonitor – Contains climatic information from 1901.", "* ClimateCharts – Webapplication to generate climate charts for recent and historical data.", "* International Disaster Database* Paris Climate Conference" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of the Comoros''' extends to about 800–1000 AD when the archipelago was first inhabited.", "The Comoros have been inhabited by various groups throughout this time.", "France colonised the islands in the 19th century, and they became independent in 1975." ], [ "Early inhabitants", "There is uncertainty about the early population of Comoros.", "According to one study of early crops, the islands may have been settled first by South East Asian sailors the same way Madagascar was.Chronological dispersal of Austronesian peoples across the Indo-PacificThis influx of Austronesian sailors, who had earlier settled nearby Madagascar, arrived in the 8th to 13 centuries CE.", "They are the source for the earliest archeological evidence of farming in the islands.", "Crops from archeological sites in Sima are predominantly rice strains of both ''indica'' and ''japonica'' varieties from Southeast Asia, as well as various other Asian crops like mung bean and cotton.", "Only a minority of the examined crops were African-derived, like finger millet, African sorghum, and cowpea.", "The Comoros are believed to be the first site of contact and subsequent admixture between African and Asian populations (earlier than Madagascar).", "Comorians today still display at most 20% Austronesian admixture.From around the 15th century AD, Shirazi slave traders established trading ports and brought in slaves from the mainland.", "In the 16th century, social changes on the East African coast probably linked to the arrival of the Portuguese saw the arrival of a number of Arabs of Hadrami who established alliances with the Shirazis and founded several royal clans.Over the centuries, the Comoros have been settled by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Southeast Asia and Madagascar.===Europeans===Map of Anjouan (1748) by French hydrographer Jacques Nicolas BellinPortuguese explorers first visited the archipelago in 1505.Apart from a visit by the French Parmentier brothers in 1529, for much of the 16th century the only Europeans to visit the islands were Portuguese.", "British and Dutch ships began arriving around the start of the 17th century and the island of Ndzwani soon became a major supply point on the route to the East Indies.", "Ndzwani was generally ruled by a single sultan, who occasionally attempted to extend his authority to Mayotte and Mwali; Ngazidja was more fragmented, on occasion being divided into as many as 12 small kingdoms.Sir James Lancaster's voyage to the Indian Ocean in 1591 was the first attempt by the English to break into the spice trade, which was dominated by the Portuguese.", "Only one of his four ships made it back from the Indies on that voyage, and that one with a decimated crew of 5 men and a boy.", "Lancaster himself was marooned by a cyclone on the Comoros.", "Many of his crew were speared to death by angry islanders although Lancaster found his way home in 1594.", "(Dalrymple W. 2019; Bloomsbury Publishing ).Both the British and the French turned their attention to the Comoros islands in the middle of the 19th century.", "The French finally acquired the islands through a cunning mixture of strategies, including the policy of \"divide and conquer\", chequebook politics and a serendipitous affair between a sultana and a French trader that was put to good use by the French, who kept control of the islands, quelling unrest and the occasional uprising.William Sunley, a planter and British Consul from 1848 to 1866, was an influence on Anjouan." ], [ "French Comoros", "France's presence in the western Indian Ocean dates to the early 17th century.", "The French established a settlement in southern Madagascar in 1634 and occupied the islands of Réunion and Rodrigues; in 1715 France claimed Mauritius (), and in 1756 Seychelles.", "When France ceded Mauritius, Rodrigues, and Seychelles to Britain in 1814, it lost its Indian Ocean ports; Reunion, which remained French, did not offer a suitable natural harbor.", "In 1840 France acquired the island of Nosy-Be off the northwestern coast of Madagascar, but its potential as a port was limited.", "In 1841 the governor of Reunion, Admiral de Hell, negotiated with Andrian Souli, the Malagasy ruler of Mayotte, to cede Mayotte to France.", "Mahore offered a suitable site for port facilities, and its acquisition was justified by de Hell on the grounds that if France did not act, Britain would occupy the island.", "Although France had established a foothold in Comoros, the acquisition of the other islands proceeded fitfully.", "At times the French were spurred on by the threat of British intervention, especially on Nzwani, and at other times, by the constant anarchy resulting from the sultans' wars upon each other.", "In the 1880s, Germany's growing influence on the East African coast added to the concerns of the French.", "Not until 1908, however, did the four Comoro Islands become part of France's colony of Madagascar and not until 1912 did the last sultan abdicate.", "Then, a colonial administration took over the islands and established a capital at Dzaoudzi on Mahore.", "Treaties of protectorate status marked a transition point between independence and annexation; such treaties were signed with the rulers of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali in 1886.The effects of French colonialism were mixed, at best.", "Colonial rule brought an end to the institution of Slavery in the Comoros, but economic and social differences between former slaves and free persons and their descendants persisted.", "Health standards improved with the introduction of modern medicine, and the population increased about 50 percent between 1900 and 1960.France continued to dominate the economy.", "Food crop cultivation was neglected as French (companies) established cash crop plantations in the coastal regions.", "The result was an economy dependent on the exporting of vanilla, ylang-ylang, cloves, cocoa, copra, and other tropical crops.", "Most profits obtained from exports were diverted to France rather than invested in the infrastructure of the islands.", "Development was further limited by the colonial government's practice of concentrating public services on Madagascar.", "One consequence of this policy was the migration of large numbers of Comorans to Madagascar, where their presence would be a long-term source of tension between Comoros and its giant island neighbor.", "The Shirazi elite continued to play a prominent role as large landowners and civil servants.", "On the eve of independence, Comoros remained poor and undeveloped, having only one secondary school and practically nothing in the way of national media.", "Isolated from important trade routes by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, having few natural resources, and largely neglected by France, the islands were poorly equipped for independence.", "On September 25 1942, British forces landed in the Comoros, occupying them until October 13 1946.In 1946 the Comoro Islands became an overseas department of France with representation in the French National Assembly.", "The following year, the islands' administrative ties to Madagascar were severed; Comoros established its own customs regime in 1952.A Governing Council was elected in August 1957 on the four islands in conformity with the loi-cadre (enabling law) of June 23, 1956.A constitution providing for internal self-government was promulgated in 1961, following a 1958 referendum in which Comorans voted overwhelmingly to remain a part of France.", "This government consisted of a territorial assembly having, in 1975, thirty-nine members, and a Governing Council of six to nine ministers responsible to it.Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978.On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence.", "The deputies of Mayotte abstained.In 1961 the Comoros was granted autonomous rule and, in 1975, it broke all ties with France and established itself as an independent republic.", "From the very beginning Mayotte refused to join the new republic and aligned itself even more firmly to the French Republic, but the other islands remained committed to independence.", "The first president of the Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah Abderemane, did not last long before being ousted in a coup d'état by Ali Soilih, an atheist with an Islamic background.Soilih began with a set of solid socialist ideals designed to modernize the country.", "However, the regime faced problems.", "A French mercenary by the name of Bob Denard, arrived in the Comoros at dawn on 13 May 1978, and removed Soilih from power.", "Solih was shot and killed during the coup.", "The mercenaries returned Abdallah to power and the mercenaries were given key positions in government.In two referendums, in December 1974 and February 1976, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively).", "Mayotte thus remains under French administration, and the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli.Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops." ], [ "Abdallah regime", "In 1978, president Ali Soilih, who had a firm anti-French line, was killed and Ahmed Abdallah came to power.", "Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and ''de facto'' ruler of the country.", "He was trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in South Africa (SA) and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in return for permission to set up a secret listening post on the islands.", "South-African agents kept an ear on the important ANC bases in Lusaka and Dar es Salaam and watched the war in Mozambique, in which SA played an active role.", "The Comoros were also used for the evasion of arms sanctions.When in 1981 François Mitterrand was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros.", "Besides the military, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, for both the security and construction, and seemed to profit by the arrangement.", "Between 1985 and 1987 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not wish to continue to support the mercenary regime and France was in agreement.", "Also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave.", "Their response was a (third) coup resulting in the death of President Abdallah, in which Denard and his men were probably involved.", "South Africa and the French government subsequently forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989." ], [ "1989–1996", "Said Mohamed Djohar became president.", "His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.On September 28, 1995 Bob Denard and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercenaries) against President Djohar.", "France immediately and severely denounced the coup, and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the Comoros, President Jacques Chirac ordered his special forces to retake the island.", "Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion.", "A new presidential guard was created.", "Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the island's two airports.On October 3, 1995, 11 p.m., the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300-man dissident force.", "Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight.", "Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni were secured.", "By 3:00 p.m. the next day Bob Denard and his mercenaries had surrendered.", "This (response) operation, codenamed ''Azalée'', was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed.", "Denard was taken to France and jailed.", "Prime minister Caambi El-Yachourtu became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January, 1996.In March 1996, following presidential elections, Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim, a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president.", "On 23 November 1996, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961 crashed near a beach on the island after it was hijacked and ran out of fuel killing 125 people and leaving 50 survivors." ], [ "Secession of Anjouan and Mohéli", "In 1997, the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from the Comoros.", "A subsequent attempt by the government to re-establish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the African Union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation.", "This process is largely complete, at least in theory.", "According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998.In 1999, Anjouan had internal conflicts and on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, transferring power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid.", "The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001.Mohamed Bacar soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country.", "Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Bacar's government remained in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with the Comoros.", "Presidential elections were held for all of the Comoros in 2002, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which have become a confederation.", "Most notably, Mohammed Bacar was elected for a 5-year term as president of Anjouan.", "Grande Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, when President Taki died on November 6, 1998.Colonel Azali Assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999.There have been several coup attempts since, but he gained firm control of the country after stepping down temporarily and winning a presidential election in 2002.In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi was elected from the island of Anjouan to be the president of the Union of the Comoros.", "He is a Sunni cleric who studied in the Sudan, Iran and Saudi Arabia.", "He is nicknamed \"Ayatollah\" due to his time in Iran and his penchant for turbans." ], [ "2007–2008 Anjouan crisis" ], [ "Azali Assoumani in power since 2016", "Azali Assoumani is a former army officer, first came to power in a coup in 1999.Then he won presidency in 2002 election, having power until 2006.After ten years, he was elected again in 2016 election.", "In March 2019, he was re-elected in the elections opposition claimed to be full of irregularities.Before the 2019 election president Azali Assoumani had arranged a constitutional referendum in 2018 that approved extending the presidential mandate from one five-year term to two.", "The opposition had boycotted the referendum.In January 2020, his party The Convention for the Renewal of the Comoros (CRC) won 20 out of 24 parliamentary seats in the parliamentary election.On 18 February 2023 the Comoros assumed the presidency of the African Union.", "In January 2024, President Azali Assoumani was re-elected with 63% of the vote in the disputed presidential election." ], [ "See also", "*List of heads of state of the Comoros*List of heads of government of the Comoros*History of Africa*History of Southern Africa*Politics of the Comoros" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "*'''Attribution:'''*===Further reading===* Walker, Iain.", "''Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros'' (Oxford University Press, 2019) online review.", "* Wright, Henry T., et al.", "\"Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: The Dembeni phase of the IXth-Xth centuries AD.\"", "''AZANIA: Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa'' 19.1 (1984): 13–59." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of all islandsLocation of Comoros (in circle)Map of Comoros and Southern AfricaMap of AnjouanMap of MoheliThe '''Comoros archipelago''' consists of four main islands aligned along a northwest–southeast axis at the north end of the Mozambique Channel, between Mozambique and the island of Madagascar.", "Still widely known by their French names, the islands officially have been called by their Swahili names by the Comorian government.", "They are Grande Comore (Njazidja), Mohéli (Mwali), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Mayotte (Mahoré).", "The islands' distance from each other—Grande Comore is some 200 kilometers from Mayotte, forty kilometers from Mohéli, and eighty kilometers from Anjouan—along with a lack of good harbor facilities, make transportation and communication difficult.", "Comoros are sunny islands." ], [ "Details", "The islands have a total land area of 2,236 square kilometers (including Mayotte), and claim territorial waters of 320 square kilometers.", "Mount Karthala (2316 m) on Grande Comore is an active volcano.", "From April 17 to 19, 2005, the volcano began spewing ash and gas, forcing as many as 10,000 people to flee.", "Comoros is located within the Somali plate." ], [ "Grande Comore", "Grande Comore is the largest island, sixty-seven kilometers long and twenty-seven kilometers wide, with a total area of 1,146 square kilometers.", "The most recently formed of the four islands in the archipelago, it is also of volcanic origin.", "Two volcanoes form the island's most prominent topographic features: La Grille in the north, with an elevation of 1,000 meters, is extinct and largely eroded; Kartala in the south, rising to a height of 2,361 meters, last erupted in 1977.A plateau averaging 600 to 700 meters high connects the two mountains.", "Because Grande Comore is geologically a relatively new island, its soil is thin and rocky and cannot hold water.", "As a result, water from the island's heavy rainfall must be stored in catchment tanks.", "There are no coral reefs along the coast, and the island lacks a good harbor for ships.", "One of the largest remnants of the Comoros' once-extensive rain forests is on the slopes of Kartala.", "The national capital has been at Moroni since 1962." ], [ "Anjouan", "Anjouan, triangular shaped and forty kilometers from apex to base, has an area of 424 square kilometers.", "Three mountain chains — Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime—emanate from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 m), giving the island its distinctive shape.", "Older than Grande Comore, Anjouan has deeper soil cover, but overcultivation has caused serious erosion.", "A coral reef lies close to shore; the island's capital of Mutsamudu is also its main port." ], [ "Mohéli", "Mohéli is thirty kilometers long and twelve kilometers wide, with an area of 290 square kilometers.", "It is the smallest of the four islands and has a central mountain chain reaching 860 meters at its highest.", "Like Grande Comore, it retains stands of rain forest.", "Mohéli's capital is Fomboni." ], [ "Mayotte", "Mayotte, geologically the oldest of the four islands, is thirty-nine kilometers long and twenty-two kilometers wide, totaling 375 square kilometers, and its highest points are between 500 and 600 meters above sea level.", "Because of greater weathering of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas.", "A well-developed coral reef that encircles much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish.", "Dzaoudzi, capital of the Comoros until 1962 and now Mayotte's administrative center, is situated on a rocky outcropping off the east shore of the main island.", "Dzaoudzi is linked by a causeway to le Pamanzi, which at ten kilometers in area is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mayotte.", "Islets are also scattered in the coastal waters of Mayotte just as in Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Comorian waters are the habitat of the coelacanth, a rare fish with limblike fins and a cartilaginous skeleton, the fossil remains of which date as far back as 400 million years and which was once thought to have become extinct about 70 million years ago.", "A live specimen was caught in 1938 off southern Africa; other coelacanths have since been found in the vicinity of the Comoro Islands.Several mammals are unique to the islands themselves.", "Livingstone's fruit bat, although plentiful when discovered by explorer David Livingstone in 1863, has been reduced to a population of about 120, entirely on Anjouan.", "The world's largest bat, the jet-black Livingstone fruit bat has a wingspan of nearly two meters.", "A British preservation group sent an expedition to the Comoros in 1992 to bring some of the bats to Britain to establish a breeding population.A hybrid of the common brown lemur (''Eulemur fulvus'') originally from Madagascar, was introduced by humans prior to European colonization and is found on Mayotte.", "The mongoose lemur (''Eulemur mongoz''), also introduced from Madagascar by humans, can be found on the islands of Mohéli and Anjouan.22 species of bird are unique to the archipelago and 17 of these are restricted to the Union of the Comoros.", "These include the Karthala scops-owl, Anjouan scops-owl and Humblot's flycatcher.Partly in response to international pressures, Comorians in the 1990s have become more concerned about the environment.", "Steps are being taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to counteract degradation of the environment, especially on densely populated Anjouan.", "Specifically, to minimize the cutting down of trees for fuel, kerosene is being subsidized, and efforts are being made to replace the loss of the forest cover caused by ylang-ylang distillation for perfume.", "The Community Development Support Fund, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a World Bank affiliate) and the Comorian government, is working to improve water supply on the islands as well." ], [ "Climate", "The climate is marine tropical, with two seasons: hot and humid from November to April, the result of the northeastern monsoon, and a cooler, drier season the rest of the year.", "Average monthly temperatures range from along the coasts.", "Although the average annual precipitation is , water is a scarce commodity in many parts of the Comoros.", "Mohéli and Mayotte possess streams and other natural sources of water, but Grande Comore and Anjouan, whose mountainous landscapes retain water poorly, are almost devoid of naturally occurring running water.", "Cyclones, occurring during the hot and wet season, can cause extensive damage, especially in coastal areas.", "On the average, at least twice each decade houses, farms, and harbor facilities are devastated by these great storms." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of the Comoros, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "This list excludes the French-administered island of Mayotte which is claimed by the Comorian government.", "* Northernmost point – unnamed headland north-west of Bangoua Kouni, Grande Comore* Easternmost point – unnamed peninsula east of Domoni, Anjouan* Southernmost point - unnamed headland on Ile Canzouni, Mohéli* Westernmost point - unnamed headland west of Iconi, Grande Comore" ], [ "Statistics", "'''Area:'''2,235 km2'''Coastline:'''340 km'''Climate:'''tropical marine; rainy season (November to May)'''Terrain:'''volcanic islands, interiors vary from steep mountains to low hills'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Indian Ocean 0 m''highest point:''Karthala 2,360 m'''Natural resources:'''fish'''Land use:'''''arable land:''47.29%''permanent crops:''29.55%''other:''23.16% (2012 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''1.3 km2 (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''1.2 km3 (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:''0.01 km3/yr (48%/5%/47%)''per capital:''16.86 m3/yr (1999)'''Natural hazards:'''cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); volcanic activity on Grand Comore'''Environmental - current issues:'''soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation" ], [ "References", "=== Literature cited ===* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesThe Comorians () inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins.", "Islam is the dominant religion, and Quranic schools for children reinforce its influence.", "Although Islamic culture is firmly established throughout, a small minority are Christian.The most common language is Comorian, related to Swahili.", "French and Arabic also are spoken.", "About 89% of the population is literate.The Comoros have had eight censuses since World War II:* 1951* 1956* 1958-09-07: 183,133* 1966-07-06* Note: in 1974 Mayotte was removed from the Comoros* 1980-09-15: 335,150* 1991-09-15: 446,817* 2003-09-15: 575,660* 2017-12-15: 758,316The latest official estimate (for 1 July 2020) is 897,219.Population density figures conceal a great disparity between the republic's most crowded island, Nzwani, which had a density of 772 persons per square kilometer in 2017; Njazidja, which had a density of 331 persons per square kilometer in 2017; and Mwali, where the 2017 population density figure was 178 persons per square kilometer.", "By comparison, estimates of the population density per square kilometer of the Indian Ocean's other island microstates ranged from 241 (Seychelles) to 690 (Maldives) in 1993.Given the rugged terrain of Njazidja and Nzwani, and the dedication of extensive tracts to agriculture on all three islands, population pressures on the Comoros are becoming increasingly critical.The age structure of the population of the Comoros is similar to that of many developing countries, in that the republic has a very large proportion of young people.", "In 1989, 46.4 percent of the population was under fifteen years of age, an above-average proportion even for sub-Saharan Africa.", "The population's rate of growth was a relatively high 3.5 percent per annum in the mid 1980s, up substantially from 2.0 percent in the mid-1970s and 2.1 percent in the mid-1960s.In 1983 the Abdallah regime borrowed US$2.85 million from the International Development Association to devise a national family planning program.", "However, Islamic reservations about contraception made forthright advocacy and implementation of birth control programs politically hazardous, and consequently little was done in the way of public policy.The Comorian population has become increasingly urbanized in recent years.", "In 1991 the percentage of Comorians residing in cities and towns of more than 5,000 persons was about 30 percent, up from 25 percent in 1985 and 23 percent in 1980.The Comoros' largest cities were the capital, Moroni, with about 30,000 people, and the port city of Mutsamudu, on the island of Nzwani, with about 20,000 people.Migration among the various islands is important.", "Natives of Nzwani have settled in significant numbers on less crowded Mwali, causing some social tensions, and many Nzwani also migrate to Maore.", "In 1977 Maore expelled peasants from Ngazidja and Nzwani who had recently settled in large numbers on the island.", "Some were allowed to reenter starting in 1981 but solely as migrant labor.The number of Comorians living abroad has been estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000; during the colonial period, most of them lived in Tanzania, Madagascar, and other parts of Southeast Africa.", "The number of Comorians residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comorian rioting in December 1976 in Mahajanga, in which at least 1,400 Comorians were killed.", "As many as 17,000 Comorians left Madagascar to seek refuge in their native land in 1977 alone.", "About 100,000 Comorians live in France; many of them had gone there for a university education and never returned.", "Small numbers of Indians, Malagasy, South Africans, and Europeans (mostly French) live on the islands and play an important role in the economy.", "Most French left after independence in 1975.Some Persian Gulf countries started buying Comorian citizenship for their stateless bidoon residents and deporting them to Comoros." ], [ "Population", "FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.===UN population projections===" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Statistics :PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR*CDR*NC*TFR*IMR* 1950–1955 8 000 4 000 4 00046.824.022.86.00178 1955–1960 9 000 4 000 5 00048.922.926.06.60167 1960–1965 10 000 4 000 6 00048.020.827.26.91154 1965–1970 11 000 4 000 6 00046.818.927.97.05141 1970–1975 12 000 4 000 8 00046.816.929.87.05127 1975–1980 14 000 5 000 10 00047.915.632.37.05116 1980–1985 17 000 5 000 12 00048.614.334.47.05106 1985–1990 16 000 5 000 11 00039.612.127.56.0095 1990–1995 17 000 5 000 12 00036.611.025.65.3089 1995–2000 20 000 6 000 15 00038.610.628.05.3083 2000–2005 24 000 6 000 18 00040.210.130.05.3078 2005–2010 27 000 7 000 20 00039.09.429.55.0872 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Fertility and Births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1996 33.9 5.1 (3.7) 28.9 4.1 (3.1) 35.8 5.5 (4.0) 2012 32.3 4.3 (3.2) 27.7 3.5 (2.5) 34.5 4.8 (3.5)Structure of the population (DHS 2012) (Males 11 088, Females 12 284 = 23 373) :Age GroupMale (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–4 15.5 13.6 14.5 5–9 15.0 13.8 14.4 10–14 13.9 11.8 12.8 15–19 10.1 11.2 10.7 20–24 6.8 8.6 7.8 25–29 5.4 7.8 6.7 30–34 5.8 6.5 6.2 35–39 6.0 5.4 5.7 40–44 4.5 4.0 4.2 45–49 3.2 2.5 2.9 50–54 2.9 4.9 3.9 55–59 1.7 2.2 2.0 60–64 3.3 2.6 2.9 65–69 1.5 1.3 1.4 70–74 2.3 1.7 2.0 75–79 0.8 0.8 0.8 80+ 1.2 1.3 1.3 Unknown 0.1 0.1 0.1Age group Male (%)Female (%)Total (%) 0–14 44.4 39.2 41.7 15–64 49.7 55.6 52.7 65+ 5.8 5.1 5.5Fertility data as of 2012 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 Mohéli 5.0 6.8 6.3 Anjouan 5.2 6.7 5.8 Grande Comore 3.5 6.5 4.6" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 19 minutes\t*One death every 85 minutes\t*One net migrant every 288 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 27 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.", "===Population===:876,437 (2022 est.", "):821,164 (July 2018 est.", "):690,948 (July 2006 est.", ")===Religions===Sunni Muslim 98%, other (including Shia Muslim, Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Protestant) 2%note: Sunni Islam is the state religion===Age structure===Population pyramid of Comoros in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 36.68% (male 154,853/female 155,602):''15-24 years:'' 20.75% (male 85,208/female 90,422):''25-54 years:'' 33.99% (male 136,484/female 151,178):''55-64 years:'' 4.49% (male 17,237/female 20,781):''65 years and over:'' 4.08% (male 15,437/female 19,079) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 38.54% (male 157,764 /female 158,676):''15-24 years:'' 19.89% (male 79,133 /female 84,181):''25-54 years:'' 33.25% (male 129,645 /female 143,408):''55-64 years:'' 4.34% (male 15,957 /female 19,690):''65 years and over:'' 3.98% (male 14,881 /female 17,829) (2018 est.", "):''0–14 years:'' 42.7% (male 148,009/female 147,038):''15–64 years:'' 54.3% (male 185,107/female 190,139):''65 years and over:'' 3% (male 9,672/female 10,983) (2006 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 20.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 188th:male: 20.2 years:female: 21.5 years (2020 est.", "):total: 20.2 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 188th:male: 19.5 years :female: 20.8 years (2018 est.", "):Total: 18.6 years:Male: 18.4 years:Female: 18.9 years (2006 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:1.37% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 70th:1.57% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 66th:2.87% (2006 est.", ")===Birth rate===:22.52 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 55th:25.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 49th===Death rate===:6.55 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 135th:7.1 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 125th===Net migration rate===:-2.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 172nd:-2.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 168th===Total fertility rate===:2.78 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 56th:3.21 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 46th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:23 years (2012 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:19.4% (2012)===Dependency ratios===total dependency ratio: 75.5 (2015 est.", ")youth dependency ratio: 70.5 (2015 est.", ")elderly dependency ratio: 5.1 (2015 est.", ")potential support ratio: 19.7 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 29.9% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 2.97% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 29% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 2.87% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female:15–64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 67.2 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd:male: 64.93 years:female: 69.54 years (2022 est.", "):Total population: 62.33 years:Male: 60 years:Female: 64.72 years (2006 est.", ")===HIV/AIDS===:Adult prevalence rate: 0.12% (2001 est.", "):People living with HIV/AIDS: NA:Deaths: NA===Nationality===:Noun: Comorian(s):Adjective: Comorian===Languages===:Arabic (official), French (official), Comorian (official)===Literacy===:definition: age 15 and over can read and write:total population: 58.8%:male: 64.6%:female: 53% (2018):Definition: age 15 and over who can read and write:total population: 77.8% (2015 est.", "):male: 81.8% (2015 est.", "):female: 73.7% (2015 est.", "):Total population: 56.5%:Male: 63.6%:Female: 49.3% (2003 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 11 years (2014):male: 11 years (2014):female: 11 years (2014)" ], [ "See also", "* Demographics of Mayotte* Islam in the Comoros" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "Islands of the Union of the Comoros : Njazidja, Mwali (Moheli) and Nzwani (Anjouan)The Union of the Comoros consists of the three islands Njazidja (Grande Comoros), Mwali (Moheli) and Nzwani (Anjouan) while the island of Mayotte remains under French administration.", "'''The Politics of the Union of the Comoros''' take place in a framework of a unitary presidential republic, whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.", "The precolonial legacies of the sultanates linger while the political situation in Comoros has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in 1975, subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection.As of 2008, Comoros and Mauritania were considered by US-based organization Freedom House as the only real “electoral democracies” of the Arab World." ], [ "Precolonial and Colonial Political Structures<ref name=\":1\">{{Cite journal|last=Walker|first=Iain|date=2007|title=What Came First, the Nation or the State? Political Process in the Comoro Islands|journal=Africa: Journal of the International African Institute|volume=77|issue=4|pages=582–605|issn=0001-9720|jstor=40027276|doi=10.3366/afr.2007.77.4.582|s2cid=143860412}}</ref>", "Sultanates in the late nineteenth century used a cyclic age system and hierarchical lineage membership to provide the foundation for participation in the political process.", "In the capital, \"the sultan was assisted by his ministers and by a madjelis, an advisory council composed of elders, whom he consulted regularly\".", "Apart from local administration, the age system was used to include the population in decision making, depending on the scope of the decision being made.", "For example, the elders of the island of Njazidja held considerable influence on the authority of the sultan.", "Though sultanates granted rights to their free inhabitants, were provided with warriors during war and taxed the towns under their authority, their definition as a state is open to debate.", "The islands' incorporation as a province of the colony of Madagascar into the French colonial empire marked the end of the sultanates.Despite French colonization, Comorans identify first with kinship or regional ties and rarely ever with the central government.", "This is a lingering effect of the sovereign sultanates of pre-colonial times.", "French colonial administration was based on a misconception that the sultanates operated as absolute monarchs: district boundaries were the same as the sultanates', multiple new taxes forced men into wage labor on colonial plantations and was reinforced through a compulsory public labor system that had little effect on infrastructure.", "French policy was hampered by an absence of settlers, effective communication across islands, rough geographical terrain and hostility towards the colonial government.", "Policies were made to apply to Madagascar as a whole and seldom to the nuances of each province: civil servants were typically Christian, unaware of local customs and unable to speak the local language.", "The French established the Ouatou Akouba in 1915, a local form of governance based on \"customary structures\" already in place that attempted to model itself after the age system in place under the sultanates.", "Their understanding of the elders' council as a corporate group bypassed the reality that there were men \"who had accomplished the necessary customary rituals to be accorded the status of elder and thus be eligible to participate in the political process in the village\", which effectively rendered the French elders' council ineffective.", "Though the Ouatou Akouba was disbanded, it resulted in the consolidation and formalization of the age system as access to power in the customary and local government spheres.", "The French failure to establish a functioning state in the Comoros has had repercussions in the post-independence era." ], [ "Post-independence", "At independence there were five main political parties: OUDZIMA, UMMA, the Comoro People's Democratic Rally, the Comoro National Liberation Movement and the Socialist Objective Party.", "The political groups previously known simply as the 'green' and 'white' party became the Rassemblement Démocratique du Peuple Comorien (RDPC) and the Union Démocratique des Comores (UDC), headed by Sayyid Muhammad Cheikh and Sayyid Ibrahim.", "Members from both parties later merged to form OUDZIMA under the leadership of first president Ahmad Abdallah while dissidents from both created UMMA under the leadership of future president Ali Soilih.Prince Said Ibrahim took power in 1970 but was democratically elected out of office in 1972 in favor of former French senator Ahmed Abdallah.", "President Abdallah declared independence for all islands, except Mayotte which remained under French administration, in 1975.The threat of renewed socioeconomic marginalization following the transfer of the capital to Ngazidja in 1962, more than social or cultural differences, underlay the island's subsequent rejection of independence.", "France withdrew all economic and technical support for the now independent state, which would encourage a revolutionary regime under future president Ali Soilih.", "French military and financial aid to mercenaries brought Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar to power after the United National Front of the Comoros (FNU) party toppled Abdallah's government.", "This mercenary coup was unique in that, unlike other coups on the continent, it was \"uninspired by any ideological convictions\".", "The Jaffar regime's inefficient distribution of resources and poor mismanagement was shown through the expulsion of French civil servants as well as endemic unemployment and food shortages.", "The regime used famine as \"an opportunity to switch food patronage from France to the World Food Programme's emergency aid\".President Jaffar's ousting by Minister of Defense and Justice, Ali Soilih, brought about the \"periode noire\" (dark period) of the country; you could vote at 14, most civil servants were dismissed and there was a ban on some Islamic customs.", "He implemented revolutionary social reforms such as replacing French with Shikomoro, burning down the national archives and nationalizing land.", "His government received support from Egypt, Iraq and Sudan.", "Soilih's attacks on religious and customary authority contributed to his eventual ousting through a French-backed coup consisting of mercenaries and ex-politicians who together formed the Politico Military Doctorate.Abdallah was reinstated and constructed a mercantile state by resuscitating the structures of the colonial era.", "His establishment of a one party state and intolerance for dissent further alienated civil society from the state.", "In May 1978 the Comoros were renamed the Islamic Republic of the Comoros and continued strengthening ties with the Arab world which resulted in their joining the Arab League.", "Abdallah's government sought to reverse Soilih's 'de-sacralization' by re-introducing the grand marriage, declaring Arabic the second official language behind French, and creating the office of the Grand Mufti.", "The doctorate & compromise government was dissolved, constitutional changes removed succession from a politician and neutralized the post of another possible challenger in abolishing the position of Prime Minister, which effectively cemented a client-patron network by making the civil service position dependent on Abdallah's political base.", "The Democratic Front's (DF) internal opposition to Abdallah was suppressed through the incarceration of over 600 people allegedly involved in a failed coup attempt.", "Abdallah then stocked the House of Assembly with loyal clientelist supporters through rigged parliamentary elections.", "All of these actions effectively consolidated Abdallah's position.Muhammed Djohar succeeded president Abdallah after his assassination in 1989 but was evacuated by French troops after a failed coup attempt in 1996.The Comoros were led by Muhammed Taki Abd al-Karim beginning in 1996 and he was followed by interim president Said Massunde who eventually gave way to Assoumani Azali.", "Taki's lack of Arab heritage led to his lack of understanding Nzwani's cultural differences and economic problems, as seen by the establishment of the elders council with only loyal Taki supporters.", "As a result, the council was ignored by the true elders of the island.", "After Taki's death, a military coup in 1999, the nation's eighteenth since independence in 1975, installed Azali in to power.", "Colonel Azali Assoumani seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde, who himself had held the office since the death of democratically elected President Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim in November, 1998.In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers.", "Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, Bainrifi Tarmidi, in December 1999; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander.", "In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, Hamada Madi, and formed a new civilian Cabinet.", "When Azali took power he also pledged to step down in April 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president—a pledge with mixed results.", "Under Mohammed Taki and Assoumani Azali, access to the state was used to support client networks which led to crumbling infrastructure that cultivated in the islands of Nzwani and Mwali declaring independence only to be stopped by French troops.", "Azali lacked the social obligations required to address the elders and when combined with his gross mismanagement and increasing economic and social dependence on foreign entities, made managing daily life near nonexistent in the state.", "Therefore, local administrative structures began popping up and drifting away from reliance on the state, funded by remittances from the expatriate community in France.Azali Assoumani is a former army officer, first came to power in a coup in 1999.Then he won presidency in 2002 election, having power until 2006.After ten years, he was elected again in 2016 election.", "In March 2019, he was re-elected in the elections opposition claimed to be full of irregularities.Before the 2019 election president Azali Assoumani had arranged a constitutional referendum in 2018 that approved extending the presidential mandate from one five-year term to two.", "The opposition had boycotted the referendum.In January 2020, his party The Convention for the Renewal of the Comoros (CRC) won 20 out of 24 parliamentary seats in the parliamentary election.On 18 February 2023 the Comoros assumed the presidency of the African Union.", "In January 2024, President Azali Assoumani was re-elected with 63% of the vote in the disputed presidential election.The Comoros Islands have experienced five different constitutions." ], [ "First Constitution: Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, 1978-1989<ref name=\"Countries-2005\" />", "* No parliamentary or popular participation* Intended to provide unity and promote economic growth.", "* Islands were known as governorates, independent entities with Island Council's and elected governor's that served four year terms, appointed commissioners, and handled the financial and social matters of the island.", "* Offices at the national level and positions of central government were divided among the three islands.", "Under this constitution, the unicameral government did not represent the islands in a chamber and gave the governors and federal government authority over the islands.", "* Issues under this constitution included an uneven distribution of resources between governorates and the federal government which lead to limited autonomy in the independent management of each island.", "Foreign aid required approval of the federal executive, further exacerbating this issue.", "* Revised in 1983, 1984, and 1989 which resulted in the elimination of the Prime Minister position." ], [ "Second Constitution: Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, 1992 - 1999<ref name=\"Countries-2005\" />", "* Consulted civil society and political parties.", "Governors and Island Council's now elected for five year terms, with the latter in charge of the island's finances.", "* Between 30 and 40% of taxes went to the federal budget with the rest proportionately divided among the islands.", "* The Central government was in charge of the armed forces and national policies and could be terminated through a vote of non-confidence in the Federal Assembly, whose members were elected for four years.", "* This constitution created a Senate of equal representation for the islands where members were elected for six year terms and could collectively challenge policy passed by the Federal Assembly.", "* The Constitutional Council oversaw elections and the constitutionality of proceedings in the islands.", "* The Council of Ulenma promoted Islam.", "* Judicial power was independent from the executive and legislative branches." ], [ "Third Constitution: The Union of the Comoros, 2001<ref name=\"Countries-2005\" />", "* Federal Assembly dissolved* President of the Union elected to five year terms and appoints Prime Minister to serve as head of government.", "* President Azali did not elect a head of government and thus was both the head of the state and government.", "The executive is known as the council of ministers and appointed by the president with each island having their own presidents.", "* Senate replaced with Assembly of the Union – 30 seats and five year terms.", "* Created a supreme court that was elected by the president, the Assembly of the Union, and the assembly of each island." ], [ "Fourth Constitution", "In a separate nod to pressure to restore civilian rule, the government organized several committees to compose a new constitution, including the August 2000 National Congress and November 2000 Tripartite Commission.", "The opposition parties initially refused to participate in the Tripartite Commission, but on 17 February, representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a \"Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros,\" brokered by the Organization for African UnityThe accord called for the creation of a new Tripartite Commission for National Reconciliation to develop a \"New Comorian Entity\" with a new constitution.", "The new federal Constitution came into effect in 2002; it included elements of consociationalism, including a presidency that rotates every four years among the islands and extensive autonomy for each island.", "Presidential elections were held in 2002, at which Azali Assoumani was elected president.", "In April 2004 legislative elections were held, completing the implementation of the new constitution.The new Union of the Comoros consists of three islands, Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli.", "Each island has a president, who shares the presidency of the Union on a rotating basis.", "The president and his vice-presidents are elected for a term of four years.", "The constitution states that, \"the islands enjoy financial autonomy, freely draw up and manage their budgets\".President Assoumani Azali of Grande Comore is the first Union president.", "President Mohamed Bacar of Anjouan formed his 13-member government at the end of April, 2003.On 15 May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi, a cleric and successful businessman educated in Iran, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, was declared the winner of elections for President of the Republic.", "He is considered a moderate Islamist and is called Ayatollah by his supporters.", "He beat out retired French air force officer Mohamed Djaanfari and long-time politician Ibrahim Halidi, whose candidacy was backed by Azali Assoumani, the outgoing president.A referendum took place on May 16, 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy.", "52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum.", "The referendum would cause each island's president to become a governor and the ministers to become councilors." ], [ "Autonomous islands", "The constitution gives Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli the right to govern most of their own affairs with their own presidents, except the activities assigned to the Union of the Comoros like Foreign Policy, Defense, Nationality, Banking and others.", "Comoros considers Mayotte, an overseas collectivity of France, to be part of its territory, with an autonomous status As of 2011, the three autonomous islands are subdivided into 16 prefectures, 54 communes, and 318 villes or villages." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PresidentAzali Assoumani26 May 2016The federal presidency is rotated between the islands' presidents.The Union of the Comoros abolished the position of Prime Minister in 2002.The position of Vice-President of the Comoros was used 2002–2019." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Assembly of the Union has 33 seats, 24 elected in single seat constituencies and 9 representatives of the regional assemblies." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, has two members appointed by the president, two members elected by the Federal Assembly, one by the Council of each island, and former presidents of the republic." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "International organization participation", "The Comoros are member of the ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AMF, African Union, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, InOC, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAS, NAM, OIC, OPCW (signatory), United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WMO." ], [ "See also", "*ISO 3166-2:KM" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "In large part thanks to international aid programs, Moroni has international telecommunications service.", "Telephone service, however, is largely limited to the islands' few towns." ], [ "Overview", "Telephones – main lines in use:5,000 (1995)Telephones – mobile cellular:0 (1995)Telephone system:sparse system of microwave radio relay and HF radiotelephone communication stations''domestic:''HF radiotelephone communications and microwave radio relayCMDA mobile network (Huri, operated by Comores Telecom)''international:''HF radiotelephone communications to Madagascar and RéunionRadio broadcast stations:AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)Radios:90,000 (1997)Television broadcast stations:0 (1998)Televisions:1,000 (1997)Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)Country code (Top-level domain): KM" ], [ "Special projects", "In October 2011 the State of Qatar launched a special program for the construction of a wireless network to interconnect the three islands of the archipelago, by means of low cost, repeatable technology.", "The project has been developed by Qatar University and Politecnico di Torino, under the supervision of prof. Mazen Hasna and prof. Daniele Trinchero, with a major participation of local actors (Comorian Government, NRTIC, University of the Comoros).", "The project has been referred as an example of technology transfer and Sustainable Inclusion in developing countries" ], [ "External links", "* GSM World page on the Comoros* PanAfriL10n page on the Comoros" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "There are a number of systems of '''transport in the Comoros'''.", "The Comoros possesses of road, of which are paved.", "It has three seaports: Fomboni, Moroni and Moutsamoudou, but does not have a merchant marine, and no longer has any railway network.", "It has four airports, all with paved runways, one with runways over long, with the others having runways shorter than .The isolation of the Comoros had made air traffic a major means of transportation.", "One of President Abdallah's accomplishments was to make the Comoros more accessible by air.", "During his administration, he negotiated agreements to initiate or enhance commercial air links with Tanzania and Madagascar.", "The Djohar regime reached an agreement in 1990 to link Moroni and Brussels by air.", "By the early 1990s, commercial flights connected the Comoros with France, Mauritius, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, and Madagascar.", "The national airline was Air Comores.", "Daily flights linked the three main islands, and air service was also available to Mahoré; each island had airstrips.", "In 1986 the republic received a grant from the French government's CCCE to renovate and expand Hahaya airport, near Moroni.", "Because of the absence of scheduled sea transport between the islands, nearly all interisland passenger traffic is by air.More than 99% of freight is transported by sea.", "Both Moroni on Njazidja and Mutsamudu on Nzwani have artificial harbors.", "There is also a harbor at Fomboni, on Mwali.", "Despite extensive internationally financed programs to upgrade the harbors at Moroni and Mutsamudu, by the early 1990s only Mutsamudu was operational as a deepwater facility.", "Its harbor could accommodate vessels of up to eleven meters' draught.", "At Moroni, ocean-going vessels typically lie offshore and are loaded or unloaded by smaller craft, a costly and sometimes dangerous procedure.", "Most freight continues to be sent to Tanzania, Kenya, Reunion, or Madagascar for transshipment to the Comoros.", "Use of Comoran ports is further restricted by the threat of cyclones from December through March.", "The privately operated Comoran Navigation Company (''Société Comorienne de Navigation'') is based in Moroni, and provides services to Madagascar.Roads serve the coastal areas, rather than the interior, and the mountainous terrain makes surface travel difficult." ], [ "See also", "*History of rail transport in the Comoros" ], [ "References", "*Much of the material in this article is adapted from the ''CIA World Factbook.", "''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of the Comoros" ], [ "Introduction", "In November 1975, Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations.", "The new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that France maintains control over Mayotte." ], [ "Overview", "Comoros also is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission, and the African Development Bank.The government fostered close relationships with the more conservative (and oil-rich) Arab states, such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.", "It frequently received aid from those countries and the regional financial institutions they influenced, such as the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa and the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development.", "In October 1993, Comoros joined the League of Arab States, after having been rejected when it applied for membership initially in 1977.Regional relations generally were good.", "In 1985 Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles agreed to admit Comoros as the fourth member of the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), an organization established in 1982 to encourage regional cooperation.", "In 1993 Mauritius and Seychelles had two of the five embassies in Moroni, and Mauritius and Madagascar were connected to the republic by regularly scheduled commercial flights.In November 1975, Comoros became the 143d member of the UN.", "In the 1990s, the republic continued to represent Mahoré in the UN.", "Comoros was also a member of the OAU, the EDF, the World Bank, the IMF, the IOC, and the African Development Bank.Comoros thus cultivated relations with various nations, both East and West, seeking to increase trade and obtain financial assistance.", "In 1994, however, it was increasingly facing the need to control its expenditures and reorganize its economy so that it would be viewed as a sounder recipient of investment.", "Comoros also confronted domestically the problem of the degree of democracy the government was prepared to grant to its citizens, a consideration that related to its standing in the world community." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which the Comoros maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960—616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119Unknown120Unknown121Unknown122Unknown123Unknown— (suspended)Unknown124Unknown125Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 November 1976* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 November 1976* Comoros maintains an embassy in Brussels.13 November 1975 See China–Comoros relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 1975Comoros also hosted an embassy of China, which established relations during the Soilih regime.", "The Chinese had long been a source of aid and apparently wished to maintain contact with Comoros to counterbalance Indian and Soviet (later Russian) influence in the Indian Ocean.In August 2008, a Comorian delegation visited China on a good-will visit.", "Together with the Chinese defense minister Liang Guanglie, and Chief of Staff of the Comoros armed forces Salimou Mohamed Amiri, pledged to increase cooperation between the military of the two nations.", "Amiri stated that Comoros will continue to adhere to the One-China policy.A comprehensive Chinese-assisted treatment campaign has apparently eliminated malaria from the Comorian island of Moheli (population 36,000).", "Administered by Li Guoqiao at the Tropical Medicine Institute, the program relies on hybrid Artemisia annua of hybrid ancestry, which was used for a drug regimen by which all residents of the island, whether or not visibly ill, took two doses at a 40-day interval.", "This eliminated the human reservoir of the disease and reduced hospital admissions to 1% or less of January 2008 levels.", "Visitors to Moheli are now required to take antimalarial drugs, a mix of artemisinin, primaquine and pyrimethamine that China provides for free.", "When asked about Artemisia exports, Li was quoted, \"We want to grow them in China and whatever we export depends on bilateral relationships.\"", "Comoros has requested a similar program for Grande Comore and Anjouan, total population 760,000, and Li said that Beijing has agreed in principle.The countries maintain diplomatic relations and Congolese President Félix Tshisekedi visited Comoros in 2023.Cyprus is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Pretoria.1 December 1981Denmark is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.", "19 December 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 December 1977Comoros is represented in Finland by its embassy in Paris, France.1 July 1978 See France–Comoros relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1978Comoros' most significant international relationship is that with France.", "The three years of estrangement following the unilateral declaration of independence and the nationalistic Soilih regime were followed during the conservative Abdallah and Djohar regimes by a period of growing trade, aid, cultural, and defense links between the former colony and France, punctuated by frequent visits to Paris by the head of state and occasional visits by the French president to Moroni.", "The leading military power in the region, France has detachments on Mahoré and Réunion, and its Indian Ocean fleet sails the waters around the islands.", "France and Comoros signed a mutual security treaty in 1978; following the mercenary coup against Abdallah in 1989, French troops restored order and took responsibility for reorganizing and training the Comorian army.", "With Mahoré continuing to gravitate politically and economically toward France, and Comoros increasingly dependent on the French for help with its own considerable social, political, and economic problems, the issue of Mahoré diminished somewhat in urgency.Comoros claims French-administered Mayotte & the Glorioso Islands.4 June 1976 See Comoros–India relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1976.", "*Both countries are full members of the Indian-Ocean Rim Association.23 June 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1983*Indonesia is represented in Comoros by their embassy in Dar es Salaam.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the Indian-Ocean Rim Association.24 October 2018Ireland is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.1 November 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1976*Comoros is represented in Italy by its embassy in Paris, France and an honorary consulate in Rome.", "*Italy is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and an honorary consulate in Anjouan.14 November 1977Comorian relations with Japan were also significant because Japan was the second largest provider of aid, consisting of funding for fisheries, food, and highway development.1 April 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 19762000Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2000.13 October 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 2008* The Comoros does not have an accreditation to Mexico.", "* Mexico is accredited to the Comoros from its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.The two countries maintain diplomatic relations and signed 11 agreements in 2022.21 February 1977*Comoros is represented in Netherlands by their embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "*The Netherlands are represented in Comoros by their embassy in Dar es Salaam.The two countries maintain cordial relations.", "See Comoros–North Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on November 13, 1975.See Comoros–Qatar relationsComoros severed the diplomatic relations with Qatar in June 2017.Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Comoros.24 November 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 November 1976.Serbia is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.14 May 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1993The close relationship Comoros developed with South Africa in the 1980s was much less significant to both countries in the 1990s.", "With the reform of its apartheid government, South Africa no longer needed Comoros as evidence of its ostensible ability to enjoy good relations with a black African state; the end of the Cold War had also diminished Comoros' strategic value to Pretoria.", "Although South Africa continued to provide developmental aid, it closed its consulate in Moroni in 1992.Since the 1989 coup and subsequent expulsion of South African-financed mercenaries, Comoros likewise turned away from South Africa and toward France for assistance with its security needs.22 August 1979See Comoros–Turkey relations*The Embassy of the Comoros in Cairo is accredited to Turkey.", "*The Turkish ambassador in Antananarivo to Madagascar is also accredited to the Union of the Comoros.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was 21.1 million USD in 2019.23 July 1993*Both countries established diplomatic relations on July 23, 1993.", "*Comoros has an honorary consulate in Kyiv.", "*Ukraine is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.3 October 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1977.Great-Britain is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Antananarivo, Madagascar.15 August 1977 See Comoros–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 1977.The American Embassy at Moroni was established on August 26, 1985, with Edward Brynn as Chargé d’Affaires ''ad interim''.", "The American Embassy at Moroni was closed on September 30, 1993.Subsequent American Ambassadors to Comoros also have been accredited to Mauritius, and resident at Port Louis.", "On March 6, 2006, responsibilities for Comoros were transferred from Embassy Port Louis to Embassy Antananarivo.", "The two countries enjoy friendly relations.", "The historic under-commitment by the US within France's sphere of interest in the Indian Ocean looks set to continue after a November 2009 meeting between heads of state.", "Future friendly relations continue to look promising between the Comoros and America.21 May 2005*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 2005*Both countries are full members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.6 January 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 1985In April 2008, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation of Yemen and Comoros Ministry of Fishery and Environment signed a \"Memo of Understanding\" (MOU) concerning agricultural cooperation." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Comoros* List of diplomatic missions of Comoros" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Army of National Development" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Comorian Armed Forces''' (; ) are the national military of the Comoros.", "The armed forces consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force.", "A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance.", "France maintains a small troop presence in the Comoros at government request.", "France maintains a small Navy base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) in Mayotte." ], [ "Structure", "The AND consists of the following components:* Comorian Defense Forces* Comorian National Gendarmerie* National School of the Armed Forces and Gendarmerie* Comorian Presidential Guard* Comorian Military Health Services* Comorian Coast Guard" ], [ "Equipment inventory", "* FN FAL battle rifle* AK-47 assault rifle* Type 81 assault rifle* NSV HMG* RPG-7 anti-tank weapon* Mitsubishi L200 pickup truckComoran Defense Force soldiers show off hand-to-hand combat skills" ], [ "Aircraft", "Note: The last comprehensive aircraft inventory list was from ''Aviation Week & Space Technology'' in 2007.AircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotes Transport Cessna 402 United States transport\t 1 L-410 Turbolet Czech Republic transport\t 1 Aérospatiale Corvette France VIP transport 1 Helicopters Mil Mi-14 Russia utility / transport Mi-14PZh 2 Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil France utility 1 Trainer aircraft SIAI-Marchetti SF.260 Italy trainer / patrol 5" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computer worm" ], [ "Introduction", "Hex dump of the Blaster worm, showing a message left for Microsoft CEO Bill Gates by the worm's creatorSpread of Conficker wormA '''computer worm''' is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers.", "It often uses a computer network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it.", "It will use this machine as a host to scan and infect other computers.", "When these new worm-invaded computers are controlled, the worm will continue to scan and infect other computers using these computers as hosts, and this behaviour will continue.", "Computer worms use recursive methods to copy themselves without host programs and distribute themselves based on exploiting the advantages of exponential growth, thus controlling and infecting more and more computers in a short time.", "Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.Many worms are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through.", "However, as the Morris worm and Mydoom showed, even these \"payload-free\" worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic and other unintended effects." ], [ "History", "Morris worm source code floppy diskette at the Computer History MuseumThe term \"worm\" was first used in John Brunner's 1975 novel, ''The Shockwave Rider''.", "In the novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the powerful men who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity.", "\"You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it.", "There's never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail!\"", "\"Then the answer dawned on him, and he almost laughed.", "Fluckner had resorted to one of the oldest tricks in the store and turned loose in the continental net a self-perpetuating tapeworm, probably headed by a denunciation group \"borrowed\" from a major corporation, which would shunt itself from one nexus to another every time his credit-code was punched into a keyboard.", "It could take days to kill a worm like that, and sometimes weeks.", "\"The second ever computer worm was devised to be an anti-virus software.", "Named Reaper, it was created by Ray Tomlinson to replicate itself across the ARPANET and delete the experimental Creeper program (the first computer worm, 1971).", "On November 2, 1988, Robert Tappan Morris, a Cornell University computer science graduate student, unleashed what became known as the Morris worm, disrupting many computers then on the Internet, guessed at the time to be one tenth of all those connected.", "During the Morris appeal process, the U.S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the worm from each installation at between $200 and $53,000; this work prompted the formation of the CERT Coordination Center and Phage mailing list.", "Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.Conficker, a computer worm discovered in 2008 that primarily targeted Microsoft Windows operating systems, is a worm that employs 3 different spreading strategies: local probing, neighborhood probing, and global probing.", "This worm was considered a hybrid epidemic and affected millions of computers.", "The term \"hybrid epidemic\" is used because of the three separate methods it employed to spread, which was discovered through code analysis." ], [ "Features", "'''Independence'''Computer viruses generally require a host program.", "The virus writes its own code into the host program.", "When the program runs, the written virus program is executed first, causing infection and damage.", "A worm does not need a host program, as it is an independent program or code chunk.", "Therefore, it is not restricted by the host program, but can run independently and actively carry out attacks.", "'''Exploit attacks'''Because a worm is not limited by the host program, worms can take advantage of various operating system vulnerabilities to carry out active attacks.", "For example, the \"Nimda\" virus exploits vulnerabilities to attack.", "'''Complexity'''Some worms are combined with web page scripts, and are hidden in HTML pages using VBScript, ActiveX and other technologies.", "When a user accesses a webpage containing a virus, the virus automatically resides in memory and waits to be triggered.", "There are also some worms that are combined with backdoor programs or Trojan horses, such as \"Code Red\".", "'''Contagiousness'''Worms are more infectious than traditional viruses.", "They not only infect local computers, but also all servers and clients on the network based on the local computer.", "Worms can easily spread through shared folders, e-mails, malicious web pages, and servers with a large number of vulnerabilities in the network." ], [ "Harm", "Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the \"payload\".", "Typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system (e.g., the ExploreZip worm), encrypt files in a ransomware attack, or exfiltrate data such as confidential documents or passwords.Some worms may install a backdoor.", "This allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a \"zombie\".", "Networks of such machines are often referred to as botnets and are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes, including sending spam or performing DoS attacks.Some special worms attack industrial systems in a targeted manner.", "Stuxnet was primarily transmitted through LANs and infected thumb-drives, as its targets were never connected to untrusted networks, like the internet.", "This virus can destroy the core production control computer software used by chemical, power generation and power transmission companies in various countries around the world - in Stuxnet's case, Iran, Indonesia and India were hardest hit - it was used to \"issue orders\" to other equipment in the factory, and to hide those commands from being detected.", "Stuxnet used multiple vulnerabilities and four different zero-day exploits (eg: ) in Windows systems and Siemens SIMATICWinCC systems to attack the embedded programmable logic controllers of industrial machines.", "Although these systems operate independently from the network, if the operator inserts a virus-infected drive into the system's USB interface, the virus will be able to gain control of the system without any other operational requirements or prompts." ], [ "Countermeasures", "Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems.Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates (see \"Patch Tuesday\"), and if these are installed to a machine, then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it.", "If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, a zero-day attack is possible.Users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails.", "However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the increased growth and efficiency of phishing attacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running malicious code.Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days.", "The use of a firewall is also recommended.Users can minimize the threat posed by worms by keeping their computers' operating system and other software up to date, avoiding opening unrecognized or unexpected emails and running firewall and antivirus software.Mitigation techniques include:* ACLs in routers and switches* Packet-filters* TCP Wrapper/ACL enabled network service daemons* EPP/EDR software* NullrouteInfections can sometimes be detected by their behavior - typically scanning the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect.", "In addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer." ], [ "Worms with good intent", "A '''helpful worm''' or '''anti-worm''' is a worm designed to do something that its author feels is helpful, though not necessarily with the permission of the executing computer's owner.", "Beginning with the first research into worms at Xerox PARC, there have been attempts to create useful worms.", "Those worms allowed John Shoch and Jon Hupp to test the Ethernet principles on their network of Xerox Alto computers.", "Similarly, the Nachi family of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system by exploiting those same vulnerabilities.", "In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user.", "Regardless of their payload or their writers' intentions, security experts regard all worms as malware.", "Another example of this approach is Roku OS patching a bug allowing for Roku OS to be rooted via an update to their screensaver channels, which the screensaver would attempt to connect to the telnet and patch the device.One study proposed the first computer worm that operates on the second layer of the OSI model (Data link Layer), utilizing topology information such as Content-addressable memory (CAM) tables and Spanning Tree information stored in switches to propagate and probe for vulnerable nodes until the enterprise network is covered.Anti-worms have been used to combat the effects of the Code Red, Blaster, and Santy worms.", "Welchia is an example of a helpful worm.", "Utilizing the same deficiencies exploited by the Blaster worm, Welchia infected computers and automatically began downloading Microsoft security updates for Windows without the users' consent.", "Welchia automatically reboots the computers it infects after installing the updates.", "One of these updates was the patch that fixed the exploit.Other examples of helpful worms are \"Den_Zuko\", \"Cheeze\", \"CodeGreen\", and \"Millenium\".Art worms support artists in the performance of massive scale ephemeral artworks.", "It turns the infected computers into nodes that contribute to the artwork." ], [ "See also", "* BlueKeep* Botnet* Code Shikara (Worm)* Computer and network surveillance* Computer virus* Computer security* Email spam* Father Christmas (computer worm)* Self-replicating machine* Technical support scam – unsolicited phone calls from a fake \"tech support\" person, claiming that the computer has a virus or other problems* Timeline of computer viruses and worms* Trojan horse (computing)* Worm memory test* XSS worm* Zombie (computer science)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Malware Guide (archived link) – Guide for understanding, removing and preventing worm infections on Vernalex.com.", "* \"The 'Worm' Programs – Early Experience with a Distributed Computation\", John Shoch and Jon Hupp, ''Communications of the ACM'', Volume 25 Issue 3 (March 1982), pp.", "172–180.", "* \"The Case for Using Layered Defenses to Stop Worms\", Unclassified report from the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA), 18 June 2004.", "* Worm Evolution (archived link), paper by Jago Maniscalchi on Digital Threat, 31 May 2009." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Chomsky hierarchy" ], [ "Introduction", "Set inclusions described by the Chomsky hierarchyThe '''Chomsky hierarchy''' (infrequently referred to as the '''Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy''') in the fields of formal language theory, computer science, and linguistics, is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars.", "A formal grammar describes how to form strings from a language's vocabulary (or alphabet) that are valid according to the language's syntax.", "Linguist Noam Chomsky theorized that four different classes of formal grammars existed that could generate increasingly complex languages.", "Each class can also completely generate the language of all inferior classes." ], [ "History", "The general idea of a hierarchy of grammars was first described by linguist Noam Chomsky in \"Three models for the description of language\".", "Marcel-Paul Schützenberger also played a role in the development of the theory of formal languages; the paper \"The algebraic theory of context free languages\" describes the modern hierarchy including context-free grammars.Independently and alongside linguists, mathematicians were developing computation models (automata).", "Parsing a sentence in a language is similar to computation, and the grammars described by Chomsky proved to both resemble and be equivalent in computational power to various machine models." ], [ "The hierarchy", "The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four types of grammars, the class of language it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have.", "Grammar Languages Recognizing Automaton Production rules (constraints)* Examples Type-3 Regular Finite state automaton and Type-2 Context-free Non-deterministic pushdown automaton Type-1 Context-sensitive Linear-bounded non-deterministic Turing machine Type-0 Recursively enumerable Turing machine ( non-empty) describes a terminating Turing machine* Meaning of symbols:* = terminal* , = non-terminal* , , = string of terminals and/or non-terminalsNote that the set of grammars corresponding to recursive languages is not a member of this hierarchy; these would be properly between Type-0 and Type-1.Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive, every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable.", "These are all proper inclusions, meaning that there exist recursively enumerable languages that are not context-sensitive, context-sensitive languages that are not context-free and context-free languages that are not regular.===Regular (Type-3) grammars===Type-3 grammars generate the regular languages.", "Such a grammar restricts its rules to a single nonterminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal, possibly followed by a single nonterminal (right regular).", "Alternatively, the right-hand side of the grammar can consist of a single terminal, possibly preceded by a single nonterminal (left regular).", "These generate the same languages.", "However, if left-regular rules and right-regular rules are combined, the language need no longer be regular.", "The rule is also allowed here if does not appear on the right side of any rule.", "These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a finite state automaton.", "Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by regular expressions.", "Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages.For example, the regular language is generated by the Type-3 grammar with the productions being the following.", "::===Context-free (Type-2) grammars===Type-2 grammars generate the context-free languages.", "These are defined by rules of the form with being a nonterminal and being a string of terminals and/or nonterminals.", "These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic pushdown automaton.", "Context-free languages—or rather its subset of deterministic context-free languages—are the theoretical basis for the phrase structure of most programming languages, though their syntax also includes context-sensitive name resolution due to declarations and scope.", "Often a subset of grammars is used to make parsing easier, such as by an LL parser.For example, the context-free language is generated by the Type-2 grammar with the productions being the following.", "::The language is context-free but not regular (by the pumping lemma for regular lanagues).===Context-sensitive (Type-1) grammars===Type-1 grammars generate context-sensitive languages.", "These grammars have rules of the form with a nonterminal and , and strings of terminals and/or nonterminals.", "The strings and may be empty, but must be nonempty.", "The rule is allowed if does not appear on the right side of any rule.", "The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a linear bounded automaton (a nondeterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.", ")For example, the context-sensitive language is generated by the Type-1 grammar with the productions being the following.", ":::::::: \t::The language is context-sensitive but not context-free (by the pumping lemma for context-free languages).A proof that this grammar generates is sketched in the article on Context-sensitive grammars.===Recursively enumerable (Type-0) grammars===Type-0 grammars include all formal grammars.", "They generate exactly all languages that can be recognized by a Turing machine.", "These languages are also known as the ''recursively enumerable'' or ''Turing-recognizable'' languages.", "Note that this is different from the recursive languages, which can be ''decided'' by an always-halting Turing machine." ], [ "See also", "* Chomsky normal form" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "CRT" ], [ "Introduction", "'''CRT''' or '''Crt''' may refer to:" ], [ "Law", "* Charitable remainder trust, United States* Civil Resolution Tribunal, Canada* Columbia River Treaty, Canada–US, 1960s" ], [ "Science, technology, and mathematics", "===Medicine and biology===* Calreticulin, a protein *Capillary refill time, for blood to refill capillaries *Cardiac resynchronization therapy and CRT defibrillator (CRT-D) *Catheter-related thrombosis, the development of a blood clot related to long-term use of central venous catheters*Certified Respiratory Therapist *Chemoradiotherapy, chemo- and radiotherapy combined* Cognitive Retention Therapy, for dementia* Corneal Refractive Therapy, in optometrics* CRT (genetics), a gene cluster===Social sciences===* Cognitive reflection test, in psychology* Critical race theory, an academic framework of analysis* Current reality tree (theory of constraints), in process management===Technology===* Cathode-ray tube, a display* Microsoft C Run-Time library* SecureCRT, formerly CRT, a telnet client* .crt, X.509 Certificate filename extension===Other uses in science and mathematics===* Chinese remainder theorem, in number theory* Crater (constellation), in astronomy (abbreviated )" ], [ "Transport", "* Canal & River Trust, England and Wales* Changchun Rail Transit, China* Chongqing Rail Transit, China* Connecticut River Transit, a defunct American bus service* Cross River Tram, a defunct proposal in London, England* CRT Group, an Australian transport company* Chicago Rapid Transit Company, a defunct American rail company" ], [ "Other uses", "* Canadian Railway Troops, WWI* Claiming Rule Teams, in motorcycle racing* Connecticut Repertory Theatre, University of Connecticut* Correctional Emergency Response Team* Iyojwaʼja Chorote, a language in Salta province, Argentina, ISO 639 code" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cathode-ray tube" ], [ "Introduction", "cross section diagram (not to scale) with its focused and deflected electron beam (in green)|220x220px220x220px220x220px220x220pxA '''cathode-ray tube''' ('''CRT''') is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns, which emit electron beams that are manipulated to display images on a phosphorescent screen.", "The images may represent electrical waveforms on an oscilloscope, a frame of video on an analog television set (TV), digital raster graphics on a computer monitor, or other phenomena like radar targets.", "A CRT in a TV is commonly called a '''picture tube'''.", "CRTs have also been used as memory devices, in which case the screen is not intended to be visible to an observer.", "The term ''cathode ray'' was used to describe electron beams when they were first discovered, before it was understood that what was emitted from the cathode was a beam of electrons.In CRT TVs and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repeatedly and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster.", "In color devices, an image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference.", "In modern CRT monitors and TVs the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, using a deflection yoke.", "Electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes.The rear of an 220x220px220x220pxraster pattern|220x220px220x220px220x220pxThe tube is a glass envelope which is heavy, fragile, and long from front screen face to rear end.", "Its interior must be close to a vacuum to prevent the emitted electrons from colliding with air molecules and scattering before they hit the tube's face.", "Thus, the interior is evacuated to less than a millionth of atmospheric pressure.", "As such, handling a CRT carries the risk of violent implosion that can hurl glass at great velocity.", "The face is typically made of thick lead glass or special barium-strontium glass to be shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions.", "This tube makes up most of the weight of CRT TVs and computer monitors.Since the mid–late 2000's, CRTs have been superseded by flat-panel display technologies such as LCD, plasma display, and OLED displays which are cheaper to manufacture and run, as well as significantly lighter and thinner.", "Flat-panel displays can also be made in very large sizes whereas was about the largest size of a CRT.A CRT works by electrically heating a tungsten coil which in turn heats a cathode in the rear of the CRT, causing it to emit electrons which are modulated and focused by electrodes.", "The electrons are steered by deflection coils or plates, and an anode accelerates them towards the phosphor-coated screen, which generates light when hit by the electrons." ], [ "History", "===Discoveries===220x220pxCathode rays were discovered by Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf.", "Hittorf observed that some unknown rays were emitted from the cathode (negative electrode) which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines.", "In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, and William Crookes showed they could be deflected by magnetic fields.", "In 1897, J. J. Thomson succeeded in measuring the mass-to-charge ratio of cathode rays, showing that they consisted of negatively charged particles smaller than atoms, the first \"subatomic particles\", which had already been named ''electrons'' by Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney in 1891.The earliest version of the CRT was known as the \"Braun tube\", invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897.It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen.", "Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.", "The ''Braun tube'' became the foundation of 20th century TV.In 1908, Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal ''Nature'', in which he described how \"distant electric vision\" could be achieved by using a cathode-ray tube (or \"Braun\" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device.", "He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in ''The Times'' and the ''Journal of the Röntgen Society''.The first cathode-ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John Bertrand Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.The introduction of hot cathodes allowed for lower acceleration anode voltages and higher electron beam currents, since the anode now only accelerated the electrons emitted by the hot cathode, and no longer had to have a very high voltage to induce electron emission from the cold cathode.===Development===In 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a CRT TV receiver with a mechanical video camera that received images with a 40-line resolution.", "By 1927, he improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931.By 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on a CRT display.In 1927, Philo Farnsworth created a TV prototype.The CRT was named in 1929 by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin.", "He was subsequently hired by RCA, which was granted a trademark for the term \"Kinescope\", RCA's term for a CRT, in 1932; it voluntarily released the term to the public domain in 1950.In the 1930s, Allen B. DuMont made the first CRTs to last 1,000 hours of use, which was one of the factors that led to the widespread adoption of TV.The first commercially made electronic TV sets with cathode-ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934.In 1947, the cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to incorporate a cathode-ray tube screen, was created.From 1949 to the early 1960s, there was a shift from circular CRTs to rectangular CRTs, although the first rectangular CRTs were made in 1938 by Telefunken.", "While circular CRTs were the norm, European TV sets often blocked portions of the screen to make it appear somewhat rectangular while American sets often left the entire front of the CRT exposed or only blocked the upper and lower portions of the CRT.In 1954, RCA produced some of the first color CRTs, the 15GP22 CRTs used in the CT-100, the first color TV set to be mass produced.", "The first rectangular color CRTs were also made in 1954.However, the first rectangular color CRTs to be offered to the public were made in 1963.One of the challenges that had to be solved to produce the rectangular color CRT was convergence at the corners of the CRT.", "In 1965, brighter rare earth phosphors began replacing dimmer and cadmium-containing red and green phosphors.", "Eventually blue phosphors were replaced as well.The size of CRTs increased over time, from 20 inches in 1938, to 21 inches in 1955, 25 inches by 1974, 30 inches by 1980, 35 inches by 1985, and 43 inches by 1989.However, experimental 31 inch CRTs were made as far back as 1938.In 1960, the Aiken tube was invented.", "It was a CRT in a flat-panel display format with a single electron gun.", "Deflection was electrostatic and magnetic, but due to patent problems, it was never put into production.", "It was also envisioned as a head-up display in aircraft.", "By the time patent issues were solved, RCA had already invested heavily in conventional CRTs.1968 marked the release of Sony Trinitron brand with the model KV-1310, which was based on Aperture Grille technology.", "It was acclaimed to have improved the output brightness.", "The Trinitron screen was identical with its upright cylindrical shape due to its unique triple cathode single gun construction.In 1987, flat-screen CRTs were developed by Zenith for computer monitors, reducing reflections and helping increase image contrast and brightness.", "Such CRTs were expensive, which limited their use to computer monitors.", "Attempts were made to produce flat-screen CRTs using inexpensive and widely available float glass.In 1990, the first CRTs with HD resolution were released to the market by Sony.In the mid-1990s, some 160 million CRTs were made per year.In the mid-2000s, Canon and Sony presented the surface-conduction electron-emitter display and field-emission displays, respectively.", "They both were flat-panel displays that had one (SED) or several (FED) electron emitters per subpixel in place of electron guns.", "The electron emitters were placed on a sheet of glass and the electrons were accelerated to a nearby sheet of glass with phosphors using an anode voltage.", "The electrons were not focused, making each subpixel essentially a flood beam CRT.", "They were never put into mass production as LCD technology was significantly cheaper, eliminating the market for such displays.The last large-scale manufacturer of (in this case, recycled) CRTs, Videocon, ceased in 2015.CRT TVs stopped being made around the same time.In 2012, Samsung SDI and several other major companies were fined by the European Commission for price fixing of TV cathode-ray tubes.The same occurred in 2015 in the US and in Canada in 2018.Worldwide sales of CRT computer monitors peaked in 2000, at 90 million units, while those of CRT TVs peaked in 2005 at 130 million units.===Decline===Beginning in the late 90s to the early 2000s, CRTs began to be replaced with LCDs, starting first with computer monitors smaller than 15 inches in size, largely because of their lower bulk.", "Among the first manufacturers to stop CRT production was Hitachi in 2001, followed by Sony in Japan in 2004, Flat-panel displays dropped in price and started significantly displacing cathode-ray tubes in the 2000s.", "LCD monitor sales began exceeding those of CRTs in 2003–2004 and LCD TV sales started exceeding those of CRTs in some markets in 2005.Samsung SDI stopped CRT production in 2012.Despite being a mainstay of display technology for decades, CRT-based computer monitors and TVs are now obsolete.", "Demand for CRT screens dropped in the late 2000s.", "Despite efforts from Samsung and LG to make CRTs competitive with their LCD and plasma counterparts, offering slimmer and cheaper models to compete with similarly sized and more expensive LCDs, CRTs eventually became obsolete and were relegated to developing markets and vintage enthusiasts once LCDs fell in price, with their lower bulk, weight and ability to be wall mounted coming as pluses.Some industries still use CRTs because it is either too much effort, downtime, and/or cost to replace them, or there is no substitute available; a notable example is the airline industry.", "Planes such as the Boeing 747-400 and the Airbus A320 used CRT instruments in their glass cockpits instead of mechanical instruments.", "Airlines such as Lufthansa still use CRT technology, which also uses floppy disks for navigation updates.", "They are also used in some military equipment for similar reasons., at least one company manufactures new CRTs for these markets.A popular consumer usage of CRTs is for retrogaming.", "Some games are impossible to play without CRT display hardware, and some games play better.", "Light guns only work on CRTs because they depend on the progressive timing properties of CRTs." ], [ "Construction", "===Body===Small circular CRTs during manufacture in 1947 (screens being coated with phosphor)A portable monochrome CRT TVA Trinitron CRT computer monitorA monochrome CRT as seen inside a TV.", "The CRT is the single largest component in a CRT TV.A monochrome CRT as seen inside a Macintosh Plus computerThe body of a CRT is usually made up of three parts: A screen/faceplate/panel, a cone/funnel, and a neck.", "The joined screen, funnel and neck are known as the bulb or envelope.The neck is made from a glass tube while the funnel and screen are made by pouring and then pressing glass into a mold.", "The glass, known as CRT glass or TV glass, needs special properties to shield against x-rays while providing adequate light transmission in the screen or being very electrically insulating in the funnel and neck.", "The formulation that gives the glass its properties is also known as the melt.", "The glass is of very high quality, being almost contaminant and defect free.", "Most of the costs associated with glass production come from the energy used to melt the raw materials into glass.", "Glass furnaces for CRT glass production have several taps to allow molds to be replaced without stopping the furnace, to allow production of CRTs of several sizes.", "Only the glass used on the screen needs to have precise optical properties.The optical properties of the glass used on the screen affects color reproduction and purity in Color CRTs.", "Transmittance, or how transparent the glass is, may be adjusted to be more transparent to certain colors (wavelengths) of light.", "Transmittance is measured at the center of the screen with a 546 nm wavelength light, and a 10.16mm thick screen.", "Transmittance goes down with increasing thickness.", "Standard transmittances for Color CRT screens are 86%, 73%, 57%, 46%, 42% and 30%.", "Lower transmittances are used to improve image contrast but they put more stress on the electron gun, requiring more power on the electron gun for a higher electron beam power to light the phosphors more brightly to compensate for the reduced transmittance.", "The transmittance must be uniform across the screen to ensure color purity.", "The radius (curvature) of screens has increased (grown less curved) over time, from 30 to 68 inches, ultimately evolving into completely flat screens, reducing reflections.", "The thickness of both curved and flat screens gradually increases from the center outwards, and with it, transmittance is gradually reduced.", "This means that flat-screen CRTs may not be completely flat on the inside.The glass used in CRTs arrives from the glass factory to the CRT factory as either separate screens and funnels with fused necks, for Color CRTs, or as bulbs made up of a fused screen, funnel and neck.", "There were several glass formulations for different types of CRTs, that were classified using codes specific to each glass manufacturer.", "The compositions of the melts were also specific to each manufacturer.", "Those optimized for high color purity and contrast were doped with Neodymium, while those for monochrome CRTs were tinted to differing levels, depending on the formulation used and had transmittances of 42% or 30%.", "Purity is ensuring that the correct colors are activated (for example, ensuring that red is displayed uniformly across the screen) while convergence ensures that images are not distorted.", "Convergence may be modified using a cross hatch pattern.CRT glass used to be made by dedicated companies such as AGC Inc., O-I Glass, Samsung Corning Precision Materials, Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass; others such as Videocon, Sony for the US market and Thomson made their own glass.The funnel and the neck are made of leaded potash-soda glass or lead silicate glass formulation to shield against x-rays generated by high voltage electrons as they decelerate after striking a target, such as the phosphor screen or shadow mask of a color CRT.", "The velocity of the electrons depends on the anode voltage of the CRT; the higher the voltage, the higher the speed.", "The amount of x-rays emitted by a CRT can also lowered by reducing the brightness of the image.", "Leaded glass is used because it is inexpensive, while also shielding heavily against x-rays, although some funnels may also contain barium.", "The screen is usually instead made out of a special lead-free silicate glass formulation with barium and strontium to shield against x-rays, as it doesn't brown unlike glass containing lead.", "Another glass formulation uses 2–3% of lead on the screen.", "Soviet TV set from 1960s photographed from backsideMonochrome CRTs may have a tinted barium-lead glass formulation in both the screen and funnel, with a potash-soda lead glass in the neck; the potash-soda and barium-lead formulations have different thermal expansion coefficients.", "The glass used in the neck must be an excellent electrical insulator to contain the voltages used in the electron optics of the electron gun, such as focusing lenses.", "The lead in the glass causes it to brown (darken) with use due to x-rays, usually the CRT cathode wears out due to cathode poisoning before browning becomes apparent.", "The glass formulation determines the highest possible anode voltage and hence the maximum possible CRT screen size.", "For color, maximum voltages are often 24–32 kV, while for monochrome it is usually 21 or 24.5 kV, limiting the size of monochrome CRTs to 21 inches, or ~1 kV per inch.", "The voltage needed depends on the size and type of CRT.", "Since the formulations are different, they must be compatible with one another, having similar thermal expansion coefficients.", "The screen may also have an anti-glare or anti-reflective coating, or be ground to prevent reflections.", "CRTs may also have an anti-static coating.The leaded glass in the funnels of CRTs may contain 21–25% of lead oxide (PbO), The neck may contain 30–40% of lead oxide, and the screen may contain 12% of barium oxide, and 12% of strontium oxide.", "A typical CRT contains several kilograms of lead as lead oxide in the glass depending on its size; 12 inch CRTs contain 0.5 kg of lead in total while 32 inch CRTs contain up to 3 kg.", "Strontium oxide began being used in CRTs, its major application, in the 1970s.", "Before this, CRTs used lead on the faceplate.Some early CRTs used a metal funnel insulated with polyethylene instead of glass with conductive material.", "Others had ceramic or blown Pyrex instead of pressed glass funnels.", "Early CRTs did not have a dedicated anode cap connection; the funnel was the anode connection, so it was live during operation.The funnel is coated on the inside and outside with a conductive coating, making the funnel a capacitor, helping stabilize and filter the anode voltage of the CRT, and significantly reducing the amount of time needed to turn on a CRT.", "The stability provided by the coating solved problems inherent to early power supply designs, as they used vacuum tubes.", "Because the funnel is used as a capacitor, the glass used in the funnel must be an excellent electrical insulator (dielectric).", "The inner coating has a positive voltage (the anode voltage that can be several kV) while the outer coating is connected to ground.", "CRTs powered by more modern power supplies do not need to be connected to ground, due to the more robust design of modern power supplies.", "The value of the capacitor formed by the funnel is 5–10 nF, although at the voltage the anode is normally supplied with.", "The capacitor formed by the funnel can also suffer from dielectric absorption, similarly to other types of capacitors.", "Because of this CRTs have to be discharged before handling to prevent injury.The depth of a CRT is related to its screen size.", "Usual deflection angles were 90° for computer monitor CRTs and small CRTs and 110° which was the standard in larger TV CRTs, with 120 or 125° being used in slim CRTs made since 2001–2005 in an attempt to compete with LCD TVs.", "Over time, deflection angles increased as they became practical, from 50° in 1938 to 110° in 1959, and 125° in the 2000s.", "140° deflection CRTs were researched but never commercialized, as convergence problems were never resolved.File:Cinescopio per televisore a schermo rettangolare, 17 pollici, deflessione 110°, bianco e nero - Museo scienza tecnologia Milano 10081 dia.jpg|A monochrome CRT with 110° deflectionFile:Cinescopio per televisore a schermo rettangolare, 13 pollici, deflessione 90°, bianco e nero - Museo scienza tecnologia Milano 10082 dia.jpg|A monochrome CRT with 90° deflection===Size and weight===The size of a CRT can be measured by the screen's ''entire'' area (or face diagonal) or alternatively by only its ''viewable'' area (or diagonal) that is coated by phosphor and surrounded by black edges.While the viewable area may be rectangular, the edges of the CRT may have a curvature (e.g.", "black stripe CRTs, first made by Toshiba in 1972) or the edges may be black and truly flat (e.g.", "Flatron CRTs), or the viewable area may follow the curvature of the edges of the CRT (with or without black edges or curved edges).Small CRTs below 3 inches were made for handheld TVs such as the MTV-1 and viewfinders in camcorders.", "In these, there may be no black edges, that are however truly flat.Most of the weight of a CRT comes from the thick glass screen, which comprises 65% of the total weight of a CRT and limits its practical size (see ).", "The funnel and neck glass comprise the remaining 30% and 5% respectively.", "The glass in the funnel can vary in thickness, to join the thin neck with the thick screen.", "Chemically or thermally tempered glass may be used to reduce the weight of the CRT glass.===Anode=== The outer conductive coating is connected to ground while the inner conductive coating is connected using the anode button/cap through a series of capacitors and diodes (a Cockcroft–Walton generator) to the high voltage flyback transformer; the inner coating is the anode of the CRT, which, together with an electrode in the electron gun, is also known as the final anode.", "The inner coating is connected to the electrode using springs.", "The electrode forms part of a bipotential lens.", "The capacitors and diodes serve as a voltage multiplier for the current delivered by the flyback.For the inner funnel coating, monochrome CRTs use aluminum while color CRTs use aquadag; Some CRTs may use iron oxide on the inside.", "On the outside, most CRTs (but not all) use aquadag.", "Aquadag is an electrically conductive graphite-based paint.", "In color CRTs, the aquadag is sprayed onto the interior of the funnel whereas historically aquadag was painted into the interior of monochrome CRTs.The anode is used to accelerate the electrons towards the screen and also collects the secondary electrons that are emitted by the phosphor particles in the vacuum of the CRT.The anode cap connection in modern CRTs must be able to handle up to 55–60kV depending on the size and brightness of the CRT.", "Higher voltages allow for larger CRTs, higher image brightness, or a tradeoff between the two.", "It consists of a metal clip that expands on the inside of an anode button that is embedded on the funnel glass of the CRT.", "The connection is insulated by a silicone suction cup, possibly also using silicone grease to prevent corona discharge.The anode button must be specially shaped to establish a hermetic seal between the button and funnel.", "X-rays may leak through the anode button, although that may not be the case in newer CRTs starting from the late 1970s to early 1980s, thanks to a new button and clip design.", "The button may consist of a set of 3 nested cups, with the outermost cup being made of a Nickel–Chromium–Iron alloy containing 40–49% of Nickel and 3–6% of Chromium to make the button easy to fuse to the funnel glass, with a first inner cup made of thick inexpensive iron to shield against x-rays, and with the second innermost cup also being made of iron or any other electrically conductive metal to connect to the clip.", "The cups must be heat resistant enough and have similar thermal expansion coefficients similar to that of the funnel glass to withstand being fused to the funnel glass.", "The inner side of the button is connected to the inner conductive coating of the CRT.", "The anode button may be attached to the funnel while its being pressed into shape in a mold.", "Alternatively, the x-ray shielding may instead be built into the clip.The flyback transformer is also known as an IHVT (Integrated High Voltage Transformer) if it includes a voltage multiplier.", "The flyback uses a ceramic or powdered iron core to enable efficient operation at high frequencies.", "The flyback contains one primary and many secondary windings that provide several different voltages.", "The main secondary winding supplies the voltage multiplier with voltage pulses to ultimately supply the CRT with the high anode voltage it uses, while the remaining windings supply the CRT's filament voltage, keying pulses, focus voltage and voltages derived from the scan raster.", "When the transformer is turned off, the flyback's magnetic field quickly collapses which induces high voltage in its windings.", "The speed at which the magnetic field collapses determines the voltage that is induced, so the voltage increases alongside its speed.", "A capacitor (Retrace Timing Capacitor) or series of capacitors (to provide redundancy) is used to slow the collapse of the magnetic field.The design of the high voltage power supply in a product using a CRT has an influence in the amount of x-rays emitted by the CRT.", "The amount of emitted x-rays increases with both higher voltages and currents.", "If the product such as a TV set uses an unregulated high voltage power supply, meaning that anode and focus voltage go down with increasing electron current when displaying a bright image, the amount of emitted x-rays is as its highest when the CRT is displaying a moderately bright images, since when displaying dark or bright images, the higher anode voltage counteracts the lower electron beam current and vice versa respectively.", "The high voltage regulator and rectifier vacuum tubes in some old CRT TV sets may also emit x-rays.===Electron gun===The electron gun emits the electrons that ultimately hit the phosphors on the screen of the CRT.", "The electron gun contains a heater, which heats a cathode, which generates electrons that, using grids, are focused and ultimately accelerated into the screen of the CRT.", "The acceleration occurs in conjunction with the inner aluminum or aquadag coating of the CRT.", "The electron gun is positioned so that it aims at the center of the screen.", "It is inside the neck of the CRT, and it is held together and mounted to the neck using glass beads or glass support rods, which are the glass strips on the electron gun.", "The electron gun is made separately and then placed inside the neck through a process called \"winding\", or sealing.", "The electron gun has a glass wafer that is fused to the neck of the CRT.", "The connections to the electron gun penetrate the glass wafer.", "Once the electron gun is inside the neck, its metal parts (grids) are arced between each other using high voltage to smooth any rough edges in a process called spot knocking, to prevent the rough edges in the grids from generating secondary electrons.====Construction and method of operation====The electron gun has a hot cathode that is heated by a tungsten filament heating element; the heater may draw 0.5–2 A of current depending on the CRT.", "The voltage applied to the heater can affect the life of the CRT.", "Heating the cathode energizes the electrons in it, aiding electron emission, while at the same time current is supplied to the cathode; typically anywhere from 140 mA at 1.5 V to 600 mA at 6.3 V. The cathode creates an electron cloud (emits electrons) whose electrons are extracted, accelerated and focused into an electron beam.", "Color CRTs have three cathodes: one for red, green and blue.", "The heater sits inside the cathode but does not touch it; the cathode has its own separate electrical connection.", "The cathode is coated onto a piece of nickel which provides the electrical connection and structural support; the heater sits inside this piece without touching it.There are several short circuits that can occur in a CRT electron gun.", "One is a heater-to-cathode short, that causes the cathode to permanently emit electrons which may cause an image with a bright red, green or blue tint with retrace lines, depending on the cathode (s) affected.", "Alternatively, the cathode may short to the control grid, possibly causing similar effects, or, the control grid and screen grid (G2) can short causing a very dark image or no image at all.", "The cathode may be surrounded by a shield to prevent sputtering.The cathode is a layer of barium oxide which is coated on a piece of nickel for electrical and mechanical support.", "The barium oxide must be activated by heating to enable it to release electrons.", "Activation is necessary because barium oxide is not stable in air, so it is applied to the cathode as barium carbonate, which cannot emit electrons.", "Activation heats the barium carbonate to decompose it into barium oxide and carbon dioxide while forming a thin layer of metallic barium on the cathode.", "Activation is done when forming the vacuum (described in ).", "After activation, the oxide can become damaged by several common gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.", "Alternatively, barium strontium calcium carbonate may be used instead of barium carbonate, yielding barium, strontium and calcium oxides after activation.", "During operation, the barium oxide is heated to 800–1000°C, at which point it starts shedding electrons.Since it is a hot cathode, it is prone to cathode poisoning, which is the formation of a positive ion layer that prevents the cathode from emitting electrons, reducing image brightness significantly or completely and causing focus and intensity to be affected by the frequency of the video signal preventing detailed images from being displayed by the CRT.", "The positive ions come from leftover air molecules inside the CRT or from the cathode itself that react over time with the surface of the hot cathode.", "Reducing metals such as manganese, zirconium, magnesium, aluminum or titanium may be added to the piece of nickel to lengthen the life of the cathode, as during activation, the reducing metals diffuse into the barium oxide, improving its lifespan, especially at high electron beam currents.", "In color CRTs with red, green and blue cathodes, one or more cathodes may be affected independently of the others, causing total or partial loss of one or more colors.", "CRTs can wear or burn out due to cathode poisoning.", "Cathode poisoning is accelerated by increased cathode current (overdriving).", "In color CRTs, since there are three cathodes, one for red, green and blue, a single or more poisoned cathode may cause the partial or complete loss of one or more colors, tinting the image.", "The layer may also act as a capacitor in series with the cathode, inducing thermal lag.", "The cathode may instead be made of scandium oxide or incorporate it as a dopant, to delay cathode poisoning, extending the life of the cathode by up to 15%.The amount of electrons generated by the cathodes is related to their surface area.", "A cathode with more surface area creates more electrons, in a larger electron cloud, which makes focusing the electron cloud into an electron beam more difficult.", "Normally, only a part of the cathode emits electrons unless the CRT displays images with parts that are at full image brightness; only the parts at full brightness cause all of the cathode to emit electrons.", "The area of the cathode that emits electrons grows from the center outwards as brightness increases, so cathode wear may be uneven.", "When only the center of the cathode is worn, the CRT may light brightly those parts of images that have full image brightness but not show darker parts of images at all, in such a case the CRT displays a poor gamma characteristic.The second (screen) grid of the gun (G2) accelerates the electrons towards the screen using several hundred DC volts.", "A negative current is applied to the first (control) grid (G1) to converge the electron beam.", "G1 in practice is a Wehnelt cylinder.", "The brightness of the screen is not controlled by varying the anode voltage nor the electron beam current (they are never varied) despite them having an influence on image brightness, rather image brightness is controlled by varying the difference in voltage between the cathode and the G1 control grid.", "A third grid (G3) electrostatically focuses the electron beam before it is deflected and accelerated by the anode voltage onto the screen.", "Electrostatic focusing of the electron beam may be accomplished using an Einzel lens energized at up to 600 volts.", "Before electrostatic focusing, focusing the electron beam required a large, heavy and complex mechanical focusing system placed outside the electron gun.However, electrostatic focusing cannot be accomplished near the final anode of the CRT due to its high voltage in the dozens of Kilovolts, so a high voltage (≈600–8000 V) electrode, together with an electrode at the final anode voltage of the CRT, may be used for focusing instead.", "Such an arrangement is called a bipotential lens, which also offers higher performance than an Einzel lens, or, focusing may be accomplished using a magnetic focusing coil together with a high anode voltage of dozens of kilovolts.", "However, magnetic focusing is expensive to implement, so it is rarely used in practice.", "Some CRTs may use two grids and lenses to focus the electron beam.", "The focus voltage is generated in the flyback using a subset of the flyback's high voltage winding in conjunction with a resistive voltage divider.", "The focus electrode is connected alongside the other connections that are in the neck of the CRT.There is a voltage called cutoff voltage which is the voltage that creates black on the screen since it causes the image on the screen created by the electron beam to disappear, the voltage is applied to G1.In a color CRT with three guns, the guns have different cutoff voltages.", "Many CRTs share grid G1 and G2 across all three guns, increasing image brightness and simplifying adjustment since on such CRTs there is a single cutoff voltage for all three guns (since G1 is shared across all guns).", "but placing additional stress on the video amplifier used to feed video into the electron gun's cathodes, since the cutoff voltage becomes higher.", "Monochrome CRTs do not suffer from this problem.", "In monochrome CRTs video is fed to the gun by varying the voltage on the first control grid.During retracing of the electron beam, the preamplifier that feeds the video amplifier is disabled and the video amplifier is biased to a voltage higher than the cutoff voltage to prevent retrace lines from showing, or G1 can have a large negative voltage applied to it to prevent electrons from getting out of the cathode.", "This is known as blanking.", "(see Vertical blanking interval and Horizontal blanking interval.)", "Incorrect biasing can lead to visible retrace lines on one or more colors, creating retrace lines that are tinted or white (for example, tinted red if the red color is affected, tinted magenta if the red and blue colors are affected, and white if all colors are affected).", "Alternatively, the amplifier may be driven by a video processor that also introduces an OSD (On Screen Display) into the video stream that is fed into the amplifier, using a fast blanking signal.", "TV sets and computer monitors that incorporate CRTs need a DC restoration circuit to provide a video signal to the CRT with a DC component, restoring the original brightness of different parts of the image.The electron beam may be affected by the Earth's magnetic field, causing it to normally enter the focusing lens off-center; this can be corrected using astigmation controls.", "Astigmation controls are both magnetic and electronic (dynamic); magnetic does most of the work while electronic is used for fine adjustments.", "One of the ends of the electron gun has a glass disk, the edges of which are fused with the edge of the neck of the CRT, possibly using frit; the metal leads that connect the electron gun to the outside pass through the disk.Some electron guns have a quadrupole lens with dynamic focus to alter the shape and adjust the focus of the electron beam, varying the focus voltage depending on the position of the electron beam to maintain image sharpness across the entire screen, specially at the corners.", "They may also have a bleeder resistor to derive voltages for the grids from the final anode voltage.After the CRTs were manufactured, they were aged to allow cathode emission to stabilize.The electron guns in color CRTs are driven by a video amplifier which takes a signal per color channel and amplifies it to 40–170 V per channel, to be fed into the electron gun's cathodes; each electron gun has its own channel (one per color) and all channels may be driven by the same amplifier, which internally has three separate channels.", "The amplifier's capabilities limit the resolution, refresh rate and contrast ratio of the CRT, as the amplifier needs to provide high bandwidth and voltage variations at the same time; higher resolutions and refresh rates need higher bandwidths (speed at which voltage can be varied and thus switching between black and white) and higher contrast ratios need higher voltage variations or amplitude for lower black and higher white levels.", "30Mhz of bandwidth can usually provide 720p or 1080i resolution, while 20Mhz usually provides around 600 (horizontal, from top to bottom) lines of resolution, for example.", "The difference in voltage between the cathode and the control grid is what modulates the electron beam, modulating its current and thus the brightness of the image.", "The phosphors used in color CRTs produce different amounts of light for a given amount of energy, so to produce white on a color CRT, all three guns must output differing amounts of energy.", "The gun that outputs the most energy is the red gun since the red phosphor emits the least amount of light.====Gamma====CRTs have a pronounced triode characteristic, which results in significant gamma (a nonlinear relationship in an electron gun between applied video voltage and beam intensity).===Deflection===There are two types of deflection: magnetic and electrostatic.", "Magnetic is usually used in TVs and monitors as it allows for higher deflection angles (and hence shallower CRTs) and deflection power (which allows for higher electron beam current and hence brighter images) while avoiding the need for high voltages for deflection of up to 2 kV, while oscilloscopes often use electrostatic deflection since the raw waveforms captured by the oscilloscope can be applied directly (after amplification) to the vertical electrostatic deflection plates inside the CRT.====Magnetic deflection====Those that use magnetic deflection may use a yoke that has two pairs of deflection coils; one pair for vertical, and another for horizontal deflection.", "The yoke can be bonded (be integral) or removable.", "Those that were bonded used glue or a plastic to bond the yoke to the area between the neck and the funnel of the CRT while those with removable yokes are clamped.", "The yoke generates heat whose removal is essential since the conductivity of glass goes up with increasing temperature, the glass needs to be insulating for the CRT to remain usable as a capacitor.", "The temperature of the glass below the yoke is thus checked during the design of a new yoke.", "The yoke contains the deflection and convergence coils with a ferrite core to reduce loss of magnetic force as well as the magnetized rings used to align or adjust the electron beams in color CRTs (The color purity and convergence rings, for example) and monochrome CRTs.", "The yoke may be connected using a connector, the order in which the deflection coils of the yoke are connected determines the orientation of the image displayed by the CRT.", "The deflection coils may be held in place using polyurethane glue.The deflection coils are driven by sawtooth signals that may be delivered through VGA as horizontal and vertical sync signals.", "A CRT needs two deflection circuits: a horizontal and a vertical circuit, which are similar except that the horizontal circuit runs at a much higher frequency (a Horizontal scan rate) of 15–240 kHz depending on the refresh rate of the CRT and the number of horizontal lines to be drawn (the vertical resolution of the CRT).", "The higher frequency makes it more susceptible to interference, so an automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit may be used to lock the phase of the horizontal deflection signal to that of a sync signal, to prevent the image from becoming distorted diagonally.", "The vertical frequency varies according to the refresh rate of the CRT.", "So a CRT with a 60 Hz refresh rate has a vertical deflection circuit running at 60 Hz.", "The horizontal and vertical deflection signals may be generated using two circuits that work differently; the horizontal deflection signal may be generated using a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) while the vertical signal may be generated using a triggered relaxation oscillator.", "In many TVs, the frequencies at which the deflection coils run is in part determined by the inductance value of the coils.", "CRTs had differing deflection angles; the higher the deflection angle, the shallower the CRT for a given screen size, but at the cost of more deflection power and lower optical performance.Higher deflection power means more current is sent to the deflection coils to bend the electron beam at a higher angle, which in turn may generate more heat or require electronics that can handle the increased power.", "Heat is generated due to resistive and core losses.", "The deflection power is measured in mA per inch.", "The vertical deflection coils may require ~24 volts while the horizontal deflection coils require ~120 volts to operate.The deflection coils are driven by deflection amplifiers.", "The horizontal deflection coils may also be driven in part by the horizontal output stage of a TV set.", "The stage contains a capacitor that is in series with the horizontal deflection coils that performs several functions, among them are: shaping the sawtooth deflection signal to match the curvature of the CRT and centering the image by preventing a DC bias from developing on the coil.", "At the beginning of retrace, the magnetic field of the coil collapses, causing the electron beam to return to the center of the screen, while at the same time the coil returns energy into capacitors, the energy of which is then used to force the electron beam to go to the left of the screen.Due to the high frequency at which the horizontal deflection coils operate, the energy in the deflection coils must be recycled to reduce heat dissipation.", "Recycling is done by transferring the energy in the deflection coils' magnetic field to a set of capacitors.", "The voltage on the horizontal deflection coils is negative when the electron beam is on the left side of the screen and positive when the electron beam is on the right side of the screen.", "The energy required for deflection is dependent on the energy of the electrons.", "Higher energy (voltage and/or current) electron beams need more energy to be deflected, and are used to achieve higher image brightness.====Electrostatic deflection====Mostly used in oscilloscopes.", "Deflection is carried out by applying a voltage across two pairs of plates, one for horizontal, and the other for vertical deflection.", "The electron beam is steered by varying the voltage difference across plates in a pair; For example, applying a voltage to the upper plate of the vertical deflection pair, while keeping the voltage in the bottom plate at 0 volts, will cause the electron beam to be deflected towards the upper part of the screen; increasing the voltage in the upper plate while keeping the bottom plate at 0 will cause the electron beam to be deflected to a higher point in the screen (will cause the beam to be deflected at a higher deflection angle).", "The same applies with the horizontal deflection plates.", "Increasing the length and proximity between plates in a pair can also increase the deflection angle.===Burn-in===Burn-in is when images are physically \"burned\" into the screen of the CRT; this occurs due to degradation of the phosphors due to prolonged electron bombardment of the phosphors, and happens when a fixed image or logo is left for too long on the screen, causing it to appear as a \"ghost\" image or, in severe cases, also when the CRT is off.", "To counter this, screensavers were used in computers to minimize burn-in.", "Burn-in is not exclusive to CRTs, as it also happens to plasma displays and OLED displays.===Evacuation===The CRT's partial vacuum of to or less is evacuated or exhausted in a ~375–475 °C oven in a process called ''baking'' or ''bake-out''.", "The evacuation process also outgasses any materials inside the CRT, while decomposing others such as the polyvinyl alcohol used to apply the phosphors.", "The heating and cooling are done gradually to avoid inducing stress, stiffening and possibly cracking the glass; the oven heats the gases inside the CRT, increasing the speed of the gas molecules which increases the chances of them getting drawn out by the vacuum pump.", "The temperature of the CRT is kept to below that of the oven, and the oven starts to cool just after the CRT reaches 400 °C, or, the CRT was kept at a temperature higher than 400 °C for up to 15–55 minutes.", "The CRT was heated during or after evacuation, and the heat may have been used simultaneously to melt the frit in the CRT, joining the screen and funnel.", "The pump used is a turbomolecular pump or a diffusion pump.", "Formerly mercury vacuum pumps were also used.", "After baking, the CRT is disconnected (\"sealed or tipped off\") from the vacuum pump.", "The getter is then fired using an RF (induction) coil.", "The getter is usually in the funnel or in the neck of the CRT.", "The getter material which is often barium-based, catches any remaining gas particles as it evaporates due to heating induced by the RF coil (that may be combined with exothermic heating within the material); the vapor fills the CRT, trapping any gas molecules that it encounters and condenses on the inside of the CRT forming a layer that contains trapped gas molecules.", "Hydrogen may be present in the material to help distribute the barium vapor.", "The material is heated to temperatures above 1000 °C, causing it to evaporate.", "Partial loss of vacuum in a CRT can result in a hazy image, blue glowing in the neck of the CRT, flashovers, loss of cathode emission or focusing problems.===Rebuilding===CRTs used to be rebuilt; repaired or refurbished.", "The rebuilding process included the disassembly of the CRT, the disassembly and repair or replacement of the electron gun(s), the removal and redeposition of phosphors and aquadag, etc.", "Rebuilding was popular until the 1960s because CRTs were expensive and wore out quickly, making repair worth it.", "The last CRT rebuilder in the US closed in 2010, and the last in Europe, RACS, which was located in France, closed in 2013.===Reactivation===Also known as rejuvenation, the goal is to temporarily restore the brightness of a worn CRT.", "This is often done by carefully increasing the voltage on the cathode heater and the current and voltage on the control grids of the electron gun manually.", "Some rejuvenators can also fix heater-to-cathode shorts by running a capacitive discharge through the short.===Phosphors===Phosphors in CRTs emit secondary electrons due to them being inside the vacuum of the CRT.", "The secondary electrons are collected by the anode of the CRT.", "Secondary electrons generated by phosphors need to be collected to prevent charges from developing in the screen, which would lead to reduced image brightness since the charge would repel the electron beam.The phosphors used in CRTs often contain rare earth metals, replacing earlier dimmer phosphors.", "Early red and green phosphors contained Cadmium, and some black and white CRT phosphors also contained beryllium in the form of Zinc beryllium silicate, although white phosphors containing cadmium, zinc and magnesium with silver, copper or manganese as dopants were also used.", "The rare earth phosphors used in CRTs are more efficient (produce more light) than earlier phosphors.", "The phosphors adhere to the screen because of Van der Waals and electrostatic forces.", "Phosphors composed of smaller particles adhere more strongly to the screen.", "The phosphors together with the carbon used to prevent light bleeding (in color CRTs) can be easily removed by scratching.Several dozen types of phosphors were available for CRTs.", "Phosphors were classified according to color, persistence, luminance rise and fall curves, color depending on anode voltage (for phosphors used in penetration CRTs), Intended use, chemical composition, safety, sensitivity to burn-in, and secondary emission properties.", "Examples of rare earth phosphors are yttrium oxide for red and yttrium silicide for blue in beam index tubes, while examples of earlier phosphors are copper cadmium sulfide for red,SMPTE-C phosphors have properties defined by the SMPTE-C standard, which defines a color space of the same name.", "The standard prioritizes accurate color reproduction, which was made difficult by the different phosphors and color spaces used in the NTSC and PAL color systems.", "PAL TV sets have subjectively better color reproduction due to the use of saturated green phosphors, which have relatively long decay times that are tolerated in PAL since there is more time in PAL for phosphors to decay, due to its lower framerate.", "SMPTE-C phosphors were used in professional video monitors.The phosphor coating on monochrome and color CRTs may have an aluminum coating on its rear side used to reflect light forward, provide protection against ions to prevent ion burn by negative ions on the phosphor, manage heat generated by electrons colliding against the phosphor, prevent static build up that could repel electrons from the screen, form part of the anode and collect the secondary electrons generated by the phosphors in the screen after being hit by the electron beam, providing the electrons with a return path.", "The electron beam passes through the aluminum coating before hitting the phosphors on the screen; the aluminum attenuates the electron beam voltage by about 1 kV.", "A film or lacquer may be applied to the phosphors to reduce the surface roughness of the surface formed by the phosphors to allow the aluminum coating to have a uniform surface and prevent it from touching the glass of the screen.", "This is known as filming.", "The lacquer contains solvents that are later evaporated; the lacquer may be chemically roughened to cause an aluminum coating with holes to be created to allow the solvents to escape.====Phosphor persistence====Various phosphors are available depending upon the needs of the measurement or display application.", "The brightness, color, and persistence of the illumination depends upon the type of phosphor used on the CRT screen.", "Phosphors are available with persistences ranging from less than one microsecond to several seconds.", "For visual observation of brief transient events, a long persistence phosphor may be desirable.", "For events which are fast and repetitive, or high frequency, a short-persistence phosphor is generally preferable.", "The phosphor persistence must be low enough to avoid smearing or ghosting artifacts at high refresh rates.===Limitations and workarounds=======Blooming====Variations in anode voltage can lead to variations in brightness in parts or all of the image, in addition to blooming, shrinkage or the image getting zoomed in or out.", "Lower voltages lead to blooming and zooming in, while higher voltages do the opposite.", "Some blooming is unavoidable, which can be seen as bright areas of an image that expand, distorting or pushing aside surrounding darker areas of the same image.", "Blooming occurs because bright areas have a higher electron beam current from the electron gun, making the beam wider and harder to focus.", "Poor voltage regulation causes focus and anode voltage to go down with increasing electron beam current.====Doming====Doming is a phenomenon found on some CRT TVs in which parts of the shadow mask become heated.", "In TVs that exhibit this behavior, it tends to occur in high-contrast scenes in which there is a largely dark scene with one or more localized bright spots.", "As the electron beam hits the shadow mask in these areas it heats unevenly.", "The shadow mask warps due to the heat differences, which causes the electron gun to hit the wrong colored phosphors and incorrect colors to be displayed in the affected area.", "Thermal expansion causes the shadow mask to expand by around 100 microns.During normal operation, the shadow mask is heated to around 80–90 °C.", "Bright areas of images heat the shadow mask more than dark areas, leading to uneven heating of the shadow mask and warping (blooming) due to thermal expansion caused by heating by increased electron beam current.", "The shadow mask is usually made of steel but it can be made of Invar (a low-thermal expansion Nickel-Iron alloy) as it withstands two to three times more current than conventional masks without noticeable warping, while making higher resolution CRTs easier to achieve.", "Coatings that dissipate heat may be applied on the shadow mask to limit blooming in a process called blackening.Bimetal springs may be used in CRTs used in TVs to compensate for warping that occurs as the electron beam heats the shadow mask, causing thermal expansion.", "The shadow mask is installed to the screen using metal pieces or a rail or frame that is fused to the funnel or the screen glass respectively, holding the shadow mask in tension to minimize warping (if the mask is flat, used in flat-screen CRT computer monitors) and allowing for higher image brightness and contrast.Aperture grille screens are brighter since they allow more electrons through, but they require support wires.", "They are also more resistant to warping.", "Color CRTs need higher anode voltages than monochrome CRTs to achieve the same brightness since the shadow mask blocks most of the electron beam.", "Slot masks and specially Aperture grilles do not block as many electrons resulting in a brighter image for a given anode voltage, but aperture grille CRTs are heavier.", "Shadow masks block 80–85% of the electron beam while Aperture grilles allow more electrons to pass through.====High voltage====Image brightness is related to the anode voltage and to the CRTs size, so higher voltages are needed for both larger screens and higher image brightness.", "Image brightness is also controlled by the current of the electron beam.", "Higher anode voltages and electron beam currents also mean higher amounts of x-rays and heat generation since the electrons have a higher speed and energy.", "Leaded glass and special barium-strontium glass are used to block most x-ray emissions.====Size====A practical limit on the size of a CRT is the weight of the thick glass needed to safely sustain its vacuum, since a CRT's exterior is exposed to the full atmospheric pressure, which for instance totals on a 27-inch (400 in2) screen.", "For example, the large 43-inch Sony PVM-4300 weighs , much heavier than 32-inch CRTs (up to ) and 19-inch CRTs (up to ).", "Much lighter flat panel TVs are only ~ for 32-inch and for 19-inch.Size is also limited by anode voltage, as it would require a higher dielectric strength to prevent arcing and the electrical losses and ozone generation it causes, without sacrificing image brightness.Shadow masks also become more difficult to make with increasing resolution and size.====Limits imposed by deflection====At high deflection angles, resolutions and refresh rates (since higher resolutions and refresh rates require significantly higher frequencies to be applied to the horizontal deflection coils), the deflection yoke starts to produce large amounts of heat, due to the need to move the electron beam at a higher angle, which in turn requires exponentially larger amounts of power.", "As an example, to increase the deflection angle from 90 to 120°, power consumption of the yoke must also go up from 40 watts to 80 watts, and to increase it further from 120 to 150°, deflection power must again go up from 80 to 160 watts.", "This normally makes CRTs that go beyond certain deflection angles, resolutions and refresh rates impractical, since the coils would generate too much heat due to resistance caused by the skin effect, surface and eddy current losses, and/or possibly causing the glass underneath the coil to become conductive (as the electrical conductivity of glass decreases with increasing temperature).", "Some deflection yokes are designed to dissipate the heat that comes from their operation.", "Higher deflection angles in color CRTs directly affect convergence at the corners of the screen which requires additional compensation circuitry to handle electron beam power and shape, leading to higher costs and power consumption.", "Higher deflection angles allow a CRT of a given size to be slimmer, however they also impose more stress on the CRT envelope, specially on the panel, the seal between the panel and funnel and on the funnel.", "The funnel needs to be long enough to minimize stress, as a longer funnel can be better shaped to have lower stress." ], [ "Comparison with other technologies", "* LCD advantages over CRT: Lower bulk, power consumption and heat generation, higher refresh rates (up to 360 Hz), higher contrast ratios* CRT advantages over LCD: Better color reproduction, no motion blur, multisyncing available in many monitors, no input lag * OLED advantages over CRT: Lower bulk, similar color reproduction, higher contrast ratios, similar refresh rates (over 60 Hz, up to 120 Hz) except for computer monitors.On CRTs, refresh rate depends on resolution, both of which are ultimately limited by the maximum horizontal scanning frequency of the CRT.", "Motion blur also depends on the decay time of the phosphors.", "Phosphors that decay too slowly for a given refresh rate may cause smearing or motion blur on the image.", "In practice, CRTs are limited to a refresh rate of 160 Hz.", "LCDs that can compete with OLED (Dual Layer, and mini-LED LCDs) are not available in high refresh rates, although quantum dot LCDs (QLEDs) are available in high refresh rates (up to 144 Hz) and are competitive in color reproduction with OLEDs.CRT monitors can still outperform LCD and OLED monitors in input lag, as there is no signal processing between the CRT and the display connector of the monitor, since CRT monitors often use VGA which provides an analog signal that can be fed to a CRT directly.", "Video cards designed for use with CRTs may have a RAMDAC to generate the analog signals needed by the CRT.", "Also, CRT monitors are often capable of displaying sharp images at several resolutions, an ability known as multisyncing.", "Due to these reasons, CRTs are sometimes preferred by PC gamers in spite of their bulk, weight and heat generation.CRTs tend to be more durable than their flat panel counterparts, though specialised LCDs that have similar durability also exist." ], [ "Types", "CRTs were produced in two major categories, picture tubes and display tubes.", "Picture tubes were used in TVs while display tubes were used in computer monitors.", "Display tubes were of higher resolution and when used in computer monitors sometimes had adjustable overscan, or sometimes underscan.Picture tube CRTs have overscan, meaning the actual edges of the image are not shown; this is deliberate to allow for adjustment variations between CRT TVs, preventing the ragged edges (due to blooming) of the image from being shown on screen.", "The shadow mask may have grooves that reflect away the electrons that do not hit the screen due to overscan.", "Color picture tubes used in TVs were also known as CPTs.", "CRTs are also sometimes called Braun tubes.===Monochrome CRTs===An aluminized monochrome CRT.", "The black matte coating is aquadag.The deflection yoke over the neck of a monochrome CRT.", "It has two pairs of deflection coils.If the CRT is a black and white (B&W or monochrome) CRT, there is a single electron gun in the neck and the funnel is coated on the inside with aluminum that has been applied by evaporation; the aluminum is evaporated in a vacuum and allowed to condense on the inside of the CRT.", "Aluminum eliminates the need for ion traps, necessary to prevent ion burn on the phosphor, while also reflecting light generated by the phosphor towards the screen, managing heat and absorbing electrons providing a return path for them; previously funnels were coated on the inside with aquadag, used because it can be applied like paint; the phosphors were left uncoated.", "Aluminum started being applied to CRTs in the 1950s, coating the inside of the CRT including the phosphors, which also increased image brightness since the aluminum reflected light (that would otherwise be lost inside the CRT) towards the outside of the CRT.", "In aluminized monochrome CRTs, Aquadag is used on the outside.", "There is a single aluminum coating covering the funnel and the screen.The screen, funnel and neck are fused together into a single envelope, possibly using lead enamel seals, a hole is made in the funnel onto which the anode cap is installed and the phosphor, aquadag and aluminum are applied afterwards.", "Previously monochrome CRTs used ion traps that required magnets; the magnet was used to deflect the electrons away from the more difficult to deflect ions, letting the electrons through while letting the ions collide into a sheet of metal inside the electron gun.", "Ion burn results in premature wear of the phosphor.", "Since ions are harder to deflect than electrons, ion burn leaves a black dot in the center of the screen.The interior aquadag or aluminum coating was the anode and served to accelerate the electrons towards the screen, collect them after hitting the screen while serving as a capacitor together with the outer aquadag coating.", "The screen has a single uniform phosphor coating and no shadow mask, technically having no resolution limit.Monochrome CRTs may use ring magnets to adjust the centering of the electron beam and magnets around the deflection yoke to adjust the geometry of the image.File:Osziroehre.jpg|Older monochrome CRT without aluminum, only aquadagFile:Monochrome CRT electron gun close up.jpg|The electron gun of a monochrome CRT===Color CRTs===Magnified view of a delta-gun shadow mask color CRTOn the left: Magnified view of In-line phosphor triads (a slot mask) CRT.", "On the right: Magnified view of Delta-gun phosphor triads.Magnified view of a Trinitron (aperture grille) color CRT.", "A thin horizontal support wire is visible.CRT triad and mask typesSpectra of constituent blue, green and red phosphors in a common CRTThe in-line electron guns of a color CRT TVColor CRTs use three different phosphors which emit red, green, and blue light respectively.", "They are packed together in stripes (as in aperture grille designs) or clusters called \"triads\" (as in shadow mask CRTs).Color CRTs have three electron guns, one for each primary color, (red, green and blue) arranged either in a straight line (in-line) or in an equilateral triangular configuration (the guns are usually constructed as a single unit).", "The triangular configuration is often called ''delta-gun'', based on its relation to the shape of the Greek letter delta (Δ).", "The arrangement of the phosphors is the same as that of the electron guns.", "A grille or mask absorbs the electrons that would otherwise hit the wrong phosphor.A shadow mask tube uses a metal plate with tiny holes, typically in a delta configuration, placed so that the electron beam only illuminates the correct phosphors on the face of the tube; blocking all other electrons.", "Shadow masks that use slots instead of holes are known as slot masks.", "The holes or slots are tapered so that the electrons that strike the inside of any hole will be reflected back, if they are not absorbed (e.g.", "due to local charge accumulation), instead of bouncing through the hole to strike a random (wrong) spot on the screen.", "Another type of color CRT (Trinitron) uses an aperture grille of tensioned vertical wires to achieve the same result.", "The shadow mask has a single hole for each triad.", "The shadow mask is usually  inch behind the screen.Trinitron CRTs were different from other color CRTs in that they had a single electron gun with three cathodes, an aperture grille which lets more electrons through, increasing image brightness (since the aperture grille does not block as many electrons), and a vertically cylindrical screen, rather than a curved screen.The three electron guns are in the neck (except for Trinitrons) and the red, green and blue phosphors on the screen may be separated by a black grid or matrix (called black stripe by Toshiba).The funnel is coated with aquadag on both sides while the screen has a separate aluminum coating applied in a vacuum, deposited after the phosphor coating is applied, facing the electron gun.", "The aluminum coating protects the phosphor from ions, absorbs secondary electrons, providing them with a return path, preventing them from electrostatically charging the screen which would then repel electrons and reduce image brightness, reflects the light from the phosphors forwards and helps manage heat.", "It also serves as the anode of the CRT together with the inner aquadag coating.", "The inner coating is electrically connected to an electrode of the electron gun using springs, forming the final anode.", "The outer aquadag coating is connected to ground, possibly using a series of springs or a harness that makes contact with the aquadag.====Shadow mask====The shadow mask absorbs or reflects electrons that would otherwise strike the wrong phosphor dots, causing color purity issues (discoloration of images); in other words, when set up correctly, the shadow mask helps ensure color purity.", "When the electrons strike the shadow mask, they release their energy as heat and x-rays.", "If the electrons have too much energy due to an anode voltage that is too high for example, the shadow mask can warp due to the heat, which can also happen during the Lehr baking at ~435 °C of the frit seal between the faceplate and the funnel of the CRT.Shadow masks were replaced in TVs by slot masks in the 1970s, since slot masks let more electrons through, increasing image brightness.", "Shadow masks may be connected electrically to the anode of the CRT.", "Trinitron used a single electron gun with three cathodes instead of three complete guns.", "CRT PC monitors usually use shadow masks, except for Sony's Trinitron, Mitsubishi's Diamondtron and NEC's Cromaclear; Trinitron and Diamondtron use aperture grilles while Cromaclear uses a slot mask.", "Some shadow mask CRTs have color phosphors that are smaller in diameter than the electron beams used to light them, with the intention being to cover the entire phosphor, increasing image brightness.", "Shadow masks may be pressed into a curved shape.====Screen manufacture====Early color CRTs did not have a black matrix, which was introduced by Zenith in 1969, and Panasonic in 1970.The black matrix eliminates light leaking from one phosphor to another since the black matrix isolates the phosphor dots from one another, so part of the electron beam touches the black matrix.", "This is also made necessary by warping of the shadow mask.", "Light bleeding may still occur due to stray electrons striking the wrong phosphor dots.", "At high resolutions and refresh rates, phosphors only receive a very small amount of energy, limiting image brightness.Several methods were used to create the black matrix.", "One method coated the screen in photoresist such as dichromate-sensitized polyvinyl alcohol photoresist which was then dried and exposed; the unexposed areas were removed and the entire screen was coated in colloidal graphite to create a carbon film, and then hydrogen peroxide was used to remove the remaining photoresist alongside the carbon that was on top of it, creating holes that in turn created the black matrix.", "The photoresist had to be of the correct thickness to ensure sufficient adhesion to the screen, while the exposure step had to be controlled to avoid holes that were too small or large with ragged edges caused by light diffraction, ultimately limiting the maximum resolution of large color CRTs.", "The holes were then filled with phosphor using the method described above.", "Another method used phosphors suspended in an aromatic diazonium salt that adhered to the screen when exposed to light; the phosphors were applied, then exposed to cause them to adhere to the screen, repeating the process once for each color.", "Then carbon was applied to the remaining areas of the screen while exposing the entire screen to light to create the black matrix, and a fixing process using an aqueous polymer solution was applied to the screen to make the phosphors and black matrix resistant to water.", "Black chromium may be used instead of carbon in the black matrix.", "Other methods were also used.The phosphors are applied using photolithography.", "The inner side of the screen is coated with phosphor particles suspended in PVA photoresist slurry, which is then dried using infrared light, exposed, and developed.", "The exposure is done using a \"lighthouse\" that uses an ultraviolet light source with a corrector lens to allow the CRT to achieve color purity.", "Removable shadow masks with spring-loaded clips are used as photomasks.", "The process is repeated with all colors.", "Usually the green phosphor is the first to be applied.", "After phosphor application, the screen is baked to eliminate any organic chemicals (such as the PVA that was used to deposit the phosphor) that may remain on the screen.", "Alternatively, the phosphors may be applied in a vacuum chamber by evaporating them and allowing them to condense on the screen, creating a very uniform coating.", "Early color CRTs had their phosphors deposited using silkscreen printing.", "Phosphors may have color filters over them (facing the viewer), contain pigment of the color emitted by the phosphor, or be encapsulated in color filters to improve color purity and reproduction while reducing glare.", "This technology was sold by Toshiba under the Microfilter brand name.", "Poor exposure due to insufficient light leads to poor phosphor adhesion to the screen, which limits the maximum resolution of a CRT, as the smaller phosphor dots required for higher resolutions cannot receive as much light due to their smaller size.After the screen is coated with phosphor and aluminum and the shadow mask installed onto it the screen is bonded to the funnel using a glass frit that may contain 65–88% of lead oxide by weight.", "The lead oxide is necessary for the glass frit to have a low melting temperature.", "Boron oxide (III) may also present to stabilize the frit, with alumina powder as filler powder to control the thermal expansion of the frit.", "The frit may be applied as a paste consisting of frit particles suspended in amyl acetate or in a polymer with an alkyl methacrylate monomer together with an organic solvent to dissolve the polymer and monomer.", "The CRT is then baked in an oven in what is called a Lehr bake, to cure the frit, sealing the funnel and screen together.", "The frit contains a large quantity of lead, causing color CRTs to contain more lead than their monochrome counterparts.", "Monochrome CRTs on the other hand do not require frit; the funnel can be fused directly to the glass by melting and joining the edges of the funnel and screen using gas flames.", "Frit is used in color CRTs to prevent deformation of the shadow mask and screen during the fusing process.", "The edges of the screen and funnel of the CRT are never melted.", "A primer may be applied on the edges of the funnel and screen before the frit paste is applied to improve adhesion.", "The Lehr bake consists of several successive steps that heat and then cool the CRT gradually until it reaches a temperature of 435–475 °C (other sources may state different temperatures, such as 440 °C) After the Lehr bake, the CRT is flushed with air or nitrogen to remove contaminants, the electron gun is inserted and sealed into the neck of the CRT, and a vacuum is formed on the CRT.====Convergence and purity in color CRTs====Due to limitations in the dimensional precision with which CRTs can be manufactured economically, it has not been practically possible to build color CRTs in which three electron beams could be aligned to hit phosphors of respective color in acceptable coordination, solely on the basis of the geometric configuration of the electron gun axes and gun aperture positions, shadow mask apertures, etc.", "The shadow mask ensures that one beam will only hit spots of certain colors of phosphors, but minute variations in physical alignment of the internal parts among individual CRTs will cause variations in the exact alignment of the beams through the shadow mask, allowing some electrons from, for example, the red beam to hit, say, blue phosphors, unless some individual compensation is made for the variance among individual tubes.Color convergence and color purity are two aspects of this single problem.", "Firstly, for correct color rendering it is necessary that regardless of where the beams are deflected on the screen, all three hit the same spot (and nominally pass through the same hole or slot) on the shadow mask.", "This is called convergence.", "More specifically, the convergence at the center of the screen (with no deflection field applied by the yoke) is called static convergence, and the convergence over the rest of the screen area (specially at the edges and corners) is called dynamic convergence.", "The beams may converge at the center of the screen and yet stray from each other as they are deflected toward the edges; such a CRT would be said to have good static convergence but poor dynamic convergence.", "Secondly, each beam must only strike the phosphors of the color it is intended to strike and no others.", "This is called purity.", "Like convergence, there is static purity and dynamic purity, with the same meanings of \"static\" and \"dynamic\" as for convergence.", "Convergence and purity are distinct parameters; a CRT could have good purity but poor convergence, or vice versa.", "Poor convergence causes color \"shadows\" or \"ghosts\" along displayed edges and contours, as if the image on the screen were intaglio printed with poor registration.", "Poor purity causes objects on the screen to appear off-color while their edges remain sharp.", "Purity and convergence problems can occur at the same time, in the same or different areas of the screen or both over the whole screen, and either uniformly or to greater or lesser degrees over different parts of the screen.A magnet used on a CRT TV.", "Note the distortion of the image.The solution to the static convergence and purity problems is a set of color alignment ring magnets installed around the neck of the CRT.", "These movable weak permanent magnets are usually mounted on the back end of the deflection yoke assembly and are set at the factory to compensate for any static purity and convergence errors that are intrinsic to the unadjusted tube.", "Typically there are two or three pairs of two magnets in the form of rings made of plastic impregnated with a magnetic material, with their magnetic fields parallel to the planes of the magnets, which are perpendicular to the electron gun axes.", "Often, one pair of rings has 2 poles, another has 4, and the remaining ring has 6 poles.", "Each pair of magnetic rings forms a single effective magnet whose field vector can be fully and freely adjusted (in both direction and magnitude).", "By rotating a pair of magnets relative to each other, their relative field alignment can be varied, adjusting the effective field strength of the pair.", "(As they rotate relative to each other, each magnet's field can be considered to have two opposing components at right angles, and these four components two each for two magnets form two pairs, one pair reinforcing each other and the other pair opposing and canceling each other.", "Rotating away from alignment, the magnets' mutually reinforcing field components decrease as they are traded for increasing opposed, mutually cancelling components.)", "By rotating a pair of magnets together, preserving the relative angle between them, the direction of their collective magnetic field can be varied.", "Overall, adjusting all of the convergence/purity magnets allows a finely tuned slight electron beam deflection or lateral offset to be applied, which compensates for minor static convergence and purity errors intrinsic to the uncalibrated tube.", "Once set, these magnets are usually glued in place, but normally they can be freed and readjusted in the field (e.g.", "by a TV repair shop) if necessary.On some CRTs, additional fixed adjustable magnets are added for dynamic convergence or dynamic purity at specific points on the screen, typically near the corners or edges.", "Further adjustment of dynamic convergence and purity typically cannot be done passively, but requires active compensation circuits, one to correct convergence horizontally and another to correct it vertically.", "The deflection yoke contains convergence coils, a set of two per color, wound on the same core, to which the convergence signals are applied.", "That means 6 convergence coils in groups of 3, with 2 coils per group, with one coil for horizontal convergence correction and another for vertical convergence correction, with each group sharing a core.", "The groups are separated 120° from one another.", "Dynamic convergence is necessary because the front of the CRT and the shadow mask are not spherical, compensating for electron beam defocusing and astigmatism.", "The fact that the CRT screen is not spherical leads to geometry problems which may be corrected using a circuit.", "The signals used for convergence are parabolic waveforms derived from three signals coming from a vertical output circuit.", "The parabolic signal is fed into the convergence coils, while the other two are sawtooth signals that, when mixed with the parabolic signals, create the necessary signal for convergence.", "A resistor and diode are used to lock the convergence signal to the center of the screen to prevent it from being affected by the static convergence.", "The horizontal and vertical convergence circuits are similar.", "Each circuit has two resonators, one usually tuned to 15,625 Hz and the other to 31,250 Hz, which set the frequency of the signal sent to the convergence coils.", "Dynamic convergence may be accomplished using electrostatic quadrupole fields in the electron gun.", "Dynamic convergence means that the electron beam does not travel in a perfectly straight line between the deflection coils and the screen, since the convergence coils cause it to become curved to conform to the screen.The convergence signal may instead be a sawtooth signal with a slight sine wave appearance, the sine wave part is created using a capacitor in series with each deflection coil.", "In this case, the convergence signal is used to drive the deflection coils.", "The sine wave part of the signal causes the electron beam to move more slowly near the edges of the screen.", "The capacitors used to create the convergence signal are known as the s-capacitors.", "This type of convergence is necessary due to the high deflection angles and flat screens of many CRT computer monitors.", "The value of the s-capacitors must be chosen based on the scan rate of the CRT, so multi-syncing monitors must have different sets of s-capacitors, one for each refresh rate.Dynamic convergence may instead be accomplished in some CRTs using only the ring magnets, magnets glued to the CRT, and by varying the position of the deflection yoke, whose position may be maintained using set screws, a clamp and rubber wedges.", "90° deflection angle CRTs may use \"self-convergence\" without dynamic convergence, which together with the in-line triad arrangement, eliminates the need for separate convergence coils and related circuitry, reducing costs.", "complexity and CRT depth by 10 millimeters.", "Self-convergence works by means of \"nonuniform\" magnetic fields.", "Dynamic convergence is necessary in 110° deflection angle CRTs, and quadrupole windings on the deflection yoke at a certain frequency may also be used for dynamic convergence.Dynamic color convergence and purity are one of the main reasons why until late in their history, CRTs were long-necked (deep) and had biaxially curved faces; these geometric design characteristics are necessary for intrinsic passive dynamic color convergence and purity.", "Only starting around the 1990s did sophisticated active dynamic convergence compensation circuits become available that made short-necked and flat-faced CRTs workable.", "These active compensation circuits use the deflection yoke to finely adjust beam deflection according to the beam target location.", "The same techniques (and major circuit components) also make possible the adjustment of display image rotation, skew, and other complex raster geometry parameters through electronics under user control.Alternatively, the guns can be aligned with one another (converged) using convergence rings placed right outside the neck; with one ring per gun.", "The rings can have north and south poles.", "There can be 4 sets of rings, one to adjust RGB convergence, a second to adjust Red and Blue convergence, a third to adjust vertical raster shift, and a fourth to adjust purity.", "The vertical raster shift adjusts the straightness of the scan line.", "CRTs may also employ dynamic convergence circuits, which ensure correct convergence at the edges of the CRT.", "Permalloy magnets may also be used to correct the convergence at the edges.", "Convergence is carried out with the help of a crosshatch (grid) pattern.", "Other CRTs may instead use magnets that are pushed in and out instead of rings.", "In early color CRTs, the holes in the shadow mask became progressively smaller as they extended outwards from the center of the screen, to aid in convergence.====Magnetic shielding and degaussing====A degaussing in progressMu metal magnetic shields for oscilloscope CRTsIf the shadow mask or aperture grille becomes magnetized, its magnetic field alters the paths of the electron beams.", "This causes errors of \"color purity\" as the electrons no longer follow only their intended paths, and some will hit some phosphors of colors other than the one intended.", "For example, some electrons from the red beam may hit blue or green phosphors, imposing a magenta or yellow tint to parts of the image that are supposed to be pure red.", "(This effect is localized to a specific area of the screen if the magnetization is localized.)", "Therefore, it is important that the shadow mask or aperture grille not be magnetized.", "The earth's magnetic field may have an effect on the color purity of the CRT.", "Because of this, some CRTs have external magnetic shields over their funnels.", "The magnetic shield may be made of soft iron or mild steel and contain a degaussing coil.", "The magnetic shield and shadow mask may be permanently magnetized by the earth's magnetic field, adversely affecting color purity when the CRT is moved.", "This problem is solved with a built-in degaussing coil, found in many TVs and computer monitors.", "Degaussing may be automatic, occurring whenever the CRT is turned on.", "The magnetic shield may also be internal, being on the inside of the funnel of the CRT.Color CRT displays in TV sets and computer monitors often have a built-in degaussing (demagnetizing) coil mounted around the perimeter of the CRT face.", "Upon power-up of the CRT display, the degaussing circuit produces a brief, alternating current through the coil which fades to zero over a few seconds, producing a decaying alternating magnetic field from the coil.", "This degaussing field is strong enough to remove shadow mask magnetization in most cases, maintaining color purity.", "In unusual cases of strong magnetization where the internal degaussing field is not sufficient, the shadow mask may be degaussed externally with a stronger portable degausser or demagnetizer.", "However, an excessively strong magnetic field, whether alternating or constant, may mechanically deform (bend) the shadow mask, causing a permanent color distortion on the display which looks very similar to a magnetization effect.====Resolution====Dot pitch defines the maximum resolution of the display, assuming delta-gun CRTs.", "In these, as the scanned resolution approaches the dot pitch resolution, moiré appears, as the detail being displayed is finer than what the shadow mask can render.", "Aperture grille monitors do not suffer from vertical moiré, however, because their phosphor stripes have no vertical detail.", "In smaller CRTs, these strips maintain position by themselves, but larger aperture-grille CRTs require one or two crosswise (horizontal) support strips; one for smaller CRTs, and two for larger ones.", "The support wires block electrons, causing the wires to be visible.", "In aperture grille CRTs, dot pitch is replaced by stripe pitch.", "Hitachi developed the Enhanced Dot Pitch (EDP) shadow mask, which uses oval holes instead of circular ones, with respective oval phosphor dots.", "Moiré is reduced in shadow mask CRTs by arranging the holes in the shadow mask in a honeycomb-like pattern.===Projection CRTs===Projection CRTs were used in CRT projectors and CRT rear-projection TVs, and are usually small (being 7–9 inches across); have a phosphor that generates either red, green or blue light, thus making them monochrome CRTs; and are similar in construction to other monochrome CRTs.", "Larger projection CRTs in general lasted longer, and were able to provide higher brightness levels and resolution, but were also more expensive.", "Projection CRTs have an unusually high anode voltage for their size (such as 27 or 25 kV for a 5 or 7-inch projection CRT respectively), and a specially made tungsten/barium cathode (instead of the pure barium oxide normally used) that consists of barium atoms embedded in 20% porous tungsten or barium and calcium aluminates or of barium, calcium and aluminum oxides coated on porous tungsten; the barium diffuses through the tungsten to emit electrons.", "The special cathode can deliver 2 mA of current instead of the 0.3mA of normal cathodes, which makes them bright enough to be used as light sources for projection.", "The high anode voltage and the specially made cathode increase the voltage and current, respectively, of the electron beam, which increases the light emitted by the phosphors, and also the amount of heat generated during operation; this means that projector CRTs need cooling.", "The screen is usually cooled using a container (the screen forms part of the container) with glycol; the glycol may itself be dyed, or colorless glycol may be used inside a container which may be colored (forming a lens known as a c-element).", "Colored lenses or glycol are used for improving color reproduction at the cost of brightness, and are only used on red and green CRTs.", "Each CRT has its own glycol, which has access to an air bubble to allow the glycol to shrink and expand as it cools and warms.", "Projector CRTs may have adjustment rings just like color CRTs to adjust astigmatism, which is flaring of the electron beam (stray light similar to shadows).", "They have three adjustment rings; one with two poles, one with four poles, and another with 6 poles.", "When correctly adjusted, the projector can display perfectly round dots without flaring.", "The screens used in projection CRTs were more transparent than usual, with 90% transmittance.", "The first projection CRTs were made in 1933.Projector CRTs were available with electrostatic and electromagnetic focusing, the latter being more expensive.", "Electrostatic focusing used electronics to focus the electron beam, together with focusing magnets around the neck of the CRT for fine focusing adjustments.", "This type of focusing degraded over time.", "Electromagnetic focusing was introduced in the early 1990s and included an electromagnetic focusing coil in addition to the already existing focusing magnets.", "Electromagnetic focusing was much more stable over the lifetime of the CRT, retaining 95% of its sharpness by the end of life of the CRT.===Beam-index tube===Beam-index tubes, also known as Uniray, Apple CRT or Indextron, was an attempt in the 1950s by Philco to create a color CRT without a shadow mask, eliminating convergence and purity problems, and allowing for shallower CRTs with higher deflection angles.", "It also required a lower voltage power supply for the final anode since it did not use a shadow mask, which normally blocks around 80% of the electrons generated by the electron gun.", "The lack of a shadow mask also made it immune to the earth's magnetic field while also making degaussing unnecessary and increasing image brightness.", "It was constructed similarly to a monochrome CRT, with an aquadag outer coating, an aluminum inner coating, and a single electron gun but with a screen with an alternating pattern of red, green, blue and UV (index) phosphor stripes (similarly to a Trinitron) with a side mounted photomultiplier tube or photodiode pointed towards the rear of the screen and mounted on the funnel of CRT, to track the electron beam to activate the phosphors separately from one another using the same electron beam.", "Only the index phosphor stripe was used for tracking, and it was the only phosphor that was not covered by an aluminum layer.", "It was shelved because of the precision required to produce it.", "It was revived by Sony in the 1980s as the Indextron but its adoption was limited, at least in part due to the development of LCD displays.", "Beam-index CRTs also suffered from poor contrast ratios of only around 50:1 since some light emission by the phosphors was required at all times by the photodiodes to track the electron beam.", "It allowed for single CRT color CRT projectors due to a lack of shadow mask; normally CRT projectors use three CRTs, one for each color, since a lot of heat is generated due to the high anode voltage and beam current, making a shadow mask impractical and inefficient since it would warp under the heat produced (shadow masks absorb most of the electron beam, and, hence, most of the energy carried by the relativistic electrons); the three CRTs meant that an involved calibration and adjustment procedure had to be carried out during installation of the projector, and moving the projector would require it to be recalibrated.", "A single CRT meant the need for calibration was eliminated, but brightness was decreased since the CRT screen had to be used for three colors instead of each color having its own CRT screen.", "A stripe pattern also imposes a horizontal resolution limit; in contrast, three-screen CRT projectors have no theoretical resolution limit, due to them having single, uniform phosphor coatings.===Flat CRTs===The front of a Sony Watchman monochrome CRTA flat monochrome CRT assembly inside a 1984 Sinclair TV80 portable TVFlat CRTs are those with a flat screen.", "Despite having a flat screen, they may not be completely flat, especially on the inside, instead having a greatly increased curvature.", "A notable exception is the LG Flatron (made by LG.Philips Displays, later LP Displays) which is truly flat on the outside and inside, but has a bonded glass pane on the screen with a tensioned rim band to provide implosion protection.", "Such completely flat CRTs were first introduced by Zenith in 1986, and used flat tensioned shadow masks, where the shadow mask is held under tension, providing increased resistance to blooming.Flat CRTs have a number of challenges, like deflection.", "Vertical deflection boosters are required to increase the amount of current that is sent to the vertical deflection coils to compensate for the reduced curvature.", "The CRTs used in the Sinclair TV80, and in many Sony Watchmans were flat in that they were not deep and their front screens were flat, but their electron guns were put to a side of the screen.", "The TV80 used electrostatic deflection while the Watchman used magnetic deflection with a phosphor screen that was curved inwards.", "Similar CRTs were used in video door bells.File:SONY 03JM 2.5\" Monochrome Flat Watchman CRT side.jpg|The side of a Sony Watchman monochrome CRT.", "One of the pairs of deflection coils is easily noticeable.===Radar CRTs===Radar CRTs such as the 7JP4 had a circular screen and scanned the beam from the center outwards.", "The deflection yoke rotated, causing the beam to rotate in a circular fashion.", "The screen often had two colors, often a bright short persistence color that only appeared as the beam scanned the display and a long persistence phosphor afterglow.", "When the beam strikes the phosphor, the phosphor brightly illuminates, and when the beam leaves, the dimmer long persistence afterglow would remain lit where the beam struck the phosphor, alongside the radar targets that were \"written\" by the beam, until the beam re-struck the phosphor.===Oscilloscope CRTs===An oscilloscope showing a Lissajous curve The electron gun of an oscilloscope.", "A pair of deflection plates is visible on the left.In oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the magnetic deflection commonly used with TV and other large CRTs.", "The beam is deflected horizontally by applying an electric field between a pair of plates to its left and right, and vertically by applying an electric field to plates above and below.", "TVs use magnetic rather than electrostatic deflection because the deflection plates obstruct the beam when the deflection angle is as large as is required for tubes that are relatively short for their size.", "Some Oscilloscope CRTs incorporate post deflection anodes (PDAs) that are spiral-shaped to ensure even anode potential across the CRT and operate at up to 15 kV.", "In PDA CRTs the electron beam is deflected before it is accelerated, improving sensitivity and legibility, specially when analyzing voltage pulses with short duty cycles.====Microchannel plate====When displaying fast one-shot events, the electron beam must deflect very quickly, with few electrons impinging on the screen, leading to a faint or invisible image on the display.", "Oscilloscope CRTs designed for very fast signals can give a brighter display by passing the electron beam through a micro-channel plate just before it reaches the screen.", "Through the phenomenon of secondary emission, this plate multiplies the number of electrons reaching the phosphor screen, giving a significant improvement in writing rate (brightness) and improved sensitivity and spot size as well.====Graticules====Most oscilloscopes have a graticule as part of the visual display, to facilitate measurements.", "The graticule may be permanently marked inside the face of the CRT, or it may be a transparent external plate made of glass or acrylic plastic.", "An internal graticule eliminates parallax error, but cannot be changed to accommodate different types of measurements.", "Oscilloscopes commonly provide a means for the graticule to be illuminated from the side, which improves its visibility.====Image storage tubes====The Tektronix Type 564: first mass-produced analog phosphor storage oscilloscopeThese are found in ''analog phosphor storage oscilloscopes''.", "These are distinct from ''digital storage oscilloscopes'' which rely on solid state digital memory to store the image.Where a single brief event is monitored by an oscilloscope, such an event will be displayed by a conventional tube only while it actually occurs.", "The use of a long persistence phosphor may allow the image to be observed after the event, but only for a few seconds at best.", "This limitation can be overcome by the use of a direct view storage cathode-ray tube (storage tube).", "A storage tube will continue to display the event after it has occurred until such time as it is erased.", "A storage tube is similar to a conventional tube except that it is equipped with a metal grid coated with a dielectric layer located immediately behind the phosphor screen.", "An externally applied voltage to the mesh initially ensures that the whole mesh is at a constant potential.", "This mesh is constantly exposed to a low velocity electron beam from a 'flood gun' which operates independently of the main gun.", "This flood gun is not deflected like the main gun but constantly 'illuminates' the whole of the storage mesh.", "The initial charge on the storage mesh is such as to repel the electrons from the flood gun which are prevented from striking the phosphor screen.When the main electron gun writes an image to the screen, the energy in the main beam is sufficient to create a 'potential relief' on the storage mesh.", "The areas where this relief is created no longer repel the electrons from the flood gun which now pass through the mesh and illuminate the phosphor screen.", "Consequently, the image that was briefly traced out by the main gun continues to be displayed after it has occurred.", "The image can be 'erased' by resupplying the external voltage to the mesh restoring its constant potential.", "The time for which the image can be displayed was limited because, in practice, the flood gun slowly neutralises the charge on the storage mesh.", "One way of allowing the image to be retained for longer is temporarily to turn off the flood gun.", "It is then possible for the image to be retained for several days.", "The majority of storage tubes allow for a lower voltage to be applied to the storage mesh which slowly restores the initial charge state.", "By varying this voltage a variable persistence is obtained.", "Turning off the flood gun and the voltage supply to the storage mesh allows such a tube to operate as a conventional oscilloscope tube.===Vector monitors===Vector monitors were used in early computer aided design systems and are in some late-1970s to mid-1980s arcade games such as ''Asteroids''.They draw graphics point-to-point, rather than scanning a raster.", "Either monochrome or color CRTs can be used in vector displays, and the essential principles of CRT design and operation are the same for either type of display; the main difference is in the beam deflection patterns and circuits.===Data storage tubes===The Williams tube or Williams-Kilburn tube was a cathode-ray tube used to electronically store binary data.", "It was used in computers of the 1940s as a random-access digital storage device.", "In contrast to other CRTs in this article, the Williams tube was not a display device, and in fact could not be viewed since a metal plate covered its screen.===Cat's eye===In some vacuum tube radio sets, a \"Magic Eye\" or \"Tuning Eye\" tube was provided to assist in tuning the receiver.", "Tuning would be adjusted until the width of a radial shadow was minimized.", "This was used instead of a more expensive electromechanical meter, which later came to be used on higher-end tuners when transistor sets lacked the high voltage required to drive the device.", "The same type of device was used with tape recorders as a recording level meter, and for various other applications including electrical test equipment.===Charactrons===Some displays for early computers (those that needed to display more text than was practical using vectors, or that required high speed for photographic output) used Charactron CRTs.", "These incorporate a perforated metal character mask (stencil), which shapes a wide electron beam to form a character on the screen.", "The system selects a character on the mask using one set of deflection circuits, but that causes the extruded beam to be aimed off-axis, so a second set of deflection plates has to re-aim the beam so it is headed toward the center of the screen.", "A third set of plates places the character wherever required.", "The beam is unblanked (turned on) briefly to draw the character at that position.", "Graphics could be drawn by selecting the position on the mask corresponding to the code for a space (in practice, they were simply not drawn), which had a small round hole in the center; this effectively disabled the character mask, and the system reverted to regular vector behavior.", "Charactrons had exceptionally long necks, because of the need for three deflection systems.===Nimo===Nimo tube BA0000-P31Nimo was the trademark of a family of small specialised CRTs manufactured by Industrial Electronic Engineers.", "These had 10 electron guns which produced electron beams in the form of digits in a manner similar to that of the charactron.", "The tubes were either simple single-digit displays or more complex 4- or 6- digit displays produced by means of a suitable magnetic deflection system.", "Having little of the complexities of a standard CRT, the tube required a relatively simple driving circuit, and as the image was projected on the glass face, it provided a much wider viewing angle than competitive types (e.g., nixie tubes).", "However, their requirement for several voltages and their high voltage made them uncommon.===Flood-beam CRT===Flood-beam CRTs are small tubes that are arranged as pixels for large video walls like Jumbotrons.", "The first screen using this technology (called Diamond Vision by Mitsubishi Electric) was introduced by Mitsubishi Electric for the 1980 Major League Baseball All-Star Game.", "It differs from a normal CRT in that the electron gun within does not produce a focused controllable beam.", "Instead, electrons are sprayed in a wide cone across the entire front of the phosphor screen, basically making each unit act as a single light bulb.", "Each one is coated with a red, green or blue phosphor, to make up the color sub-pixels.", "This technology has largely been replaced with light-emitting diode displays.", "Unfocused and undeflected CRTs were used as grid-controlled stroboscope lamps since 1958.Electron-stimulated luminescence (ESL) lamps, which use the same operating principle, were released in 2011.===Print-head CRT===CRTs with an unphosphored front glass but with fine wires embedded in it were used as electrostatic print heads in the 1960s.", "The wires would pass the electron beam current through the glass onto a sheet of paper where the desired content was therefore deposited as an electrical charge pattern.", "The paper was then passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge.", "The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.===Zeus – thin CRT display===In the late 1990s and early 2000s Philips Research Laboratories experimented with a type of thin CRT known as the ''Zeus'' display, which contained CRT-like functionality in a flat-panel display.", "The cathode of this display was mounted under the front of the display, and the electrons from the cathode would be directed to the back to the display where they would stay until extracted by electrodes near the front of the display, and directed to the front of the display which had phosphor dots.", "The devices were demonstrated but never marketed.===Slimmer CRT===A comparison between 21-inch Superslim and Ultraslim CRTSome CRT manufacturers, both LG.Philips Displays (later LP Displays) and Samsung SDI, innovated CRT technology by creating a slimmer tube.", "Slimmer CRT had the trade names Superslim, Ultraslim, Vixlim (by Samsung) and Cybertube and Cybertube+ (both by LG Philips displays).", "A flat CRT has a depth.", "The depth of Superslim was and Ultraslim was ." ], [ "Health concerns", "===Ionizing radiation===CRTs can emit a small amount of X-ray radiation; this is a result of the electron beam's bombardment of the shadow mask/aperture grille and phosphors, which produces bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) as the high-energy electrons are decelerated.", "The amount of radiation escaping the front of the monitor is widely considered to be not harmful.", "The Food and Drug Administration regulations in are used to strictly limit, for instance, TV receivers to 0.5 milliroentgens per hour at a distance of from any external surface; since 2007, most CRTs have emissions that fall well below this limit.", "Note that the roentgen is an outdated unit and does not account for dose absorption.", "The conversion rate is about .877 roentgen per rem.", "Assuming that the viewer absorbed the entire dose (which is unlikely), and that they watched TV for 2 hours a day, a .5 milliroentgen hourly dose would increase the viewers yearly dose by 320 millirem.", "For comparison, the average background radiation in the United States is 310 millirem a year.", "Negative effects of chronic radiation are not generally noticeable until doses over 20,000 millirem.The density of the x-rays that would be generated by a CRT is low because the raster scan of a typical CRT distributes the energy of the electron beam across the entire screen.", "Voltages above 15,000 volts are enough to generate \"soft\" x-rays.", "However, since CRTs may stay on for several hours at a time, the amount of x-rays generated by the CRT may become significant, hence the importance of using materials to shield against x-rays, such as the thick leaded glass and barium-strontium glass used in CRTs.Concerns about x-rays emitted by CRTs began in 1967 when it was found that TV sets made by General Electric were emitting \"X-radiation in excess of desirable levels\".", "It was later found that TV sets from all manufacturers were also emitting radiation.", "This caused TV industry representatives to be brought before a U.S. congressional committee, which later proposed a federal radiation regulation bill, which became the 1968 Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act.", "It was recommended to TV set owners to always be at a distance of at least 6 feet from the screen of the TV set, and to avoid \"prolonged exposure\" at the sides, rear or underneath a TV set.", "It was discovered that most of the radiation was directed downwards.", "Owners were also told to not modify their set's internals to avoid exposure to radiation.", "Headlines about \"radioactive\" TV sets continued until the end of the 1960s.", "There once was a proposal by two New York congressmen that would have forced TV set manufacturers to \"go into homes to test all of the nation's 15 million color sets and to install radiation devices in them\".", "The FDA eventually began regulating radiation emissions from all electronic products in the US.===Toxicity===Older color and monochrome CRTs may have been manufactured with toxic substances, such as cadmium, in the phosphors.", "The rear glass tube of modern CRTs may be made from leaded glass, which represent an environmental hazard if disposed of improperly.", "Since 1970, glass in the front panel (the viewable portion of the CRT) used strontium oxide rather than lead, though the rear of the CRT was still produced from leaded glass.", "Monochrome CRTs typically do not contain enough leaded glass to fail EPA TCLP tests.", "While the TCLP process grinds the glass into fine particles in order to expose them to weak acids to test for leachate, intact CRT glass does not leach (The lead is vitrified, contained inside the glass itself, similar to leaded glass crystalware).===Flicker===At low refresh rates (60 Hz and below), the periodic scanning of the display may produce a flicker that some people perceive more easily than others, especially when viewed with peripheral vision.", "Flicker is commonly associated with CRT as most TVs run at 50 Hz (PAL) or 60 Hz (NTSC), although there are some 100 Hz PAL TVs that are flicker-free.", "Typically only low-end monitors run at such low frequencies, with most computer monitors supporting at least 75 Hz and high-end monitors capable of 100 Hz or more to eliminate any perception of flicker.", "Though the 100 Hz PAL was often achieved using interleaved scanning, dividing the circuit and scan into two beams of 50 Hz.", "Non-computer CRTs or CRT for sonar or radar may have long persistence phosphor and are thus flicker free.", "If the persistence is too long on a video display, moving images will be blurred.===High-frequency audible noise===50 Hz/60 Hz CRTs used for TV operate with horizontal scanning frequencies of 15,750 and 15,734.27 Hz (for NTSC systems) or 15,625 Hz (for PAL systems).", "These frequencies are at the upper range of human hearing and are inaudible to many people; however, some people (especially children) will perceive a high-pitched tone near an operating CRT TV.", "The sound is due to magnetostriction in the magnetic core and periodic movement of windings of the flyback transformer but the sound can also be created by movement of the deflection coils, yoke or ferrite beads.This problem does not occur on 100/120 Hz TVs and on non-CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) computer displays, because they use much higher horizontal scanning frequencies that produce sound which is inaudible to humans (22 kHz to over 100 kHz).===Implosion===A CRT during an implosionIf the glass wall is damaged, atmospheric pressure can implode the vacuum tube into dangerous fragments which accelerate inward and then spray at high speed in all directions.", "Although modern cathode-ray tubes used in TVs and computer displays have epoxy-bonded face-plates or other measures to prevent shattering of the envelope, CRTs must be handled carefully to avoid injury.====Implosion protection====Datapoint 1500 terminal with exposed chassis, with its CRT suffering from a \"cataract\" due to aging PVAEarly CRTs had a glass plate over the screen that was bonded to it using glue, creating a laminated glass screen: initially the glue was polyvinyl acetate (PVA), while later versions such as the LG Flatron used a resin, perhaps a UV-curable resin.", "The PVA degrades over time creating a \"cataract\", a ring of degraded glue around the edges of the CRT that does not allow light from the screen to pass through.", "Later CRTs instead use a tensioned metal rim band mounted around the perimeter that also provides mounting points for the CRT to be mounted to a housing.", "In a 19-inch CRT, the tensile stress in the rim band is 70 kg/cm2.Older CRTs were mounted to the TV set using a frame.", "The band is tensioned by heating it, then mounting it on the CRT; the band cools afterwards, shrinking in size and putting the glass under compression, which strengthens the glass and reduces the necessary thickness (and hence weight) of the glass.", "This makes the band an integral component that should never be removed from an intact CRT that still has a vacuum; attempting to remove it may cause the CRT to implode.The rim band prevents the CRT from imploding should the screen be broken.", "The rim band may be glued to the perimeter of the CRT using epoxy, preventing cracks from spreading beyond the screen and into the funnel.Alternatively the compression caused by the rim band may be used to cause any cracks in the screen to propagate laterally at a high speed so that they reach the funnel and fully penetrate it before they fully penetrate the screen.", "This is possible because the funnel has walls that are thinner than the screen.", "Fully penetrating the funnel first allows air to enter the CRT from a short distance behind the screen, and prevent an implosion by ensuring the screen is fully penetrated by the cracks and breaks only when the CRT already has air.===Electric shock===To accelerate the electrons from the cathode to the screen with enough energy to achieve sufficient image brightness, a very high voltage (EHT or extra-high tension) is required, from a few thousand volts for a small oscilloscope CRT to tens of thousands for a larger screen color TV.", "This is many times greater than household power supply voltage.", "Even after the power supply is turned off, some associated capacitors and the CRT itself may retain a charge for some time and therefore dissipate that charge suddenly through a ground such as an inattentive human grounding a capacitor discharge lead.", "An average monochrome CRT may use 1–1.5 kV of anode voltage per inch." ], [ "Security concerns", "Under some circumstances, the signal radiated from the electron guns, scanning circuitry, and associated wiring of a CRT can be captured remotely and used to reconstruct what is shown on the CRT using a process called Van Eck phreaking.", "Special TEMPEST shielding can mitigate this effect.", "Such radiation of a potentially exploitable signal, however, occurs also with other display technologies and with electronics in general." ], [ "Recycling", "Due to the toxins contained in CRT monitors the United States Environmental Protection Agency created rules (in October 2001) stating that CRTs must be brought to special e-waste recycling facilities.", "In November 2002, the EPA began fining companies that disposed of CRTs through landfills or incineration.", "Regulatory agencies, local and statewide, monitor the disposal of CRTs and other computer equipment.As electronic waste, CRTs are considered one of the hardest types to recycle.", "CRTs have relatively high concentration of lead and , both of which are necessary for the display.", "There are several companies in the United States that charge a small fee to collect CRTs, then subsidize their labor by selling the harvested copper, wire, and printed circuit boards.", "The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of \"hazardous household waste\" but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if they are not discarded, speculatively accumulated, or left unprotected from weather and other damage.Various states participate in the recycling of CRTs, each with their reporting requirements for collectors and recycling facilities.", "For example, in California the recycling of CRTs is governed by CALRecycle, the California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery through their Payment System.", "Recycling facilities that accept CRT devices from business and residential sector must obtain contact information such as address and phone number to ensure the CRTs come from a California source in order to participate in the CRT Recycling Payment System.In Europe, disposal of CRT TVs and monitors is covered by the WEEE Directive.Multiple methods have been proposed for the recycling of CRT glass.", "The methods involve thermal, mechanical and chemical processes.", "All proposed methods remove the lead oxide content from the glass.", "Some companies operated furnaces to separate the lead from the glass.", "A coalition called the Recytube project was once formed by several European companies to devise a method to recycle CRTs.", "The phosphors used in CRTs often contain rare earth metals.", "A CRT contains about 7 grams of phosphor.The funnel can be separated from the screen of the CRT using laser cutting, diamond saws or wires or using a resistively heated nichrome wire.Leaded CRT glass was sold to be remelted into other CRTs, or even broken down and used in road construction or used in tiles, concrete, concrete and cement bricks, fiberglass insulation or used as flux in metals smelting.A considerable portion of CRT glass is landfilled, where it can pollute the surrounding environment.", "It is more common for CRT glass to be disposed of than being recycled." ], [ "See also", "* Cathodoluminescence* Crookes tube* Scintillation (physics)*Laser-powered phosphor display, similar to a CRT, replaces the electron beam with a laser beamApplying CRT in different display-purpose:* Analog television* Image displaying* Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays* Overscan* Raster scan* Scan lineHistorical aspects:* Direct-view bistable storage tube* Flat-panel display* Geer tube* History of display technology* Image dissector* LCD television, LED-backlit LCD, LED display* Penetron* Surface-conduction electron-emitter display* TrinitronSafety and precautions:* Monitor filter* Photosensitive epilepsy* TCO Certification" ], [ "References" ], [ "Selected patents", "* : Zworykin Television System" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Crystal" ], [ "Introduction", "Crystals of amethyst quartzMicroscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals (called \"crystallites\" or \"grains\"); and an amorphous solid (such as glass) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.A '''crystal''' or '''crystalline solid''' is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.", "In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations.", "The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography.", "The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification.The word ''crystal'' derives from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning both \"ice\" and \"rock crystal\", from (), \"icy cold, frost\".Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt.", "Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e.", "many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid.", "Polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice.", "A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever.", "Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics.Despite the name, lead crystal, crystal glass, and related products are ''not'' crystals, but rather types of glass, i.e.", "amorphous solids.Crystals, or crystalline solids, are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements." ], [ "Crystal structure (microscopic)", "The scientific definition of a \"crystal\" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure.", "A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement.", "(Quasicrystals are an exception, see below).Not all solids are crystals.", "For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a ''polycrystalline'' structure.", "In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called \"crystallites\" or \"grains\") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does ''not'' have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries.", "Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc.", "Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called ''amorphous solids'', also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline.", "These have no periodic order, even microscopically.", "There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does.A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its ''unit cell'', a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement.", "The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal.The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps.", "There are 219 possible crystal symmetries (230 is commonly cited, but this treats chiral equivalents as separate entities), called crystallographic space groups.", "These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice)." ], [ "Crystal faces, shapes and crystallographic forms", "halite crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many dangling bonds.", "Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows).", "Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth, stable faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves.Crystals are commonly recognized, macroscopically, by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles.", "These shape characteristics are not ''necessary'' for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see.Euhedral crystals are those that have obvious, well-formed flat faces.", "Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid.The flat faces (also called facets) of a euhedral crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: they are planes of relatively low Miller index.", "This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower surface energy).", "As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces.", "Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces.", "(See diagram on right.", ")One of the oldest techniques in the science of crystallography consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying crystal symmetry.A crystal's '''crystallographic forms''' are sets of possible faces of the crystal that are related by one of the symmetries of the crystal.", "For example, crystals of galena often take the shape of cubes, and the six faces of the cube belong to a crystallographic form that displays one of the symmetries of the isometric crystal system.", "Galena also sometimes crystallizes as octahedrons, and the eight faces of the octahedron belong to another crystallographic form reflecting a different symmetry of the isometric system.", "A crystallographic form is described by placing the Miller indices of one of its faces within brackets.", "For example, the octahedral form is written as {111}, and the other faces in the form are implied by the symmetry of the crystal.Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot.", "The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms.", "All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are open.", "A crystal's faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms.A crystal's habit is its visible external shape.", "This is determined by the crystal structure (which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed." ], [ "Occurrence in nature", "Ice crystalsFossil shell with calcite crystals=== Rocks ===By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid bedrock.", "Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found.", ", the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, long and in diameter, and weighing .Some crystals have formed by magmatic and metamorphic processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline rock.", "The vast majority of igneous rocks are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified.", "Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of lava were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or glassy matter is common.", "Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as marbles, mica-schists and quartzites, are recrystallized.", "This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like limestone, shale and sandstone and have never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form druses or quartz veins.", "Evaporites such as halite, gypsum and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to evaporation in arid climates.=== Ice ===Water-based ice in the form of snow, sea ice, and glaciers are common crystalline/polycrystalline structures on Earth and other planets.", "A single snowflake is a single crystal or a collection of crystals, while an ice cube is a polycrystal.", "Ice crystals may form from cooling liquid water below its freezing point, such as ice cubes or a frozen lake.", "Frost, snowflakes, or small ice crystals suspended in the air (ice fog) more often grow from a supersaturated gaseous-solution of water vapor and air, when the temperature of the air drops below its dew point, without passing through a liquid state.", "Another unusual property of water is that it expands rather than contracts when it crystallizes.=== Organigenic crystals ===Many living organisms are able to produce crystals grown from an aqueous solution, for example calcite and aragonite in the case of most molluscs or hydroxylapatite in the case of bones and teeth in vertebrates." ], [ "Polymorphism and allotropy", "The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways.", "Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form.", "For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic Ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms.", "The different polymorphs are usually called different ''phases''.In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline phases.", "For example, water can also form amorphous ice, while SiO2 can form both fused silica (an amorphous glass) and quartz (a crystal).", "Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals.For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy.", "For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form.", "Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have very different properties.", "For example, diamond is the hardest substance known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.", "Chocolate can form six different types of crystals, but only one has the suitable hardness and melting point for candy bars and confections.", "Polymorphism in steel is responsible for its ability to be heat treated, giving it a wide range of properties.Polyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form." ], [ "Crystallization", "cooling crystallizer in a beet sugar factory.Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid.", "(More rarely, crystals may be deposited directly from gas; see: epitaxy and frost.", ")Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms.", "It can form a single crystal, perhaps with various possible phases, stoichiometries, impurities, defects, and habits.", "Or, it can form a polycrystal, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains.", "The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the ambient pressure, the temperature, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing.Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called ''boules'') include the Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique.", "Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization.Large single crystals can be created by geological processes.", "For example, selenite crystals in excess of 10 m are found in the Cave of the Crystals in Naica, Mexico.", "For more details on geological crystal formation, see above.Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see above.", "Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to ''prevent'' crystallization from occurring, such as antifreeze proteins." ], [ "Defects, impurities, and twinning", "Two types of crystallographic defects.", "Top right: edge dislocation.", "Bottom right: screw dislocation.An ''ideal'' crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern.", "However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted.", "The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.A few examples of crystallographic defects include vacancy defects (an empty space where an atom should fit), interstitial defects (an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and dislocations (see figure at right).", "Dislocations are especially important in materials science, because they help determine the mechanical strength of materials.Another common type of crystallographic defect is an impurity, meaning that the \"wrong\" type of atom is present in a crystal.", "For example, a perfect crystal of diamond would only contain carbon atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few boron atoms as well.", "These boron impurities change the diamond's color to slightly blue.", "Likewise, the only difference between ruby and sapphire is the type of impurities present in a corundum crystal.Twinned pyrite crystal group.In semiconductors, a special type of impurity, called a dopant, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties.", "Semiconductor devices, such as transistors, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns.Twinning is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a grain boundary.", "Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides.", "But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way.Mosaicity is a spread of crystal plane orientations.", "A mosaic crystal consists of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other." ], [ "Chemical bonds", "In general, solids can be held together by various types of chemical bonds, such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others.", "None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline.", "However, there are some general trends as follows:Metals crystallize rapidly and are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like amorphous metal and single-crystal metals.", "The latter are grown synthetically, for example, fighter-jet turbines are typically made by first growing a single crystal of titanium alloy, increasing its strength and melting point over polycrystalline titanium.", "A small piece of metal may naturally form into a single crystal, such as Type 2 telluric iron, but larger pieces generally do not unless extremely slow cooling occurs.", "For example, iron meteorites are often composed of single crystal, or many large crystals that may be several meters in size, due to very slow cooling in the vacuum of space.", "The slow cooling may allow the precipitation of a separate phase within the crystal lattice, which form at specific angles determined by the lattice, called Widmanstatten patterns.Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts with a non-metal, such as sodium with chlorine.", "These often form substances called salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium nitrate (saltpeter), with crystals that are often brittle and cleave relatively easily.", "Ionic materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline.", "In practice, large salt crystals can be created by solidification of a molten fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution.", "Some ionic compounds can be very hard, such as oxides like aluminium oxide found in many gemstones such as ruby and synthetic sapphire.Covalently bonded solids (sometimes called covalent network solids) are typically formed from one or more non-metals, such as carbon or silicon and oxygen, and are often very hard, rigid, and brittle.", "These are also very common, notable examples being diamond and quartz respectively.Weak van der Waals forces also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline molecular solids, as well as the interlayer bonding in graphite.", "Substances such as fats, lipids and wax form molecular bonds because the large molecules do not pack as tightly as atomic bonds.", "This leads to crystals that are much softer and more easily pulled apart or broken.", "Common examples include chocolates, candles, or viruses.", "Water ice and dry ice are examples of other materials with molecular bonding.Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous." ], [ "Quasicrystals", "holmium–magnesium–zinc (Ho–Mg–Zn) forms quasicrystals, which can take on the macroscopic shape of a pentagonal dodecahedron.", "Only quasicrystals can take this 5-fold symmetry.", "The edges are 2 mm long.A quasicrystal consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic.", "They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in x-ray diffraction, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces.Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see crystallographic restriction theorem).The International Union of Crystallography has redefined the term \"crystal\" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals (\"any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram\").Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice.", "Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004.The 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Dan Shechtman for the discovery of quasicrystals." ], [ "Special properties from anisotropy", "Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that glass and polycrystals normally cannot.", "These properties are related to the anisotropy of the crystal, i.e.", "the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement.", "One such property is the piezoelectric effect, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it.", "Another is birefringence, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal.", "Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity, and Young's modulus, may be different in different directions in a crystal.", "For example, graphite crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other.", "Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress.Not all crystals have all of these properties.", "Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals.", "They can appear in glasses or polycrystals that have been made anisotropic by working or stress—for example, stress-induced birefringence." ], [ "Crystallography", "''Crystallography'' is the science of measuring the crystal structure (in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal.", "One widely used crystallography technique is X-ray diffraction.", "Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in crystallographic databases." ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Insulincrystals.jpg|Insulin crystals grown in earth orbit.", "The low gravity allows crystals to be grown with minimal defects.File:Hoar frost macro2.jpg|Hoar frost: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm).File:Gallium crystals.jpg|Gallium, a metal that easily forms large crystals.File:Apatite-Rhodochrosite-Fluorite-169799.jpg|An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes.File:Monokristalines Silizium für die Waferherstellung.jpg|Boules of silicon, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced single crystal.File:Bornite-Chalcopyrite-Pyrite-180794.jpg|A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals.", "The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across.File:Calcite-millerite association.jpg|Needle-like millerite crystals partially encased in calcite crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to zaratite; from the Devonian Milwaukee Formation of WisconsinFile:Crystallized sugar, multiple crystals and a single crystal grown from seed.jpg|Crystallized sugar.", "Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right.", "Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it grew." ], [ "See also", "* Atomic packing factor* Anticrystal* Cocrystal* Colloidal crystal* Crystal growth* Crystal oscillator* Liquid crystal* Time crystal" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cytosine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cytosine''' () (symbol '''C''' or '''Cyt''') is one of the four nucleobases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA).", "It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2).", "The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine.", "In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine." ], [ "History", "Cytosine was discovered and named by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues.", "A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.In 1998, cytosine was used in an early demonstration of quantum information processing when Oxford University researchers implemented the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm on a two qubit nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer (NMRQC).In March 2015, NASA scientists reported the formation of cytosine, along with uracil and thymine, from pyrimidine under the space-like laboratory conditions, which is of interest because pyrimidine has been found in meteorites although its origin is unknown." ], [ "Chemical reactions", "Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide.", "As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine.", "However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination).", "This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA.Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine.", "The difference in rates of deamination of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine (to uracil and thymine) forms the basis of bisulfite sequencing." ], [ "Biological function", "When found third in a codon of RNA, cytosine is synonymous with uracil, as they are interchangeable as the third base.When found as the second base in a codon, the third is always interchangeable.", "For example, UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG are all serine, regardless of the third base.Active enzymatic deamination of cytosine or 5-methylcytosine by the APOBEC family of cytosine deaminases could have both beneficial and detrimental implications on various cellular processes as well as on organismal evolution.", "The implications of deamination on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, on the other hand, remains less understood." ], [ "Theoretical aspects", "Until October 2021, Cytosine had not been found in meteorites, which suggested the first strands of RNA and DNA had to look elsewhere to obtain this building block.", "Cytosine likely formed within some meteorite parent bodies, however did not persist within these bodies due to an effective deamination reaction into uracil.In October 2021, Cytosine was announced as having been found in meteorites by researchers in a joint Japan/NASA project, that used novel methods of detection which avoided damaging nucleotides as they were extracted from meteorites." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links and citations", "* Cytosine MS Spectrum**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Computational chemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Computational chemistry''' is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations to assist in solving chemical problems.", "It uses methods of theoretical chemistry incorporated into computer programs to calculate the structures and properties of molecules, groups of molecules, and solids.", "The importance of this subject stems from the fact that, with the exception of some relatively recent findings related to the hydrogen molecular ion (dihydrogen cation), achieving an accurate quantum mechanical depiction of chemical systems analytically, or in a closed form, is not feasible.", "The complexity inherent in the many-body problem exacerbates the challenge of providing detailed descriptions of quantum mechanical systems.", "While computational results normally complement information obtained by chemical experiments, it can occasionally predict unobserved chemical phenomena.A dichromium metal complex with electrostatic field surrounding it.", "Modelled using WebMO." ], [ "Overview", "Computational chemistry differs from theoretical chemistry, which involves a mathematical description of chemistry.", "However, computation chemistry involves the usage of computer programs and additional mathematical skills in order to accurately model various chemical problems.", "In theoretical chemistry, chemists, physicists, and mathematicians develop algorithms and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for chemical reactions.", "Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specific chemical questions.Historically, computational chemistry has had two different aspects:* Computational studies, used to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis or to assist in understanding experimental data, such as the position and source of spectroscopic peaks.", "* Computational studies, used to predict the possibility of so far entirely unknown molecules or to explore reaction mechanisms not readily studied via experiments.These aspects, along with computational chemistry's purpose, have resulted in a whole host of algorithms." ], [ "History", "Building on the founding discoveries and theories in the history of quantum mechanics, the first theoretical calculations in chemistry were those of Walter Heitler and Fritz London in 1927, using valence bond theory.", "The books that were influential in the early development of computational quantum chemistry include Linus Pauling and E. Bright Wilson's 1935 ''Introduction to Quantum Mechanics – with Applications to Chemistry'', Eyring, Walter and Kimball's 1944 ''Quantum Chemistry'', Heitler's 1945 ''Elementary Wave Mechanics – with Applications to Quantum Chemistry'', and later Coulson's 1952 textbook ''Valence'', each of which served as primary references for chemists in the decades to follow.With the development of efficient computer technology in the 1940s, the solutions of elaborate wave equations for complex atomic systems began to be a realizable objective.", "In the early 1950s, the first semi-empirical atomic orbital calculations were performed.", "Theoretical chemists became extensive users of the early digital computers.", "One significant advancement was marked by Clemens C. J. Roothaan's 1951 paper in the Reviews of Modern Physics.", "This paper focused largely on the \"LCAO MO\" approach (Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals Molecular Orbitals).", "For many years, it was the second-most cited paper in that journal.", "A very detailed account of such use in the United Kingdom is given by Smith and Sutcliffe.", "The first ''ab initio'' Hartree–Fock method calculations on diatomic molecules were performed in 1956 at MIT, using a basis set of Slater orbitals.", "For diatomic molecules, a systematic study using a minimum basis set and the first calculation with a larger basis set were published by Ransil and Nesbet respectively in 1960.The first polyatomic calculations using Gaussian orbitals were performed in the late 1950s.", "The first configuration interaction calculations were performed in Cambridge on the EDSAC computer in the 1950s using Gaussian orbitals by Boys and coworkers.", "By 1971, when a bibliography of ''ab initio'' calculations was published, the largest molecules included were naphthalene and azulene.", "Abstracts of many earlier developments in ''ab initio'' theory have been published by Schaefer.In 1964, Hückel method calculations (using a simple linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method to determine electron energies of molecular orbitals of π electrons in conjugated hydrocarbon systems) of molecules, ranging in complexity from butadiene and benzene to ovalene, were generated on computers at Berkeley and Oxford.", "These empirical methods were replaced in the 1960s by semi-empirical methods such as CNDO.In the early 1970s, efficient ''ab initio'' computer programs such as ATMOL, Gaussian, IBMOL, and POLYAYTOM, began to be used to speed ''ab initio'' calculations of molecular orbitals.", "Of these four programs, only Gaussian, now vastly expanded, is still in use, but many other programs are now in use.", "At the same time, the methods of molecular mechanics, such as MM2 force field, were developed, primarily by Norman Allinger.One of the first mentions of the term ''computational chemistry'' can be found in the 1970 book ''Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences'' by Sidney Fernbach and Abraham Haskell Taub, where they state \"It seems, therefore, that 'computational chemistry' can finally be more and more of a reality.\"", "During the 1970s, widely different methods began to be seen as part of a new emerging discipline of ''computational chemistry''.", "The ''Journal of Computational Chemistry'' was first published in 1980.Computational chemistry has featured in several Nobel Prize awards, most notably in 1998 and 2013.Walter Kohn, \"for his development of the density-functional theory\", and John Pople, \"for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry\", received the 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.", "Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel received the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for \"the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems\"." ], [ "Applications", "There are several fields within computational chemistry.", "* The prediction of the molecular structure of molecules by the use of the simulation of forces, or more accurate quantum chemical methods, to find stationary points on the energy surface as the position of the nuclei is varied.", "* Storing and searching for data on chemical entities (see chemical databases).", "* Identifying correlations between chemical structures and properties (see ''quantitative structure–property relationship'' (QSPR) and ''quantitative structure–activity relationship'' (QSAR)).", "* Computational approaches to help in the efficient synthesis of compounds.", "* Computational approaches to design molecules that interact in specific ways with other molecules (e.g.", "drug design and catalysis).These fields can give rise to several applications as shown below.=== Catalysis ===Computational chemistry can help predict values like activation energy from catalysis.", "The presence of the catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (shown in red) with lower activation energy.", "The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.Computational chemistry is a tool for analyzing catalytic systems without doing experiments.", "Modern electronic structure theory and density functional theory has allowed researchers to discover and understand catalysts.", "Computational studies apply theoretical chemistry to catalysis research.", "Density functional theory methods calculate the energies and orbitals of molecules to give models of those structures.", "Using these methods, researchers can predict values like activation energy, site reactivity and other thermodynamic properties.Data that is difficult to obtain experimentally can be found using computational methods to model the mechanisms of catalytic cycles.", "Skilled computational chemists provide predictions that are close to experimental data with proper considerations of methods and basis sets.", "With good computational data, researchers can predict how catalysts can be improved to lower the cost and increase the efficiency of these reactions.=== Drug development ===Computational chemistry is used in drug development to model potentially useful drug molecules and help companies save time and cost in drug development.", "The drug discovery process involves analyzing data, finding ways to improve current molecules, finding synthetic routes, and testing those molecules.", "Computational chemistry helps with this process by giving predictions of which experiments would be best to do without conducting other experiments.", "Computational methods can also find values that are difficult to find experimentally like pKa's of compounds.", "Methods like density functional theory can be used to model drug molecules and find their properties, like their HOMO and LUMO energies and molecular orbitals.", "Computational chemists also help companies with developing informatics, infrastructure and designs of drugs.Aside from drug synthesis, drug carriers are also researched by computational chemists for nanomaterials.", "It allows researchers to simulate environments to test the effectiveness and stability of drug carriers.", "Understanding how water interacts with these nanomaterials ensures stability of the material in human bodies.", "These computational simulations help researchers optimize the material find the best way to structure these nanomaterials before making them.=== Computational chemistry databases ===Databases are useful for both computational and non computational chemists in research and verifying the validity of computational methods.", "Empirical data is used to analyze the error of computational methods against experimental data.", "Empirical data helps researchers with their methods and basis sets to have greater confidence in the researchers results.", "Computational chemistry databases are also used in testing software or hardware for computational chemistry.Databases can also use purely calculated data.", "Purely calculated data uses calculated values over experimental values for databases.", "Purely calculated data avoids dealing with these adjusting for different experimental conditions like zero-point energy.", "These calculations can also avoid experimental errors for difficult to test molecules.", "Though purely calculated data is often not perfect, identifying issues is often easier for calculated data than experimental.Databases also give public access to information for researchers to use.", "They contain data that other researchers have found and uploaded to these databases so that anyone can search for them.", "Researchers use these databases to find information on molecules of interest and learn what can be done with those molecules.", "Some publicly available chemistry databases include the following.", "* BindingDB: Contains experimental information about protein-small molecule interactions.", "* RCSB: Stores publicly available 3D models of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids) and small molecules (drugs, inhibitors)* ChEMBL: Contains data from research on drug development such as assay results.", "* DrugBank: Data about mechanisms of drugs can be found here." ], [ "Methods", "=== ''Ab initio'' method ===The programs used in computational chemistry are based on many different quantum-chemical methods that solve the molecular Schrödinger equation associated with the molecular Hamiltonian.", "Methods that do not include any empirical or semi-empirical parameters in their equations – being derived directly from theory, with no inclusion of experimental data – are called ''ab initio methods''.", "A theoretical approximation is rigorously defined on first principles and then solved within an error margin that is qualitatively known beforehand.", "If numerical iterative methods must be used, the aim is to iterate until full machine accuracy is obtained (the best that is possible with a finite word length on the computer, and within the mathematical and/or physical approximations made).Ab initio methods need to define a level of theory (the method) and a basis set.", "A basis set consists of functions centered on the molecule's atoms.", "These sets are then used to describe molecular orbitals via the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method ansatz.Diagram illustrating various ''ab initio'' electronic structure methods in terms of energy.", "Spacings are not to scale.A common type of ''ab initio'' electronic structure calculation is the Hartree–Fock method (HF), an extension of molecular orbital theory, where electron-electron repulsions in the molecule are not specifically taken into account; only the electrons' average effect is included in the calculation.", "As the basis set size increases, the energy and wave function tend towards a limit called the Hartree–Fock limit.Many types of calculations begin with a Hartree–Fock calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as electronic correlation.", "These types of calculations are termed post-Hartree–Fock methods.", "By continually improving these methods, scientists can get increasingly closer to perfectly predicting the behavior of atomic and molecular systems under the framework of quantum mechanics, as defined by the Schrödinger equation.", "To obtain exact agreement with the experiment, it is necessary to include specific terms, some of which are far more important for heavy atoms than lighter ones.In most cases, the Hartree–Fock wave function occupies a single configuration or determinant.", "In some cases, particularly for bond-breaking processes, this is inadequate, and several configurations must be used.The total molecular energy can be evaluated as a function of the molecular geometry; in other words, the potential energy surface.", "Such a surface can be used for reaction dynamics.", "The stationary points of the surface lead to predictions of different isomers and the transition structures for conversion between isomers, but these can be determined without full knowledge of the complete surface.Molecular orbital diagram of the conjugated pi systems of the diazomethane molecule using Hartree-Fock Method, CH2N2==== Computational thermochemistry ====A particularly important objective, called computational thermochemistry, is to calculate thermochemical quantities such as the enthalpy of formation to chemical accuracy.", "Chemical accuracy is the accuracy required to make realistic chemical predictions and is generally considered to be 1 kcal/mol or 4 kJ/mol.", "To reach that accuracy in an economic way, it is necessary to use a series of post-Hartree–Fock methods and combine the results.", "These methods are called quantum chemistry composite methods.==== Chemical dynamics ====After the electronic and nuclear variables are separated within the Born–Oppenheimer representation), the wave packet corresponding to the nuclear degrees of freedom is propagated via the time evolution operator (physics) associated to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (for the full molecular Hamiltonian).", "In the complementary energy-dependent approach, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is solved using the scattering theory formalism.", "The potential representing the interatomic interaction is given by the potential energy surfaces.", "In general, the potential energy surfaces are coupled via the vibronic coupling terms.The most popular methods for propagating the wave packet associated to the molecular geometry are:* the Chebyshev (real) polynomial,* the multi-configuration time-dependent Hartree method (MCTDH),* the semiclassical method* and the split operator technique explained below.===== Split operator technique =====How a computational method solves quantum equations impacts the accuracy and efficiency of the method.", "The split operator technique is one of these methods for solving differential equations.", "In computational chemistry, split operator technique reduces computational costs of simulating chemical systems.", "Computational costs are about how much time it takes for computers to calculate these chemical systems, as it can take days for more complex systems.", "Quantum systems are difficult and time-consuming to solve for humans.", "Split operator methods help computers calculate these systems quickly by solving the sub problems in a quantum differential equation.", "The method does this by separating the differential equation into two different equations, like when there are more than two operators.", "Once solved, the split equations are combined into one equation again to give an easily calculable solution.This method is used in many fields that require solving differential equations, such as biology.", "However, the technique comes with a splitting error.", "For example, with the following solution for a differential equation.The equation can be split, but the solutions will not be exact, only similar.", "This is an example of first order splitting.There are ways to reduce this error, which include taking an average of two split equations.Another way to increase accuracy is to use higher order splitting.", "Usually, second order splitting is the most that is done because higher order splitting requires much more time to calculate and is not worth the cost.", "Higher order methods become too difficult to implement, and are not useful for solving differential equations despite the higher accuracy.Computational chemists spend much time making systems calculated with split operator technique more accurate while minimizing the computational cost.", "Calculating methods is a massive challenge for many chemists trying to simulate molecules or chemical environments.C60 with isosurface of ground-state electron density as calculated with DFT=== Density functional methods ===Density functional theory (DFT) methods are often considered to be ''ab initio methods'' for determining the molecular electronic structure, even though many of the most common functionals use parameters derived from empirical data, or from more complex calculations.", "In DFT, the total energy is expressed in terms of the total one-electron density rather than the wave function.", "In this type of calculation, there is an approximate Hamiltonian and an approximate expression for the total electron density.", "DFT methods can be very accurate for little computational cost.", "Some methods combine the density functional exchange functional with the Hartree–Fock exchange term and are termed hybrid functional methods.=== Semi-empirical methods ===Semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods are based on the Hartree–Fock method formalism, but make many approximations and obtain some parameters from empirical data.", "They were very important in computational chemistry from the 60s to the 90s, especially for treating large molecules where the full Hartree–Fock method without the approximations were too costly.", "The use of empirical parameters appears to allow some inclusion of correlation effects into the methods.Primitive semi-empirical methods were designed even before, where the two-electron part of the Hamiltonian is not explicitly included.", "For π-electron systems, this was the Hückel method proposed by Erich Hückel, and for all valence electron systems, the extended Hückel method proposed by Roald Hoffmann.", "Sometimes, Hückel methods are referred to as \"completely empirical\" because they do not derive from a Hamiltonian.", "Yet, the term \"empirical methods\", or \"empirical force fields\" is usually used to describe molecular mechanics.Molecular mechanics potential energy function with continuum solvent=== Molecular mechanics ===In many cases, large molecular systems can be modeled successfully while avoiding quantum mechanical calculations entirely.", "Molecular mechanics simulations, for example, use one classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance, the harmonic oscillator.", "All constants appearing in the equations must be obtained beforehand from experimental data or ''ab initio'' calculations.The database of compounds used for parameterization, i.e.", "the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the force field, is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations.", "A force field parameterized against a specific class of molecules, for instance, proteins, would be expected to only have any relevance when describing other molecules of the same class.", "These methods can be applied to proteins and other large biological molecules, and allow studies of the approach and interaction (docking) of potential drug molecules.Molecular Dynamics for Argon Gas=== Molecular dynamics ===Molecular dynamics (MD) use either quantum mechanics, molecular mechanics or a mixture of both to calculate forces which are then used to solve Newton's laws of motion to examine the time-dependent behavior of systems.", "The result of a molecular dynamics simulation is a trajectory that describes how the position and velocity of particles varies with time.", "The phase point of a system described by the positions and momenta of all its particles on a previous time point will determine the next phase point in time by integrating over Newton's laws of motion.=== Monte Carlo ===Monte Carlo (MC) generates configurations of a system by making random changes to the positions of its particles, together with their orientations and conformations where appropriate.", "It is a random sampling method, which makes use of the so-called ''importance sampling''.", "Importance sampling methods are able to generate low energy states, as this enables properties to be calculated accurately.", "The potential energy of each configuration of the system can be calculated, together with the values of other properties, from the positions of the atoms.=== Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) ===QM/MM is a hybrid method that attempts to combine the accuracy of quantum mechanics with the speed of molecular mechanics.", "It is useful for simulating very large molecules such as enzymes.=== Quantum Computational Chemistry ===Quantum computational chemistry aims to exploit quantum computing to simulate chemical systems, distinguishing itself from the QM/MM (Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics) approach.", "While QM/MM uses a hybrid approach, combining quantum mechanics for a portion of the system with classical mechanics for the remainder, quantum computational chemistry exclusively uses quantum computing methods to represent and process information, such as Hamiltonian operators.Conventional computational chemistry methods often struggle with the complex quantum mechanical equations, particularly due to the exponential growth of a quantum system's wave function.", "Quantum computational chemistry addresses these challenges using quantum computing methods, such as qubitization and quantum phase estimation, which are believed to offer scalable solutions.Qubitization involves adapting the Hamiltonian operator for more efficient processing on quantum computers, enhancing the simulation's efficiency.", "Quantum phase estimation, on the other hand, assists in accurately determining energy eigenstates, which are critical for understanding the quantum system's behavior.While these techniques have advanced the field of computational chemistry, especially in the simulation of chemical systems, their practical application is currently limited mainly to smaller systems due to technological constraints.", "Nevertheless, these developments may lead to significant progress towards achieving more precise and resource-efficient quantum chemistry simulations." ], [ "Computational costs in chemistry algorithms", "The computational cost and algorithmic complexity in chemistry are used to help understand and predict chemical phenomena.", "They help determine which algorithms/computational methods to use when solving chemical problems.This section focuses on the scaling of computational complexity with molecule size and details the algorithms commonly used in both domains.In quantum chemistry, particularly, the complexity can grow exponentially with the number of electrons involved in the system.", "This exponential growth is a significant barrier to simulating large or complex systems accurately.Advanced algorithms in both fields strive to balance accuracy with computational efficiency.", "For instance, in MD, methods like Verlet integration or Beeman's algorithm are employed for their computational efficiency.", "In quantum chemistry, hybrid methods combining different computational approaches (like QM/MM) are increasingly used to tackle large biomolecular systems.=== Algorithmic complexity examples ===The following list illustrates the impact of computational complexity on algorithms used in chemical computations.", "It is important to note that while this list provides key examples, it is not comprehensive and serves as a guide to understanding how computational demands influence the selection of specific computational methods in chemistry.=== Molecular dynamics ======= Algorithm ====Solves Newton's equations of motion for atoms and molecules.Molecular dynamics simulation of liquid water at 298 K==== Complexity ====The standard pairwise interaction calculation in MD leads to an complexity for particles.", "This is because each particle interacts with every other particle, resulting in interactions.", "Advanced algorithms, such as the Ewald summation or Fast Multipole Method, reduce this to or even by grouping distant particles and treating them as a single entity or using clever mathematical approximations.=== Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) ======= Algorithm ====Combines quantum mechanical calculations for a small region with molecular mechanics for the larger environment.==== Complexity ====The complexity of QM/MM methods depends on both the size of the quantum region and the method used for quantum calculations.", "For example, if a Hartree-Fock method is used for the quantum part, the complexity can be approximated as , where is the number of basis functions in the quantum region.", "This complexity arises from the need to solve a set of coupled equations iteratively until self-consistency is achieved.Algorithmic flowchart illustrating the Hartree–Fock method=== Hartree-Fock method ======= Algorithm ====Finds a single Fock state that minimizes the energy.==== Complexity ====NP-hard or NP-complete as demonstrated by embedding instances of the Ising model into Hartree-Fock calculations.", "The Hartree-Fock method involves solving the Roothaan-Hall equations, which scales as to depending on implementation, with being the number of basis functions.", "The computational cost mainly comes from evaluating and transforming the two-electron integrals.", "This proof of NP-hardness or NP-completeness comes from embedding problems like the Ising model into the Hartree-Fock formalism.An acrolein molecule.", "DFT gives good results in the prediction of sensitivity of some nanostructures to environmental pollutants such as Acrolein.=== Density functional theory ======= Algorithm ====Investigates the electronic structure or nuclear structure of many-body systems such as atoms, molecules, and the condensed phases.==== Complexity ====Traditional implementations of DFT typically scale as , mainly due to the need to diagonalize the Kohn-Sham matrix.", "The diagonalization step, which finds the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix, contributes most to this scaling.", "Recent advances in DFT aim to reduce this complexity through various approximations and algorithmic improvements.=== Standard CCSD and CCSD(T) method ======= Algorithm ====CCSD and CCSD(T) methods are advanced electronic structure techniques involving single, double, and in the case of CCSD(T), perturbative triple excitations for calculating electronic correlation effects.==== Complexity ========= CCSD =====Scales as where is the number of basis functions.", "This intense computational demand arises from the inclusion of single and double excitations in the electron correlation calculation.===== CCSD(T) =====With the addition of perturbative triples, the complexity increases to .", "This elevated complexity restricts practical usage to smaller systems, typically up to 20-25 atoms in conventional implementations.Electron density plot of the 2a1 molecular orbital of methane at the CCSD(T)/cc-pVQZ level.", "Graphic created with Molden based on correlated geometry optimization with CFOUR at the CCSD(T) level in cc-pVQZ basis.=== Linear-scaling CCSD(T) method ======= Algorithm ====An adaptation of the standard CCSD(T) method using local natural orbitals (NOs) to significantly reduce the computational burden and enable application to larger systems.==== Complexity ====Achieves linear scaling with the system size, a major improvement over the traditional fifth-power scaling of CCSD.", "This advancement allows for practical applications to molecules of up to 100 atoms with reasonable basis sets, marking a significant step forward in computational chemistry's capability to handle larger systems with high accuracy.Proving the complexity classes for algorithms involves a combination of mathematical proof and computational experiments.", "For example, in the case of the Hartree-Fock method, the proof of NP-hardness is a theoretical result derived from complexity theory, specifically through reductions from known NP-hard problems.For other methods like MD or DFT, the computational complexity is often empirically observed and supported by algorithm analysis.", "In these cases, the proof of correctness is less about formal mathematical proofs and more about consistently observing the computational behaviour across various systems and implementations." ], [ "Accuracy", "Computational chemistry is not an ''exact'' description of real-life chemistry, as the mathematical and physical models of nature can only provide an approximation.", "However, the majority of chemical phenomena can be described to a certain degree in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme.Molecules consist of nuclei and electrons, so the methods of quantum mechanics apply.", "Computational chemists often attempt to solve the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, with relativistic corrections added, although some progress has been made in solving the fully relativistic Dirac equation.", "In principle, it is possible to solve the Schrödinger equation in either its time-dependent or time-independent form, as appropriate for the problem in hand; in practice, this is not possible except for very small systems.", "Therefore, a great number of approximate methods strive to achieve the best trade-off between accuracy and computational cost.Accuracy can always be improved with greater computational cost.", "Significant errors can present themselves in ab initio models comprising many electrons, due to the computational cost of full relativistic-inclusive methods.", "This complicates the study of molecules interacting with high atomic mass unit atoms, such as transitional metals and their catalytic properties.", "Present algorithms in computational chemistry can routinely calculate the properties of small molecules that contain up to about 40 electrons with errors for energies less than a few kJ/mol.", "For geometries, bond lengths can be predicted within a few picometers and bond angles within 0.5 degrees.", "The treatment of larger molecules that contain a few dozen atoms is computationally tractable by more approximate methods such as density functional theory (DFT).There is some dispute within the field whether or not the latter methods are sufficient to describe complex chemical reactions, such as those in biochemistry.", "Large molecules can be studied by semi-empirical approximate methods.", "Even larger molecules are treated by classical mechanics methods that use what are called molecular mechanics (MM).In QM-MM methods, small parts of large complexes are treated quantum mechanically (QM), and the remainder is treated approximately (MM)." ], [ "Software packages", "Many self-sufficient computational chemistry software packages exist.", "Some include many methods covering a wide range, while others concentrate on a very specific range or even on one method.", "Details of most of them can be found in:* Biomolecular modelling programs: proteins, nucleic acid.", "* Molecular mechanics programs.", "* Quantum chemistry and solid state-physics software supporting several methods.", "* Molecular design software* Semi-empirical programs.", "* Valence bond programs." ], [ "Specialized journals on computational chemistry", "* '' Annual Reports in Computational Chemistry''* ''Computational and Theoretical Chemistry''* '' Computational and Theoretical Polymer Science''* '' Computers & Chemical Engineering''* ''Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling''* ''Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling''* '' Journal of Chemical Software''* ''Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation''* ''Journal of Cheminformatics''* ''Journal of Computational Chemistry''* '' Journal of Computer Aided Chemistry''* '' Journal of Computer Chemistry Japan''* '' Journal of Computer-aided Molecular Design''* ''Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry''* ''Molecular Informatics''* ''Theoretical Chemistry Accounts''" ], [ "External links", "* NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase – Contains a database of thousands of computational and experimental results for hundreds of systems* American Chemical Society Division of Computers in Chemistry – American Chemical Society Computers in Chemistry Division, resources for grants, awards, contacts and meetings.", "* CSTB report Mathematical Research in Materials Science: Opportunities and Perspectives – CSTB Report* 3.320 Atomistic Computer Modeling of Materials (SMA 5107) Free MIT Course* Chem 4021/8021 Computational Chemistry Free University of Minnesota Course* Technology Roadmap for Computational Chemistry* Applications of molecular and materials modelling.", "* Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology CSTB Report* MD and Computational Chemistry applications on GPUs* Susi Lehtola, Antti J. Karttunen:\"Free and open source software for computational chemistry education\", First published: 23 March 2022, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcms.1610 (Open Access) * CCL.NET: Computational Chemistry List, Ltd." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Crash (Ballard novel)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Crash''''' is a novel by English author J. G. Ballard, first published in 1973 with cover designed by Bill Botten.", "It follows a group of car-crash fetishists who become sexually aroused by staging and participating in car accidents, inspired by the famous crashes of celebrities.The novel was released to divided critical reception, with many reviewers horrified by its provocative content.", "It was adapted into a controversial 1996 film of the same name by David Cronenberg." ], [ "Synopsis", "The story is told through the eyes of narrator James Ballard, named after the author himself, but it centers on the sinister figure of Dr. Robert Vaughan, a former TV scientist turned \"nightmare angel of the highways\".", "James meets Vaughan after being injured in a car crash near London Airport.", "Gathering around Vaughan is a group of alienated people, all of them former crash victims, who follow him in his pursuit to re-enact the crashes of Hollywood celebrities such as Jayne Mansfield and James Dean, in order to experience what the narrator calls \"a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology\".", "Vaughan's ultimate fantasy is to die in a head-on collision with movie star Elizabeth Taylor." ], [ "Development", "The Papers of J.G.", "Ballard at the British Library include two revised drafts of ''Crash'' (Add MS 88938/3/8).", "Scanned extracts from Ballard's drafts are included in ''Crash: The Collector's Edition,'' ed.", "Chris Beckett.In 1971, Harley Cokeliss directed a short film entitled ''Crash!''", "based on a chapter in J. G. Ballard's book ''The Atrocity Exhibition'', where Ballard is featured, talking about the ideas in his book.", "British actress Gabrielle Drake appeared as a passenger and car-crash victim.", "Ballard later developed the idea, resulting in ''Crash''.", "In his draft of the novel he mentioned Drake by name, but references to her were removed from the published version." ], [ "Interpretation", "''Crash'' has been difficult to characterize as a novel.", "At some points in his career, Ballard claimed that ''Crash'' was a \"cautionary tale\", a view that he would later regret, asserting that it is in fact \"a psychopathic hymn.", "But it is a psychopathic hymn which has a point”.", "Likewise, Ballard previously characterized it a science fiction novel, a position he would later take back.Jean Baudrillard wrote an analysis of ''Crash'' in ''Simulacra and Simulation'' in which he declared it \"the first great novel of the universe of simulation\".", "He made note of how the fetish in the story conflates the functionality of the automobiles with that of the human body and how the characters' injuries and the damage to the vehicles are used as equivalent signs.", "To him, the hyperfunctionality leads to the dysfunction in the story.", "Quotes were used extensively to illustrate that the language of the novel employs plain, mechanical terms for the parts of the automobile and proper, medical language for human sex organs and acts.", "The story is interpreted as showing a merger between technology, sexuality, and death, and he further argued that by pointing out Vaughan's character takes and keeps photos of the car crashes and the mutilated bodies involved.", "Baudrillard stated that there is no moral judgment about the events within the novel but that Ballard himself intended it as a warning against a cultural trend.The story can be classed as dystopic." ], [ "Critical reception", "The novel received divided reviews when originally published.", "One publisher's reader returned the verdict \"This author is beyond psychiatric help.", "Do Not Publish!\"", "A 1973 review in ''The New York Times'' was equally horrified: \"''Crash'' is, hands-down, the most repulsive book I've yet to come across.", "\"However, retrospective opinion now considers ''Crash'' to be one of Ballard's best and most challenging works.", "Reassessing ''Crash'' in ''The Guardian'', Zadie Smith wrote, \"C''rash'' is an existential book about how ''everybody uses everything''.", "How everything uses everybody.", "And yet it is not a hopeless vision.\"", "On Ballard's legacy, she writes: \"In Ballard's work there is always this mix of futuristic dread and excitement, a sweet spot where dystopia and utopia converge.", "For we cannot say we haven't got precisely what we dreamed of, what we always wanted, so badly.\"" ], [ "References in popular art", "===Music===The Normal's 1978 song \"Warm Leatherette\" was inspired by the novel as was \"Miss the Girl,\" a 1983 single by The Creatures.The Manic Street Preachers' song \"Mausoleum\" from 1994's ''The Holy Bible'' contains the famous Ballard quote about his reasons for writing the book, \"I wanted to rub the human face in its own vomit.", "I wanted to force it to look in the mirror.\"", "John Foxx's album ''Metamatic'' contains songs that have Ballardian themes, such as \"No-one Driving\".===Other film adaptations===An apparently unauthorized adaptation of Crash called ''Nightmare Angel'' was filmed in 1986 by Susan Emerling and Zoe Beloff.", "This short film bears the credit \"Inspired by J.G.", "Ballard\"." ], [ "See also", "*Autassassinophilia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Terminal Collection: JG Ballard First Editions* ''Crash'' at the British Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "C (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''C''' (''pronounced'' '' – like the letter c'') is a general-purpose computer programming language.", "It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie, and remains very widely used and influential.", "By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of the targeted CPUs.", "It has found lasting use in operating systems, device drivers, and protocol stacks, but its use in application software has been decreasing.", "C is commonly used on computer architectures that range from the largest supercomputers to the smallest microcontrollers and embedded systems.A successor to the programming language B, C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix.", "It was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system.", "During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity.", "It has become one of the most widely used programming languages, with C compilers available for practically all modern computer architectures and operating systems.", "The book ''The C Programming Language'', co-authored by the original language designer, served for many years as the ''de facto'' standard for the language.", "C has been standardized since 1989 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).C is an imperative procedural language, supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system.", "It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support.", "Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming.", "A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code.Since 2000, C has consistently ranked among the top two languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages." ], [ "Overview", "Dennis Ritchie (right), the inventor of the C programming language, with Ken ThompsonC is an imperative, procedural language in the ALGOL tradition.", "It has a static type system.", "In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called \"functions\", though not in the sense of functional programming).", "Function parameters are passed by value, although arrays are passed as pointers, i.e.", "the address of the first item in the array.", "''Pass-by-reference'' is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointers to the thing being referenced.C program source text is free-form code.", "Semicolons terminate statements, while curly braces are used to group statements into blocks.The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:* The language has a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch.", "User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.", "* It has a large number of arithmetic, bitwise, and logic operators: , etc.", "* More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.", "* Functions:** Function return values can be ignored, when not needed.", "** Function and data pointers permit ''ad hoc'' run-time polymorphism.", "** Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.", "** Variables may be defined within a function, with scope.", "** A function may call itself, so recursion is supported.", "* Data typing is static, but weakly enforced; all data has a type, but implicit conversions are possible.", "* User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.", "** Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit.", "The contents of whole structs cannot be compared using a single built-in operator (the elements must be compared individually).", "** Union is a structure with overlapping members; it allows multiple data types to share the same memory location.", "** Array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic.", "Whole arrays cannot be assigned or compared using a single built-in operator.", "There is no \"array\" keyword in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month11.", "** Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword.", "They are freely interconvertible with integers.", "** Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated character arrays.", "* Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to pointers.", "* Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with an empty return type void.", "* Memory can be allocated to a program with calls to library routines.", "* A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.", "* There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.", "* Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.", "* The generated code after compilation has relatively straightforward needs on the underlying platform, which makes it suitable for creating operating systems and for use in embedded systems.While C does not include certain features found in other languages (such as object orientation and garbage collection), these can be implemented or emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.g., the GLib Object System or the Boehm garbage collector).=== Relations to other languages ===Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++, C#, Unix's C shell, D, Go, Java, JavaScript (including transpilers), Julia, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware description languages).", "These languages have drawn many of their control structures and other basic features from C. Most of them also express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying type systems, data models, and semantics that can be radically different." ], [ "History", "=== Early developments ===+Timeline of C language Year Informal name Standard 1972 — 1978 K&R C 1989,1990 ANSI C, C89,ISO C, C90 ANSI X3.159-1989ISO/IEC 9899:1990 1999 C99 ISO/IEC 9899:1999 2011 C11, C1x ISO/IEC 9899:2011 2018 C17 ISO/IEC 9899:2018 2024* C23, C2x ISO/IEC 9899:2023 C2y The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues.", "Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11.The original PDP-11 version of Unix was also developed in assembly language.====B====Thompson wanted a programming language for developing utilities for the new platform.", "At first, he tried to write a Fortran compiler, but soon gave up the idea.", "Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed systems programming language called BCPL.", "The official description of BCPL was not available at the time and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, and similar to a simplified ALGOL known as SMALGOL.", "Thompson called the result ''B''.", "He described B as \"BCPL semantics with a lot of SMALGOL syntax\".", "Like BCPL, B had a bootstrapping compiler to facilitate porting to new machines.", "However, few utilities were ultimately written in B because it was too slow, and could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as byte addressability.====New B and first C release====In 1971, Ritchie started to improve B, to utilise the features of the more-powerful PDP-11.A significant addition was a character data type.", "He called this ''New B'' (NB).", "Thompson started to use NB to write the Unix kernel, and his requirements shaped the direction of the language development.", "Through to 1972, richer types were added to the NB language: NB had arrays of int and char.", "Pointers, the ability to generate pointers to other types, arrays of all types, and types to be returned from functions were all also added.", "Arrays within expressions became pointers.", "A new compiler was written, and the language was renamed C.The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2 Unix, which is also known as Research Unix.====Structures and the Unix kernel re-write====At Version 4 Unix, released in November 1973, the Unix kernel was extensively re-implemented in C. By this time, the C language had acquired some powerful features such as struct types.The preprocessor was introduced around 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder and also in recognition of the usefulness of the file-inclusion mechanisms available in BCPL and PL/I.", "Its original version provided only included files and simple string replacements: #include and #define of parameterless macros.", "Soon after that, it was extended, mostly by Mike Lesk and then by John Reiser, to incorporate macros with arguments and conditional compilation.Unix was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly.", "Earlier instances include the Multics system (which was written in PL/I) and Master Control Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which was written in ALGOL) in 1961.In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix operating system.", "Johnson's Portable C Compiler served as the basis for several implementations of C on new platforms.=== K&R C ===The cover of the book ''The C Programming Language'', first edition, by Brian Kernighan and Dennis RitchieIn 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of ''The C Programming Language''.", "Known as ''K&R'' from the initials of its authors, the book served for many years as an informal specification of the language.", "The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as \"'''K&R C'''\".", "As this was released in 1978, it is also referred to as ''C78''.", "The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard, described below.", "''K&R'' introduced several language features:* Standard I/O library* long int data type* unsigned int data type* Compound assignment operators of the form =''op'' (such as =-) were changed to the form ''op''= (that is, -=) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by constructs such as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 (decrement i by 10) instead of the possibly intended i = -10 (let i be −10).Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the \"lowest common denominator\" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than int must be declared if used before the function definition; functions used without prior declaration were presumed to return type int.For example:long some_function(); /* This is a function declaration, so the compiler can know the name and return type of this function.", "*//* int */ other_function(); /* Another function declaration.", "Because this is an early version of C, there is an implicit 'int' type here.", "A comment shows where the explicit 'int' type specifier would be required in later versions.", "*//* int */ calling_function() /* This is a function definition, including the body of the code following in the { curly brackets }.", "Because no return type is specified, the function implicitly returns an 'int' in this early version of C. */{ long test1; register /* int */ test2; /* Again, note that 'int' is not required here.", "The 'int' type specifier */ /* in the comment would be required in later versions of C. */ /* The 'register' keyword indicates to the compiler that this variable should */ /* ideally be stored in a register as opposed to within the stack frame.", "*/ test1 = some_function(); if (test1 > 1) test2 = 0; else test2 = other_function(); return test2;}The int type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in K&R C, but are required in later standards.Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments.", "Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.In the years following the publication of K&R C, several features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T (in particular PCC) and some other vendors.", "These included:* void functions (i.e., functions with no return value)* functions returning struct or union types (previously only a single pointer, integer or float could be returned)* assignment for struct data types* enumerated types (previously, preprocessor definitions for integer fixed values were used, e.g.", "#define GREEN 3)The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.=== ANSI C and ISO C ===During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard.", "In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 \"Programming Language C\".", "This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90.Therefore, the terms \"C89\" and \"C90\" refer to the same programming language.ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14.National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features.", "The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements.", "Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most modern C code is based on it.", "Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits.", "Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C.After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years.", "In 1995, Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally as C95) was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets.=== C99 ===The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as \"C99\".", "It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++.", "Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed.", "A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available.", "GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.The C compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++11.In addition, the C99 standard requires support for identifiers using Unicode in the form of escaped characters (e.g.", "or ) and suggests support for raw Unicode names.=== C11 ===In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called \"C1X\" until its official publication of ISO/IEC 9899:2011 on 2011-12-08.The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions.", "It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++.", "The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201112L to indicate that C11 support is available.=== C17 ===Published in June 2018 as ISO/IEC 9899:2018, C17 is the current standard for the C programming language.", "It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections, and clarifications to defects in C11.The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201710L.=== C23 ===C23 is the informal name for the next (after C17) major C language standard revision.", "It is expected to be published in 2024.=== Embedded C ===Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to.", "It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing." ], [ "Syntax", "C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.", "Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase.", "Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line.", "Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside string or character literals.C source files contain declarations and function definitions.", "Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements.", "Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name.", "Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types.", "Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called \"curly brackets\") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures.As an imperative language, C uses ''statements'' to specify actions.", "The most common statement is an ''expression statement'', consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values.", "To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords.", "Structured programming is supported by if ... else conditional execution and by do ... while, while, and for iterative execution (looping).", "The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted.", "break and continue can be used within the loop.", "Break is used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement and continue is used to skip to its reinitialisation.", "There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function.", "switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.", "Different from many other languages, control-flow will fall through to the next case unless terminated by a break.Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function calls.", "The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified.", "The evaluations may even be interleaved.", "However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next \"sequence point\"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call.", "Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, , ?", ": and the comma operator).", "This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of ''The C Programming Language'': \"C, like any other language, has its blemishes.", "Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better.\"", "The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software.=== Character set ===The basic C source character set includes the following characters:* Lowercase and uppercase letters of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: a–z A–Z* Decimal digits: 0–9* Graphic characters: ! \"", "# % & ' ( ) * + , - .", "/ : ; ?", "\\ ^ _ { | } ~* Whitespace characters: ''space'', ''horizontal tab'', ''vertical tab'', ''form feed'', ''newline''Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable.", "The latest C standard (C11) allows multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using \\uXXXX or \\UXXXXXXXX encoding (where the X denotes a hexadecimal character), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return.", "Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.=== Reserved words ===C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined:* auto* break* case* char* const* continue* default* do* double* else* enum* extern* float* for* goto* if* int* long* register* return* short* signed* sizeof* static* struct* switch* typedef* union* unsigned* void* volatile* whileC99 reserved five more words:* _Bool* _Complex* _Imaginary* inline* restrictC11 reserved seven more words:* _Alignas* _Alignof* _Atomic* _Generic* _Noreturn* _Static_assert* _Thread_localC23 will reserve 15 more words:* alignas* alignof* bool* constexpr* false* nullptr* static_assert* thread_local* true* typeof* typeof_unqual* _BitInt* _Decimal128* _Decimal32* _Decimal64Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations.", "Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language.", "Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers.", "Some of those words were added as keywords with their conventional spelling in C23 and the corresponding macros were removed.Prior to C89, entry was reserved as a keyword.", "In the second edition of their book ''The C Programming Language'', which describes what became known as C89, Kernighan and Ritchie wrote, \"The ... keyword entry, formerly reserved but never used, is no longer reserved.\"", "and \"The stillborn entry keyword is withdrawn.", "\"=== Operators ===C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression.", "C has operators for:* arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %* assignment: =* augmented assignment: * bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^* bitwise shifts: , >>* Boolean logic: !, &&, * conditional evaluation: ?", ":* equality testing: ==, !=* calling functions: ( )* increment and decrement: ++, --* member selection: ., ->* object size: sizeof* type: typeof, typeof_unqual ''since C23''* order relations: , , >, >=* reference and dereference: &, *, * sequencing: ,* subexpression grouping: ( )* type conversion: (''typename'')C uses the operator = (used in mathematics to express equality) to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives.", "C uses the operator == to test for equality.", "The similarity between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message (although some compilers produce warnings).", "For example, the conditional expression if (a == b + 1) might mistakenly be written as if (a = b + 1), which will be evaluated as true if a is not zero after the assignment.The C operator precedence is not always intuitive.", "For example, the operator == binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators & (bitwise AND) and | (bitwise OR) in expressions such as x & 1 == 0, which must be written as (x & 1) == 0 if that is the coder's intent." ], [ "{{anchor|HELLOWORLD}}\"Hello, world\" example", "\"Hello, World!\"", "program by Brian Kernighan (1978)The \"hello, world\" example, which appeared in the first edition of ''K&R'', has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks.", "The program prints \"hello, world\" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.The original version was:main(){ printf(\"hello, world\\n\");}A standard-conforming \"hello, world\" program is:#include int main(void){ printf(\"hello, world\\n\");}The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include.", "This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf and scanf.", "The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h can be located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name, as opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files.The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined.", "The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution.", "The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer.", "The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.The next line ''calls'' (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which in this case is supplied from a system library.", "In this call, the printf function is ''passed'' (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal \"hello, world\\n\".", "The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final NULL(ASCII value 0) character to mark the end of the array (for printf to know the length of the string).The NULL character can be also written as an escape sequence, written as \\0.The \\n is an ''escape sequence'' that C translates to a ''newline'' character, which on output signifies the end of the current line.", "The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used.", "(A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.)", "The semicolon ; terminates the statement.The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function.", "According to the C99 specification and newer, the main function, unlike any other function, will implicitly return a value of 0 upon reaching the } that terminates the function.", "(Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required.)", "This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution." ], [ "Data types", "thumbThe type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it similar to the type system of ALGOL descendants such as Pascal.", "There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, and enumerated types (enum).", "Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters.", "C99 added a Boolean datatype.", "There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and unions (union).C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary.", "The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a ''type cast'' to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers.", "(Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: \"declaration reflects use\".", ")C's ''usual arithmetic conversions'' allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results.", "For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned.", "This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.=== Pointers ===C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory.", "Pointers can be ''dereferenced'' to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function.", "Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic.", "The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time.", "Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type.Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters.", "Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers; the result of a malloc is usually cast to the data type of the data to be stored.", "Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers.", "Pointers to other pointers are often used in multi-dimensional arrays and arrays of struct objects.", "Pointers to functions (''function pointers'') are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch), in dispatch tables, or as callbacks to event handlers .A ''null pointer value'' explicitly points to no valid location.", "Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault.", "Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no \"next\" pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers.", "In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a ''null pointer constant'' can be written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers or, since C23 with the constant nullptr.", "In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as \"generic\" data pointers.", "Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous.", "Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects.", "Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer.", "In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking.", "Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.=== Arrays ===Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time.", "The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.", "However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array.Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically ''not'' checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option.", "Array bounds violations are therefore possible and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions.C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing.", "The index values of the resulting \"multi-dimensional array\" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order.", "Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices.", "The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task.", "However, in early versions of C the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing.", "(A workaround for this was to allocate the array with an additional \"row vector\" of pointers to the columns.)", "C99 introduced \"variable-length arrays\" which address this issue.The following example using modern C (C99 or later) shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses (which can use bounds-checking on many C compilers):int func(int N, int M){ float (*p)NM = malloc(sizeof *p); if (p == 0) return -1; for (int i = 0; i And here is a similar implementation using C99's ''Auto VLA'' feature:int func(int N, int M){ // Caution: checks should be made to ensure N*M*sizeof(float) does NOT exceed limitations for auto VLAs and is within available size of stack.", "float pNM; // auto VLA is held on the stack, and sized when the function is invoked for (int i = 0; i === Array–pointer interchangeability ===The subscript notation xi (where x designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar for *(x+i).", "Taking advantage of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer type, the address that x + i points to is not the base address (pointed to by x) incremented by i bytes, but rather is defined to be the base address incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to.", "Thus, xi designates the i+1th element of the array.Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element.", "This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed.", "Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.The total size of an array x can be determined by applying sizeof to an expression of array type.", "The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator sizeof to any dereferenced element of an array A, as in n = sizeof A0.Thus, the number of elements in a declared array A can be determined as sizeof A / sizeof A0.Note, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is often the case in C code because of the automatic conversion described above, the information about the full type of the array and its length are lost." ], [ "Memory management", "One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory.", "C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects:* Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.", "* Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited.", "* Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or freeThese three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs.", "For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation.", "The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time.", "Most C programs make extensive use of all three.Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage.", "However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary.", "Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this.", "(See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.)", "Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated.", "(Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.", ")Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup.", "Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type).", "If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined.", "Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to be reused as much as possible.", "For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a ''memory leak.''", "Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results.", "Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the program unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure.", "Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection." ], [ "Libraries", "The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension.", "In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single \"archive\" file.", "Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions.", "In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for \"link the math library\").The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library).", "This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values.", "Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel.", "These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available.", "Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python.=== File handling and streams ===File input and output (I/O) is not part of the C language itself but instead is handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated header files (e.g.", "stdio.h).", "File handling is generally implemented through high-level I/O which works through streams.", "A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device.", "The high-level I/O is done through the association of a stream to a file.", "In the C standard library, a buffer (a memory area or queue) is temporarily used to store data before it is sent to the final destination.", "This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive.", "Low-level I/O functions are not part of the standard C library but are generally part of \"bare metal\" programming (programming that is independent of any operating system such as most embedded programming).", "With few exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O." ], [ "Language tools", "A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler.", "The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others.Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint.", "A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written.", "Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler.", "Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors.", "MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection.Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage." ], [ "Uses", "===Rationale for use in systems programming===Some software written in CC is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications.", "This is for several reasons:* The C language permits platform hardware and memory to be accessed with pointers and type punning, so system-specific features (e.g.", "Control/Status Registers, I/O registers) can be configured and used with code written in C – it allows fullest control of the platform it is running on.", "* The code generated after compilation does not demand many system features, and can be invoked from some boot code in a straightforward manner – it is simple to execute.", "* The C language statements and expressions typically map well on to sequences of instructions for the target processor, and consequently there is a low run-time demand on system resources – it is fast to execute.", "* With its rich set of operators, the C language can utilise many of the features of target CPUs.", "Where a particular CPU has more esoteric instructions, a language variant can be constructed with perhaps intrinsic functions to exploit those instructions – it can use practically all the target CPU's features.", "* The language makes it easy to overlay structures onto blocks of binary data, allowing the data to be comprehended, navigated and modified – it can write data structures, even file systems.", "* The language supports a rich set of operators, including bit manipulation, for integer arithmetic and logic, and perhaps different sizes of floating point numbers – it can process appropriately-structured data effectively.", "* C is a fairly small language, with only a handful of statements, and without too many features that generate extensive target code – it is comprehensible.", "* C has direct control over memory allocation and deallocation, which gives reasonable efficiency and predictable timing to memory-handling operations, without any concerns for sporadic ''stop-the-world'' garbage collection events – it has predictable performance.", "* C permits the use and implementation of different memory allocation schemes, including a typical and ; a more sophisticated mechanism with ''arenas''; or a version for an OS kernel that may suit DMA, use within interrupt handlers, or integrated with the virtual memory system.", "* Depending on the linker and environment, C code can also call libraries written in assembly language, and may be called from assembly language – it interoperates well with other lower-level code.", "* C and its calling conventions and linker structures are commonly used in conjunction with other high-level languages, with calls both to C and from C supported – it interoperates well with other high-level code.", "* C has a very mature and broad ecosystem, including libraries, frameworks, open source compilers, debuggers and utilities, and is the de facto standard.", "It is likely the drivers already exist in C, or that there is a similar CPU architecture as a back-end of a C compiler, so there is reduced incentive to choose another language.===Once used for web development===Historically, C was sometimes used for web development using the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) as a \"gateway\" for information between the web application, the server, and the browser.", "C may have been chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and near-universal availability.", "It is no longer common practice for web development to be done in C, and many other web development tools exist.===Some other languages are themselves written in C===A consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. For example, the reference implementations of Python, Perl, Ruby, and PHP are written in C.===Used for computationally-intensive libraries===C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is thin, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs.", "For example, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C. Many languages support calling library functions in C, for example, the Python-based framework NumPy uses C for the high-performance and hardware-interacting aspects.===C as an intermediate language===C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages.", "This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary.", "C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code.", "However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C--.", "Also, contemporary major compilers GCC and LLVM both feature an intermediate representation that is not C, and those compilers support front ends for many languages including C.===End-user applications===C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications.", "However, such applications can also be written in newer, higher-level languages." ], [ "Limitations", "While C has been popular, influential and hugely successful, it has drawbacks, including:* The standard dynamic memory handling with malloc and free is error prone.", "Bugs include: Memory leaks when memory is allocated but not freed; and access to previously freed memory.", "* The use of pointers and the direct manipulation of memory means corruption of memory is possible, perhaps due to programmer error, or insufficient checking of bad data.", "* There is some type checking, but it does not apply to areas like variadic functions, and the type checking can be trivially or inadvertently circumvented.", "It is weakly typed.", "* Since the code generated by the compiler contains few checks itself, there is a burden on the programmer to consider all possible outcomes, to protect against buffer overruns, array bounds checking, stack overflows, memory exhaustion, and consider race conditions, thread isolation, etc.", "* The use of pointers and the run-time manipulation of these means there may be two ways to access the same data (aliasing), which is not determinable at compile time.", "This means that some optimisations that may be available to other languages are not possible in C. FORTRAN is considered faster.", "* Some of the standard library functions, e.g.", "scanf or , can lead to buffer overruns.", "* There is limited standardisation in support for low-level variants in generated code, for example: different function calling conventions and ABI; different structure packing conventions; different byte ordering within larger integers (including endianness).", "In many language implementations, some of these options may be handled with the preprocessor directive #pragma, and some with additional keywords e.g.", "use __cdecl calling convention.", "But the directive and options are not consistently supported.", "* String handling using the standard library is code-intensive, with explicit memory management required.", "* The language does not directly support object orientation, introspection, run-time expression evaluation, generics, etc.", "* There are few guards against inappropriate use of language features, which may lead to unmaintainable code.", "In particular, the C preprocessor can hide troubling effects such as double evaluation and worse.", "This facility for tricky code has been celebrated with competitions such as the ''International Obfuscated C Code Contest'' and the ''Underhanded C Contest''.", "* C lacks standard support for exception handling and only offers return codes for error checking.", "The setjmp and longjmp standard library functions have been used to implement a try-catch mechanism via macros.For some purposes, restricted styles of C have been adopted, e.g.", "MISRA C or CERT C, in an attempt to reduce the opportunity for bugs.", "Databases such as CWE attempt to count the ways C etc.", "has vulnerabilities, along with recommendations for mitigation.There are tools that can mitigate against some of the drawbacks.", "Contemporary C compilers include checks which may generate warnings to help identify many potential bugs.Some of these drawbacks have prompted the construction of other languages." ], [ "Related languages", "The TIOBE index graph, showing a comparison of the popularity of various programming languagesC has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as C++ and Java.", "The most pervasive influence has been syntactical; all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.When object-oriented programming languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities.", "Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.The C++ programming language (originally named \"C with Classes\") was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to providing object-oriented functionality with a C-like syntax.", "C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits generic programming via templates.", "Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions.Objective-C was originally a very \"thin\" layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm.", "Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk, and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C." ], [ "See also", "* Compatibility of C and C++* Comparison of Pascal and C* Comparison of programming languages* International Obfuscated C Code Contest* List of C-based programming languages* List of C compilers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* ** By courtesy of the author, also at **" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''(source)''* ''(free)''* ''(archive)''* ''(archive)''* * * * '' (free)''" ], [ "External links", "* ISO C Working Group official website** ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale**  * comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions* A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie* C Library Reference and Examples" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Castle of the Winds" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Castle of the Winds''''' is a tile-based roguelike video game for Microsoft Windows.", "It was developed by Rick Saada in 1989 and distributed by Epic MegaGames in 1993.The game was released around 1998 as a freeware download by the author.", "Though it is secondary to its hack and slash gameplay, ''Castle of the Winds'' has a plot loosely based on Norse mythology, told with setting changes, unique items, and occasional passages of text.", "The game is composed of two parts: '''''A Question of Vengeance''''', released as shareware, and '''''Lifthransir's Bane''''', sold commercially.", "A combined license for both parts was also sold." ], [ "Gameplay", "The game differs from most roguelikes in a number of ways.", "Its interface is mouse-dependent, but supports keyboard shortcuts (such as 'g' to get an item).", "''Castle of the Winds'' also allows the player to restore saved games after dying.The game favors the use of magic in combat, as spells are the only weapons that work from a distance.", "The player character automatically gains a spell with each experience level, and can permanently gain others using corresponding books, until all thirty spells available are learned.", "There are two opposing pairs of elements: cold vs. fire and lightning vs. acid/poison.", "Spells are divided into six categories: attack, defense, healing, movement, divination, and miscellaneous.", "''Castle of the Winds'' possesses an inventory system that limits a player's load based on weight and bulk, rather than by number of items.", "It allows the character to use different containers, including packs, belts, chests, and bags.", "Other items include weapons, armor, protective clothing, purses, and ornamental jewellery.", "Almost every item in the game can be normal, cursed, or enchanted, with curses and enchantments working in a manner similar to ''NetHack''.", "Although items do not break with use, they may already be broken or rusted when found.", "Most objects that the character currently carries can be renamed.Wherever the player goes before entering the dungeon, there is always a town which offers the basic services of a temple for healing and curing curses, a junk store where anything can be sold for a few copper coins, a sage who can identify items and (from the second town onwards) a bank for storing the total capacity of coins to lighten the player's load.", "Other services that differ and vary in what they sell are outfitters, weaponsmiths, armoursmiths, magic shops and general stores.The game tracks how much time has been spent playing the game.", "Although story events are not triggered by the passage of time, it does determine when merchants rotate their stock.", "Victorious players are listed as \"Valhalla's Champions\" in the order of time taken, from fastest to slowest.", "If the player dies, they are still put on the list, but are categorized as \"Dead\", with their experience point total listed as at the final killing blow.", "The amount of time spent also determines the difficulty of the last boss." ], [ "Plot", "The player begins in a tiny hamlet, near which they used to live.", "Their farm has been destroyed and godparents killed.", "After clearing out an abandoned mine, the player finds a scrap of parchment that reveals the death of the player's godparents was ordered by an unknown enemy.", "The player then returns to the hamlet to find it pillaged, and decides to travel to Bjarnarhaven.Once in Bjarnarhaven, the player explores the levels beneath a nearby fortress, eventually facing Hrungnir, the Hill Giant Lord, responsible for ordering the player's godparents' death.", "Hrungnir carries the Enchanted Amulet of Kings.", "Upon activating the amulet, the player is informed of their past by their dead father, after which the player is transported to the town of Crossroads, and ''Part I'' ends.", "The game can be imported or started over in ''Part II''.The town of Crossroads is run by a Jarl who at first does not admit the player, but later (on up to three occasions) provides advice and rewards.", "The player then enters the nearby ruined titular Castle of the Winds.", "There the player meets his/her deceased grandfather, who instructs them to venture into the dungeons below, defeat Surtur, and reclaim their birthright.", "Venturing deeper, the player encounters monsters run rampant, a desecrated crypt, a necromancer, and the installation of various special rooms for elementals.", "The player eventually meets and defeats the Wolf-Man leader, Bear-Man leader, the four Jotun kings, a Demon Lord, and finally Surtur.", "Upon defeating Surtur and escaping the dungeons, the player sits upon the throne, completing the game." ], [ "Development", "Inspired by his love of RPGs and while learning Windows programming in the 80s, Rick Saada designed and completed Castle of the Winds.", "The game sold 13,500 copies.", "By 1998, the game's author, Rick Saada, decided to distribute the entirety of ''Castle of the Winds'' free of charge.The game is public domain per Rick Saada's words: ===Graphics===All terrain tiles, some landscape features, all monsters and objects, and some spell/effect graphics take the form of Windows 3.1 icons and were done by Paul Canniff.", "Multi-tile graphics, such as ball spells and town buildings, are bitmaps included in the executable file.", "No graphics use colors other than the Windows-standard 16-color palette, plus transparency.", "They exist in monochrome versions as well, meaning that the game will display well on monochrome monitors.The map view is identical to the playing-field view, except for scaling to fit on one screen.", "A simplified map view is available to improve performance on slower computers.", "The latter functionality also presents a cleaner display, as the aforementioned scaling routine does not always work correctly." ], [ "Reception", "''Computer Gaming World'' rated the gameplay as good and the graphics simple but effective, while noticing the lack of audio, but regarded the game itself enjoyable." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Calvinism" ], [ "Introduction", "Statues of William Farel, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John Knox, the most influential theologians in developing the Reformed faith, at the Reformation Wall in Geneva'''Calvinism''', also called '''Reformed Christianity''', is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Calvin and various other Reformation-era theologians.", "It emphasizes the sovereignty of God and the authority of the Bible.Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century.", "Calvinists differ from Lutherans, another major branch of the Reformation, on the spiritual real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper, theories of worship, the purpose and meaning of baptism, and the use of God's law for believers, among other points.The namesake and founder of the movement, French reformer John Calvin, embraced Protestant beliefs in the late 1520s or early 1530s, as the earliest notions of later Reformed tradition were already espoused by Huldrych Zwingli.", "The movement was first called \"Calvinism\" in the early 1550s by Lutherans who opposed it, however many in the tradition find it either a nondescript or inappropriate term and prefer the term ''reformed''.The most important Reformed theologians include Calvin, Zwingli, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Thomas Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, John Knox, and John à Lasco.", "In the 20th century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B.", "B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Louis Berkhof, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, R. C. Sproul, and J. I. Packer were influential.", "More contemporary Reformed theologians include the late Tim Keller, Desiring God Ministries founder John Piper, as well as Joel Beeke and Michael Horton.The Reformed tradition is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Reformed Anglican, Congregationalist, and Reformed Baptist denominations.", "Several forms of ecclesiastical polity are exercised by a group of Reformed churches, including presbyterian, congregationalist, and some episcopal.", "The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches, with more than 100 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.", "More conservative Reformed federations include the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches." ], [ "Etymology", "Calvinism is named after John Calvin.", "Calvin denounced the designation himself:Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition as a branch of Protestantism is distinguished from Lutheranism and divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists." ], [ "History", "Calvin preached at St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva.magnum opus, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', published in 1536The first wave of reformist theologians include Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Wolfgang Capito (1478–1541), John Oecolampadius (1482–1531), and Guillaume Farel (1489–1565).", "While from diverse academic backgrounds, their work already contained key themes within Reformed theology, especially the priority of scripture as a source of authority.", "Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace.", "Another shared perspective was their denial of the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.", "Each understood salvation to be by grace alone and affirmed a doctrine of unconditional election, the teaching that some people are chosen by God to be saved.", "Martin Luther and his successor, Philipp Melanchthon were significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent, those who followed.", "The doctrine of justification by faith alone, also known as ''sola fide'', was a direct inheritance from Luther.The second generation featured John Calvin (1509–1564), Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575), Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Peter Martyr Vermigli (1500–1562), Andreas Hyperius (1511–1564) and John à Lasco (1499–1560).", "Written between 1536 and 1539, Calvin's ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' was one of the most influential works of the era.", "Toward the middle of the 16th century, these beliefs were formed into one consistent creed, which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith.", "The 1549 ''Consensus Tigurinus'' unified Zwingli and Bullinger's memorialist theology of the Eucharist, which taught that it was simply a reminder of Christ's death, with Calvin's view of it as a means of grace with Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily as in Catholic doctrine.", "The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology, giving it a stability that enabled it to spread rapidly throughout Europe.", "This stands in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579 Formula of Concord.Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his program of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands.", "Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563.This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571.In 1573, William the Silent joined the Calvinist Church.", "Calvinism was declared the official religion of the Kingdom of Navarre by the queen regnant Jeanne d'Albret after her conversion in 1560.Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England, including Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and John Łaski, as did John Knox in Scotland.", "During the First English Civil War, English and Scots Presbyterians produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world.", "Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to areas including North America, South Africa and Korea.While Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement, his death allowed his ideas to spread far beyond their city of origin and their borders and to establish their own distinct character.=== Spread ===Early Calvinism was known for simple, unadorned churches as depicted in this 1661 portrait of the interior of the Oude Kerk, AmsterdamAn abandoned Calvinist church in Łapczyna Wola, PolandA Calvinist church in Semarang, IndonesiaAlthough much of Calvin's work was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe.", "In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic.", "Calvinism became the dominant doctrine within the Church of Scotland, the Dutch Republic, some communities in Flanders, and parts of Germany, especially those adjacent to the Netherlands in the Palatinate, Kassel, and Lippe, spread by Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus among others.", "Protected by the local nobility, Calvinism became a significant religion in Eastern Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas of Transylvania.", "Today there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide.Calvinism was influential in France, Lithuania, and Poland before being mostly erased during the Counter Reformation.", "One of the most important Polish reformed theologists was John a Lasco, who was also involved into organising churches in East Frisia and Stranger's Church in London.", "Later, a faction called the Polish Brethren broke away from Calvinism on January 22, 1556, when Piotr of Goniądz, a Polish student, spoke out against the doctrine of the Trinity during the general synod of the Reformed churches of Poland held in the village of Secemin.", "Calvinism gained some popularity in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593.Many 17th century European settlers in the Thirteen Colonies in British America were Calvinists, who emigrated because of arguments over church structure, including the Pilgrim Fathers.", "Others were forced into exile, including the French Huguenots.", "Dutch and French Calvinist settlers were also among the first European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners.Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, many of whom were Black Loyalists who fought for the British Empire during the American War of Independence.", "John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection.", "Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-century missionaries.", "Especially large are those in Indonesia, Korea and Nigeria.", "In South Korea there are 20,000 Presbyterian congregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations.", "In South Korea, Presbyterianism is the largest Christian denomination.A 2011 report of the Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life estimated that members of Presbyterian or Reformed churches make up 7% of the estimated 801 million Protestants globally, or approximately 56 million people.", "Though the broadly defined Reformed faith is much larger, as it constitutes Congregationalist (0.5%), most of the United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%) and most likely some of the other Protestant denominations (38.2%).", "All three are distinct categories from Presbyterian or Reformed (7%) in this report.The Reformed family of churches is one of the largest Christian denominations.", "According to adherents.com the Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United churches represent 75 million believers worldwide.The World Communion of Reformed Churches, which includes some United Churches, has 80 million believers.", "WCRC is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.Many conservative Reformed churches which are strongly Calvinistic formed the World Reformed Fellowship which has about 70 member denominations.", "Most are not part of the World Communion of Reformed Churches because of its ecumenical attire.", "The International Conference of Reformed Churches is another conservative association.Church of Tuvalu is an officially established state church in the Calvinist tradition." ], [ "Theology<!--'Calvinist theologian', 'Calvinist theology', 'Reformed theologian' and 'Reformed theology' redirect here-->", "=== Revelation and scripture ===The seal of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, an early American Presbyterian church founded in 1789Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word of God.", "People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation.", "(With the exception of general revelation of God; \"His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse\" (Romans 1:20).)", "Speculation about anything which God has not revealed through his Word is not warranted.", "The knowledge people have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God is infinite, and finite people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being.", "While the knowledge revealed by God to people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive.According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is always through his son Jesus Christ, because Christ is the only mediator between God and people.", "Revelation of God through Christ comes through two basic channels.", "The first is creation and providence, which is God's creating and continuing to work in the world.", "This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God, but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel.", "The second channel through which God reveals himself is redemption, which is the gospel of salvation from condemnation which is punishment for sin.In Reformed theology, the Word of God takes several forms.", "Jesus Christ himself is the Word Incarnate.", "The prophecies about him said to be found in the Old Testament and the ministry of the apostles who saw him and communicated his message are also the Word of God.", "Further, the preaching of ministers about God is the very Word of God because God is considered to be speaking through them.", "God also speaks through human writers in the Bible, which is composed of texts set apart by God for self-revelation.", "Reformed theologians emphasize the Bible as a uniquely important means by which God communicates with people.", "People gain knowledge of God from the Bible which cannot be gained in any other way.Reformed theologians affirm that the Bible is true, but differences emerge among them over the meaning and extent of its truthfulness.", "Conservative followers of the Princeton theologians take the view that the Bible is true and inerrant, or incapable of error or falsehood, in every place.", "This view is similar to that of Catholic orthodoxy as well as modern Evangelicalism.", "Another view, influenced by the teaching of Karl Barth and neo-orthodoxy, is found in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)'s Confession of 1967.Those who take this view believe the Bible to be the primary source of our knowledge of God, but also that some parts of the Bible may be false, not witnesses to Christ, and not normative for today's church.", "In this view, Christ is the revelation of God, and the scriptures witness to this revelation rather than being the revelation itself.=== Covenant theology ===''Fall of Man'' by Jacob JordaensReformed theologians use the concept of covenant to describe the way God enters into fellowship with people in history.", "The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as a whole is sometimes called \"covenant theology\".", "However, sixteenth- and seventeenth-century theologians developed a particular theological system called \"covenant theology\" or \"federal theology\" which many conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm today.", "This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace.The covenant of works is made with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.", "The terms of the covenant are that God provides a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey God's law perfectly.", "Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant by eating the forbidden fruit, they became subject to death and were banished from the garden.", "This sin was passed down to all mankind because all people are said to be in Adam as a covenantal or \"federal\" head.", "Federal theologians usually imply that Adam and Eve would have gained immortality had they obeyed perfectly.A second covenant, called the covenant of grace, is said to have been made immediately following Adam and Eve's sin.", "In it, God graciously offers salvation from death on condition of faith in God.", "This covenant is administered in different ways throughout the Old and New Testaments, but retains the substance of being free of a requirement of perfect obedience.Through the influence of Karl Barth, many contemporary Reformed theologians have discarded the covenant of works, along with other concepts of federal theology.", "Barth saw the covenant of works as disconnected from Christ and the gospel, and rejected the idea that God works with people in this way.", "Instead, Barth argued that God always interacts with people under the covenant of grace, and that the covenant of grace is free of all conditions whatsoever.", "Barth's theology and that which follows him has been called \"mono covenantal\" as opposed to the \"bi-covenantal\" scheme of classical federal theology.", "Conservative contemporary Reformed theologians, such as John Murray, have also rejected the idea of covenants based on law rather than grace.", "Michael Horton, however, has defended the covenant of works as combining principles of law and love.=== God ===The Shield of the Trinity diagrams the classic doctrine of the Trinity.For the most part, the Reformed tradition did not modify the medieval consensus on the doctrine of God.", "God's character is described primarily using three adjectives: eternal, infinite, and unchangeable.", "Reformed theologians such as Shirley Guthrie have proposed that rather than conceiving of God in terms of his attributes and freedom to do as he pleases, the doctrine of God is to be based on God's work in history and his freedom to live with and empower people.Reformed theologians have also traditionally followed the medieval tradition going back to before the early church councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon on the doctrine of the Trinity.", "God is affirmed to be one God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.", "The Son (Christ) is held to be eternally begotten by the Father and the Holy Spirit eternally proceeding from the Father and Son.", "However, contemporary theologians have been critical of aspects of Western views here as well.", "Drawing on the Eastern tradition, these Reformed theologians have proposed a \"social trinitarianism\" where the persons of the Trinity only exist in their life together as persons-in-relationship.", "Contemporary Reformed confessions such as the Barmen Confession and Brief Statement of Faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA) have avoided language about the attributes of God and have emphasized his work of reconciliation and empowerment of people.", "Feminist theologian Letty Russell used the image of partnership for the persons of the Trinity.", "According to Russell, thinking this way encourages Christians to interact in terms of fellowship rather than reciprocity.", "Conservative Reformed theologian Michael Horton, however, has argued that social trinitarianism is untenable because it abandons the essential unity of God in favor of a community of separate beings.=== Christ and atonement ===Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief that Christ is eternally one person with a divine and a human nature.", "Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ truly became human so that people could be saved.", "Christ's human nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and Lutheran Christology.", "In accord with the belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity, Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time.", "Because Lutherans believe that Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist, they hold that Christ is bodily present in many locations simultaneously.", "For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ actually became human.", "Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from the traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people.", "Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus' context and particularity as a first-century Jew.John Calvin and many Reformed theologians who followed him describe Christ's work of redemption in terms of three offices: prophet, priest, and king.", "Christ is said to be a prophet in that he teaches perfect doctrine, a priest in that he intercedes to the Father on believers' behalf and offered himself as a sacrifice for sin, and a king in that he rules the church and fights on believers' behalf.", "The threefold office links the work of Christ to God's work in ancient Israel.", "Many, but not all, Reformed theologians continue to make use of the threefold office as a framework because of its emphasis on the connection of Christ's work to Israel.", "They have, however, often reinterpreted the meaning of each of the offices.", "For example, Karl Barth interpreted Christ's prophetic office in terms of political engagement on behalf of the poor.Christians believe Jesus' death and resurrection make it possible for believers to receive forgiveness for sin and reconciliation with God through the atonement.", "Reformed Protestants generally subscribe to a particular view of the atonement called penal substitutionary atonement, which explains Christ's death as a sacrificial payment for sin.", "Christ is believed to have died in place of the believer, who is accounted righteous as a result of this sacrificial payment.=== Sin ===In Christian theology, people are created good and in the image of God but have become corrupted by sin, which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested.", "Reformed Christians, following the tradition of Augustine of Hippo, believe that this corruption of human nature was brought on by Adam and Eve's first sin, a doctrine called original sin.Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first Christian to add the concept of inherited guilt (''reatus'') from Adam whereby every infant is born eternally damned and humans lack any residual ability to respond to God.", "Reformed theologians emphasize that this sinfulness affects all of a person's nature, including their will.", "This view, that sin so dominates people that they are unable to avoid sin, has been called total depravity.", "As a consequence, every one of their descendants inherited a stain of corruption and depravity.", "This condition, innate to all humans, is known in Christian theology as ''original sin''.Calvin thought original sin was \"a hereditary corruption and depravity of our nature, extending to all the parts of the soul.\"", "Calvin asserted people were so warped by original sin that \"everything which our mind conceives, meditates, plans, and resolves, is always evil.\"", "The depraved condition of every human being is not the result of sins people commit during their lives.", "Instead, before we are born, while we are in our mother's womb, \"we are in God's sight defiled and polluted.\"", "Calvin thought people were justly condemned to hell because their corrupted state is \"naturally hateful to God.", "\"In colloquial English, the term \"total depravity\" can be easily misunderstood to mean that people are absent of any goodness or unable to do any good.", "However the Reformed teaching is actually that while people continue to bear God's image and may do things that appear outwardly good, their sinful intentions affect all of their nature and actions so that they are not pleasing to God.", "From a Calvinist viewpoint, a person who has sinned was predestined to sin, and no matter what a person does, they will go to Heaven or Hell based on that determination.", "There is no repenting from sin since the most evil thing is the sinner's own actions, thoughts, and words.Some contemporary theologians in the Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the Presbyterian Church (USA)'s Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness.", "These theologians have sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human life that have been affected by sin.=== Salvation ===The Parable of the Prodigal Son depicted in a portrait by Rembrandt illustrates forgiveness.Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who have faith in Christ.", "Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save.", "Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that faith alone is sufficient.Justification is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ.", "It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more recently it is sometimes given less importance out of ecumenical concerns.", "People are not on their own able to fully repent of their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their sinfulness.", "Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from God's free and gracious act.Sanctification is the part of salvation in which God makes believers holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God and for other people.", "The good works accomplished by believers as they are sanctified are considered to be the necessary outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved.", "Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the child of God one has become.=== Predestination ===Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will.", "While people are said to retain will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin.", "Reformed Christians believe that God predestined some people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation.", "This choice by God to save some is held to be unconditional and not based on any characteristic or action on the part of the person chosen.", "This view is opposed to the Arminian view that God's choice of whom to save is conditional or based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God.Karl Barth reinterpreted the Reformed doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ.", "Individual people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ.", "Reformed theologians who followed Barth, including Jürgen Moltmann, David Migliore, and Shirley Guthrie, have argued that the traditional Reformed concept of predestination is speculative and have proposed alternative models.", "These theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation.", "God's justice towards and condemnation of sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them to himself.==== Five Points of Calvinism ====Much attention surrounding Calvinism focuses on the \"Five Points of Calvinism\" (also called the ''doctrines of grace'').", "The five points have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP.", "The five points are popularly said to summarize the Canons of Dort; however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement.", "The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet ''The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented'' by David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas.", "The origins of the five points and the acrostic are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in the Counter Remonstrance of 1611, a lesser-known Reformed reply to the Arminians, which was written prior to the Canons of Dort.", "The acrostic was used by Cleland Boyd McAfee as early as circa 1905.An early printed appearance of the acrostic can be found in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book, ''The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination''.The central assertion of TULIP is that God saves every person upon whom he has mercy, and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or inability of humans.", "* Total depravity (also called ''radical corruption)'' asserts that as a consequence of the fall of man into sin, every person is enslaved to sin.", "People are not by nature inclined to love God, but rather to serve their own interests and to reject the rule of God.", "Thus, all people by their own faculties are morally unable to choose to trust God for their salvation and be saved (the term \"total\" in this context refers to sin affecting every part of a person, not that every person is as evil as they could be).", "This doctrine is derived from Calvin's interpretation of Augustine's explanation about Original Sin.", "While the phrases \"totally depraved\" and \"utterly perverse\" were used by Calvin, what was meant was the inability to save oneself from sin rather than being absent of goodness.", "Phrases like \"total depravity\" cannot be found in the Canons of Dort, and the Canons as well as later Reformed orthodox theologians arguably offer a more moderate view of the nature of fallen humanity than Calvin.", "* Unconditional election (also called ''sovereign election)'' asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, his choice is unconditionally grounded in his mercy alone.", "God has chosen from eternity to extend mercy to those he has chosen and to withhold mercy from those not chosen.", "Those chosen receive salvation through Christ alone.", "Those not chosen receive the just wrath that is warranted for their sins against God.", "* Limited atonement (also called ''definite atonement)'' asserts that Jesus's substitutionary atonement was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it accomplished.", "This implies that only the sins of the elect were atoned for by Jesus's death.", "Calvinists do not believe, however, that the atonement is limited in its value or power, but rather that the atonement is limited in the sense that it is intended for some and not all.", "Some Calvinists have summarized this as \"The atonement is sufficient for all and efficient for the elect.", "\"* Irresistible grace (also called ''effectual grace)'' asserts that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith.", "This means that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual will be saved.", "The doctrine holds that this purposeful influence of God's Holy Spirit cannot be resisted, but that the Holy Spirit, \"graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ.\"", "This is not to deny the fact that the Spirit's outward call (through the proclamation of the Gospel) can be, and often is, rejected by sinners; rather, it is that inward call which cannot be rejected.", "* Perseverance of the saints (also called ''preservation of the saints''; the \"saints\" being those whom God has predestined to salvation) asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end.", "Those who apparently fall away either never had true faith to begin with (1 John 2:19), or, if they are saved but not presently walking in the Spirit, they will be divinely chastened (Hebrews 12:5–11) and will repent (1 John 3:6–9).=== Church ===John Calvin depicted on his deathbed with church members in ''The last moments of Calvin'', a late 19th century portrait by Lluís Domènech i Montaner.Reformed Christians see the Christian Church as the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God.", "This covenant extends to those under the \"old covenant\" whom God chose, beginning with Abraham and Sarah.", "The church is conceived of as both invisible and visible.", "The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God.", "The visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect.In order to identify the visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certain marks of the Church.", "For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ.", "Others, including John Calvin, also include the right administration of the sacraments.", "Others, such as those following the Scots Confession, include a third mark of rightly administered church discipline, or exercise of censure against unrepentant sinners.", "These marks allowed the Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible rather than the Magisterium or church tradition.=== Worship ======= Regulative principle of worship ====The ''Bay Psalm Book'' was used by the Pilgrims.The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some Calvinists and Anabaptists on how the Bible orders public worship.", "The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited.", "As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments with icons, which he considered violations of the Ten Commandments' prohibition of graven images.On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated a cappella exclusive psalmody in worship, though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms, and this practice typified Presbyterian worship and the worship of other Reformed churches for some time.", "The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, and Benedictions.Since the 19th century, however, some of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early followers went beyond the biblical requirements and that such things are circumstances of worship requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command.", "Despite the protestations of those who hold to a strict view of the regulative principle, today hymns and musical instruments are in common use, as are contemporary worship music styles with elements such as worship bands.=== Sacraments ===The Westminster Confession of Faith limits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper.", "Sacraments are denoted \"signs and seals of the covenant of grace.\"", "Westminster speaks of \"a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other.\"", "Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed except Baptists and some Congregationalists.", "Baptism admits the baptized into the visible church, and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized.", "On the Lord's supper, the Westminster Confession takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: \"the Lord's supper really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses.", "\"The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith does not use the term sacrament, but describes baptism and the Lord's supper as ordinances, as do most Baptists, Calvinist or otherwise.", "Baptism is only for those who \"actually profess repentance towards God\", and not for the children of believers.", "Baptists also insist on immersion or dipping, in contradistinction to other Reformed Christians.", "The Baptist Confession describes the Lord's supper as \"the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally, but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance\", similarly to the Westminster Confession.", "There is significant latitude in Baptist congregations regarding the Lord's supper, and many hold the Zwinglian view.=== Logical order of God's decree ===There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man: supralapsarianism (from the Latin: ''supra'', \"above\", here meaning \"before\" + ''lapsus'', \"fall\") and infralapsarianism (from the Latin: ''infra'', \"beneath\", here meaning \"after\" + ''lapsus'', \"fall\").", "The former view, sometimes called \"high Calvinism\", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation.", "Infralapsarianism, sometimes called \"low Calvinism\", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved.Supralapsarianism is based on the belief that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate and the need for salvation in the elect).", "In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be \"saved\", one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must precede predestination to salvation or damnation.These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort, an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7).", "The Westminster Confession of Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words \"clearly implies\") the infralapsarian view, but is sensitive to those holding to supralapsarianism.", "The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists." ], [ "Reformed churches", "The Reformed tradition is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Reformed Anglican, Congregationalist, and Reformed Baptist denominational families.=== Continental Reformed churches ===Considered to be the oldest and most orthodox bearers of the Reformed faith, the continental Reformed Churches uphold the Helvetic Confessions and Heidelberg Catechism, which were adopted in Zurich and Heidelberg, respectively.", "In the United States, immigrants belonging to the continental Reformed churches joined the Dutch Reformed Church there, as well as the Anglican Church.=== Congregational churches ===The Congregational churches are a part of the Reformed tradition founded under the influence of New England Puritanism.", "The Savoy Declaration is the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.", "An example of a Christian denomination belonging to the Congregationalist tradition is the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference.=== Presbyterian churches ===The Presbyterian churches are part of the Reformed tradition and were influenced by John Knox's teachings in the Church of Scotland.", "Presbyterianism upholds the Westminster Confession of Faith.=== Reformed Anglicanism ===Historic Anglicanism is a part of the wider Reformed tradition, as \"the founding documents of the Anglican church—the Book of Homilies, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion—expresses a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation.\"", "The Most Rev.", "Peter Robinson, presiding bishop of the United Episcopal Church of North America, writes:=== Reformed Baptist churches ===Reformed Baptist churches are Baptists (a Christian denominational family that teaches credobaptism rather than infant baptism) who adhere to Reformed theology as explicated in the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith or other Reformed Baptist Confessions.=== Calvinistic Baptist churches ===Calvinistic Baptist churches are Baptists who accept reformed soteriology as summarized in the acronym TULIP, but do not necessarily hold to a specific confession, or to covenant theology.", "This group is much less defined than other groups of Reformed Churches since the group subscribes to fewer specific standards." ], [ "Variants in Reformed theology", "=== Amyraldism ===Moses Amyraut formulated Amyraldism, a modified Calvinist theology regarding the nature of Jesus' atonement.Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism, post redemptionism, moderate Calvinism, or four-point Calvinism) is the belief that God, prior to his decree of election, decreed Christ's atonement for all alike if they believe, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elected those whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election.", "The efficacy of the atonement remains limited to those who believe.Named after its formulator Moses Amyraut, this doctrine is still viewed as a variety of Calvinism in that it maintains the particularity of sovereign grace in the application of the atonement.", "However, detractors like B.", "B. Warfield have termed it \"an inconsistent and therefore unstable form of Calvinism.", "\"=== Hyper-Calvinism ===Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the early English Particular Baptists in the 18th century.", "Their system denied that the call of the gospel to \"repent and believe\" is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation.", "The term also occasionally appears in both theological and secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of theological determinism, predestination, or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.The Westminster Confession of Faith says that the gospel is to be freely offered to sinners, and the Larger Catechism makes clear that the gospel is offered to the non-elect.=== Neo-Calvinism ===Dutch prime minister Abraham Kuyper initiated Neo-Calvinism.Beginning in the 1880s, Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister Abraham Kuyper.", "James Bratt has identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed Church \"West\" and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists.", "The Seceders were largely infralapsarian and the Neo-Calvinists usually supralapsarian.Kuyper wanted to awaken the church from what he viewed as its pietistic slumber.", "He declared:No single piece of our mental world is to be sealed off from the rest and there is not a square inch in the whole domain of human existence over which Christ, who is sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'", "This refrain has become something of a rallying call for Neo-Calvinists.=== Christian Reconstructionism ===Christian Reconstructionism is a fundamentalist Calvinist theonomic movement that has remained rather obscure.", "Founded by R. J. Rushdoony, the movement has had an important influence on the Christian Right in the United States.", "The movement peaked in the 1990s.", "However, it lives on in small denominations such as the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and as a minority position in other denominations.", "Christian Reconstructionists are usually postmillennialists and followers of the presuppositional apologetics of Cornelius Van Til.", "They tend to support a decentralized political order resulting in laissez-faire capitalism.=== New Calvinism ===New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world.", "In March 2009, ''Time'' magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the \"10 ideas changing the world\".", "Some of the major figures who have been associated with the New Calvinism are John Piper, Mark Driscoll, Al Mohler, Mark Dever, C. J. Mahaney, and Tim Keller.", "New Calvinists have been criticized for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on the sacraments and continuationism and for rejecting tenets seen as crucial to the Reformed faith such as confessionalism and covenant theology." ], [ "Social and economic influences", "Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest.", "He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions.", "He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of Aristotle) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren.", "He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them.", "In the same way, money can be made fruitful.He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.In ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', Max Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe evolved when the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment.", "In other words, the Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated emergence of modern capitalism.Expert researchers and authors have referred to the United States as a \"Protestant nation\" or \"founded on Protestant principles,\" specifically emphasizing its Calvinist heritage." ], [ "Politics and society", "The burning of the Guernsey Martyrs during the Marian persecutions in 1556Stephen Bocskai, leader of Hungarian Calvinists in the anti-Habsburg rebellion and first Calvinist prince of Transylvania ()A Reformed church in Koudekerk aan den Rijn in the Netherlands in the 19th centuryGrote Kerk in Haarlem in the Dutch Republic, Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas which were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society.", "After their fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to religious minorities, including French Huguenots, English Independents (Congregationalists), and Jews from Spain and Portugal.", "The ancestors of the philosopher Baruch Spinoza were Portuguese Jews.", "Aware of the trial against Galileo, René Descartes lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the Inquisition, from 1628 to 1649.Pierre Bayle, a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country.", "He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists.", "Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas about natural law in the Netherlands.", "Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, such as Galileo's ''Discorsi'' (1638).Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of modern democracy in England and North America.", "In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected.", "Martin Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms separated state and church in principle.", "His doctrine of the priesthood of all believers raised the laity to the same level as the clergy.", "Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his concept of church government.", "The Huguenots added synods whose members were also elected by the congregations.", "The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy.", "Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists are organized in a similar way.", "These denominations and the Anglican Church were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (mixed government).", "He appreciated the advantages of democracy.", "His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women.", "In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers).", "Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down.", "In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political absolutism and furthered the cause of democracy.", "The Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.", "Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers.", "Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, founded by Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn, respectively, combined democratic government with a limited freedom of religion that did not extend to Catholics (Congregationalism being the established, tax-supported religion in Connecticut).", "These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews.In England, Baptists Thomas Helwys ( 1575– 1616), and John Smyth ( 1554–) influenced the liberal political thought of the Presbyterian poet and politician John Milton (1608–1674) and of the philosopher John Locke (1632–1704), who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country (English Civil War of 1642–1651, Glorious Revolution of 1688) as well as in North America.", "The ideological basis of the American Revolution was largely provided by the radical Whigs, who had been inspired by Milton, Locke, James Harrington (1611–1677), Algernon Sidney (1623–1683), and other thinkers.", "The Whigs' \"perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on Puritanism\".", "The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution and (American) Bill of Rights initiated a tradition of human and civil rights that continued in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e.g.", "Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries.", "It is also echoed in the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.In the 19th century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g.", "the abolition of slavery (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln, and others), women suffrage, and prison reforms.", "Members of these churches formed co-operatives to help the impoverished masses.", "The founders of the Red Cross Movement, including Henry Dunant, were Reformed Christians.", "Their movement also initiated the Geneva Conventions.", "Others view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive.", "The Boers and Afrikaner Calvinists combined ideas from Calvinism and Kuyperian theology to justify apartheid in South Africa.", "As late as 1974 the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid.", "In 1990 the Dutch Reformed Church document ''Church and Society'' maintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, \"...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God.\"", "These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa.", "Pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church helped reverse apartheid in South Africa.Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels.", "For example, American Congregationalists founded Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), and about a dozen other colleges.", "A particular stream of influence of Calvinism concerns art.", "Visual art cemented society in the first modern nation state, the Netherlands, and also Neo-Calvinism put much weight on this aspect of life.", "Hans Rookmaaker is the most prolific example.", "In literature one can think of Marilynne Robinson.", "In her non-fiction she powerfully demonstrates the modernity of Calvin's thinking, calling him a humanist scholar (p. 174, The Death of Adam)." ], [ "See also", "* List of Calvinist educational institutions in North America* List of Reformed denominations* Synod of Jerusalem (1672): Eastern Orthodox council rejecting Calvinist beliefs* Criticism of Protestantism* ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' (1905) – Max Weber's analysis of Calvinism's influence on society and economics===Doctrine===* Common grace* Reformed confessions of faith===Related===* Boer Calvinists: Boere-Afrikaners that hold to Reformed theology* Continental Reformed church: Calvinist churches originating in continental Europe* Augustinian Calvinism: a term used to emphasize the origin of John Calvin's theology within Augustine of Hippo's theology* Huguenots: followers of Calvinism in France, originating in the 16th and 17th century* Pilgrims: English Separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration, eventually settling in New England* Presbyterians: Calvinists in countries worldwide* Puritans: English Protestants who wanted to purify the Church of England* Waldensians: Italian Protestants, preceded Calvinism but today identify with Reformed theology===Opposing views===* Amyraldism* Arminianism* Catholicism** Augustinianism* Christian universalism* Eastern Orthodoxy** Palamism* Free Grace theology* Open theism* Lutheranism* Molinism* Socinianism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * .", "* * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * .", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Bratt, James D. (1984) ''Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative Subculture'' excerpt and text search* * Hart, D. G. (2013).", "''Calvinism: A History''.", "New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, excerpt and text search* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Five Points of Calvinism\" by Robert Lewis Dabney (PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Countable set" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a set is '''countable''' if either it is finite or it can be made in one to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers.", "Equivalently, a set is ''countable'' if there exists an injective function from it into the natural numbers; this means that each element in the set may be associated to a unique natural number, or that the elements of the set can be counted one at a time, although the counting may never finish due to an infinite number of elements.In more technical terms, assuming the axiom of countable choice, a set is ''countable'' if its cardinality (the number of elements of the set) is not greater than that of the natural numbers.", "A countable set that is not finite is said to be '''countably infinite'''.The concept is attributed to Georg Cantor, who proved the existence of uncountable sets, that is, sets that are not countable; for example the set of the real numbers." ], [ "A note on terminology <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Terminology\"></span>", "Although the terms \"countable\" and \"countably infinite\" as defined here are quite common, the terminology is not universal.", "An alternative style uses ''countable'' to mean what is here called countably infinite, and ''at most countable'' to mean what is here called countable.", "To avoid ambiguity, one may limit oneself to the terms \"at most countable\" and \"countably infinite\", although with respect to concision this is the worst of both worlds.", "The reader is advised to check the definition in use when encountering the term \"countable\" in the literature.The terms ''enumerable'' and '''denumerable''' may also be used, e.g.", "referring to countable and countably infinite respectively, but as definitions vary the reader is once again advised to check the definition in use, in particular being aware of the difference with recursively enumerable." ], [ "Definition", "A set is ''countable'' if:* Its cardinality is less than or equal to (aleph-null), the cardinality of the set of natural numbers .", "* There exists an injective function from to .", "* is empty or there exists a surjective function from to .", "* There exists a bijective mapping between and a subset of .", "* is either finite () or countably infinite.All of these definitions are equivalent.A set is ''countably infinite'' if:* Its cardinality is exactly .", "* There is an injective and surjective (and therefore bijective) mapping between and .", "* has a one-to-one correspondence with .", "* The elements of can be arranged in an infinite sequence , where is distinct from for and every element of is listed.A set is ''uncountable'' if it is not countable, i.e.", "its cardinality is greater than ." ], [ "History", "In 1874, in his first set theory article, Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is uncountable, thus showing that not all infinite sets are countable.", "In 1878, he used one-to-one correspondences to define and compare cardinalities.", "In 1883, he extended the natural numbers with his infinite ordinals, and used sets of ordinals to produce an infinity of sets having different infinite cardinalities." ], [ "Introduction", "A ''set'' is a collection of ''elements'', and may be described in many ways.", "One way is simply to list all of its elements; for example, the set consisting of the integers 3, 4, and 5 may be denoted , called roster form.", "This is only effective for small sets, however; for larger sets, this would be time-consuming and error-prone.", "Instead of listing every single element, sometimes an ellipsis (\"...\") is used to represent many elements between the starting element and the end element in a set, if the writer believes that the reader can easily guess what ... represents; for example, presumably denotes the set of integers from 1 to 100.Even in this case, however, it is still ''possible'' to list all the elements, because the number of elements in the set is finite.", "If we number the elements of the set 1, 2, and so on, up to , this gives us the usual definition of \"sets of size \".Bijective mapping from integer to even numbersSome sets are ''infinite''; these sets have more than elements where is any integer that can be specified.", "(No matter how large the specified integer is, such as , infinite sets have more than elements.)", "For example, the set of natural numbers, denotable by , has infinitely many elements, and we cannot use any natural number to give its size.", "It might seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; ...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size.", "This view works well for countably infinite sets and was the prevailing assumption before Georg Cantor's work.", "For example, there are infinitely many odd integers, infinitely many even integers, and also infinitely many integers overall.", "We can consider all these sets to have the same \"size\" because we can arrange things such that, for every integer, there is a distinct even integer:or, more generally, (see picture).", "What we have done here is arrange the integers and the even integers into a ''one-to-one correspondence'' (or ''bijection''), which is a function that maps between two sets such that each element of each set corresponds to a single element in the other set.", "This mathematical notion of \"size\", cardinality, is that two sets are of the same size if and only if there is a bijection between them.", "We call all sets that are in one-to-one correspondence with the integers ''countably infinite'' and say they have cardinality .Georg Cantor showed that not all infinite sets are countably infinite.", "For example, the real numbers cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers (non-negative integers).", "The set of real numbers has a greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers and is said to be uncountable." ], [ "Formal overview", "By definition, a set is ''countable'' if there exists a bijection between and a subset of the natural numbers .", "For example, define the correspondenceSince every element of is paired with ''precisely one'' element of , ''and'' vice versa, this defines a bijection, and shows that is countable.", "Similarly we can show all finite sets are countable.As for the case of infinite sets, a set is countably infinite if there is a bijection between and all of .", "As examples, consider the sets , the set of positive integers, and , the set of even integers.", "We can show these sets are countably infinite by exhibiting a bijection to the natural numbers.", "This can be achieved using the assignments and , so thatEvery countably infinite set is countable, and every infinite countable set is countably infinite.", "Furthermore, any subset of the natural numbers is countable, and more generally:The set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers (the Cartesian product of two sets of natural numbers, is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like the one in the picture: The Cantor pairing function assigns one natural number to each pair of natural numbers The resulting mapping proceeds as follows:This mapping covers all such ordered pairs.This form of triangular mapping recursively generalizes to -tuples of natural numbers, i.e., where and are natural numbers, by repeatedly mapping the first two elements of an -tuple to a natural number.", "For example, can be written as .", "Then maps to 5 so maps to , then maps to 39.Since a different 2-tuple, that is a pair such as , maps to a different natural number, a difference between two n-tuples by a single element is enough to ensure the n-tuples being mapped to different natural numbers.", "So, an injection from the set of -tuples to the set of natural numbers is proved.", "For the set of -tuples made by the Cartesian product of finitely many different sets, each element in each tuple has the correspondence to a natural number, so every tuple can be written in natural numbers then the same logic is applied to prove the theorem.The set of all integers and the set of all rational numbers may intuitively seem much bigger than .", "But looks can be deceiving.", "If a pair is treated as the numerator and denominator of a vulgar fraction (a fraction in the form of where and are integers), then for every positive fraction, we can come up with a distinct natural number corresponding to it.", "This representation also includes the natural numbers, since every natural number is also a fraction .", "So we can conclude that there are exactly as many positive rational numbers as there are positive integers.", "This is also true for all rational numbers, as can be seen below.In a similar manner, the set of algebraic numbers is countable.Sometimes more than one mapping is useful: a set to be shown as countable is one-to-one mapped (injection) to another set , then is proved as countable if is one-to-one mapped to the set of natural numbers.", "For example, the set of positive rational numbers can easily be one-to-one mapped to the set of natural number pairs (2-tuples) because maps to .", "Since the set of natural number pairs is one-to-one mapped (actually one-to-one correspondence or bijection) to the set of natural numbers as shown above, the positive rational number set is proved as countable.With the foresight of knowing that there are uncountable sets, we can wonder whether or not this last result can be pushed any further.", "The answer is \"yes\" and \"no\", we can extend it, but we need to assume a new axiom to do so.Enumeration for countable number of countable setsFor example, given countable sets , we first assign each element of each set a tuple, then we assign each tuple an index using a variant of the triangular enumeration we saw above:We need the axiom of countable choice to index ''all'' the sets simultaneously.This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product).", "So we are talking about a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem.The elements of any finite subset can be ordered into a finite sequence.", "There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets.These follow from the definitions of countable set as injective / surjective functions.", "'''Cantor's theorem''' asserts that if is a set and is its power set, i.e.", "the set of all subsets of , then there is no surjective function from to .", "A proof is given in the article Cantor's theorem.", "As an immediate consequence of this and the Basic Theorem above we have:For an elaboration of this result see Cantor's diagonal argument.The set of real numbers is uncountable, and so is the set of all infinite sequences of natural numbers." ], [ "Minimal model of set theory is countable", "If there is a set that is a standard model (see inner model) of ZFC set theory, then there is a minimal standard model (see Constructible universe).", "The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem can be used to show that this minimal model is countable.", "The fact that the notion of \"uncountability\" makes sense even in this model, and in particular that this model ''M'' contains elements that are:* subsets of ''M'', hence countable,* but uncountable from the point of view of ''M'',was seen as paradoxical in the early days of set theory, see Skolem's paradox for more.The minimal standard model includes all the algebraic numbers and all effectively computable transcendental numbers, as well as many other kinds of numbers." ], [ "Total orders", "Countable sets can be totally ordered in various ways, for example:*Well-orders (see also ordinal number):**The usual order of natural numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...)**The integers in the order (0, 1, 2, 3, ...; −1, −2, −3, ...)*Other (''not'' well orders):**The usual order of integers (..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)**The usual order of rational numbers (Cannot be explicitly written as an ordered list!", ")In both examples of well orders here, any subset has a ''least element''; and in both examples of non-well orders, ''some'' subsets do not have a ''least element''.This is the key definition that determines whether a total order is also a well order." ], [ "See also", "* Aleph number* Counting* Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel* Uncountable set" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974.", "(Springer-Verlag edition).", "Reprinted by Martino Fine Books, 2011.", "(Paperback edition).", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules" ], [ "Introduction", "An example of the prioritisation of structure within the CIP system.", "Priority is assigned according to the substitution of elements with higher atomic numbers, or other attached groups.", "In red is the substituent which determines the final priority (image above).In organic chemistry, the '''Cahn–Ingold–Prelog''' ('''CIP''') '''sequence rules''' (also the '''CIP priority convention'''; named after Robert Sidney Cahn, Christopher Kelk Ingold, and Vladimir Prelog) are a standard process to completely and unequivocally name a stereoisomer of a molecule.", "The purpose of the CIP system is to assign an ''R'' or ''S'' descriptor to each stereocenter and an ''E'' or ''Z'' descriptor to each double bond so that the configuration of the entire molecule can be specified uniquely by including the descriptors in its systematic name.", "A molecule may contain any number of stereocenters and any number of double bonds, and each usually gives rise to two possible isomers.", "A molecule with an integer describing the number of stereocenters will usually have stereoisomers, and diastereomers each having an associated pair of enantiomers.", "The CIP sequence rules contribute to the precise naming of every stereoisomer of every organic molecule with all atoms of ligancy of fewer than 4 (but including ligancy of 6 as well, this term referring to the \"number of neighboring atoms\" bonded to a center).The key article setting out the CIP sequence rules was published in 1966, and was followed by further refinements, before it was incorporated into the rules of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the official body that defines organic nomenclature, in 1974.The rules have since been revised, most recently in 2013, as part of the IUPAC book Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry.", "The IUPAC presentation of the rules constitute the official, formal standard for their use, and it notes that \"the method has been developed to cover all compounds with ligancy up to 4... and… extended to the case of ligancy 6… as well as for all configurations and conformations of such compounds.\"", "Nevertheless, though the IUPAC documentation presents a thorough introduction, it includes the caution that \"it is essential to study the original papers, especially the 1966 paper, before using the sequence rule for other than fairly simple cases.", "\"A recent paper argues for changes to some of the rules (sequence rules 1b and 2) to address certain molecules for which the correct descriptors were unclear.", "However, a different problem remains: in rare cases, two different stereoisomers of the same molecule can have the same CIP descriptors, so the CIP system may not be able to unambiguously name a stereoisomer, and other systems may be preferable." ], [ "Steps for naming", "The steps for naming molecules using the CIP system are often presented as:# Identification of stereocenters and double bonds;# Assignment of priorities to the groups attached to each stereocenter or double-bonded atom; and# Assignment of ''R''/''S'' and ''E''/''Z'' descriptors.===Assignment of priorities===''R''/''S'' and ''E''/''Z'' descriptors are assigned by using a system for ranking priority of the groups attached to each stereocenter.", "This procedure, often known as ''the sequence rules'', is the heart of the CIP system.", "The overview in this section omits some rules that are needed only in rare cases.#Compare the atomic number (''Z'') of the atoms directly attached to the stereocenter; the group having the atom of higher atomic number Z receives higher priority (i.e.", "number 1).#If there is a tie, the atoms at distance 2 from the stereocenter have to be considered: a list is made for each group of further atoms bonded to the one directly attached to the stereocenter.", "Each list is arranged in order of decreasing atomic number Z.", "Then the lists are compared atom by atom; at the earliest difference, the group containing the atom of higher atomic number Z receives higher priority.#If there is still a tie, each atom in each of the two lists is replaced with a sublist of the other atoms bonded to it (at distance 3 from the stereocenter), the sublists are arranged in decreasing order of atomic number Z, and the entire structure is again compared atom by atom.", "This process is repeated recursively, each time with atoms one bond farther from the stereocenter, until the tie is broken.====Isotopes====If two groups differ only in isotopes, then the larger atomic mass is used to set the priority.====Double and triple bonds====This example showcases the \"divide and duplicate rule\" for double bonds.", "The vinyl group (C=C) or alkene portion has a higher priority over the alkane (C−C) portion.If an atom, A, is double-bonded to another atom, then atom A should be treated as though it is \"connected to the same atom twice\".", "An atom that is double-bonded has a higher priority than an atom that is single bonded.", "When dealing with double bonded priority groups, one is allowed to visit the same atom twice as one creates an arc.When B is replaced with a list of attached atoms, A itself, but not its \"phantom\", is excluded in accordance with the general principle of not doubling back along a bond that has just been followed.", "A triple bond is handled the same way except that A and B are each connected to two phantom atoms of the other.==== Geometrical isomers ====If two substituents on an atom are geometric isomers of each other, the ''Z''-isomer has higher priority than the ''E''-isomer.", "A stereoisomer that contains two higher priority groups on the same face of the double bond (''cis'') is classified as \"Z.\"", "The stereoisomer with two higher priority groups on opposite sides of a carbon-carbon double bond (''trans'') is classified as \"E.\"====Cyclic molecules====To handle a molecule containing one or more cycles, one must first expand it into a tree (called a '''hierarchical digraph''') by traversing bonds in all possible paths starting at the stereocenter.", "When the traversal encounters an atom through which the current path has already passed, a phantom atom is generated in order to keep the tree finite.", "A single atom of the original molecule may appear in many places (some as phantoms, some not) in the tree.=== Assigning descriptors ======= Stereocenters: ''R''/''S'' ====Two examples of stereocenters.", "The lowest substituent (number 4) is shown only by a wavy line, and is assumed to be behind the rest of the molecule.", "Both centers shown are ''S'' isomers.A chiral sp3 hybridized isomer contains four different substituents.", "All four substituents are assigned prorites based on its atomic numbers.", "After the substituents of a stereocenter have been assigned their priorities, the molecule is oriented in space so that the group with the lowest priority is pointed away from the observer.", "If the substituents are numbered from 1 (highest priority) to 4 (lowest priority), then the sense of rotation of a curve passing through 1, 2 and 3 distinguishes the stereoisomers.", "In a configurational isomer, the lowest priority group (most times hydrogen) is positioned behind the plane or the hatched bond going away from the reader.", "The highest priority group will have an arc drawn connecting to the rest of the groups, finishing at the group of third priority.", "An arc drawn clockwise, has the ''rectus'' (''R'') assignment.", "An arc drawn counterclockwise, has the ''sinister'' (''S'') assignment.", "The names are derived from the Latin for 'right' and 'left', respectively.", "When naming an organic isomer, the abbreviation for either rectus or sinister assignment is placed in front of the name in parentheses.", "For example, 3-methyl-1-pentene with a rectus assignment is formatted as (''R'')-3-methyl-1-pentene.", "An example of a (''s'') descriptor: (1''R'',2''s'',3''S'')-1,2,3-trichlorocyclopentaneA practical method of determining whether an enantiomer is ''R'' or ''S'' is by using the right-hand rule: one wraps the molecule with the fingers in the direction .", "If the thumb points in the direction of the fourth substituent, the enantiomer is ''R''; otherwise, it is ''S''.It is possible in rare cases that two substituents on an atom differ only in their absolute configuration (''R'' or ''S'').", "If the relative priorities of these substituents need to be established, ''R'' takes priority over ''S''.", "When this happens, the descriptor of the stereocenter is a lowercase letter (''r'' or ''s'') instead of the uppercase letter normally used.==== Double bonds: ''E''/''Z'' ====For double bonded molecules, Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules (CIP rules) are followed to determine the priority of substituents of the double bond.", "If both of the high priority groups are on the same side of the double bond (''cis'' configuration), then the stereoisomer is assigned the configuration ''Z'' (''zusammen,'' German word meaning \"together\").", "If the high priority groups are on opposite sides of the double bond ( ''trans'' configuration ), then the stereoisomer is assigned the configuration ''E'' (''entgegen'', German word meaning \"opposed\")==== Coordination compounds ====In some cases where stereogenic centers are formed, the configuration must be specified.", "Without the presence of a non-covalent interaction, a compound is achiral.", "Some professionals have proposed a new rule to account for this.", "This rule states that \"non-covalent interactions have a fictitious number between 0 and 1\" when assigning priority.", "Compounds in which this occurs are referred to as coordination compounds.==== Spiro compounds ====Spiro structures contain chiral molecules with no say asymmetric center.", "The rings of a spiro structure lie at right angles to each other.", "It's important to note that the mirror images of spiro structures are non-superimposable and are enantiomers.=== Examples ===The following are examples of application of the nomenclature.", ":''R''/''S'' assignments for several compounds 100px The hypothetical molecule bromochlorofluoroiodomethane shown in its (''R'')-configuration would be a very simple chiral compound.", "The priorities are assigned based on atomic number (''Z''): iodine (''Z'' = 53) > bromine (''Z'' = 35) > chlorine (''Z'' = 17) > fluorine (''Z'' = 9).", "Allowing fluorine (lowest priority, number 4) to point away from the viewer the rotation is clockwise hence the ''R'' assignment.", "120px In the assignment of L-serine highest priority (i.e.", "number 1) is given to the nitrogen atom (''Z'' = 7) in the amino group (NH2).", "Both the hydroxymethyl group (CH2OH) and the carboxylic acid group (COOH) have carbon atoms (''Z'' = 6) but priority is given to the latter because the carbon atom in the COOH group is connected to a second oxygen (''Z'' = 8) whereas in the CH2OH group carbon is connected to a hydrogen atom (''Z'' = 1).", "Lowest priority (i.e.", "number 4) is given to the hydrogen atom and as this atom points away from the viewer, the counterclockwise decrease in priority over the three remaining substituents completes the assignment as ''S''.", "80px The stereocenter in (''S'')-carvone is connected to one hydrogen atom (not shown, priority 4) and three carbon atoms.", "The isopropenyl group has priority 1 (carbon atoms only), and for the two remaining carbon atoms, priority is decided with the carbon atoms two bonds removed from the stereocenter, one part of the keto group (O, O, C, priority number 2) and one part of an alkene (C, C, H, priority number 3).", "The resulting counterclockwise rotation results in ''S''." ], [ "Describing multiple centers", "If a compound has more than one chiral stereocenter, each center is denoted by either ''R'' or ''S''.", "For example, ephedrine exists in (1''R'',2''S'') and (1''S'',2''R'') stereoisomers, which are distinct mirror-image forms of each other, making them enantiomers.", "This compound also exists as the two enantiomers written (1''R'',2''R'') and (1''S'',2''S''), which are named pseudoephedrine rather than ephedrine.", "All four of these isomers are named 2-methylamino-1-phenyl-1-propanol in systematic nomenclature.", "However, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are diastereomers, or stereoisomers that are not enantiomers because they are not related as mirror-image copies.", "Pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are given different names because, as diastereomers, they have different chemical properties, even for racemic mixtures of each.More generally, for any pair of enantiomers, all of the descriptors are opposite: (''R'',''R'') and (''S'',''S'') are enantiomers, as are (''R'',''S'') and (''S'',''R'').", "Diastereomers have at least one descriptor in common; for example (''R'',''S'') and (''R'',''R'') are diastereomers, as are (''S'',''R'') and (''S'',''S'').", "This holds true also for compounds having more than two stereocenters: if two stereoisomers have at least one descriptor in common, they are diastereomers.", "If all the descriptors are opposite, they are enantiomers.A meso compound is an achiral molecule, despite having two or more stereogenic centers.", "A meso compound is \"superimposable\" on its mirror image, therefore it reduces the number of stereoisomers predicted by the 2n rule.", "This occurs because the molecule obtains a plane of symmetry that causes the molecule to rotate around the central carbon–carbon bond.", "One example is meso-tartaric acid, in which (''R'',''S'') is the same as the (''S'',''R'') form.", "In meso compounds the ''R'' and ''S'' stereocenters occur in symmetrically positioned pairs." ], [ "Relative configuration", "The relative configuration of two stereoisomers may be denoted by the descriptors ''R'' and ''S'' with an asterisk (*).", "(''R''*,''R''*) means two centers having identical configurations, (''R'',''R'') or (''S'',''S''); (''R''*,''S''*) means two centers having opposite configurations, (''R'',''S'') or (''S'',''R'').", "To begin, the lowest-numbered (according to IUPAC systematic numbering) stereogenic center is given the ''R''* descriptor.To designate two anomers the relative stereodescriptors alpha (α) and beta (β) are used.", "In the α anomer the ''anomeric carbon atom'' and the ''reference atom'' do have opposite configurations (''R'',''S'') or (''S'',''R''), whereas in the β anomer they are the same (''R'',''R'') or (''S'',''S'')." ], [ "Faces", "Acetophenone and α-phenylethanol.", "The H atom has the lowest priority number 4.Stereochemistry also plays a role assigning ''faces'' to trigonal molecules such as ketones.", "A nucleophile in a nucleophilic addition can approach the carbonyl group from two opposite sides or faces.", "When an achiral nucleophile attacks acetone, both faces are identical and there is only one reaction product.", "When the nucleophile attacks butanone, the faces are not identical (''enantiotopic'') and a racemic product results.", "When the nucleophile is a chiral molecule diastereoisomers are formed.", "When one face of a molecule is shielded by substituents or geometric constraints compared to the other face the faces are called diastereotopic.", "The same rules that determine the stereochemistry of a stereocenter (''R'' or ''S'') also apply when assigning the face of a molecular group.", "The faces are then called the '''''Re''-face''' and '''''Si''-face'''.", "In the example displayed on the right, the compound acetophenone is viewed from the ''Re''-face.", "Hydride addition as in a reduction process from this side will form the (''S'')-enantiomer and attack from the opposite ''Si''-face will give the (''R'')-enantiomer.", "However, one should note that adding a chemical group to the prochiral center from the ''Re''-face will not always lead to an (''S'')-stereocenter, as the priority of the chemical group has to be taken into account.", "That is, the absolute stereochemistry of the product is determined on its own and not by considering which face it was attacked from.", "In the above-mentioned example, if chloride (''Z'' = 17) were added to the prochiral center from the ''Re''-face, this would result in an (''R'')-enantiomer." ], [ "See also", "* Chirality (chemistry)* Descriptor (chemistry)* ''E''–''Z'' notation* Isomer* Stereochemistry" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Celibacy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Celibacy''' (from Latin ''caelibatus'') is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons.", "It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee.", "In its narrow sense, the term ''celibacy'' is applied only to those for whom the unmarried state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation, or religious conviction.", "In a wider sense, it is commonly understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity.", "Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in virtually all the major religions of the world, and views on it have varied.Classical Hindu culture encouraged asceticism and celibacy in the later stages of life, after one has met one's societal obligations.", "Jainism, on the other hand, preached complete celibacy even for young monks and considered celibacy to be an essential behavior to attain moksha.", "Buddhism is similar to Jainism in this respect.", "There were, however, significant cultural differences in the various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy.", "A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy.", "In most native African and Native American religious traditions, celibacy has been viewed negatively as well, although there were exceptions like periodic celibacy practiced by some Mesoamerican warriors.The Romans viewed celibacy as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with the exception of the Vestal Virgins, who took a 30-year vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals.In Christianity, celibacy means the promise to live either virginal or celibate in the future.", "Such a \"vow of celibacy\" has been normal for some centuries for Catholic priests, Catholic and Eastern Orthodox monks, and nuns.", "In addition, a promise or vow of celibacy may be made in the Anglican Communion and some Protestant churches or communities­— such as the Shakers­–, for members of religious orders and religious congregations; for hermits, consecrated virgins, and deaconesses.Judaism and Islam have denounced celibacy, as both religions emphasize marriage and family life.", "However, the priests of the Essenes, a Jewish sect during the Second Temple period, practised celibacy.", "Several hadiths indicate that the Islamic prophet Muhammad denounced celibacy." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''celibacy'' derives from the Latin ''caelibatus'', \"state of being unmarried\", from Latin , meaning \"unmarried\".", "This word derives from two Proto-Indo-European stems, * \"alone\" and * \"living\"." ], [ "Abstinence and celibacy", "The words ''abstinence'' and ''celibacy'' are often used interchangeably, but are not necessarily the same thing.", "Sexual abstinence, also known as ''continence'', is abstaining from some or all aspects of sexual activity, often for some limited period of time, while celibacy may be defined as a voluntary religious vow not to marry or engage in sexual activity.", "Asexuality is commonly conflated with celibacy and sexual abstinence, but it is considered distinct from the two, as celibacy and sexual abstinence are behavioral and those who use those terms for themselves are generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal or religious beliefs.A.", "W. Richard Sipe, while focusing on the topic of celibacy in Catholicism, states that \"the most commonly assumed definition of ''celibate'' is simply an unmarried or single person, and celibacy is perceived as synonymous with sexual abstinence or restraint.\"", "Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States there seems to be \"simply no clear operational definition of celibacy\".", "Elizabeth Abbott commented on the terminology in her ''A History of Celibacy'' (2001) writing that she \"drafted a definition of celibacy that discarded the rigidly pedantic and unhelpful distinctions between celibacy, chastity, and virginity...\"The concept of \"new\" celibacy was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book ''The New Celibacy''.", "In a revised version (1989) of her book, she claims abstinence to be \"a response on the outside to what's going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside\".", "According to her definition, celibacy (even short-term celibacy that is pursued for non-religious reasons) is much more than not having sex.", "It is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment.", "Although Brown repeatedly states that celibacy is a matter of choice, she clearly suggests that those who do not choose this route are somehow missing out.", "This new perspective on celibacy is echoed by several authors including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller, and Wendy Shalit." ], [ "Buddhism", "Buddhist monks in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand The rule of celibacy in the Buddhist religion, whether Mahayana or Theravada, has a long history.", "Celibacy was advocated as an ideal rule of life for all monks and nuns by Gautama Buddha, except in Japan where it is not strictly followed due to historical and political developments following the Meiji Restoration.", "In Japan, celibacy was an ideal among Buddhist clerics for hundreds of years.", "But violations of clerical celibacy were so common for so long that finally, in 1872, state laws made marriage legal for Buddhist clerics.", "Subsequently, ninety percent of Buddhist monks/clerics married.", "An example is Higashifushimi Kunihide, a prominent Buddhist priest of Japanese royal ancestry who was married and a father whilst serving as a monk for most of his lifetime.Gautama, later known as the Buddha, is known for his renunciation of his wife, Princess Yasodharā, and son, Rahula.", "In order to pursue an ascetic life, he needed to renounce aspects of the impermanent world, including his wife and son.", "Later on both his wife and son joined the ascetic community and are mentioned in the Buddhist texts to have become enlightened.", "In another sense, a buddhavacana recorded the zen patriarch Vimalakirti as being an advocate of marital continence instead of monastic renunciation.", "This sutra became somewhat popular due to its brash humour as well as its integration of the role of women in lay and spiritual life." ], [ "Brahma Kumaris", "In the religious movement of Brahma Kumaris, celibacy is also promoted for peace and to defeat power of lust." ], [ "Christianity", "Saint Kateri Tekakwitha, an Algonquin-Mohawk Catholic laywoman who took a private vow of perpetual virginity''St.", "John the Baptist in the Wilderness'' by Raphael, There is no commandment in the New Testament that Jesus Christ's disciples have to live in celibacy, although it is a general view that Christ himself lived a life of perfect chastity, thus \"Voluntary chastity is the imitation of him who was the virgin Son of a virgin Mother\".", "One of his invocations is \"King of virgins and lover of stainless chastity\" ''(Rex virginum, amator castitatis)''.", "Furthermore, Christ says the following in Matthew 19, verse 12: \"There are those who choose to live like eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven.", "The one who can accept this should accept it.\"", "Many supporters of priestly celibacy rely on this passage.While eunuchs were not generally celibate, over subsequent centuries this statement has come to be interpreted as referring to celibacy.Paul the Apostle emphasized the importance of overcoming the desires of the flesh and saw the state of celibacy being superior to that of marriage.", "Paul made parallels between the relations between spouses and God's relationship with the church.", "\"Husbands, love your wives even as Christ loved the church.", "Husbands should love their wives as their own bodies\" (Ephesians 5:25–28).", "Paul himself was celibate and said that his wish was \"that all of you were as I am\" (1 Corinthians 7:7).", "In fact, this entire chapter is a defense of and a call to celibacy.The early Christians lived in the belief that the end of the world would soon come upon them, and saw no point in planning new families and having children.", "According to Chadwick, this was why Paul encouraged both celibate and marital lifestyles among the members of the Corinthian congregation, regarding celibacy as the preferable of the two.In the counsels of perfection (evangelical counsels), which include chastity alongside poverty and obedience, Jesus is said to have \"given the rule of the higher life, founded upon his own most perfect life\", for those who seek \"the highest perfection\" and feel \"called to follow Christ in this way\"—i.e.", "through such \"exceptional sacrifices\".A number of early Christian martyrs were women or girls who had given themselves to Christ in perpetual virginity, such as Saint Agnes and Saint Lucy.", "According to most Christian thought, the first sacred virgin was Mary, the mother of Jesus, who was consecrated by the Holy Spirit during the Annunciation.", "Tradition also has it that the Apostle Matthew consecrated virgins.", "In the Catholic Church and the Orthodox churches, a consecrated virgin is a woman who has been consecrated by the church to a life of perpetual virginity in the service of the church.===Desert Fathers===Macarius and a Cherub'' from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, EgyptThe Desert Fathers were Christian hermits and ascetics who had a major influence on the development of Christianity and celibacy.", "Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit or anchorite to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers.", "Sometime around AD 270, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Christ (Matthew 19:21).", "He followed the advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude.Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in the desert or in small groups.", "They chose a life of extreme asceticism, renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable.", "Thousands joined them in the desert, mostly men but also a handful of women.", "Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers.", "By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert in celibacy that it was described as \"a city\" by Anthony's biographer.The first Conciliar document on clerical celibacy of the Western Church (Synod of Elvira, can.", "xxxiii) states that the discipline of celibacy is to refrain from the use of marriage, i.e.", "refrain from having carnal contact with one's spouse.According to the later St. Jerome (420), celibacy is a moral virtue, consisting of living in the flesh, but outside the flesh, and so being not corrupted by it (''vivere in carne praeter carnem'').", "Celibacy excludes not only libidinous acts, but also sinful thoughts or desires of the flesh.", "Jerome referred to marriage prohibition for priests when he claimed in ''Against Jovinianus'' that Peter and the other apostles had been married before they were called, but subsequently gave up their marital relations.In the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, bishops are required to be celibate.", "In the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions, priests and deacons are allowed to be married, yet have to remain celibate if they are unmarried at the time of ordination.===Augustinian view===Nuns in procession, French manuscript, In the early Church, higher clerics lived in marriages.", "Augustine taught that the original sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness ''(insipientia)'' followed by pride and disobedience to God, or else inspired by pride.", "The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17).", "The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.", "Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.", "They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan had not sown into their senses \"the root of evil\" ''(radix mali)''.", "Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings.", "Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that original sin was transmitted by concupiscence, which he regarded as the passion of both soul and body, making humanity a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.In the early 3rd century, the Canons of the Apostolic Constitutions decreed that only lower clerics might still marry after their ordination, but marriage of bishops, priests, and deacons were not allowed.===After Augustine===Catholic priests from all over the world in Budapest, 2013One explanation for the origin of obligatory celibacy is that it is based on the writings of Saint Paul, who wrote of the advantages of celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord.", "Celibacy was popularised by the early Christian theologians like Saint Augustine of Hippo and Origen.", "Another possible explanation for the origins of obligatory celibacy revolves around more practical reason, \"the need to avoid claims on church property by priests' offspring\".", "It remains a matter of Canon Law (and often a criterion for certain religious orders, especially Franciscans) that priests may not own land and therefore cannot pass it on to legitimate or illegitimate children.", "The land belongs to the Church through the local diocese as administered by the Local Ordinary (usually a bishop), who is often an ''ex officio'' corporation sole.", "Celibacy is viewed differently by the Catholic Church and the various Protestant communities.", "It includes clerical celibacy, celibacy of the consecrated life, voluntary lay celibacy, and celibacy outside of marriage.The Protestant Reformation rejected celibate life and sexual continence for preachers.", "Protestant celibate communities have emerged, especially from Anglican and Lutheran backgrounds.", "A few minor Christian sects advocate celibacy as a better way of life.", "These groups included the Shakers, the Harmony Society and the Ephrata Cloister.Many evangelicals prefer the term \"abstinence\" to \"celibacy\".", "Assuming everyone will marry, they focus their discussion on refraining from premarital sex and focusing on the joys of a future marriage.", "But some evangelicals, particularly older singles, desire a positive message of celibacy that moves beyond the \"wait until marriage\" message of abstinence campaigns.", "They seek a new understanding of celibacy that is focused on God rather than a future marriage or a lifelong vow to the Church.There are also many Pentecostal churches which practice celibate ministry.", "For instance, the full-time ministers of the Pentecostal Mission are celibate and generally single.", "Married couples who enter full-time ministry may become celibate and could be sent to different locations.===Catholic Church===During the first three or four centuries, no law was promulgated prohibiting clerical marriage.", "Celibacy was a matter of choice for bishops, priests, and deacons.Conventual Franciscan friar, 2012Statutes forbidding clergy from having wives were written beginning with the Council of Elvira (306) but these early statutes were not universal and were often defied by clerics and then retracted by hierarchy.", "The Synod of Gangra (345) condemned a false asceticism whereby worshipers boycotted celebrations presided over by married clergy.", "The Apostolic Constitutions () excommunicated a priest or bishop who left his wife \"under the pretense of piety\" (Mansi, 1:51).", "\"A famous letter of Synesius of Cyrene () is evidence both for the respecting of personal decision in the matter and for contemporary appreciation of celibacy.", "For priests and deacons clerical marriage continued to be in vogue\".", "\"The Second Lateran Council (1139) seems to have enacted the first written law making sacred orders a direct impediment to marriage for the universal Church.\"", "Celibacy was first required of some clerics in 1123 at the First Lateran Council.", "Because clerics resisted it, the celibacy mandate was restated at the Second Lateran Council (1139) and the Council of Trent (1545–64).", "In places, coercion and enslavement of clerical wives and children was apparently involved in the enforcement of the law.", "\"The earliest decree in which the children of clerics were declared to be slaves and never to be enfranchised freed seems to have been a canon of the Synod of Pavia in 1018.Similar penalties were promulgated against wives and concubines (see the Synod of Melfi, 1189 can.", "xii), who by the very fact of their unlawful connexion with a subdeacon or clerk of higher rank became liable to be seized by the over-lord\".In the Roman Catholic Church, the Twelve Apostles are considered to have been the first priests and bishops of the Church.", "Some say the call to be eunuchs for the sake of Heaven in Matthew 19 was a call to be sexually continent and that this developed into celibacy for priests as the successors of the apostles.", "Others see the call to be sexually continent in Matthew 19 to be a caution for men who were too readily divorcing and remarrying.The view of the Church is that celibacy is a reflection of life in Heaven, a source of detachment from the material world which aids in one's relationship with God.", "Celibacy is designed to \"consecrate themselves with undivided heart to the Lord and to \"the affairs of the Lord, they give themselves entirely to God and to men.", "It is a sign of this new life to the service of which the Church's minister is consecrated; accepted with a joyous heart celibacy radiantly proclaims the Reign of God.\"", "In contrast, Saint Peter, whom the Church considers its first Pope, was married given that he had a mother-in-law whom Christ healed (Matthew 8).", "But some argue that Peter was a widower, due to the fact that this passage does not mention his wife, and that his mother-in-law is the one who serves Christ and the apostles after she is healed.", "Furthermore, Peter himself states: \"Then Peter spoke up, 'We have left everything to follow you!'", "'Truly I tell you', Jesus replied, 'no one who has left home or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or fields for me and the gospel will fail to receive a hundred times as much'\" (Mark 10,28–30).Usually, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Church.", "Married clergy who have converted from other Christian denominations can be ordained Roman Catholic priests without becoming celibate.", "Priestly celibacy is not ''doctrine'' of the Church (such as the belief in the Assumption of Mary) but a matter of discipline, like the use of the vernacular (local) language in Mass or Lenten fasting and abstinence.", "As such, it can theoretically change at any time though it still must be obeyed by Catholics until the change were to take place.", "The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.", "However, in both the East and the West, bishops are chosen from among those who are celibate.", "In Ireland, several priests have fathered children, the two most prominent being bishop Eamonn Casey and Michael Cleary.Discalced Carmelites from Argentina, 2013The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West.", "When discerning the population of Christendom in Medieval Europe during the Middle Ages, Will Durant, referring to Plato's ideal community, stated on the ''oratores'' (clergy):\"The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority not by the suffrages of the people, but by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and (perhaps it should be added) by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church.", "In the latter half of the period in which they ruled AD 800 onwards, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire; and in some cases it would seem they enjoyed no little of the reproductive freedom accorded to the guardians.", "Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them …\"With respect to clerical celibacy, Richard P. O'Brien stated in 1995, that in his opinion, \"greater understanding of human psychology has led to questions regarding the impact of celibacy on the human development of the clergy.", "The realization that many non-European countries view celibacy negatively has prompted questions concerning the value of retaining celibacy as an absolute and universal requirement for ordained ministry in the Roman Catholic Church\".===Celibate homosexual Christians===Some homosexual Christians choose to be celibate following their denomination's teachings on homosexuality.In 2014, the American Association of Christian Counselors amended its code of ethics to eliminate the promotion of conversion therapy for homosexuals and encouraged them to be celibate instead." ], [ "Hinduism", "A sadhu by the Ghats on the Ganges, Varanasi, 2008In Hinduism, celibacy is usually associated with the ''sadhus'' (\"holy men\"), ascetics who withdraw from society and renounce all worldly ties.", "Celibacy, termed ''brahmacharya'' in Vedic scripture, is the fourth of the ''yamas'' and the word literally translated means \"dedicated to the Divinity of Life\".", "The word is often used in yogic practice to refer to celibacy or denying pleasure, but this is only a small part of what ''brahmacharya'' represents.", "The purpose of practicing ''brahmacharya'' is to keep a person focused on the purpose in life, the things that instill a feeling of peace and contentment.", "It is also used to cultivate occult powers and many supernatural feats, called siddhi." ], [ "Islam", "Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex, Muhammad denounced it, however some Sufi orders embrace it.", "Islam does not promote celibacy; rather it condemns premarital sex and extramarital sex.", "In fact, according to Islam, marriage enables one to attain the highest form of righteousness within this sacred spiritual bond but the Qur'an does not state it as an obligation.", "The Qur'an (Q57:27) states, \"But the Monasticism which they (who followed Jesus) invented for themselves, We did not prescribe for them but only to please God therewith, but that they did not observe it with the right observance.\"", "Therefore, religion is clearly not a reason to stay unmarried although people are allowed to live their lives however they are comfortable; but relationships and sex outside of marriage, let alone forced marriage, is definitely a sin, \"Oh you who believe!", "You are forbidden to inherit women against their will\" (Q4:19).", "In addition, marriage partners can be distractions from practicing religion at the same time, \"Your mates and children are only a trial for you\" (Q64:15) however that still does not mean Islam does not encourage people who have sexual desires and are willing to marry.", "Anyone who does not (intend to) get married in this life can always do it in the Hereafter instead.Celibacy appears as a peculiarity among some Sufis.Celibacy was practiced by women saints in Sufism.", "Celibacy was debated along with women's roles in Sufism in medieval times.Celibacy, poverty, meditation, and mysticism within an ascetic context along with worship centered around saints' tombs were promoted by the Qadiri Sufi order among Hui Muslims in China.", "In China, unlike other Muslim sects, the leaders (Shaikhs) of the Qadiriyya Sufi order are celibate.", "Unlike other Sufi orders in China, the leadership within the order is not a hereditary position, rather, one of the disciples of the celibate Shaikh is chosen by the Shaikh to succeed him.", "The 92-year-old celibate Shaikh Yang Shijun was the leader of the Qadiriya order in China as of 1998.Celibacy is practiced by Haydariya Sufi dervishes." ], [ "Meher Baba", "The spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that \"For the spiritual aspirant a life of strict celibacy is preferable to married life, if restraint comes to him easily without undue sense of self-repression.", "Such restraint is difficult for most persons and sometimes impossible, and for them married life is decidedly more helpful than a life of celibacy.", "For ordinary persons, married life is undoubtedly advisable unless they have a special aptitude for celibacy\".", "Baba also asserted that \"The value of celibacy lies in the habit of restraint and the sense of detachment and independence which it gives\" and that \"The aspirant must choose one of the two courses which are open to him.", "He must take to the life of celibacy or to the married life, and he must avoid at all costs a cheap compromise between the two.", "Promiscuity in sex gratification is bound to land the aspirant in a most pitiful and dangerous chaos of ungovernable lust.\"" ], [ "Ancient Greece and Rome", "In Sparta and many other Greek cities, failure to marry was grounds for loss of citizenship, and could be prosecuted as a crime.", "Both Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus stated that Roman law forbade celibacy.", "There are no records of such a prosecution, nor is the Roman punishment for refusing to marry known.Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers.", "Pythagorean thinking was dominated by a profoundly mystical view of the world.", "The Pythagorean code further restricted his members from eating meat, fish, and beans which they practised for religious, ethical and ascetic reasons, in particular the idea of metempsychosis – the transmigration of souls into the bodies of other animals.", "\"Pythagoras himself established a small community that set a premium on study, vegetarianism, and sexual restraint or abstinence.", "Later philosophers believed that celibacy would be conducive to the detachment and equilibrium required by the philosopher's calling.\"" ], [ "The Balkans", "The tradition of sworn virgins developed out of the ''Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit'' (, or simply the ''Kanun'').", "The ''Kanun'' is not a religious document – many groups follow this code, including Roman Catholics, the Albanian Orthodox, and Muslims.Women who become sworn virgins make a vow of celibacy, and are allowed to take on the social role of men: inheriting land, wearing male clothing, etc." ], [ "See also", "* Abstinence in Judaism* Feminism and celibacy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Donald Cozzens (2006). ''", "Freeing Celibacy''.", "Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press.", "* * Rafael Domingo (2020): \"Why Does the Catholic Church Insist on Celibacy?\"", "by Rafael Domingo" ], [ "External links", "* The Biblical foundation of priestly celibacy* The Reformation view of Celibacy* HBO documentary film ''Celibacy''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Coalition government" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''coalition government''' is a government where political parties enter a power-sharing arrangement of the executive.", "Coalition governments usually occur when no single party has achieved an absolute majority after an election.", "A party not having majority is common under proportional representation, but not in nations with majoritarian electoral systems.A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis (for example, during wartime or economic crisis) to give a government the high degree of perceived political legitimacy or collective identity, it can also play a role in diminishing internal political strife.", "In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions (national unity governments, grand coalitions).", "If a coalition collapses, the Prime Minister and cabinet may be ousted by a vote of no confidence, call snap elections, form a new majority coalition, or continue as a minority government." ], [ "Coalition agreement", "Sigmar Gabriel (SPD), Angela Merkel (CDU) and Horst Seehofer (CSU) presenting the 2013 coalition agreement for Germany's third Merkel cabinet.In multi-party states, a '''coalition agreement''' is an agreement negotiated between the parties that form a coalition government.", "It codifies the most important shared goals and objectives of the cabinet.", "It is often written by the leaders of the parliamentary groups.", "Coalitions that have a written agreement are more productive than those that do not." ], [ "Distribution", "Countries which often operate with coalition cabinets include: the Nordic countries, the Benelux countries, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Chile, Cyprus, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho Lithuania, Malaysia, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, and Ukraine.", "Switzerland has been ruled by a consensus government with a coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament since 1959, called the \"Magic Formula\".", "Between 2010 and 2015, the United Kingdom also operated a formal coalition between the Conservative and the Liberal Democrat parties, but this was unusual: the UK usually has a single-party majority government.", "Not every parliament forms a coalition government, for example the European Parliament.===Armenia===Armenia became an independent state in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.", "Since then, many political parties were formed in it, who mainly work with each other to form coalition governments.", "The country was governed by the My Step Alliance coalition after successfully gaining a majority in the National Assembly of Armenia following the 2018 Armenian parliamentary election.===Australia===In federal Australian politics, the conservative Liberal, National, Country Liberal and Liberal National parties are united in a coalition, known simply as the Coalition.While nominally two parties, the Coalition has become so stable, at least at the federal level, that in practice the lower house of Parliament has become a two-party system, with the Coalition and the Labor Party being the major parties.", "This coalition is also found in the states of New South Wales and Victoria.", "In South Australia and Western Australia the Liberal and National parties compete separately, while in the Northern Territory and Queensland the two parties have merged, forming the Country Liberal Party, in 1978, and the Liberal National Party, in 2008, respectively.Coalition governments involving the Labor Party and the Australian Greens have occurred at state and territory level, for example following the 2010 Tasmanian state election and the 2016 and 2020 Australian Capital Territory elections.===Belgium===In Belgium, a nation internally divided along linguistic lines (primarily between Dutch-speaking Flanders in the north and French-speaking Wallonia in the south, with Brussels also being by and large Francophone), each main political disposition (Social democracy, liberalism, right-wing populism, etc.)", "is, with the exception of the far-left Workers' Party of Belgium, split between Francophone and Dutch-speaking parties (e.g.", "the Dutch-speaking Vooruit and French-speaking Socialist Party being the two social-democratic parties).", "In the 2019 federal election, no party got more than 17% of the vote.", "Thus, forming a coalition government is an expected and necessary part of Belgian politics.", "In Belgium, coalition governments containing ministers from six or more parties are not uncommon; consequently, government formation can take an exceptionally long time.", "Between 2007 and 2011, Belgium operated under a caretaker government as no coalition could be formed.===Canada===In Canada, the Great Coalition was formed in 1864 by the Clear Grits, , and Liberal-Conservative Party.", "During the First World War, Prime Minister Robert Borden attempted to form a coalition with the opposition Liberals to broaden support for controversial conscription legislation.", "The Liberal Party refused the offer but some of their members did cross the floor and join the government.", "Although sometimes referred to as a coalition government, according to the definition above, it was not.", "It was disbanded after the end of the war.During the 2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute, two of Canada's opposition parties signed an agreement to form what would become the country's second federal coalition government since Confederation if the minority Conservative government was defeated on a vote of non-confidence, unseating Stephen Harper as Prime Minister.", "The agreement outlined a formal coalition consisting of two opposition parties, the Liberal Party and the New Democratic Party.", "The Bloc Québécois agreed to support the proposed coalition on confidence matters for 18 months.", "In the end, parliament was prorogued by the Governor General, and the coalition dispersed before parliament was reconvened.According to historian Christopher Moore, coalition governments in Canada became much less possible in 1919, when the leaders of parties were no longer chosen by elected MPs but instead began to be chosen by party members.", "Such a manner of leadership election had never been tried in any parliamentary system before.", "According to Moore, as long as that kind of leadership selection process remains in place and concentrates power in the hands of the leader, as opposed to backbenchers, then coalition governments will be very difficult to form.", "Moore shows that the diffusion of power within a party tends to also lead to a diffusion of power in the parliament in which that party operates, thereby making coalitions more likely.====Provincial====Several coalition governments have been formed within provincial politics.", "As a result of the 1919 Ontario election, the United Farmers of Ontario and the Labour Party, together with three independent MLAs, formed a coalition that governed Ontario until 1923.In British Columbia, the governing Liberals formed a coalition with the opposition Conservatives in order to prevent the surging, left-wing Cooperative Commonwealth Federation from taking power in the 1941 British Columbia general election.", "Liberal premier Duff Pattullo refused to form a coalition with the third-place Conservatives, so his party removed him.", "The Liberal–Conservative coalition introduced a winner-take-all preferential voting system (the \"Alternative Vote\") in the hopes that their supporters would rank the other party as their second preference; however, this strategy backfired in the subsequent 1952 British Columbia general election where, to the surprise of many, the right-wing populist BC Social Credit Party won a minority.", "They were able to win a majority in the subsequent election as Liberal and Conservative supporters shifted their anti-CCF vote to Social Credit.Manitoba has had more formal coalition governments than any other province.", "Following gains by the United Farmer's/Progressive movement elsewhere in the country, the United Farmers of Manitoba unexpectedly won the 1921 election.", "Like their counterparts in Ontario, they had not expected to win and did not have a leader.", "They asked John Bracken, a professor in animal husbandry, to become leader and premier.", "Bracken changed the party's name to the Progressive Party of Manitoba.", "During the Great Depression, Bracken survived at a time when other premiers were being defeated by forming a coalition government with the Manitoba Liberals (eventually, the two parties would merge into the Liberal-Progressive Party of Manitoba, and decades later, the party would change its name to the Manitoba Liberal Party).", "In 1940, Bracken formed a wartime coalition government with almost every party in the Manitoba Legislature (the Conservatives, CCF, and Social Credit; however, the CCF broke with the coalition after a few years over policy differences).", "The only party not included was the small, communist Labor-Progressive Party, which had a handful of seats.In Saskatchewan, NDP premier Roy Romanow formed a formal coalition with the Saskatchewan Liberals in 1999 after being reduced to a minority.", "After two years, the newly elected Liberal leader David Karwacki ordered the coalition be disbanded, the Liberal caucus disagreed with him and left the Liberals to run as New Democrats in the upcoming election.", "The Saskatchewan NDP was re-elected with a majority under its new leader Lorne Calvert, while the Saskatchewan Liberals lost their remaining seats and have not been competitive in the province since.===Denmark===From the creation of the Folketing in 1849 through the introduction of proportional representation in 1918, there were only single-party governments in Denmark.", "Thorvald Stauning formed his second government and Denmark's first coalition government in 1929.Since then, the norm has been coalition governments, though there have been periods where single-party governments were frequent, such as the decade after the end of World War II, during the 1970s, and in the late 2010s.", "Every government from 1982 until the 2015 elections were coalitions.", "While Mette Frederiksen's first government only consisted of her own Social Democrats, her second government is a coalition of the Social Democrats, Venstre, and the Moderates.When the Social Democrats under Stauning won 46% of the votes in the 1935 election, this was the closest any party has gotten to winning an outright majority in parliament since 1918.One party has thus never held a majority alone, and even one-party governments have needed to have confidence agreements with at least one other party to govern.", "For example, though Frederiksen's first government only consisted of the Social Democrats, it also relied on the support of the Social Liberal Party, the Socialist People's Party, and the Red–Green Alliance.===Finland===In Finland, no party has had an absolute majority in the parliament since independence, and multi-party coalitions have been the norm.", "Finland experienced its most stable government (Lipponen I and II) since independence with a five-party governing coalition, a so-called \"rainbow government\".", "The Lipponen cabinets set the stability record and were unusual in the respect that both the centre-left (SDP) and radical left-wing (Left Alliance) parties sat in the government with the major centre-right party (National Coalition).", "The Katainen cabinet was also a rainbow coalition of a total of five parties.===Germany===In Germany, coalition governments are the norm, as it is rare for any single party to win a majority in parliament.", "The German political system makes extensive use of the constructive vote of no confidence, which requires governments to control an absolute majority of seats.", "Every government since the foundation of the Federal Republic in 1949 has involved at least two political parties.", "Typically, governments involve one of the two major parties forming a coalition with a smaller party.", "For example, from 1982 to 1998, the country was governed by a coalition of the CDU/CSU with the minor Free Democratic Party (FDP); from 1998 to 2005, a coalition of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the minor Greens held power.", "The CDU/CSU comprises an alliance of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany and Christian Social Union in Bavaria, described as \"sister parties\" which form a joint parliamentary group, and for this purpose are always considered a single party.", "Coalition arrangements are often given names based on the colours of the parties involved, such as \"red-green\" for the SPD and Greens.", "Coalitions of three parties are often named after countries whose flags contain those colours, such as the black-yellow-green Jamaica coalition.Grand coalitions of the two major parties also occur, but these are relatively rare, as they typically prefer to associate with smaller ones.", "However, if the major parties are unable to assemble a majority, a grand coalition may be the only practical option.", "This was the case following the 2005 federal election, in which the incumbent SPD–Green government was defeated but the opposition CDU/CSU–FDP coalition also fell short of a majority.", "A grand coalition government was subsequently formed between the CDU/CSU and the SPD.", "Partnerships like these typically involve carefully structured cabinets: Angela Merkel of the CDU/CSU became Chancellor while the SPD was granted the majority of cabinet posts.Coalition formation has become increasingly complex as voters increasingly migrate away from the major parties during the 2000s and 2010s.", "While coalitions of more than two parties were extremely rare in preceding decades, they have become common on the state level.", "These often include the liberal FDP and the Greens alongside one of the major parties, or \"red–red–green\" coalitions of the SPD, Greens, and The Left.", "In the eastern states, dwindling support for moderate parties has seen the rise of new forms of grand coalitions such as the Kenya coalition.", "The rise of populist parties also increases the time that it takes for a successful coalition to form.", "By 2016, the Greens were participating eleven governing coalitions on the state level in seven different constellations.", "During campaigns, parties often declare which coalitions or partners they prefer or reject.", "This tendency toward fragmentation also spread to the federal level, particularly during the 2021 federal election, which saw the CDU/CSU and SPD fall short of a combined majority of votes for the first time in history.===India===After India's Independence on 15 August 1947, the Indian National Congress, the major political party instrumental in the Indian independence movement, ruled the nation.", "The first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, his successor Lal Bahadur Shastri, and the third Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, were all members of the Congress party.", "However, Raj Narain, who had unsuccessfully contested an election against Indira from the constituency of Rae Bareilly in 1971, lodged a case alleging electoral malpractice.", "In June 1975, Indira was found guilty and barred by the High Court from holding public office for six years.", "In response, a state of emergency was declared under the pretext of national security.", "The next election resulted in the formation of India's first ever national coalition government under the prime ministership of Morarji Desai, which was also the first non-Congress national government.", "It existed from 24 March 1977 to 15 July 1979, headed by the Janata Party, an amalgam of political parties opposed to the emergency imposed between 1975 and 1977.As the popularity of the Janata Party dwindled, Desai had to resign, and Chaudhary Charan Singh, a rival of his, became the fifth Prime Minister.", "However, due to lack of support, this coalition government did not complete its five-year term.Congress returned to power in 1980 under Indira Gandhi, and later under Rajiv Gandhi as the sixth Prime Minister.", "However, the general election of 1989 once again brought a coalition government under National Front, which lasted until 1991, with two Prime Ministers, the second one being supported by Congress.", "The 1991 election resulted in a Congress-led stable minority government for five years.", "The eleventh parliament produced three Prime Ministers in two years and forced the country back to the polls in 1998.The first successful coalition government in India which completed a whole five-year term was the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led National Democratic Alliance with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as Prime Minister from 1999 to 2004.Then another coalition, the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance, consisting of 13 separate parties, ruled India for two terms from 2004 to 2014 with Manmohan Singh as PM.", "However, in the 16th general election in May 2014, the BJP secured a majority on its own (becoming the first party to do so since the 1984 election), and the National Democratic Alliance came into power, with Narendra Modi as Prime Minister.", "In 2019, Narendra Modi was re-elected as Prime Minister as the National Democratic Alliance again secured a majority in the 17th general election.===Indonesia===As a result of the toppling of Suharto, political freedom is significantly increased.", "Compared to only three parties allowed to exist in the New Order era, a total of 48 political parties participated in the 1999 election and always a total of more than 10 parties in next elections.", "There are no majority winner of those elections and coalition governments are inevitable.", "The current government is a coalition of seven parties led by the major centre-left PDIP to let governing big tent Onward Indonesia Coalition===Ireland===In Ireland, coalition governments are common; not since 1977 has a single party formed a majority government.", "Coalition governments to date have been led by either Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael.", "They have been joined in government by one or more smaller parties or independent members of parliament (TDs).Ireland's first coalition government was formed after the 1948 general election, with five parties and independents represented at cabinet.", "Before 1989, Fianna Fáil had opposed participation in coalition governments, preferring single-party minority government instead.", "It formed a coalition government with the Progressive Democrats in that year.The Labour Party has been in government on eight occasions.", "On all but one of those occasions, it was as a junior coalition party to Fine Gael.", "The exception was a government with Fianna Fáil from 1993 to 1994.The 29th Government of Ireland (2011–16), was a grand coalition of the two largest parties, as Fianna Fáil had fallen to third place in the Dáil.The current government is a Fianna Fáil, Fine Gael and the Green Party.", "It is the first time Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael have served in government together, having derived from opposing sides in the Irish Civil War (1922–23).===Israel===A similar situation exists in Israel, which typically has at least 10 parties holding representation in the Knesset.", "The only faction to ever gain the majority of Knesset seats was Alignment, an alliance of the Labor Party and Mapam that held an absolute majority for a brief period from 1968 to 1969.Historically, control of the Israeli government has alternated between periods of rule by the right-wing Likud in coalition with several right-wing and religious parties and periods of rule by the center-left Labor in coalition with several left-wing parties.", "Ariel Sharon's formation of the centrist Kadima party in 2006 drew support from former Labor and Likud members, and Kadima ruled in coalition with several other parties.Israel also formed a national unity government from 1984–1988.The premiership and foreign ministry portfolio were held by the head of each party for two years, and they switched roles in 1986.===Japan===In Japan, controlling a majority in the House of Representatives is enough to decide the election of the prime minister (=recorded, two-round votes in both houses of the National Diet, yet the vote of the House of Representatives decision eventually overrides a dissenting House of Councillors vote automatically after the mandatory conference committee procedure fails which, by precedent, it does without real attempt to reconcile the different votes).", "Therefore, a party that controls the lower house can form a government on its own.", "It can also pass a budget on its own.", "But passing any law (including important budget-related laws) requires either majorities in both houses of the legislature or, with the drawback of longer legislative proceedings, a two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives.In recent decades, single-party full legislative control is rare, and coalition governments are the norm: Most governments of Japan since the 1990s and, as of 2020, all since 1999 have been coalition governments, some of them still fell short of a legislative majority.", "The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) held a legislative majority of its own in the National Diet until 1989 (when it initially continued to govern alone), and between the 2016 and 2019 elections (when it remained in its previous ruling coalition).", "The Democratic Party of Japan (through accessions in the House of Councillors) briefly controlled a single-party legislative majority for a few weeks before it lost the 2010 election (it, too, continued to govern as part of its previous ruling coalition).From the constitutional establishment of parliamentary cabinets and the introduction of the new, now directly elected upper house of parliament in 1947 until the formation of the LDP and the reunification of the Japanese Socialist Party in 1955, no single party formally controlled a legislative majority on its own.", "Only few formal coalition governments (46th, 47th, initially 49th cabinet) interchanged with technical minority governments and cabinets without technical control of the House of Councillors (later called \"twisted Diets\", ''nejire kokkai'', when they were not only technically, but actually divided).", "But during most of that period, the centrist Ryokufūkai was the strongest overall or decisive cross-bench group in the House of Councillors, and it was willing to cooperate with both centre-left and centre-right governments even when it was not formally part of the cabinet; and in the House of Representatives, minority governments of Liberals or Democrats (or their precursors; loose, indirect successors to the two major pre-war parties) could usually count on support from some members of the other major conservative party or from smaller conservative parties and independents.", "Finally in 1955, when Hatoyama Ichirō's Democratic Party minority government called early House of Representatives elections and, while gaining seats substantially, remained in the minority, the Liberal Party refused to cooperate until negotiations on a long-debated \"conservative merger\" of the two parties were agreed upon, and eventually successful.After it was founded in 1955, the Liberal Democratic Party dominated Japan's governments for a long period: The new party governed alone without interruption until 1983, again from 1986 to 1993 and most recently between 1996 and 1999.The first time the LDP entered a coalition government followed its third loss of its House of Representatives majority in the 1983 House of Representatives general election.", "The LDP-New Liberal Club coalition government lasted until 1986 when the LDP won landslide victories in simultaneous double elections to both houses of parliament.There have been coalition cabinets where the post of prime minister was given to a junior coalition partner: the JSP-DP-Cooperativist coalition government in 1948 of prime minister Ashida Hitoshi (DP) who took over after his JSP predecessor Tetsu Katayama had been toppled by the left wing of his own party, the JSP-Renewal-Kōmei-DSP-JNP-Sakigake-SDF-DRP coalition in 1993 with Morihiro Hosokawa (JNP) as compromise PM for the Ichirō Ozawa-negotiated rainbow coalition that removed the LDP from power for the first time to break up in less than a year, and the LDP-JSP-Sakigake government that was formed in 1994 when the LDP had agreed, if under internal turmoil and with some defections, to bury the main post-war partisan rivalry and support the election of JSP prime minister Tomiichi Murayama in exchange for the return to government.=== Malaysia ===Ever since Malaysia gained independence in 1957, none of its federal governments have ever been controlled by a single political party.", "Due to the social nature of the country, the first federal government was formed by a three-party Alliance coalition, composed of the United Malays National Organisations (UMNO), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), and the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC).", "It was later expanded and rebranded as Barisan Nasional (BN), which includes parties representing the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.The 2018 Malaysian general election saw the first non-BN coalition federal government in the country's electoral history, formed through an alliance between the Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition and the Sabah Heritage Party (WARISAN).", "The federal government formed after the 2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis was the first to be established through coordination between multiple political coalitions.", "This occurred when the newly formed Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition partnered with BN and Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS).", "In 2022 after its registration, Sabah-based Gabungan Rakyat Sabah (GRS) formally joined the government (though it had been a part of an informal coalition since 2020).", "The current government led by Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim is composed of four political coalitions and 19 parties.=== New Zealand ===MMP was introduced in New Zealand in the 1996 election.", "In order to get into power, parties need to get a total of 50% of the approximately (there can be more if an Overhang seat exists) 120 seats in parliament – 61.Since it is rare for a party to win a full majority, they must form coalitions with other parties.", "For example, during the 2017 general election, Labour won 46 seats and New Zealand First won nine.", "The two formed a Coalition Government with confidence and supply from the Green Party who won eight seats.=== Spain ===Since 2015, there are many more coalition governments than previously in municipalities, autonomous regions and, since 2020 (coming from the November 2019 Spanish general election), in the Spanish Government.", "There are two ways of conforming them: all of them based on a program and its institutional architecture, one consists on distributing the different areas of government between the parties conforming the coalition and the other one is, like in the Valencian Community, where the ministries are structured with members of all the political parties being represented, so that conflicts that may occur are regarding competences and not fights between parties.Coalition governments in Spain had already existed during the 2nd Republic, and have been common in some specific Autonomous Communities since the 1980s.", "Nonetheless, the prevalence of two big parties overall has been eroded and the need for coalitions appears to be the new normal since around 2015.=== Turkey ===Turkey's first coalition government was formed after the 1961 general election, with two political parties and independents represented at cabinet.", "It was also Turkey's first grand coalition as the two largest political parties of opposing political ideologies (Republican People's Party and Justice Party) united.", "Between 1960 and 2002, 17 coalition governments were formed in Turkey.", "The media and the general public view coalition governments as unfavorable and unstable due to their lack of effectiveness and short lifespan.", "Following Turkey's transition to a presidential system in 2017, political parties focussed more on forming electoral alliances.", "Due to separation of powers, the government doesn't have to be formed by parliamentarians and therefore not obliged to result in a coalition government.", "However, the parliament can dissolve the cabinet if the parliamentary opposition is in majority.===United Kingdom===In the United Kingdom, coalition governments (sometimes known as \"national governments\") usually have only been formed at times of national crisis.", "The most prominent was the National Government of 1931 to 1940.There were multi-party coalitions during both world wars.", "Apart from this, when no party has had a majority, minority governments normally have been formed with one or more opposition parties agreeing to vote in favour of the legislation which governments need to function: for instance the Labour government of James Callaghan formed a pact with the Liberals from March 1977 until July 1978, following a series of by-election defeats had eroded Labour's majority of three seats which had been gained at the October 1974 election.", "However, in the run-up to the 1997 general election, Labour opposition leader Tony Blair was in talks with Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown about forming a coalition government if Labour failed to win a majority at the election; but there proved to be no need for a coalition as Labour won the election by a landslide.", "The 2010 general election resulted in a hung parliament (Britain's first for 36 years), and the Conservatives, led by David Cameron, which had won the largest number of seats, formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats in order to gain a parliamentary majority, ending 13 years of Labour government.", "This was the first time that the Conservatives and Lib Dems had made a power-sharing deal at Westminster.", "It was also the first full coalition in Britain since 1945, having been formed 70 years virtually to the day after the establishment of Winston Churchill's wartime coalition,Labour and the Liberal Democrats have entered into a coalition twice in the Scottish Parliament, as well as twice in the Welsh Assembly.=== Uruguay ===Since the 1989 election, there have been 4 coalition governments, all including at least both the conservative National Party and the liberal Colorado Party.", "The first one was after the election of the blanco Luis Alberto Lacalle and lasted until 1992 due to policy disagreements, the longest lasting coalition was the Colorado-led coalition under the second government of Julio María Sanguinetti, in which the national leader Alberto Volonté was frequently described as a \"Prime Minister\", the next coalition (under president Jorge Batlle) was also Colorado-led, but it lasted only until after the 2002 Uruguay banking crisis, when the blancos abandoned the government.", "Following the 2019 Uruguayan general election, the blanco Luis Lacalle Pou formed the coalición multicolor, composed of his own National Party, the liberal Colorado Party, the eclectic Open Cabildo and the center left Independent Party." ], [ "Support and criticism", "Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus-based politics, as a government comprising differing parties (often based on different ideologies) need to compromise about governmental policy.", "Another stated advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country; this means, for instance, that the political system contains just one majority-based mechanism.", "Contrast this with district voting in which the majority mechanism occurs twice: first, the majority of voters pick the representative and, second, the body of representatives make a subsequent majority decision.", "The doubled majority decision undermines voter support for that decision.", "The benefit of proportional representation is that it contains that majority mechanism just once.", "Additionally, coalition partnership may play an important role in moderating the level of affective polarization over parties, that is, the animosity and hostility against the opponent party identifiers/supporters.Those who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony, as their component parties hold differing beliefs and thus may not always agree on policy.", "Sometimes the results of an election mean that the coalitions which are mathematically most probable are ideologically infeasible, for example in Flanders or Northern Ireland.", "A second difficulty might be the ability of minor parties to play \"kingmaker\" and, particularly in close elections, gain far more power in exchange for their support than the size of their vote would otherwise justify.Germany is the largest nation ever to have had proportional representation during the interbellum.", "After WW II, the German system, district based but then proportionally adjusted afterward, contains a threshold that keeps the number of parties limited.", "The threshold is set at five percent, resulting in empowered parties with at least a minimum amount of political gravity.Coalition governments have also been criticized for sustaining a consensus on issues when disagreement and the consequent discussion would be more fruitful.", "To forge a consensus, the leaders of ruling coalition parties can agree to silence their disagreements on an issue to unify the coalition against the opposition.", "The coalition partners, if they control the parliamentary majority, can collude to make the parliamentary discussion on the issue irrelevant by consistently disregarding the arguments of the opposition and voting against the opposition's proposals — even if there is disagreement within the ruling parties about the issue.", "However, in winner-take-all this seems always to be the case.Powerful parties can also act in an oligocratic way to form an alliance to stifle the growth of emerging parties.", "Of course, such an event is rare in coalition governments when compared to two-party systems, which typically exist because of stifling of the growth of emerging parties, often through discriminatory nomination rules regulations and plurality voting systems, and so on.A single, more powerful party can shape the policies of the coalition disproportionately.", "Smaller or less powerful parties can be intimidated to not openly disagree.", "In order to maintain the coalition, they would have to vote against their own party's platform in the parliament.", "If they do not, the party has to leave the government and loses executive power.", "However, this is contradicted by the \"kingmaker\" factor mentioned above.Finally, a strength that can also be seen as a weakness is that proportional representation puts the emphasis on collaboration.", "All parties involved are looking at the other parties in the best light possible, since they may be (future) coalition partners.", "The pendulum may therefore show less of a swing between political extremes.", "Still, facing external issues may then also be approached from a collaborative perspective, even when the outside force is not benevolent." ], [ "Legislative coalitions and agreements", "A legislative coalition or voting coalition is when political parties in a legislature align on voting to push forward specific policies or legislation, but do not engage in power-sharing of the executive branch like in coalition governments.", "In a parliamentary system, political parties may form a confidence and supply arrangement, pledging to support the governing party on legislative bills and motions that carry a vote of confidence.", "Unlike a coalition government, which is a more formalised partnership characterised by the sharing of the executive branch, a confidence and supply arrangement does not entail executive \"power-sharing\".", "Instead, it involves the governing party supporting specific proposals and priorities of the other parties in the arrangement, in return for their continued support on motions of confidence.", "===United States===In the United States, political parties have formed legislative coalitions in the past in order to push forward specific policies or legislation in the United States Congress.", "In 1855, a coalition was formed between members of the American party, Opposition Party and Republican Party to elect Nathaniel P. Banks speaker of the House.", "The most recent legislative coalition took place in 1917, a coalition was formed between members of the Democratic Party, Progressive Party and Socialist Party of America to elect Champ Clark speaker.A coalition government, in which \"power-sharing\" of executive offices is performed, has not occurred in the United States.", "The norms that allow coalition governments to form and persist do not exist in the United States." ], [ "See also", "* Cohabitation* Collaborative leadership* Electoral alliance* Electoral fusion* Hung parliament* List of democracy and election-related topics* List of countries with coalition governments* Majority government* Minority government* Parliamentary system* Plurality voting system* Political coalition* Political organisation* :Category:Political party alliances* Popular front* Power sharing* Unholy alliance* United front" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*" ] ]
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[ [ "Chemical engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "Chemical engineers design, construct and operate process plants (fractionating columns pictured).", "'''Chemical engineering''' is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production.", "Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials into useful products.", "Chemical engineering uses principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to efficiently use, produce, design, transport and transform energy and materials.", "The work of chemical engineers can range from the utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in the laboratory to large-scale industrial processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms, and energy into useful forms and products.", "Chemical engineers are involved in many aspects of plant design and operation, including safety and hazard assessments, process design and analysis, modeling, control engineering, chemical reaction engineering, nuclear engineering, biological engineering, construction specification, and operating instructions.Chemical engineers typically hold a degree in Chemical Engineering or Process Engineering.", "Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be accredited members of a professional body.", "Such bodies include the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) or the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).", "A degree in chemical engineering is directly linked with all of the other engineering disciplines, to various extents." ], [ "Etymology", "George E. DavisA 1996 article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid.", "In the same paper, however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited with having coined the term.", "Davis also tried to found a Society of Chemical Engineering, but instead, it was named the Society of Chemical Industry (1881), with Davis as its first secretary.", "The ''History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia'' puts the use of the term around 1890.", "\"Chemical engineering\", describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850.By 1910, the profession, \"chemical engineer,\" was already in common use in Britain and the United States." ], [ "History", "===New concepts and innovations===Demonstration model of a direct-methanol fuel cell.", "The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cube shape in the center of the image.In the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone were insufficient in developing chemical reactors.", "While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and the United States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to receive greater focus.", "Along with other novel concepts, such as process systems engineering (PSE), a \"second paradigm\" was defined.", "Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its synthetic elements, such as those of a control system and process design.", "Developments in chemical engineering before and after World War II were mainly incited by the petrochemical industry; however, advances in other fields were made as well.", "Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found application in the pharmaceutical industry, and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics, including penicillin and streptomycin.", "Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s paved way for the \"age of plastics\".===Safety and hazard developments===Concerns regarding large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities' safety and environmental impact were also raised during this period.", "''Silent Spring'', published in 1962, alerted its readers to the harmful effects of DDT, a potent insecticide.", "The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United Kingdom resulted in 28 deaths, as well as damage to a chemical plant and three nearby villages.", "1984 Bhopal disaster in India resulted in almost 4,000 deaths.", "These incidents, along with other incidents, affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection were given more focus.", "In response, the IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course that it accredited after 1982.By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in various countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States.", "In time, the systematic application of safety principles to chemical and other process plants began to be considered a specific discipline, known as process safety.===Recent progress===Advancements in computer science found applications for designing and managing plants, simplifying calculations and drawings that previously had to be done manually.", "The completion of the Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well.", "Chemical engineering principles were used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities." ], [ "Concepts", "Chemical engineering involves the application of several principles.", "Key concepts are presented below.===Plant design and construction===Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specifications, and economic analyses for pilot plants, new plants, or plant modifications.", "Design engineers often work in a consulting role, designing plants to meet clients' needs.", "Design is limited by several factors, including funding, government regulations, and safety standards.", "These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials, and equipment.Plant construction is coordinated by project engineers and project managers, depending on the size of the investment.", "A chemical engineer may do the job of project engineer full-time or part of the time, which requires additional training and job skills or act as a consultant to the project group.", "In the USA the education of chemical engineering graduates from the Baccalaureate programs accredited by ABET do not usually stress project engineering education, which can be obtained by specialized training, as electives, or from graduate programs.", "Project engineering jobs are some of the largest employers for chemical engineers.===Process design and analysis===A unit operation is a physical step in an individual chemical engineering process.", "Unit operations (such as crystallization, filtration, drying and evaporation) are used to prepare reactants, purifying and separating its products, recycling unspent reactants, and controlling energy transfer in reactors.", "On the other hand, a unit process is the chemical equivalent of a unit operation.", "Along with unit operations, unit processes constitute a process operation.", "Unit processes (such as nitration, hydrogenation, and oxidation involve the conversion of materials by biochemical, thermochemical and other means.", "Chemical engineers responsible for these are called process engineers.Process design requires the definition of equipment types and sizes as well as how they are connected and the materials of construction.", "Details are often printed on a Process Flow Diagram which is used to control the capacity and reliability of a new or existing chemical factory.Education for chemical engineers in the first college degree 3 or 4 years of study stresses the principles and practices of process design.", "The same skills are used in existing chemical plants to evaluate the efficiency and make recommendations for improvements.===Transport phenomena===Modeling and analysis of transport phenomena is essential for many industrial applications.", "Transport phenomena involve fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer, which are governed mainly by momentum transfer, energy transfer and transport of chemical species, respectively.", "Models often involve separate considerations for macroscopic, microscopic and molecular level phenomena.", "Modeling of transport phenomena, therefore, requires an understanding of applied mathematics." ], [ "Applications and practice", "alt=Two computer flat screens showing a plant process management applicationChemical engineers \"develop economic ways of using materials and energy\".", "Chemical engineers use chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into usable products, such as medicine, petrochemicals, and plastics on a large-scale, industrial setting.", "They are also involved in waste management and research.", "Both applied and research facets could make extensive use of computers.Chemical engineers may be involved in industry or university research where they are tasked with designing and performing experiments, by scaling up theoretical chemical reactions, to create better and safer methods for production, pollution control, and resource conservation.", "They may be involved in designing and constructing plants as a project engineer.", "Chemical engineers serving as project engineers use their knowledge in selecting optimal production methods and plant equipment to minimize costs and maximize safety and profitability.", "After plant construction, chemical engineering project managers may be involved in equipment upgrades, troubleshooting, and daily operations in either full-time or consulting roles." ], [ "See also", "=== Related topics ===* ''Education for Chemical Engineers''* English Engineering units* List of chemical engineering societies* List of chemical engineers* List of chemical process simulators* Outline of chemical engineering=== Related fields and concepts ===* Biochemical engineering* Bioinformatics* Biological engineering* Biomedical engineering* Biomolecular engineering* Bioprocess engineering* Biotechnology* Biotechnology engineering* Catalysts* Ceramics* Chemical process modeling* Chemical reactor* Chemical technologist* Chemical weapons* Cheminformatics* Computational fluid dynamics* Corrosion engineering* Cost estimation* Earthquake engineering* Electrochemistry* Electrochemical engineering* Environmental engineering* Fischer Tropsch synthesis* Fluid dynamics* Food engineering* Fuel cell* Gasification* Heat transfer* Industrial catalysts* Industrial chemistry* Industrial gas* Mass transfer* Materials science* Metallurgy* Microfluidics* Mineral processing* Molecular engineering* Nanotechnology* Natural environment* Natural gas processing* Nuclear reprocessing* Oil exploration* Oil refinery* Paper engineering* Petroleum engineering* Pharmaceutical engineering* Plastics engineering* Polymers* Process control* Process design* Process development* Process engineering* Process miniaturization* Process safety* Semiconductor device fabrication* Separation processes (see also: separation of mixture)** Crystallization processes** Distillation processes** Membrane processes* Syngas production* Textile engineering* Thermodynamics* Transport phenomena* Unit operations* Water technology=== Associations ===* American Institute of Chemical Engineers* Chemical Institute of Canada* European Federation of Chemical Engineering* Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers* Institution of Chemical Engineers* National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ] ]
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